Anatolian Civilizations and Historical Sites - TEDA

ANATOLIAN CIVILIZATIONS:10x19 antik kentler 8/1/11 10:49 AM Sayfa 

Anatolian 

Civilizations 

and Historical Sites 

İlhan AkŞİt 

Archaeologist 

REPUBLIC OF TURKEY 

MINISTRY OF CULTURE AND TOURISM PUBLICATIONS 

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ANATOLIAN CIVILIZATIONS:10x19 antik kentler 8/2/11 3:59 PM Sayfa2 

© Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism 

General Directorate of Libraries and Publications 

3181 

Handbook Series 

7 

ISBN: 978-975-17-3402-0 

www.kulturturizm.gov.tr 

e-mail: yayimlar@kulturturizm.gov.tr 

First Edition 

Akşit Printing Co. 

www.aksityayincilik.com 

Print run: 5000. 

Printed in Ankara in 2009. 

Second Edition 

Print and Bind: Kalkan Printing and Bookbinder Ind. Co. 

www.kalkanmatbaacilik.com.tr 

Print run: 5000. 

Printed in Ankara in 2011. 

Akşit, İlhan 

Anatolian civilizations and historical sites / İlhan Akşit; 

Ayşegül Eryılmaz Williams, Jason Ryan Williams.- 2 nd Ed.- 

Ankara: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2011. 

264 p.: col. ill.; 19 cm.- (Ministry of Culture and 

Tourism publications; 3181. Handbook series of 

General Directorate of Libraries and Publications: 13) 

ISBN: 978-975-17-3402-0 

I. title. II. Eryılmaz Williams, Ayşegül. III. Williams, Jason Ryan 

939.20072


Prehistoric Periods in Anatolia 5 

Early Bronze Age (3000-2000 BC) 15 

Troia 23 

Alacahöyük 33 

The Hittites 1650-1200 BC 37 

Hattusha-Boğazköy 53 

Yazılıkaya (Inscribed Stone) 64 

Late Hittite City States 1200-650 BC 67 

Karatepe 77 

Urartian Civilization 860-590 BC 83 

Van Castle 91 

Phrygian Civilization 1200-695 BC 97 

Gordion 109 

Lydian Civilization 700-300 BC 113 

Sardis 123 

Ephesos 131 

Priene 139 

Miletos 145 

Halicarnassos 151 

Xanthos 157 

Patara 167 

Myra 173 

Phaselis 179 

The Hellenistic Period 330-30 BC 185 

Pergamon 195 

Hierapolis-Pamukkale 203 

Aphrodisias 209 

The Roman Period 30 BC-AD 395 215 

Perge 223 

Aspendos 229 

Side 233 

Nemrud 239 

Zeugma 245 

The Byzantine Period 395-1453 251 

Cappadocia 257 

c o n t e n t s


Statuette of mother goddess sitting on her throne. 

The statuette sitting on the leopard throne is from baked clay and is 

20 cm. high. The statuette of the goddess, who is depicted as resting 

her hands on the heads of the animals, was found on layer 2A of 

Çatalhöyük and dates to the Neolithic Period, to the second half of 

6 th millennium BC, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations. Ankara.


Prehistoric Periods in Anatolia 

The Palaeolithic Age (250,000-10,000 BC) 

The Palaeolithic Age, also known as the Old Stone Age, is the oldest 

and longest period of humanity’s history. Humans in this period first 

used caves and rock shelters as their dwellings. During this period, 

when hunting and gathering economy prevailed, early humans strived 

to facilitate their lives through the simple tools they made of small 

stones. 

This age is studied under three development stages as the Lower, 

Middle and Upper Palaeolithic Age. The oldest settlement in Anatolia 

dating to this age is Yar›mburgaz Cave near Küçükçekmece Lake, 

starting from the Lower Palaeolithic Age and continuing until the 

Roman and Byzantine Periods. The very primitive flint stones and 

mammals bones found in this cave consisting of 16 layers, are 

important artifacts of the Lower Palaeolithic Age. Karain Cave, 

situated about 30 km. to the south west of Antalya, is a significant place 

of settlement in Anatolia after Yar›mburgaz. Eight layers from the end 

of the Lower Palaeolithic Age to the Roman Age have been uncovered 

in this cave, which provided shelter at every stage due to its location. 

A stove and some firewood remnants belonging to the Middle 

Palaeolithic Age show that these people discovered fire and cooked. 

Traces of animals such as bison, oxen, horses, deer, cows, pigs and 

bears are indicators that they mastered hunting. 

The Upper Palaeolithic Period was a scene to a cold climate and 

despite its short duration, brought about some development. Within 

this period, human being with characteristics of their modern-day 

counterparts-namely a thinking type of human being-appeared. 

They made tools such as needles and awls from bones. They engaged 

in some new artistic endeavors such as adorning the walls of Karain 

and Öküzini Caves around Antalya with the pictures of animals they 

saw including goats and deer. They also created illustrations on top of 

small stones found in Beldibi Cave with the scraping technique. In 

Anatolia, illustrations belonging to this period can also be seen in 

Ad›yaman Palanl›, Kars Çamufllu, Tirflin Plateau in Hakkari and on the 

Cilo Mountains. Many samples of this age are also found in places other 

than Anatolia. 

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When the Ice Age ended towards the end of the Palaeolithic Age, 

the Mesolithic (Epipalaeolithic) Period-also known as the Middle Stone 

Age-paved the transition to the Neolithic Age. Important technological 

developments in hunting took place in this Period. New weapons like 

bows and arrows replaced the cumbersome weapons, and more 

importantly, small stone tools made of obsidian and flint stone were 

produced. Furthermore, mortars and grinding stones as well as 

obsidian-jagged and horn-handled sickles reveal that these people not 

only sowed grains but also reaped them. Karain, Öküzini, Beldibi and 

Belbafl› caves in Antalya, and fiarkl› Cave in Gaziantep; Barad›z in 

Burdur, Sö¤üt Tarlas› and Biris cemeteries in fianl›urfa Bozova are 

centers representing this period. 

Neolithic Age (10,000-5500 BC) 

In the Neolithic Age (New Stone Age), during which fundamental 

changes occurred in the life and subsistence of mankind, evidence 

shows that village life started while multiplication of beneficent plant 

and animal breeds introduced agriculture and animal husbandry. The 

earliest stages of this period are seen at Biris Cemetery and Sö¤üt 

Tarlas› in fianl›urfa. One of the most important stages here is the 

production of pottery by shaping clay by hand. However, since people 

did not know such production methods around the early periods of this 

age, they obtained their everyday pots by carving wood or stone. 

These early stages of the Neolithic Age were named ‘Non-Ceramic 

Neolithic’ (without pottery). Hallan Çemi, Çayönü, Nevali Çori, 

Göbeklitepe and Gürcütepe have been the significant representatives 

of this period in Eastern Anatolia. Homes in Hallan Çemi were built in 

round or oval hollows 4-6 m. in diameter, their roofs were supported 

with wood pillars, the bottom of the walls were made of stone and the 

upper parts were built by reeds and branches and daubed with mud. 

Diyarbak›r Çayönü represents all the stages of the Neolithic Period. The 

Non-Ceramic Period, which went through a constant development, is 

divided into six stages. The findings belonging to the oldest stage are 

simple, circular-planned cabins made of a hollow dug into earth and 

covered by daubed branches. Following this, grid plan structures, two 

stages of monumental character, cell plan structures, and structures 

having spacious rooms have been uncovered. Each stage here 

seemingly has a certain type of structure. One other settlement in 

Southern Anatolia dating from the Non-Pottery Neolithic Age is Nevali 

Çori, which is found to have five stages. On the third layer, grid and


cell plan structures have been identified side by side. A sacred 

structure, adorned with embossments and sculptures, discovered on 

the fourth layer is remarkable. 

Göbeklitepe, which is to the south east of fianl›urfa, bears similar 

characteristics to Nevali Çori. This settlement which spans a large area 

is seemingly a place for devotional visits and has multiple layers. The 

two structures here are predicted to be related to a cult. A figure of a 

roaring lion on each of the two pillars supporting the hall of the 

structure of a later date was carved in the form of low relief. New 

excavations have revealed that the Neolithic Age in Anatolia traces 

back about two or three thousand years earlier than what was 

previously known. 

Another Non-Ceramic Neolithic settlement is Gürcütepe in fianl›urfa. 

Six houses, which are rectangular-planned and contain two stories, 

have been discovered here. After South Eastern Anatolia, the earliest 

sedentary communities began to be sighted on Konya Plain and its 

surroundings. Among these, Afl›kl›höyük, Musular, Can Hasan III, and 

Suberde are the locations which have been best studied. Afl›kl›höyük 

near Aksaray K›z›lkaya is dated back to 8000-7500 BC. In this 

settlement, where three layers have been identified so far, people 

resided in neighborhoods made up of blocks of houses separated by 

small courtyards and narrow passages. Houses with adobe walls had 

two or three compartments, quadrangular or trapezoid plans, and an 

entryway through an opening on the roof. Musular, which is situated 

near Afl›kl›höyük and which was a Non-Ceramic Neolithic Age 

settlement, is notable with its distinct architecture. Structures having 

red-painted floors, rectangular plans and wood pillars, which are 

thought to have possessed religious significance, have been found here. 

The tumulus of Can Hasan III is the embodiment of the Neolithic Age 

in Central Anatolia. Seven building levels have been found here. The 

tumulus which is dated to approximately 7500 BC has two-room 

houses made from mud walls and without stone foundations, where 

walls and floors were daubed with clay. Carved stone tools were mostly 

obsidian. Animal bones were used for making needles, spatulas and 

beads. Evidently, they valued cultured plants as well as cattle animals. 

Suberde, which is in the Lakes Region (Göller Bölgesi), has three 

cultural layers while the bottom two layers point to the Neolithic Age. 

Some of the houses have stone foundations, where as some are directly 

made from adobe walls. The tools, most of which were made from 

volcanic glass, include arrow heads, scratchers and sickles. Having 

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Painted Jar. Baked clay, Middle Chalcolithic Period, Can Hasan. 

discovered the features of clay towards early 7th millennium, humans 

practiced pottery by shaping clay and cooking it in fire. This age was 

named as the Pottery (Ceramic) Neolithic or just the Neolithic Age, 

and was studied under two stages as the Early and Late. 

The most well-known of the Early Neolithic Age settlements is 

Çatalhöyük on Konya Plain. This tumuli is made up of two places of 

settlement, one in the east and one in the west. In Eastern Çatalhöyük, 

there is an Early Neolithic Age settlement. 

This settlement, which includes over a thousand dwellings and which 

constitutes a large village, has one-storey houses with flat roofs 

grouped to form neighborhoods. No streets were placed between them; 

however a courtyard was built in the middle of the dwellings. Among 

approximately fifty temples which have been uncovered, some were 

massively built and diligently made having walls adorned with pictures 

of rich colors, and embossments. Mono-colored pots made of coarse 

clay had thick edges and were simple. Tools and weapons were made 

of natural glass and flint stones, whereas spoons and ladles were made 

of bones. Evidently, basketry in addition to weaving was also practiced. 

Kuruçay, which neighbors Hac›lar, was transformed into a defended 

village during this period. 

Yumuktepe in Mersin was another important center during the Early


Bowl, Baked Earthenware, Chalcolithic Period, Hacılar. 

Neolithic Age. New excavations revealed around twenty five layers and 

building levels, in addition to the previously uncovered five Early 

Neolithic Age layers. The architecture featured mud fence techniques, 

whereas their pottery wares were hand-made and dark-glazed. 

The oldest settlement in Eastern and South Eastern Anatolia 

belonging to this age is Çayönü. A more primitive village compared to 

the Non-Pottery Period has been found here. The walls of the houses 

were sometimes made from adobe blocks resting on three rows of 

stone foundation. Black and grey dishes having button-shaped blisters 

were frequently used despite being coarse. 

In the Lakes Region and its surroundings, where settlement was 

intense, the Neolithic Age tumuli have been excavated and studied. 

These are known as Kuruçay near Burdur, Höyücek on Bucak Plain, 

the tumulus of Badema¤ac› which is linked to Antalya, and Beyflehir 

Erbaba. The oldest one of these is Kuruçay, and a very small 

settlement has been found on the building level on top of the earliest 

layer. Mono and multi-colored ceramics were made here, while 

ceramics made of grey and beige clay were formed with handles which 

resemble animal heads. A few of them have bristle adornments as well. 

A group consisting of five venues built side by side from adobe has been 

found in the tumulus of Höyücek. Additionally, small sized relics 

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having religious meaning have been obtained here, which lead to the 

conclusion that this used to be a group of venues having religious 

functions. The ceramics were made with a very sophisticated 

technique and form. Badema¤ac› from the early stage is remarkable 

with its detached houses in good condition. Ceramics here were 

mono-colored and well glazed. Goddess figurines made of cooked earth 

were made in a cross-legged sitting form. The settlement of Erbaba, 

which manifests the transition stage to the Late Neolithic Period and 

which is dated back to approximately 6000 BC, has quadrangularplanned 

and stone-walled houses. Mostly engaged in agriculture, these 

people also carved humans out of earth. Köflkhöyük –a small place 

of settlement– contains some captivating relics. The pottery here 

was hand-made, from black, dark grey, pale and red clay and was 

mono-colored. Tools and weapons were made from obsidian, stone and 

bone. Again, the tumulus of Tepecik in Ni¤de represents similar 

characteristics. At the tumulus of Hocaçeflme near Enez in Thrace, the 

settlement on the earliest layer was surrounded by a stone wall. 

Evidently, the houses were in the form of round cottages, while a 

rectangular plan was commenced during the latter stages. The pottery 

was colorful and hand-made. 

Among the settlements belonging to the Late Neolithic Period, which 

is the last stage of the Neolithic Period, Hac›lar to the south west of 

Burdur dating back to early 6th millennium is the most prominent. The 

houses having one-meter thick walls made of adobe blocks on stone 

foundations also had rectangular plans. A decrease in hunting is seen 

while agriculture was widely applied. Hand-made ceramics, mono-or 

multi-colored, were widespread. During this age, the fertility of the 

woman came to the foreground. Amongst the figures developed were 

the naked mother goddess with large almond eyes, and her child. This 

is the period when Kuruçay, which neighbors Hac›lar, was transformed 

into a defended village. Mersin Yumuktepe and Tarsus Gözlükule in 

Çukurova, Domuztepe on the eastern bank of the River Ceyhan, Ni¤de 

Köflkhöyük, Can Hasan on Konya Plain, Ulucak and Aphrodisias in 

‹zmir are centers which represent the transition from the Late 

Neolithic to the Early Chalcolithic Period. 

‹kizhöyük is the only center in the north of Anatolia. The Late Neolithic 

centers in the north western corner of Anatolia are Kad›köy Fikirtepe, 

Pendik, Il›p›nar on the western shore of Lake ‹znik and the tumulus of 

Mentefle on Yeniflehir Plain. Sedentary village life was studied in these 

places in all respects.


Human Shaped vessel exhibited, 6000 BC.


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Chalcolithic Age (5500-3000 BC) 

The Chalcolithic Age, also known as ‘the Late Village Period’ began 

between the first half of the 6th millennium BC and the end of the 4th millennium BC. During this period, people of Anatolia discovered 

copper, in addition to stone, and started to use it in daily life. This 

period too is studied under three sections as Early, Middle and Late. 

Despite the technological developments experienced, this age was not 

very much different from the Neolithic Age. Because the wheel and 

the lathe were unknown during this age, fine workmanship with paints 

in rich colors, as the main characteristic of the Chalcolithic Age, was 

reflected in the hand-made pottery. 

Regional characteristics developed during this age, thus forming 

regional cultures, which at times influenced each other and at times 

connected with each other. These different cultural regions are Thrace, 

North Western Anatolia, the Lakes Region, Konya Plain, Çukurova, 

Eastern and South Eastern Anatolia. In Thrace, the centre where the 

Chalcolithic Age is best seen is the tumulus of Afla¤›p›nar in K›rklareli. 

People here dwelled in detached, mud-daubed houses which had 

rectangular plans and wood pillars. Large sized and human-shaped cult 

vases are notable relics here. 

In North Western Anatolia-which was not very densely settled-Il›p›nar 

situated near Lake ‹znik is one of the best researched centers. Its 

architecture was a mixture of mud and wood, and their houses were 

single-roomed. 

Hac›lar in the Lakes Region portrays the brightest culture of the Early 

Chalcolithic Age. Nine settlement layers and three cultural eras were 

revealed by the excavations. Hac›lar II was the best known settlement 

of the period and it has been fully excavated. The village surrounded 

by thick adobe walls contained houses, grain silos, three pottery workshops 

and a holy arena. The pottery was mono and multi-colored. 

Metal-like pots had motifs illustrating geometric and fantastic figures. 

Another settlement in the Lakes Region representing this period is 

Kuruçay. This settlement differs from Hac›lar in many respects. The 

most important difference is that the houses were built as detached 

units. The 7th level of Kuruçay survived to the present time quite 

undamaged. 

The most prevalent type of pottery here included pots embellished 

with red and brown paint on top of beige undercoat. Another Early 

Chalcolithic settlement on Konya Plain is Can Hasan I near Karaman.


Single-roomed attached houses having rectangular and square plans 

were uncovered here. The pottery was glazed. Pots were painted red 

and embellished with engravings on a cream undercoating. Southern 

sections of Eastern Anatolia were seemingly influenced by Syria and 

Mesopotamia during the subsequent periods of the Early Chalcolithic 

Age. This interaction is organized into two stages known as Halaf and 

Ubeyd cultures. The tumuli of Yumuktepe and Gözlükule seemingly 

came under the influence of the Halaf and Ubeyd cultures in the Early 

Chalcolithic Age. The tumulus of De¤irmendere by the Euphrates 

stands out as a center representing the Ubeyd stage where large-scale 

research was conducted. 

Important centers from the beginning of the Late Chalcolithic Age are 

Kumtepe of the Dardanelles Strait, Befliktepe, Sivritepe, Karaa¤açtepe 

in Gelibolu, Toptepe in Northern Marmara and Demircihöyük in 

Eskiflehir. Denizli Beycesultan and Aphrodisias were centers in 

Western Anatolia dating to the Late Chalcolithic Age, continuously 

resided in between 3800-3300 BC. Kuruçay in the Lakes Region, 

presenting materials from the Late Chalcolithic Age, is remarkable with 

rectangular-planned and single-roomed houses lined up from back to 

front. For the first time arrow heads from purified copper, and cast 

tools such as knives, axes, chisels and needles were made during this 

period, which indicates the formation of a social class in Kuruçay. The 

other settlements of this period are Küllüoba in Eskiflehir, Yaz›rhöyük 

in Ankara, Hashöyük in K›rflehir, Gelveri and Güvercinkaya in Aksaray, 

Kuflsaray, Alacahöyük and Büyük Göllüce in Çorum, Kayap›nar and 

Aliflar in Yozgat, ‹kiztepe in Samsun. 

The most developed settlements around the end of the Age (3700-3500 

BC) were Norfluntepe, Çayboyu, Korucutepe in Alt›nova and Arslantepe 

in Malatya. Around the middle of the 4 th millennium, one of the cultures 

subsequent to the Ubeyd culture in Southern Mesopotamia is the Uruk 

stage. During this period, also known as ‘the Late Chalcolithic-Early 

Bronze Transition Period I’, trade was further organized and trade 

stations were established. Tepecik and Norfluntepe in Alt›nova were 

small trade centers. The 5 th layer of Hassekhöyük on the left bank of the 

Euphrates represents the Late Uruk Period. Samsat and Lidar near 

Ad›yaman, and the Hac› Nebi Hill in Birecik are the other stations. At 

a slightly later stage, a temple and palace complex in Arslantepe, which 

had greater number of local characteristics, was uncovered. Evidently, 

pottery developed during this period with the introduction of the use 

of lathe. 

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ANATOLIAN CIVILIZATIONS:10x19 antik kentler 8/1/11 10:49 AM Sayfa


Early Bronze Age (3000-2000 BC) 

During the Bronze Age, the people of Anatolia obtained bronze towards 

the end of the 4th millennium BC and the beginning of the 3rd millennium 

BC by mixing tin into copper, thus the age was named the Bronze Age. 

This age is divided into three Ages known as the First, Middle and the 

Late Bronze Age. They made weapons, pots and decorative items from 

bronze, while treating gold, copper and silver at the same time creating 

everyday and religious objects. The village-type settlements first 

transformed into towns and then into cities. People living here were 

engaged in trade, and as wealth increased as a result of developing trade 

and accumulated in certain hands, social classifications occurred and 

the concept of state with all its institutions arose. With the arrival of the 

potter’s lathe from Mesopotamia, pottery rose to the highest level. 

Mining was also developed. 

The Early Bronze Age is studied under three stages as I, II and III. The 

most important location of Stage I of the First Bronze Age in Anatolia 

is Troia I (3000-2700 BC). The other centers in Western Anatolia are 

Yortan, Babaköy and Ovabay›nd›r in the Bal›kesir region. Kusura in 

Afyon is contemporary with Troia I. The other centers, corresponding 

to the end of Troia I are Harmanören in Isparta, and Liman Tepe, Bakla 

Tepe and Bayrakl› near ‹zmir. In South Western Anatolia, particularly 

Beycesultan, as well as Aphrodisias, Badema¤ac› and Karatafl Semayük 

on Elmal› Plain are centers characterizing this period. In Beycesultan, 

which was surrounded by ramparts like Troia, small house altars and 

violin-shaped marble idols all reflect the local traits. 

Demircihöyük on Eskiflehir Plain, Büyük Göllücek and Alacahöyük near 

Çorum in Central Anatolia, Aliflar near Yozgat, Konya Karahöyük, Bafra 

‹kiztepe in Northern Anatolia, Samsun Dündartepe, Tekeköy, Kavak and 

Kocagözhöyük near Sinop are the main centers inhabited throughout 

the First Bronze Age. Furthermore, Lidarhöyük by the Euphrates is a 

First Bronze Age settlement in South Eastern Anatolia. 

The Second Stage of the First Bronze Age dated to 2700-2400 BC, starts 

with Troia II, which was established on the remnants of Troia I. The 

largest of the megaron-type structures within the castle, which was 

slightly more expanded, were defined as a palace or temple. A great 

development in arts was achieved here, casting and wroughting 

Bull figure (statuette) Alacahöyük, Early Bronze Age Stylised bronze 

figure stands on a four branched base. Inlayed with fine silver spirals on 

the neck, torso, forehead and tips of the horns. Cast and beaten bronze. 

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Ceremonial symbol. Found in grave B at Alacahöyük, Early Bronze Age. 

techniques developed, the lathe was used for the first time in pottery 

during this period and pottery was developed. Goblets named depas, 

which had a thin and long body and two handles, was a peculiar 

production of this period. The most significant relics indicating the 

development in arts at the center of this principality are the treasure 

relics which Heinrich Schliemann described as the treasure of Priamos. 

In Central Anatolia, mighty centers reflecting the second period of the 

First Bronze Age are sighted such as Karao¤lan, Ahlatl›bel, Etiyokuflu, 

Koçumbeli, Karayavflan, Polatl› in the neighborhood of Ankara, and 

Aliflar and Alacahöyük to the east of Ankara. The period of the state 

started during this age, and powerful principalities emerged. Among 

these, Alacahöyük served as the capital of a principality during the end 

of the second period of the First Bronze Age, where thirteen graves 

-ascertained to have been used during 2300-2000 BC- were discovered. 

Corpses in these graves, where princes, princesses, monks and nuns of 

the land of Hatti were buried, are in the hocker position with the knees 

tucked up against the chest. Most of the gifts for the dead were made 

from gold, silver, electrum, copper and bronze, while the golden cups, 

goblets and decorative items are among the most spectacular items. 

Again, the presents for the dead included discs peculiar to the Hattis, 

named as ‘the Hittite Solar Disc’, which were produced with casting and 

wroughting technique and had bulls and deer on them. Furthermore 

sculptures of bulls and deer epitomizing the gods were also found here. 

During this age, metal statuettes of humans were also made. The most 

important ones of these are the stylized silver female statuette found in


Bronze Solar Symbol, Early Bronze Age. 

Alacahöyük (which belongs to the second half of the 3rd millennium BC), 

and the statuette of a breastfeeding woman obtained in the graveyard of 

Horoztepe made in the casting technique. The pure-silver statuette of a 

naked woman found in Hasano¤lan is one of the most beautiful examples 

of the First Bronze Age. In the king tombs of Alacahöyük, 

Mahmatlar and Horoztepe too, deer and bull statuettes which turned 

out to be of sacred meaning, have been obtained. These statuettes form 

a stylistic unity with the solar discs in terms of embellishment and style. 

The bull represents the god of sky, whereas the deer represents the 

mother goddess. The bulls were covered with a very thin silver plate on 

their necks, waists, the tips of their horns and their foreheads. These 

artifacts, made with the technique of casting and wroughting, were 

attached to a rod and carried by the monks in front of the crowd 

during religious rituals, and were also used as the symbols of the animalformed 

gods in the middle of the solar discs. These types of metal 

objects were also encountered in Kal›nkaya and Eskiyapar near 

Alacahöyük and Eskiflehir Demircihöyük, which are contemporary with 

the latter Alacahöyük graves. 

Then came the third stage of the First Bronze Age dating to 2400-1800 

BC. The third to fifth layers of Troia are from this period. Tankard-and 

depas-type of wares and typical wares such as ‘the Troian Plate’ made 

with lathe in Western Anatolia are among the remarkable products of 

this period. K›rklareli Kanl›geçit too, where there are three megara, is 

a settlement corresponding to the end of the third period of the First 

Bronze Age. Red or camel beak-mouthed jugs and goblets having two 

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handles made during this period have been found. The pottery known 

as the painted pottery of Aliflar III or Cappadocia left their mark on this 

period. Bitik, Gordion, Koçumbeli, Karao¤lan, Polatl› and Yaz›rhöyük to 

the west of K›z›l›rmak, together with Kültepe, Aliflar and Bo¤azköy are 

the centers which were settled in during the third stage of the First 

Bronze Age. In the north of Anatolia, ‹kiztepe near Samsun is another 

source of spectacular relics. In addition to the big centers such as 

Norfluntepe, Tepecik, Korucutepe and Arslantepe, small units of 

settlement also exist such as Gelinciktepe, fiemsiyetepe, ‹mamo¤lu, 

Köflkerbaba, Pirot ‹mikufla¤›, Pulur, Han ‹brahim fiah and De¤irmentepe 

in Elaz›¤. 

Around this time, the indigenous Hattians lived in Anatolia, and many 

principalities were established such as Nesha, Mama, Kusshara, 

Purushanda, Zalpa and Hattush, which are the only names that are 

available to our knowledge. Around the mid-Bronze Age, the Assyrian 

tradesmen appear to have coveted the mines of Anatolia. For this 

reason, they established a system known as the Assyrian colonial 

system between 1950-1750 BC. This period of organized trade is called 

‘the Age of Assyrian Trade Colonies’. Trading, which previously used to 

take place in an unsystematic manner, was later made systematic 

through independent trade colonies, established in Anatolia, known as 

Karum. The Assyrian tradesmen brought tin, silk and essences, and took 

gold, silver and precious stones from here. With their caravans 

of 200-250 donkeys, they ascended the Tauruses either through 

Kahramanmarafl Elbistan or via Ergani-Maden passage and they 

reached the Karums. Assyrian merchants residing in Kanifl were 

committed to the Assyrian king and laws. The Assyrian king would 

conclude separate agreements with the principals he did trade with. An 

Assyrian governor would administer about 10 karums in Anatolia, 

residing in Kanifl, which was the capital karum. 

The most famous of these so-called karums-meaning ‘harbor’ in 

Assyrian-were Kültepe near Kayseri which was also named Kanifl and 

which was the center of the Nesha principality, Hattusha in Bo¤azköy, 

and Acemhöyük which was also known as Purushanda. Many other 

karums are known to exist apart from these. Along the long route from 

Assyria to the karums, small units of accommodations, known as 

stations, were established. These are stations such as Aliflar, Kusshara 

and Zalpa. 

Approximately twenty thousand clay tablets have been found in 

central Kültepe. Included in these tablets, (which were written in the 

Assyrian cuneiform script in the Assyrian language) were daily life,


Gold Pitcher From Alacahöyük. 

Dates to the second half of the 3 rd millennium BC. Raised 

beak spout, cylidrical neck, spherical body and round base. 

The vessel has a handle and bears motifs on the body.


20 

Silver stylised female figurine. Alacahöyük, 3 rd millennium BC. 

political and social life as well as private letters of the merchants, together 

with orders and agreements. According to these documents, 

there was equality between man and woman, and court decisions 

applied in the resolution of disagreements. 

During this period when the cities were surrounded by ramparts, it is 

found that inside the ramparts were palaces, temples and houses. The 

houses were two-storey and the streets were paved with stones. They 

built channels for waste water beside the streets and they buried their 

dead in the basement of the houses. Later, this city type was to become 

the initiator of the Hittite Period cities. Stone walls of the palaces found 

in Kültepe and the tumulus of Acemhöyük formed parts of the ramparts 

and there was a secret tunnel beneath the ramparts which was known


Hasano¤lan figurine (2100 BC). Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara. 

as a potern. On the seal imprints found, particularly in Kültepe, but also 

in Acemhöyük, Aliflar, Bo¤azköy and Konya Karahöyük, names of 

principals from that period were cited. Assyrian merchants who became 

increasingly rich as a result of trading and the local principals were 

content, whereas the people became increasingly poor and fell short of 

paying their debts, which they obtained through high interests. 

As a natural outcome of this, principals were caught in conflict of 

interest, which reduced many lands to ashes, thus ending the era of the 

Assyrian Period of trade colonies. 

In this, while an era was ending in Anatolia, the same land began to 

create a new civilization, finally expelling the Hittite State from itself. 

21


Gold earrings found at Troia. Early Bronze Age (second half of the 3 rd 

millennium BC), from Troia Level II. The earrings consist of foliate plaques 

suspended from chains attached to a hooked piece for attaching to the ear. 

They measure 25 cm. in length. ‹stanbul Archaeological Museum.


Troia 

The location and the remnants of this very important antique city, which 

is also known as Ilios or Ilion, is at the southern entry of the Dardanelles 

Strait, on a small hill overlooking the plain, and is 30 km. from the 

provincial center of Çanakkale. 

No other antique city has been as famous as Troia in history. Many legends 

have been developed around this city, which is defined by history as the 

‘home of love, heroism and civilization’, and these legends perpetuated 

Troia to today. The founders of Troia were the children and 

grandchildren of Dardanos who established the first settlement in the 

province of Çanakkale. A legend regarding the establishment of the city 

tells that Ilos, who came from the lineage of the king Dardanos, won a 

mottled cow in a competition, the oracles advised him to establish a city 

wherever the cow would stop, the cow went as far as today’s Hisarl›k Hill 

and stopped there, and thus Ilos established a city there and named it 

Ilion. 

Like the establishment of the city, the famous Troian War is also based on 

a mythological story. Eris-the goddess of strife-was not invited to 

Olympos to the wedding ceremony of King Peleus (father of Achilleus who 

was the best warrior of all time) and the sea fairy Thetis. To take revenge, 

she wrote on a golden apple ‘for the most beautiful one’ and threw it on to 

the table of the goddesses, thus causing a fight among the goddesses who 

claimed to be the most beautiful one. They asked the chief god Zeus to 

arbitrate. He selected Paris, who was a shepherd on the Ida Mountain, as 

the arbitrator. Paris, who was considered as a future ill-omen to Troia was 

left to die in the Ida Mountain years ago, but was raised by a female bear 

and grew into his youth, and he was the son of the Troian King Priamos. 

Athena, Hera and Aphrodite made various promises to Paris for him to 

give the golden apple to them, which is accepted as the first bribery in 

history. Paris gave the golden apple to Aphrodite who had promised him 

‘the most beautiful woman of the world’ and then the onerous destiny of 

Troia began to be drawn. The other gods, who became upset with this, 

lamented Paris and made an oath to bring the greatest disaster on his land. 

When it became clear that Paris, who arrived in Troia, was actually the 

prince who had been left in the Ida Mountains, he was invited to the 

palace. After a while, Paris went to Greece together with his envoys, and 

in the Sparta Palace, he met Helene who was the beautiful wife of 

Menelaos and fell in love with her. The two lovers escaped with the help 

23


24 

of Aphrodite and came to Troia, thus causing the Troian War, which was 

to last for about 10 years between the Akhas and the people of Troia. 

Troops started to gather in Greece for the Troian Expedition. 

Agamemnon, who was the king of the Kingdom of Mykene, was selected 

as the chief commander of the United Greece army. An army of 100,000 

had been gathered from 29 provinces. They started the Troian Expedition 

with 1000 ships as commanded by 47 rulers. To defend Troia, forces coming 

from all over Anatolia were gathered as commanded by Hector who 

was the older son of the Troian King Priamos. The Anatolian army was 

governed by 27 commanders. 

The Troian War, which is dated to 1180 BC, was told by the poet 

Homeros from ‹zmir in his Iliad which he wrote in 730 BC. The legend, 

made up of 24 sections, only deals with the last 51 days of the ten-year 

war. The legend ends with the death of Hector but the war did not end and 

still continued. We are able to learn the events after the Iliad from other 

authors. Achilleus-who was the murderer of Hector, Sarpedon and the 

Amazon queen-was killed by the arrow shot in his heel by Paris, who was 

hiding behind a rock. In the ongoing war, because neither side could 

provide a conclusive superiority over the other, the Akhans played a very 

Plan of Troia (Excavation Archieve) 

1.Begining of Tour 2.East Wall 3.North eastern Bastion 4.Wall of Troia II 

5.Wall of Troia I 6.Houses of Troia I and Troia II 7.The Schliemann Trench 

and gate of Troia II 8.House of Troia VI and houses 9.Palace House VIM 

10.Sacred precinct 11.Odeion 12.Bouleuterion 

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sly trick on the Troians. Odysseus, who was one of the smartest kings of 

the Akhans, came up with the idea of making a wooden horse. In 

accordance with the plan, the Akhans pretended they were withdrawing 

from the war, leaving a very big wooden horse behind. While Odysseus 

and the other eminent commanders were hiding in the horse, the others 

went out to sea and hid the ships behind Tenedos (Bozcaada), out of the 

sight of the Troians. 

Yearning for peace, the Troians took in this wooden horse which was a 

symbol of peace. Rejoiced by the celebrations of peace and unconscious 

due to the effect of alcohol, the Troians were taken unaware by the Akhan 

warriors in the horse. With the support of the Akhan army, which came 

close to the ramparts of Troia around that time, the city of Troia was 

completely reduced to ruins. After this dreadful massacre, whereby Troia 

was burnt thoroughly, Menelaos took Helene and sailed off to Greece. 

Having survived this massacre, Prince Aeneas took a group of people with 

him, went to Italy, and established Rome there. Therefore, the Romans 

-who believe that they come from the lineage of Troia- considered Troia 

a holy city. 

In 1974, the author of these lines commissioned the wooden horse, which 

is seen in Troia today, to be built as a symbol while he was the Director of 

the Çanakkale Museum. Having been devastated nine times, Troia is also 

famous for providing a reliable chronology due to its long archaeological 

Walls of Troia VI and fortified tower. 

25


26 

past. Troia I, which was established in 2920 BC, came to an end in 2600 

BC with a fire. Troia II (2600-2450 BC), which measured 9000 m 2 , was 

established on the area where the city was burnt. This city advanced in 

culture and arts so much that the treasure found by the German merchant 

and amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, which he thought to have 

belonged to Priamos, did in fact belong to Troia II. The city was 

surrounded by a 330 m. rampart, which had stone at the bottom and adobe 

at the top. Troia I has eleven, Troia II has eight structural phases. Troia II, 

which was characterized by its stone-laid and ramped gates, became the 

pioneer of the megara (which are also known as long houses) and the 

Greek temple with two columns. Unfortunately, the city experienced two 

fires and ceased to exist. 

What marked the end of Troia III, IV and V, which were established on 

Troia II and lived until 2450-1700 BC, were also fires. Afterwards, the 

spectacular Troia VI was established. Troia VI, which existed around 1700- 

1250 BC and which covered an area of 20,000 m 2 , was the center of a 

brand-new kingdom with its strong ramparts. In terms of their form and 

technique, the ramparts are the most important amongst its peers 

encountered in Asia Minor. Today, the visitors of the antique city have the 

chance to see the magnificent ramparts, houses, palaces and gates of 

Troia VI. 

What brought an end to Troia VI was a massive earthquake in 1250 BC. 

The cracks detected in its ramparts and magnificent towers manifest the 

strength of the earthquake. A seal, which has been obtained in the recent 

excavations, reveals that this city was the center of a principality named 

Wilusa, which was committed to the Hittites. 

The Troians continued to live in the cities they established on the 

devastated Troia. This layer was called Troia VII. This city, which went 

through the famous Troian War, dates back to 1250-1040 BC. The 

fact that there are weapons such as arrows and spears in the streets of the 

city and the existence of a thick layer of ash, proved the epic with 

archaeological evidence. The abundance of Myken containers in these 

layers lead to the conclusion by the scientists that this was the layer 

where the war took place. Phase VII a of this layer continues until 1150 

BC. After layer VII a, layer VII b is seen in Troia. This layer is known to 

have dated to as far as 1150-950 BC as VII b1, VII b2 and VII b3 and to 

have come to an end with a fire. There was seemingly inanimate life in 

Troia from 950 BC to 700 BC. The people of this period used the materials 

and homes which remained from the older Troia. The following period 

of 700-85 BC is named Troia VIII, whereas the city which lived during the


years 85 BC-AD 500 was named Troia IX. This last layer is the Troia of 

the Roman Era. 

Excavations in the antique city of Troia have been at least as colorful 

and eventful as its mythological history. The excavations started in 

1871 with Schliemann. Since his childhood, he grew up with the dream 

of finding Troia. He was so in love with Troia that he could recite 

the Iliad by heart in many languages. Knowing that he needed a lot 

of money to find Troia, he engaged in trading and became rich. 

Afterwards, he devoted himself to finding Troia. After many attempts, 

he finally found Troia. However, the unsystematic excavations by this 

amateur archaeologist to find the treasure of Priamos destroyed Troia. 

Finally in 1873, he found a treasure, which he thought was that of 

Priamos but was actually from Troia II, and smuggled it overseas. 

Having toured many countries, this treasure ended up in Germany at 

a time when World War II started. The renowned treasure was found 

by the Russians in chests and was sent to Russia. Today, there exist 

pieces from the Treasure of Troia in seven different countries, but the 

substantial part of it is being exhibited in Petersburg Museum. A small 

part of it is in the ‹stanbul Archaeological Museum. After Schliemann, 

the architect Wilhelm Dörpfeld excavated Troia from 1893 to 1894, and 

Carl W. Blegen of the University of Cincinnati USA from 1932-1938. 

These excavations led to important information. 

Excavations were continued during the years 1982-1987 in Beflik Cove 

7 km. to the west of Troia, by the University of Tübingen and it was 

proven that this was a port of Troia. In 1988, Troia excavations were 

resumed by a team of Turks, Germans and Americans on behalf of the 

University of Tübingen, headed by Manfred Osman Korfmann and very 

important results were achieved. Most importantly, it has been 

revealed that Troia, as opposed to common belief, was not a part of 

Greek civilization, but was a Hittite principality named Wilusa, namely 

an Anatolian tribe. The findings from the excavations are preserved 

and exhibited in the Çanakkale Archaeological Museum. These 

excavations continue in the discovered Troia, as well as in the lower 

city. It became evident that this city covered and area of 200,000 m 2 

and matched what had been told by Homeros. After Prof. Korfmann 

died in 2005, Ernst Pernicka and Peter Jablonka of the University of 

Tübingen continue the excavations with the same team. 

Having learned about its legend, history and excavation background, we 

can now start touring Troia. If we take a short walk after seeing the 

wooden horse, we arrive at where the ramparts of Troia VI are seen. Let 

27


28 

us first step on the section at the side and examine this place and the 

surrounding. Let us watch the Plain of Troia, the area where the war took 

place, and remember the events of the epic Iliad. The tumuli we see far 

ahead of us are those of Achilleus and Hector. Now let us turn back and 

climb down the stairs to examine the ramparts of Troia VI and the tower 

of the rampart named VI h. The Ramparts of Troia VI measured 550 m, 330 

m. of which survive to the present time. These ramparts are inclined, and 

measure 6 m. in height and 5 m. in width. The parts of the ramparts which 

are invisible today must have been made from adobe. As seen here, the 

ramparts have been supplemented with multiple towers. The tower VI 

which measures 11 m. in width protrudes 8 m.. The two-storey tower is 

entered from inside, at the second floor. 

Let us proceed and enter through a gate where the ramparts take the form 

of an ‘S’. This gate type was peculiar to Troia, and the architectural 

reason must have been to be able to shoot the enemy who came at the 

door, from a wide area above. 

As we depart, the Troia VI buildings are seen on our left side. These are 

buildings such as VI E and VI F. The excavators called them palaces. These 

buildings were previously two-storey. The fact that there are jars in the 

ground floor shows that this section was used as a cellar. The remnants of 

houses here are dated to around 1400-1250 BC. 

Let us go rightwards and go to the section where the north eastern 

bastion is. This section was built by Lysimachos in the Hellenistic Era, as 

part of the Temple of Athena. Unfortunately, Schliemann damaged the 

temple significantly during his excavation. The deep hole which is seen 

was opened by Schliemann. The north eastern bastion, as seen below, was 

a part of the defense system of Troia VI. This bastion surrounds a well 

from Troia VI, which measures 10 m. in depth. Below are the tower VI g 

and gate VI R of Troia VI. This well is reached via a stairway. Further 

ahead, there is the amphitheater of Troia, which is capable of holding 6000 

people. 

Let us leave this place and continue our tour. The columns and ceiling 

decorations on our way are from the Temple of Athena. These 

decorations manifest how glamorous the temple was. The temple 

measured 36x16 m. and was in the Doric order. The metopes of the 

temple were decorated with different embossments. One of these is the 

metope describing Helios, which is in the Berlin Museum today. The 

temple, which was built around 300 BC, was renovated in the period of 

The wooden horse of Troia.



30 

The gate from the city of Troia VI and the view of the street lying behind it. 

the Roman Emperor Augustus (27 BC-AD 14). On the left side of our 

touring track, we can see the ramparts of Troia I. Troia I surrounded a 

settlement with a diameter of 90 m. As we proceed slightly further after 

viewing the burnt walls of Troia, on our right side, the remnants of the 

megaron-type houses of Troia II are seen. When proceeding after these 

houses, which were built with the herringbone technique, it is possible to 

see almost all of the layers of Troia on top of one another, on the left side. 

The ramped gate of Troia II named FM is arrived at via a wooden bridge 

from here. Just to the left of this ramped gate, Schliemann found the 

treasure items of the chest of Priamos in June 1873. To the left of this 

ramped gate, there is the gate VI M of Troia VI. In this L-shaped building, 

which measures 27 m. in length and which is described as a palace, 

skillfully engraved stone walls are remarkable. There are many 

compartments in the building, whereas the fact that there are jars in the 

ground floor indicates that this section was a cellar. There is a wide street 

between the house VI M and castle wall. There are new excavation sites 

behind, in the continuation of this street. 

Across the ramped gate are the ramparts and houses of Troia VI. As we 

continue our tour, we arrive at the holy area of Troia. This was constructed 

outside of the ramparts of Troia VI in the 8 th century BC. During the 

construction of this place, the settlements of Troia VII and VI in the lower 

city were fixed and this holy area was created and was surrounded by a 

wall. The holy area was seemingly changed from time to time during the


Roman-era odeion in Troia. 

Hellenistic and Roman Periods. In the upper section of the holy area, a 

limestone altar was built in the Early Periods. Later, another altar was 

built on top of this. At the lower section of the holy area, there are two 

other altars, one from the Archaic Period, the other from the Hellenistic 

Period. Furthermore, sacrifice holes and wells were also built here. A wall 

was constructed before the ramparts of Troia VI in the Hellenistic Period. 

Alexander the Great is known to have stopped by Troia, on his way to his 

expedition to Asia, and that he slaughtered sacrifices here. The two 

sections of the holy area were repaired after the visit of Alexander. This 

holy area was demolished in 85 BC by the Roman commander Fimbria, 

and was later renovated with the initiative of Emperor Augustus. Around 

this time, a new altar was constructed at the high spot of this place. The 

figures obtained reveal that the holy area served the cults of Kybele and 

Demeter. However, which gods were offered sacrifices later on is not 

known. 

After the holy area are the excavation sites in the lower city. Odeion is 

reached if the tour track is proceeded with. The Roman bath is across 

from this. Behind the odeion is the rampart and streets of Troia VI. The 

pillared house, channels in the street and the southern tower is 

remarkable here. Further ahead of the odeion is the bouleuterion building 

from the Roman Period, which is partially above the rampart of Troia. 

Presumably, this building was constructed during the structuring period 

of the Augustus Period. 

31



Alacahöyük 

The site of Alacahöyük is situated in the modern village of 

Alacahöyük, which is 22 km. from the town of Alaca, and 45 km. from 

Çorum. It is one of those rare mounds, which appear to have been 

the site of habitation from the Chalcolithic Period onwards, through 

the Early Bronze Age, to the Hittite and post-Hittite Periods. 

Hittite remains were first seen here by W. G. Hamilton in 1835, who 

introduced them to the outside world. Later, in 1906, a brief 

excavation was carried out on behalf of the ‹stanbul Museums by 

Hamilton. In 1935 extensive excavations were begun at the O¤uz 

Ar›k and Hamit Z. Koflay for the Turkish Historical Association. 

Today excavations continue under the directiorship of Prof. Aykut 

Ç›naro¤lu. 15 levels containing traces of four different cultures have 

been established at the site. The Hittite Period was encountered on 

level II, at a date of around 2000-1200, while the ancient Hittite 

Period appears on level IV, immediately over the early Bronze age. 

This is followed by the Mid-Hittite Period, immediately above, on 

level III. Here, the sewage system of the city of the period, together 

with the houses and street formations were uncovered. On level II we 

find the Great Hittite Period. Current excavations in Alacahöyük are 

carried out by Prof. Aykut Ç›naro¤lu. 

At this level a major Hittite temple was found, in typical Hittite style 

with main courtyard surrounded by chambers and porticoed rooms. 

This temple was entered through the southern portal-the sphinx 

gate. To the right and left of the gate, which is massive in 

construction, and set over an artifical mound, two sphinx are to be 

seen. Reliefs portraying hunting and sacrifice scenes are to be seen 

on the lower part of the walls to the right and left of the portal. This 

gate dates from the Hittite Empire Period (1450-1200 BC) and is 

now in the Archaeological Museum, Ankara, while in its place stand 

concrete cast of the original. 

To the left of the entrance can be seen animals being taken to 

sacrifice, and to the left, the figures of priets, acrobats and 

musicians. To the right of the gate is the seated figure of the sun 

goddess Arinna, accompanied by six figures paying respect to her. 

Scenes from the ruins of Alacahöyük. 

33


34 

The Sphinx Gate, Alacahöyük. Flanked by two sphinxes, the main 

portal of the ruins of Alacahöyük also contains reliefs of presentation 

ceremonies and hunting ceremonies. 

We understand that the portal was built during the Hittite empire 

period, since there are Egyptian style sphinxes at the entrance. On 

the inner wall of the portal can be seen the Hittite emblem. The 

double-headed eagle. After entering this gateway, one is struck by a


The portal reliefs, which date to the Hittite Imperial Period 

(1450-1200 BC) are now in the Museum of Anatolian 

Civilazations, Ankara. 

large temple, similar to the temples at Bo¤azköy, the courtyard of 

which measures 20x80 m. Today the site is dominated by a high 

tower, from which all parts of it can be observed. The Hittite empire 

collapsed very suddenly in 1200 BC. 

35



The Hittites 1650-1200 BC 

Around 2250-2000 BC, the Hittites-an Indo-European tribe-came to 

Anatolia, mixed with and started living with the Hattians, which in 

this time were the indigenous people of Anatolia. This coexistence 

blended the cultures of the Hittites and Hattians. The principality of 

Kusshara, which is one of the principalities belonging to the Hattian 

and Hurrian tribes such as Nesha, Hattusha, Mama, Purushanda and 

Zalpa that lived in Anatolia during this period, is a Hittite principality 

that newly arrived in Anatolia. With the end of the Assyrian colonial 

period as a result of a grassroots rebellion around 1750 BC, the 

foundations of the Hittite civilization were set into place. There is no 

conclusive data as to when the Hittites established the kingdom. 

However, the name of Anitta-the son of King Pithana-is cited on the 

written documents obtained. From the documents which are known 

as the ‘Anitta text’ and which bear the characteristics of the Hatti 

language, it is known that Anitta indicated himself as the son of 

Pithana. It was also indicated that he was the king of the city of 

Kusshara, that he obtained the city of Nesha by a night raid, and that 

he established a city here commissioning a temple to be built with the 

pillage he obtained from the war. The fact that his name has been 

found today during the excavation in Kültepe on a small bronze 

dagger serves as an insight to the historical personality of Anitta. 

Anitta, who reigned around 1750-l700 BC, moved the center of the 

state to Nesha, took Hattusha in 1720 BC ravaging it so that it could 

not be occupied again. Having subjugated many cities such as Zalpa 

and Purushanda later on, Anitta established a large princedom. This 

princedom was the messenger of the emergence of a strong state. 

From a bilingual text obtained in Bo¤azköy and originally written in 

the Akkadian language, we find that the first king of the Old Kingdom 

Dynasty was Hattushili I who assumed the throne around 1660-l630 

BC. The intriguing testament of this king is an important document in 

that it tells of his relationships with his family and with the nobles, as 

well as providing information about the daily life of the Hittites while 

enlightening the events. 

The gate sphinx, Yerkapı-Bo¤azköy. 

‹stanbul Archaeological Museum. 

37


38 

Hattushili, who is from Kusshara, is the son of the brother of the 

queen. Previously in that time, the deceased king did not have a son, 

so Hattushili as the nephew of the queen was enthroned. Having been 

transformed into a kingdom, the Hittites chose Hattusha as their 

capital city. Hattushili I took Tell-Aççana, and in the following year 

went on an expedition to the land of Arzava. However, after the attack 

of the Hurrians, who took advantage of his absence during this 

expedition, Hattushili stated his discontent by saying “Behind me the 

enemy in the land of Hurri came into my country and all the 

countries were split from me. Only the city of Hattusha remained 

with me”. Later it is seen that Hattushili restored the state. He 

reported that he took the city of Hassuva during the expedition he 

went on one year later, consequently occupying the cities of 

Zippashna, Hahnu and Hassu. As a wise king, Hattushili I assigned his 

son Huzziya as the king of the city of Tappasanda; however, after 

Huzziya was influenced by the people there and came out against his 

father, he announced his nephew as the heir. After a while, the heir 

was used against the king by his mother. Thereafter, Hattushili 

banished him from Hattusha and pronounced his grandson Murshili as 

the heir, despite the fact that he was a child. Having retreated himself 

into Kusshara, Hattushili, in his testament with historical, political and 

literary contents, praised Murshili and admonished the community of 

nobles to love and watch for the new king. Murshili I, who was on the 

throne around 1630-1600 BC, ruled his state in peace and tranquility, 

expanding its borders as far as the seas. First he went on expeditions 

in Halep bringing destruction to it, and later occupying Babylon which 

brought an end to the Hammurabi Dynasty. Halep then became an 

integral part of the Hittites. At the return of the successful Babylon 

expedition, this young and dynamic king was murdered by Hantili, the 

husband of his sister, and his brother-in-law Zidanta. Thus Hantili I 

came to the Hittite throne and reigned between 1600-1570 BC. This 

king who was from the Luvi region in the South of Anatolia followed 

the policy of the previous kings and strived to keep Syria at hand. 

Around this time, with the attacks of the Hurrians who entered 

Anatolia, the queen and the princes were killed in the palace, 

resulting in chaos within the country, after which the battles for the 

throne had begun. On one hand Hantili dealt with these battles, and 

on the other hand he continued his development activities, and 

starting with Hattusha he surrounded the cities with ramparts. This 

king was later murdered by his son-in-law Zidanta. Zidanta I -who was


also from Luvi- assumed the throne in 1570 BC Zidanta, whom we 

understand to have become the king during his senior years, 

murdered the son of Hantili and the princes out of concerns for the 

throne, thus for the first time bloodying the hands of a king in the 

Hittite Palace. However, he was to pay for that blood inevitably being 

murdered by his own son. The documents specify that a famine broke 

out during the rule of Ammuna (1560-1540 BC) who took the throne 

by killing his father. The bloody hands in the palace swept away all the 

fertility in the lands of the Hittites. After this king, whom we do not 

know much about, Huzziya I came to the throne between the years 

1540-1535 BC but had little influence during his short regency. Under 

these two incompetent kings, the Hittite Kingdom experienced 

difficult times. Telipinu, known and renowned for the ‘Telipinu 

Proclamation’ in the Hittite History, defeated King Huzzi and his 

associates, who were trying to kill himself, exiled them and took the 

throne in 1535 BC. The first thing the King did was to bring an end to 

the murders and throne conflicts, which had become usual in the Old 

Hittite Kingdom, therefore issuing a law on this. The law suggested 

that the first male child born from the first wife of the king, if not, the 

next male child would become the king. If a king does not have a male 

child, his eldest daughter’s son would become the king. This law which 

King Telipinu issued with the approval of the Pankush(the council of 

nobles) was applied exactly in this way hereafter. In this, ascension to 

the throne was regulated. 

Telipinu concluded an agreement with the king of Kizzuvatna 

and ruled out the political mayhem originating in the south 

with diplomacy. This agreement went down in history as the first 

state-level agreement that the Hittites signed. Around the same time, 

the political condition of the country was stormy. Rebellions arose in 

the land of Arzava around Adana, resulting in the withdrawal of the 

Hittites from this region. Along the Euphrates, too, the Hittite 

domination became weaker. The king went on an expedition here 

resolving the situation. 

The name of King Alluvamna, who was on the throne after Telipinu 

around 1510-1500 BC, is cited on the seal imprints obtained in 

Bo¤azköy, whereas the name of Hantili II, who reigned between the 

years of 1500-1490 BC, is cited only in the sacrifice lists. Another king, 

whose name too is cited in the sacrifice lists, is Zidanta II (1490-1480 

BC). The peace agreement that Zidanta concluded in the Hittite 

39


40 

Bitik Cult Amphora. Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara. 

language with Pilli the king of Kizzuvatna, is another document 

providing information on Zidanta. A seal imprint on one of the 

donation documents found in Bo¤azköy, has been found to have 

belonged to the last king of the dark period-Huzziya II. This king, whose 

name along with his wife’s name are cited in the sacrifice lists, sat on 

the Hittite throne between the years of 1480-1460 BC. 

After the bright period of the Old Hittite Kingdom, the Hittite State 

evidently lost its power. Hereafter, its dominance over south and south 

eastern Anatolia became rather weaker. This assisted the Hurrians 

residing in Eastern Anatolia, resulting in the establishment of the 

Mitanni State by the Hurrians in the land formed by the Euphrates


‹nand›k Cult Amphora. Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara. 

together with its tributaries (1460-1190 BC). Having become the 

biggest political power of the Near East, the Mitannis were to be 

replaced later by the Great Hittite Kingdom. Tuthalia II (1460-1440 

BC)-shown as the founder of the Great Hittite Kingdom and his 

dynasty ruled the land of the Hittites for a period close to 250 years. 

This king, who reportedly ascended to the throne according to the laws 

of Telipinu, followed the policy of the Old Kingdom rule and raided 

Syria and Halep, thus securing the interests of the Hittite Empire in 

the Near East. 

According to the written documents, following this king, Arnuvanda 

I apparently came to the throne (1440-1420 BC). On the seal imprints 

41


42 

and tablets, the names of the king along with his wife Queen 

Asmunikal and the heir Tuthalia, are cited as well. Whether Hattushili 

II took the throne after Arnuvanda I is subject to debate. The 

documents obtained indicate that the heir Tuthalia came to the throne 

with the name Tuthalia III (1400-1381 BC). This king spent his 

lifetime fighting the kingdoms of Gashka in the north, Arzava in the 

south and Halep in the south east. Due to his poor health, he 

dispatched his son Shuppiluliuma to these expeditions, as the 

commander. In this, the future king was also being prepared. 

It is evident from the documents that after the death of Tuthalia III, 

presumably his elder son-young Tuthalia-assumed the throne in 

accordance with the Telipinu Mandate for a brief period of time, but 

was replaced by Shuppiluliuma I (1380-1345 BC) because he was 

unwise. Shuppiluliuma established subsidiary states along the borders 

of Syria and Palestine to regain the power of the state, which was 

shaken during the reign of the kings before him. For this reason, he 

chose the king of the small state of Arzava as his son-in-law and 

brought this land under Hittite dominion, took Carchemish and Halep 

and gave them to his sons Piyassili and Telipinu. He ensured the 

loyalty of the other bordering states such as Ugarit in Syria, 

Kizzuvatna and Amurru kingdoms in the south, through competent 

diplomacy. Shuppiluliuma I was the most successful statesman of this 

period and he had been raised as a great soldier. One of his most 

successful expeditions was when he brought an end to the Kingdom 

of Mitanni. However, he did not eradicate the state of Mitanni, instead 

he chose the son of the king he battled with as his son-in-law and 

made him assume the Mitanni throne, using this state as a buffer state 

against Assyria. Thus the Hurrian-Mitanni State came to an end, but 

its civilization continued with the Hittites. Then, the Great Kingdom 

ruled by Shuppiluliuma reached a power equaling that of Babylon and 

Egypt, and the Hittites shared in the civilization of that age. 

Shuppiluliuma, who sent princesses to other countries to improve his 

foreign policy, married a Babylonian princess himself. 

While Shuppiluliuma was in Carchemish when he set on his expedition 

to invade Northern Syria, the widow of Pharaoh Tutankhamon sent 

her envoys to him and wanted him to send one of his sons to be her 

husband. The King sent his envoys to Egypt to confirm the 

authenticity of this wish. Returning after a year, the envoys reported 

that the queen’s wish was sincere, thus the king sent one of his sons


to Egypt as the prospective bridegroom. The fact that the prince, who 

was sent as a prospective bridegroom, was killed on his way by the 

enemies of the queen outraged and desolated Shuppiluliuma, upon 

which he attacked the lands affiliated with Egypt and returned with 

great many pillages. The era in which Shuppiluliuma I lived was a time 

when all the states communicated by letters written in Akkadian and 

when relations gained importance. This great king died at his return 

from Palestine, as a result of the plague epidemic brought by the 

Egyptian captives. His elder son Arnuvanda II succeeded to the throne 

in lieu of the deceased great king around 1346-1345 BC. However, 

Arnuvanda II also died in a few months after contracting the same 

disease and hereafter Murshili II (1345-1315 BC), the middle son of 

the great king became the king. 

The period of Murshili II has been the period which has provided the 

most information on Hittite history. This is because this king 

commissioned all the events of his period as well as all his deeds to be 

written in the documents known as annuals (annals). When he came 

to the throne, insurgencies in the land of Hatti and his princedoms 

appeared. Murshili II first organized a ceremony in the name of the 

solar goddess of the city of Arinna. During the first years of his reign, 

he fought with Kashgans and annexed the mountainous land they 

resided in to Hattusha. He continued the Hittite dominion in the Near 

East with the assistance of the relative kingdoms of Carchemish and 

Halpa. Owing to his good relations with these kings, he ensured 

their commitment to the land of Hatti. This indicates that the king 

was a decent commander besides being an author. 

We learn that Murshili II’s son Muvatalli (1315-1282 BC) succeeded to 

the throne in place of his father, from the epitaphs of the 

subsequent Hittite kings. Around the time when the King came to 

the throne, he settled his disputes with his neighbors in the west via 

bilateral agreements. However, in the meantime, Kashgans and the 

Egyptians created big problems. The king appointed his brother 

Hattushili-an ambitious and talented figure-as the general governor 

of the vast region in the north where Kashgans resided. Egyptian 

pharaohs had come as far as the city of Kadesh. Around this time, 

Muvatalli sensed a threat and relocated his capital from Hattusha to 

Dattasha. In 1286 BC, during the reign of Ramses II, the war with 

Egypt took place on the plane to the south of the city of Kadesh. This 

war happened to be cited as the most talked-about pitched battle in 

43


44 

The Kadesh Treaty. Baked clay tablet inscribed with the text of a treaty 

made between the Hittites and Egypt in 1279 BC Found at Hattusha, 

the Hittite capital, the tablet was broken into several pieces. 

history. There is not much information about this war in the Hittite 

sources. Perhaps the pictures and scripts which excessively 

embellish the walls of the Egyptian temples could give some insight 

about the war. However, there are not any documents written about 

king Muvatalli, who was an accomplished commander. In the 

biography of his brother Hattushili, this king is referred to as a


A total of 45 lines of text, in Hittite cuneiform, this important treaty was 

written in the official language of the period. 13.8 x17.6x5.1 cm. 

‹stanbul Archaeological Museum. 

tolerant king that acted in good faith. Since Muvatalli did not have any 

sons to succeed to the Hittite throne, after his death, it appears that 

Urhi-Teshup (1282-1275 BC), who was the son of a woman in the 

harem, came to the throne. He was named as Murshili when he 

became the King and used this name in his seals. During his short 

reign, the first deed of this king, whom we understand from the 

45


46 

documents to have been incompetent and inexperienced, was to 

return the statues of the gods which Muvatalli commissioned to be 

carried to Dattafl, to Hattusha and make it the capital. He was not on 

good terms with his uncle Hattushili. He restricted his dominion and 

cut his powers. However, it is also understood from the documents, 

that Murshili was defeated by his hostile uncle in the end and was 

exiled. Hattushili III, who was on the Hittite throne between the years 

of 1275-1250 BC, was a monk and was married to Puduhepa-the 

daughter of a Hurrian monk. It becomes apparent from the texts that 

the couple took refuge in divine powers in their acts, that they made 

use of religion in politics, and that their success was due in part to the 

assistance of the religious circles. Puduhepa placed her seal on many 

official documents “either on her own or together with the king”. 

Having followed a smart policy, Hattushili III signed the peace 

agreement named Kadesh with Egypt in 1270 BC and ensured a 

continuity of the peace between the two large states. The two texts 

of the agreement survive to this day. The text which was written in 

cuneiform script on a silver tablet and which was translated into 

Egyptian had the imprints of the seal of Hattushili on one side, and 

that of Queen Puduhepa on the other side. Egyptians too had the 

text translated into their own language and had it written on stones 

in a monumental manner. 

Hattushili also attached importance to royal marriages and he had his 

elder daughter marry Ramses II. This political marriage strengthened 

the leadership position of the Hittite State in the Near East. When, or 

how this king, who had an ailing body, died is unknown. Tuthalia IV 

(1250-1220 BC), who succeeded to the throne after his death, was 

the son of Hattushili III from Puduhepa. It is understood that the 

queen also continued to hold her title as the ruling queen (tavananna) 

during the reign of her son, according to a seal imprint which had her 

name. This seal imprint is the only example wherein the name of the 

mother is given along with the name of the king. Relations with Egypt 

went well during the reign of this king; however, they had to deal with 

their neighbors in the west since they were creating difficulties. The 

King succeeded in his first expedition to Assuva in that region. Still, 

the significant threat of the period was the famine which broke out as 

a result of a severe drought. According to the information obtained, 

this issue was apparently addressed thanks to the aid resulting from 

good relations with Egypt. Attaching importance to religious


functions and architecture, this ruler commissioned new temples to be 

built, and had the epitaphs in the state and temple archives copied. 

Furthermore, the sheets including the laws were reproduced during 

his period. A relief found of himself in Yaz›l›kaya Open Air Temple is 

important in that it tells of the level attained by the Hittite plastic arts. 

We see that during the reign of Arnuvanda III (1220-1200 BC)-the son 

of Tuthalia IV-the general attitude in Anatolia was opposition to the 

Hittite State. From some of the available tablets, it becomes clear that 

the small kingdoms in Arzava and Western Anatolia rose in rebellion 

against the Hittites and formed a coalition. We know from the 

obtained documents that, since Arnuvanda did not have a child, his 

brother Shuppiluliuma II sat on the throne between the years of 1200- 

1190 BC. During the reign of this last Hittite king, a sea-borne threat 

jeopardized the kingdom. The letter soliciting food assistance from 

the king of a friendly country known as Ugarit, written during a 

famine, indicates that the country entered a critical period. At the end 

of this period, the Hittite State experienced a depression and was 

forced to leave the stage of history after the Aegean migrations. 

Hittite Art: 

Around the beginning of 2000 BC, the Hittites-an Indo-European 

tribe-came to Anatolia and mixed with the Hattians who were the 

indigenous people. This harmonious blend of the two cultures 

seemingly led to the development of the Hittite culture. Hence artistic 

works created during the state of the Hittite Kingdom do not depart 

from the tradition of Hatti culture-an indigenous Anatolian culture-but 

almost seem as a continuation of it. The most advanced branch in 

Hittite art is architecture. This type of architecture, which is used in 

lower sections in Anatolia and which involves gigantic stones, continued 

during the New Hittite Kingdom Period as well. Castles built of adobe 

walls on stone foundations, surrounded by defense posts are typical 

examples of military architecture. During the New Kingdom, the 

double wall technique, monumental city gates, poterns, front courtyards 

and internal walls created a harmonious defense system. 

Parts of the king’s palace uncovered in Büyükkale are a fine example of 

not only religious but also military architecture. Besides the 

monumental palaces, houses are small models of the palaces. The 

Hittites used stone, adobe and wood together in these structures. 

Hittite embossments were used in architecture seemingly in a 

47


48 

Eflatunp›nar Monument. 

Eflatunp›nar is situated 22 km. north of Beyflehir, Konya. 

harmonious way. We encounter these in temples and the monuments 

erected by the kings. Sphinx, lion, warrior and god depictions in 

monumental sizes seen at the city gates had guarding functions. At 

the Sphinx Gate in Alacahöyük and at the gates on the ramparts of 

Bo¤azköy, the most beautiful examples of this figurative art can be seen. 

The rock embossments created to sanctify gods, as can be seen in


Built of monumental blocks of stone, it represents two deities, one male in 

relief in the center, flanked by demons holding a solar disc. (1200 BC). 

Yaz›l›kaya Open Air Temple, can also be seen on different routes 

leading to south in Anatolia such as in Gavurkale, Eflatunp›nar-Fas›llar 

and Gebzeli. God, goddess, king and queen depictions on these rock 

embossments were created for religious functions. In the west of 

Ankara, on the old road to Haymana, there exists the Gavurkale 

Monument. A stage composed of three embossments is seen here. The 

49


50 

Fraktin Monument of King Hattushili III and Queen Puduhepa to the 

north east of Kayseri is from the 13 th century BC and measures 3.25 m. 

in length and 1.30 m. in height. The Taflç› Monument in the Develi 

district of Kayseri is engraved on a rock measuring 3 m. in length. The 

monument portrays three figures praying. The name of Hattushili III 

(1275-1250 BC) can be read on this monument. Another Hittite 

Monument in Kayseri is the ‹mamkulu monument from the 13 th century 

BC in the village of ‹mamkulu. At the passage on the highest point of the 

Tauruses is the Hanyeri (Gebzeli) Monument dated to the 13 th century 

BC. The monument, which measures 3.40 m. in length and 2.10 m. in 

height, illustrates Hattushili II, his wife Puduhepa and a princess. 

In Çukurova, on the rocky area to the left of the river Ceyhan is the 

embossment of King Muvatalli which was created in 1290 BC. Again, another 

Hittite monument by the river Ceyhan is the Hemite Monument in 

the village known as Gökçedam today. The epitaphic embossment on this 

monument was evidently of a prince. One of the most spectacular Hittite 

rock monuments is the Eflatunp›nar Rock Monument, which was created 

in the 13 th century BC and which is 22 km. north from Beyflehir. The 

monument made of block stones was constructed by a small spring. 

Another monument, which is 60 km. away from here, was constructed 

surrounding a pool as the Eflatunp›nar Monument and belongs to the 

period of Tudhaliya IV (1250-1220 BC). In Western Anatolia, on the 

way from Kemalpafla to Torbal›, there exists the Karabel Monument. 

This monument is thought to have been commissioned to be built 

during the reign of Hattushili III by a local administrator committed to 

the Hittites. A polytheistic perception of religion prevailed with the 

Hittites. This is confirmed by the expression “a thousand gods of the 

land of Hatti” contained in a text. The Hittites adopted these gods 

exactly from the Palaians, Luvians and Hattians, thus having a 

polytheistic religion. In addition, Syrian-originated gods seem to have 

existed as well. They envisioned their gods in the form of humans and 

depicted them as such on their sculptures and embossments. The 

greatest male deity was Teshup, who represented the sky, whereas the 

head of the goddesses was Hepat. Hepat, who was the solar goddess of 

Arinna, continued to be worshipped in Anatolia as Kubaba during the 

Late Hittites, and as Kybele later on. The Hittite language included 

words from the Hatti, Luvian and Hurrian languages. The Hittites used 

Akkadian in their political correspondences. Assyrian, which was used 

in Anatolia especially during the Assyrian colonial period, was a dialect


of Akkadian. Furthermore, the Hittites seemingly used cuneiform 

script besides the Luvian - originated hieroglyph. Czech scholar B. 

Horozny read the Hittite cuneiform script and played a great role in 

shedding light on the Hittite history. Hittite literature is made up of 

documents in the genre of legend or epic. However, the Hittites have 

very few products peculiar to themselves. Despite the fact that most 

of their products are sourced from the Hattians or Hurrians, 

Mesopotamian motifs are also sensed in these. 

Apparently the traditional Anatolian ceramics reached to great heights 

with the Hittite ceramics. The ceramics obtained were very thin walled, 

mostly red, and were glazed. Furthermore, geometrically decorated 

and multicolored ceramics were also created. Animal-shaped and 

embossed vases, known as Rhyton, which were used by the Hittites to 

offer drinks during religious rituals or to sacrifice liquids to gods, are 

unique examples of the ceramic art. Besides these, human-faced pots 

also seem to have been created. Beak-mouthed jugs form a distinct 

group. The best example of embossed ceramic is the embossed vase 

known as Bitik vase, named after the Bitik village of Ankara where it 

was found. Decorations on this vase, which is currently exhibited in 

Ankara Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, were evidently created in 

three different sections. A holy marriage ceremony is pictured at the 

top section, with a feast in the middle section and only the heads of 

humans at the bottom section. Another embossed vase, bearing almost 

the same characteristics, was found in ‹nand›ktepe. Themes were 

created in a narrative style in four sections, as on the Bitik vase and 

cream figures were used on a red background. Apart from these vases, 

both of which are from the 16 th century BC, such embossed vases were 

obtained during the excavations in Hattusha, Aliflar, Alacahöyük, 

Elbistan-Karahöyük, Çorum-Eskiyap›. 

The ceramics discovered during the excavations reveal that, besides 

the beak-mouthed ceramics, which were created during the earlier 

period and which were precisely transferred over to the Hittites; 

round-mouthed, long-necked, bulky bellied and handled jugs were 

also created. Furthermore, Aliflar originated pieces of pottery are 

very interesting samples. The most successful examples of the 

Great Hittite Period were obtained during the embossment 

excavations in Bo¤azköy, Alaca, Eskiyapar, Maflathöyük, Yumuktepe, 

Gözlükule, the Upper Euphrates Basin, Keban Dam and the Lower 

Euphrates Basin. 

51



Hattusha-Bo¤azköy 

Hattusha, the majestic capital of the Hittites, which is a UNESCO cultural 

heritage site like Venice, Jerusalem and Rome, is within the borders of 

the Bo¤azkale District of Çorum today. 

In a valley surrounded by two streams, with its convenient geography to 

ward off attackers, Hattusha is studied under two main sections as the 

‘Lower City’ and the ‘Upper City’. The Lower City is situated between the 

external rampart, which is to the north west, and the plateau where the 

king’s palace is located. The upper city begins at the south of the rampart, 

which has a potern, and spans all the way up to the highest point at 

Yerkap›. 

Hattusha is surrounded by ramparts which reach up to 6 km. in length 

and which are still partially standing. In the east and west, these ramparts 

lie along with the gorges of the Yaz›r and Büyükkale riverbeds. On the 

rocky lands, the ramparts were built on rocks taking advantage of the 

elevated areas. However, the southern section, where the land is not 

rocky, was raised by silting, laid with stones to prevent land slides, before 

the ramparts were built on it. 

The reconstruction of walls of the inner rampart can give us good insight 

into the ramparts of Hattusha. The internal rampart section measuring 

65 m. long and 8 m. high, which separates the Great Temple area from the 

residential area, and the 12 m. towers, which are above this section and 

are visibly protruding, have been reconstructed. 

With a night raid, King Anitta of Kusshara captured Hattusha, laying it to 

waste. King Hattushili I of the Hittites (1660-1630 BC), who ascended to 

the throne after him, restored the city and made it the capital of the Old 

Hittite Kingdom he established. Later, Hantili, who sat on the throne from 

1600-1570 BC, said “No one in the Hattian region had commissioned 

fortified cities before. I, Hantili, built fortified cities all around the land, 

fortifying the city of Hattusha as well.” Despite his claim, there is no doubt 

that Hattusha was surrounded by ramparts earlier than his reign too. 

Excavations have revealed that there was settlement in Hattusha in 

the Chalcolithic Period, around 6500 BC. The Phrygians seem to have 

View of the Great Temple. 

53



inhabited this region after the decadence of the Hittite State. The 

ramparts were built on a stone foundation with brick walls, by filling small 

stones between the large stones. As fortification, projections in the form 

of towers were created on the ramparts at 25-30 m. intervals. Apart from 

these ramparts, there is another inner castle inside the city, built on a 

large rock and encircled by ramparts, which was the acropolis of the city. 

Entry into the city is through the Lower and Upper Western Gates, Lion’s 

Gate, Yerkap› (Sphinx Gate) and the King’s Gate. Among them, the King’s 

Gate, Lion’s Gate and Sphinx Gate are important in that they have been 

well preserved and they present good examples of gates. 

The weakest parts of the ramparts were the gates; therefore the gates in 

Hattusha were meticulously constructed. The gates with their pointed 

arches, which were reinforced by towers on both sides, feature typical 

architecture. To the east of the large rampart curve, which is in the south 

of the city, is the King’s Gate having a ramp supported by a buttress. On 

both sides of the passage room, which vertically lies against the rampart 

wall, there are towers jutting out towards the front. Furthermore, another 

tower was built to the right of the ramp, so that the first-coming enemy 

could be seen and the main gate could be better guarded. Both the 

exterior and interior doors are two-winged, and their pivots, bolt holes 

and the holes into which the bolts locking the gates from behind would go, 

can still be seen. This shows that the outer wings opened inwards. 

Constituting an architectural whole with its towers, gates and tower rooms, 

the King’s Gate formed a battlement that could protect itself inside and 

outside. The embossment of a warrior holding an axe, wearing a short 

dress and having a helmet on, which was found during the excavations of 

1907, was formerly ascribed to a king. Thus the gate was called the “King’s 

Gate”. As the horns on the helmet represent a deity, it is now accepted 

that the figure on the embossment depicts a god. The embossment has 

been moved to the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, while a replica 

replaces it today. 

Plan of Hattusha 

1.Lower city 2.Temple, No.1 3.Great citadel 4.South on citadel 

5.Niflantepe 6.King’s gate 7.Temple, No.5 8.Temple, No.2 9.Temple, No.3 

10.Central temple area 11.Yerkap›, the Sphinx gate 12.Lion gate 

13.Yenice Kale (New castle) 14.Sar›kale 15.House on slope 16.Wall with 

potern 17.Lower west gate 18.Upper west gate 19.Temple, No.30 

20.Church 21.Temple, No.7 22.Room with hieroglyph 23.North building 

complex 24.Ambarl›kaya 25.Mihrapl›kaya 26.Büyükkaya 27.Walls 

55



Lion’s Gate. 

There are city gates such as the Lion’s Gate, King’s 

Gate and Yerkap› on the ramparts of Bo¤azköy.


58 

The Lion’s Gate, similar in outline to the King’s Gate, takes its name from the 

lion bodies projecting from the pillars on its both sides. While one has been 

deteriorated, the other protects its dignified pose. With its mane, mouth, 

teeth, eyes and body, the statue presents a good example of the 13 th 

century BC. Hittite stone workmanship. The third passage in the ramparts 

is Yerkap›, which is located in the fortification ramparts to the south of the 

city. Located under the gate is a 171 m. long tunnel known as potern, built 

with the overlay technique. It links the interior of the city with the land in 

the front. The potern was connected to the towers above by stairs. 

The entrance of the gate can be seen from afar and the doors are not 

able to be closed, which makes one think that the function of this 

monumental building complex had nothing to do with defense. One can 

still walk comfortably in this potern. While nothing remains from its 

interior door, the frame and the lintel of the exterior door are still in situ. 

Outside of the gate is a sitting place for sentinels. This gate, where there 

were large limestone sphinxes on both sides formerly, is also known as the 

"Sphinx Gate". 

Büyükkale, which was both the center of government and acropolis of the 

city, was constructed on a level field measuring 250x140 m., surrounded 

by steep rocks on four sides. The palace here, where the Hittite kings ruled 

the kingdom from, did not consist of one building, but was made up of 

large and small buildings around the courtyards which were surrounded by 

pillared galleries. In this area surrounded by ramparts, palace buildings 

and the ancillary buildings were interconnected via courtyards and 

constituted a whole. The remains which can be tracked today are from the 

castles and palaces of the Hittite emperors who lived in the 13 th century 

BC. 

Today the acropolis is reached by a modern stairway. From here, where 

there used to be a Hittite ramp, a door leads into the acropolis. Entry into 

the acropolis is at the lower courtyard, where the official buildings were. 

The road laid with red plaques, which can be sporadically seen while 

entering through the door, opens into the entry building. At the time of 

Tuthalia IV, the entrance was decorated with lions made from basalt, as is 

evident from an epitaph found in the vicinity. 

This place leads into a courtyard measuring 70x35 m., on the right and left 

side of which were the buildings named G, M, N. These buildings, the 

unction of which is unknown, open into the courtyard through pillared


porticoes. Only a part of the foundations of the porticoes can be seen 

today. The buildings which were marked as C, B, and H by the excavators, 

form a closed whole. 

The finds obtained in the building C showed that this used to be a cultic 

center. Therefore, these three buildings are accepted as a small temple of 

the acropolis. The building to the east of the middle courtyard, which was 

marked as A by the excavators, was apparently an archive building since 

it contains some 3000 tablets; some intact, but most are in pieces. 

Excavations of 1931-33 revealed that the building was two-storey and the 

tablets were placed upstairs like a modern library, but the tablets fell 

downstairs when the building collapsed. The column bases found on the 

ground have indicated that this five-part building was two-storey. 

The largest building in the acropolis is the building which was named D, 

measuring 30x49 m. The building is estimated to have been multi-storey 

and it has become certain that it was at least two-storey. The upstairs is a 

hall measuring 32x32. It can be said that this was a throne hall. The hall 

had two gates. The King would enter through the gate in the middle 

courtyard, while the others were taken in from the lower courtyard. 

Building E to the left of the throne hall represents a fine example of 

Hittite architecture. In this building excavated in 1906, about 2500 

cuneiform tablets have been found, which include the renowned Kadesh 

Agreement. Building F, which adjoins the ramparts at the north western 

end of the castle by the building E, is assumed to have belonged to the 

royal family due to its beautiful scenery and strategic position. 

The acropolis has two gates, the eastern castle gate is located by 

the building K. Besides the numerous tablets here, annals (annual trade 

documents) of Hattushili I (1660-1630 BC) have also been found. This 

indicates that additions for different uses were made to the acropolis at 

various times. Inside the 24 m.pool in front of the building are many 

cooked votive pots, which imply that this place might have had a religious 

function. 

The most important remnants in the Upper City in addition to the 

remnants such as Niflantepesi, Sar›kale and Yenicekale are no doubt the 

temples. It has become clear that there were five large temples here. The 

common features of these Hittite temples, only the foundations of which 

can be seen today, is the existence of an entrance building, courtyard, holy 

area at the back of the courtyard and side rooms. 

59


60 

On the slope between Büyükkale and the Great Temple were the slope 

houses. A slope house has been reconstructed here. Between the King’s 

Gate and Büyükkale, the Hittites built two pools known as the Eastern 

Pool for the water demand of the Upper City. Rooms number 1 and 2 have 

been uncovered in the west of the pool. Assumedly, the room number 2 

had a cultic function. Inside the room, an embossment of Shuppiluliuma 

II (1200-1190 BC), the last king of the Hittites, solar god depictions and 

hieroglyph scripts on the walls have been found. 

The Great Temple, which was the largest religious structure in the city, 

is located in the north of the Lower City. This temple – temple number 1 

– was used around the 14th-13th centuries BC. This place was made up of 

a cultic structure in the middle, magazines on four sides, and a building 

complex of multiple rooms in the south west. All of them were set on a 

large terrace made from debris stones. The actual temple was also located 

on this temple. The temple has four gates; one main, three ancillary. 

Ancillary gates were used by people linked with the temple, while the 

south eastern gate of entry was used only by the king and the queen. On 

festivals and cultic ceremonies, the king and the queen, who also had 

monk and nun characteristics, would enter through the main gate 

together with their company. There were magazines surrounding the 

actual temple. These were warehouse buildings built to meet all of the 

demands of the temple. There were also bureau sections to determine 

the goods going in to and out of the temple. Furthermore, thousands of 

cuneiform tablets were found during the excavations in 1907, which 

shows that there were also archive buildings. 

The foundations of these multi-storey magazine buildings were made from 

debris stone, its bases from cut stone and upper floors from adobe. Two 

rows of jars, which are in situ today, reveal that liquid substances were 

stored here. These are 900-3000 liter jars, with stamps or marks on their 

shoulders. The markings on them are assumed to have showed the 

substance inside the jar. Nothing has been obtained related to these 

storage areas today. These rich temple warehouses are thought to have 

been plundered when the Hittites fell around 1190 BC. 

The temple at the center of the magazines measures 64.5 m. long, 42.5 m. 

wide and was made from large calcareous blocks. It expands on an area 

of 14.500 m2 , together with all the warehouses surrounding it. The 

calcareous block at its southern edge, measuring 36 tons and 5.75 m. long,


The embossment of King Shuppiluliuma II, located in 

Bo¤azköy in the Room 2, on the side wall to the left, 

portrays the kings a warrior with his sword, 

bow and spear.


62 

is evidence of how spectacular a building it was. In the complex of six 

rooms to the left of the entrance, the Hittite kings would prepare for the 

religious ceremonies, would take off their royal uniform and wear their 

monk outfit. In the middle of the temple was a courtyard laid with 

calcareous plaques and measuring 26x19 m., and at the north east end of 

the courtyard was a chamber leading to the most sacred part of the 

temple. Perhaps this was a place for washing before entering the sacred 

section. The two cultic chambers behind this have sculpture pedestals, 

which are still in situ, but the sculptures are missing. Evidentially, the 

temple was built in the name of the Hattian god of sky and the sun 

goddess of Arinna. 

To the south west of the temple and the magazines surrounding it, there 

passes a road which is an 8 m. wide, broad channel. There is another 

building measuring 118x55 m. on the other side of this street. During the 

excavations of this building complex, which has a courtyard in the 

middle and rooms of various sizes at the peripheries, unfinished tablets 

and inscription tools were found, which indicate that this was used as an 

office or school of clerks. The same tablets found in this house of artisans 

also show that there were 18 monks, 29 female musicians, 35 oracles and 

10 Hurrian singers living here. 

Temple number 5 in the Upper City, which comes after temple number I, 

is older in comparison with the others. This place was first sighted by 

Charles Texier in 1834, and William J. Hamilton came here in 1835 to 

conduct the first research. In 1858, Heinrich Barth and Andreas David 

Mordmann conducted research in the temple number 1. In 1862, George 

Perrot, Edmond Guillaume and Jules Delbet conducted research in 

Bo¤azköy and Yaz›l›kaya. 

In 1882, Errest Chantre studied on the temple number 1 and Büyükkale, 

finding and publishing the first cuneiform tablets of Hattusha in 1894. In 

1906, as a result of the excavations by Hugo Winckler and Theodor 

Makridi conducted in Büyükkale, 2.500 cuneiform tablets were found, 

which revealed that this was Hattusha – the capital of the Hittites. After 

the World War I, German Archaeological Institute began the excavations 

of 1931-39, and excavations were resumed after the World War II in 1952. 

They were led by Kurt Bittel until 1977. Excavations continued by Peter 

Neve until 1993 and afterwards by Jurgen Seeher and Doc. Andreas 

Schachner.


Relief of the god Sarruma and king Tuthalia IV. Open-air shrine, 

Yaz›l›kaya. The god is short-skirted, wears pointed shoes and carries 

a sword on his right hip. Resting his left hand on the king's shoulder, 

he both protects him and acts as his guide. The king, 164 cm. in height, 

extends his right hand to the deity, and on it are inscribed the word 

Sarruma in hieroglypics. An inscription in the right-hand upper 

corner informs us that the scene represents Tuthalia IV seeking 

the protection of the deity (1250-1220 BC).


64 

Yaz›l›kaya (Inscribed Stone) 

The Open Air Temple of Yaz›l›kaya, which is 2 km. from Bo¤azköy, was 

built in the form of two galleries, making use of natural rocks. In front of 

them is a building, only the foundations of which can be seen. In the large 

gallery, to the right and left, there is a series of deity depictions. Gods are 

to the right, and the goddesses are to the left, illustrated as walking. On 

the other side of the rooms is the main scene where the god of sky and 

his wife Hepat – the chief goddess – meet. The names of the deities were 

written on top of them in hieroglyph. On the right end of the large room, 

a 2.95 m. high embossment of King Tuthalia IV of the Hittites depicts him


‘The 12 blessed”. A relief of twelve figures on the walls of the 

open-air temple at Yaz›l›kaya. The twelve deities are shown walking 

in procession. Short-skirted and wearing pointed 'Scythian' caps, 

they bear swords in their right hands, resting on their shoulders 

(1250-1220 BC). 

in his monk outfit, proceeding towards left. In the large room beside the 

small room, depictions of 12 gods are seen on the right hand side. 

Opposite them, King Tuthalia IV of the Hittites, who had the temple 

constructed according to the hieroglyph on top, is depicted under the 

auspices of his god Sharruma. To the left of this embossment is the 

3.39 m. embossment of the sword god. 

65



Late Hittite City States 1200-650 BC 

The migration wave around 1190 BC, starting in Greece and passing to Anatolia, 

known as the sea migrations, overthrew the Hittite Empire, ravaging 

states along its way, going as far down as Egypt. Thus the Hittites 

completed their historical mission, whereas their cultural characteristics 

continued to exist in Southern Anatolian cities for a certain period of time. 

After the fall of the Hittites, this period when the region was taken by the 

Assyrians in the 8 th century BC, was named the Late Hittite Period as the 

continuation of the Hittites. Many Hittites who were displaced from their 

homeland were forced to migrate to the territories in the south which 

previously used to be under their ruling, thus this mass of people passed the 

Taurusus and went down to the Upper Euphrates Basin and into Northern 

Syria, and settled in cities which had previously been established here. These 

newcomers seized power in cities such as Carchemish, Zincirli and Malatya 

and continued their lives for a certain period of time and kept Late Hittite 

art alive here. 

The area encompassing Kayseri, Ni¤de, Nevflehir and Ürgüp in Central 

Anatolia was named the Land of Tabal after the fall of the Hittites. While the 

Kingdom of Kummuh existed in the region covering Gürün, Malatya and 

surroundings, the Que Kingdom existed in Marafl Gaziantep, Gurgum and 

Çukurova; the following kingdoms were established in their respective 

regions: Hilakku, in the Taurus mountainous region, Milidia (Melid) in the 

territories of Malatya, Elbistan and Gürün; Carchemish in the south of 

Gaziantep; and Hattina in Samal and Antakya surroundings. We are able to 

obtain information about these kingdoms based on Assyrian documents 

rather than those of their own. This is because the Assyrian kings spoke of 

these kingdoms as they were giving account of their military expeditions. 

The city states, which were formerly independent, went into the rule of the 

Urartians, after they became a state, as well as the Assyrians. During the reign 

of the Assyrian King Sargon II, they were taken one by one and turned into 

provinces of Assyria. While we devoted special attention to Aslantepe, Samal, 

Carchemish and Karatepe among these city states, since they are important 

centers of the Late Hittite Civilization, let us briefly talk about the rest here. 

‹vriz Rock Monument. 

Ere¤li, Konya, Late Hittite Period (second half of the 8 th century BC) This 

relief shows king Warpalavas worshipping the god of fertility, Tarhu, who 

holds ears of wheat in one hand and bunches of grapes in the other. 

67


68 

One of the Late Hittite states founded in Central Anatolia was the 

Kingdom of Tabal in Kayseri environs, made up of 24 small kingdoms. 

Cities such as Ni¤de, Erkilet, Bahçe, Topada, Karada¤, Karaburnu, 

Çalapverdi, Bor, ‹vriz, Andaval and Bulgarmaden were bound to the Tabal 

Kingdom and the kingdom was administered as a sort of confederation. It 

has been understood that this kingdom established relations mostly with 

the Assyrians and that the land of Tabal was cited as Bit-Burutash in the 

Assyrian sources. In 837 BC the Assyrian King Salmanassar III set on an 

expedition to the land of Tabal, and subjugated around 20 principals in 

Tabal including the King Tuatte. In addition, Argishti-one of the Urartian 

kings-in one of the epitaphs in Van Castle, states that during his 

expedition to the west in 785 BC, descendents of Tuatte the King of Tabal 

attacked his land. 

Around this time, when the Urartian State started to develop, 

the Kingdom of Tabal rebelled against the Assyrians together with 

the Urartians; however, they were bound by the Assyrians to pay 

tribute. Tabal king, who refused to pay tribute to the Assyrians King 

Tiglathpileser, deployed his troops to Vassusarmas, thus dethroning him 

and enthroning another named Hulli. When his son Ambaris ascended to 

the throne, he married the daughter of Sargon II the Assyrian King and 

Çukurova was given to him as a wedding gift. Despite being the son-in-law 

of the Assyrian king, Ambaris did not hesitate to collaborate with the 

Phrygian King Midas and the Urartian King Rusa against Assyria in 713 

BC, upon which incident the Assyrians overthrew the king as soon as they 

dispersed this union and administered the land of Tabal via a governor 

they dispatched. Though the Kingdom of Tabal attained its independence 

during the Assyrian King Sanharip (705-681 BC), it was overcome with 

the Cimmerian and Scythian raids, which arrived in Anatolia during 

Asarhaddon, and was destroyed by the Cimmerians. 

On the embossment of ‹vriz created in 730 BC, which is the most 

important work of art of Late Hittite art, Varpalavas the King of Tuvana is 

shown as praying before Tarkhu the god of sky of the Hittites. Here the fact 

that the god of sky holds in his hand a spica and grapes symbolizes 

abundance. On the work measuring 4.30 m., the belt of both the god and 

the king seem to have been a Phrygian product, and the geometricallypatterned 

cloth of the king seems to have been of the kind worn by 

Phrygian nobles. The rock embossment here is similar to Hittite rock 

embossments, but Arami influence is seen on this embossment.


Also, on the stele known as the Bor Stele, which is exhibited today in the 

‹stanbul Museum of Ancient Oriental Antiquities, Phrygian influence is 

seen on the attire of King Varpalavas. It is assumed that the head of the 

sculpture found in Kemerhisar, which is now exhibited in Ere¤li Museum, 

belongs to the same king. While the influence of Hittite culture continued 

in the land of Tabal in Southern Cappadocia, the effects of the culture of 

Phrygia-which had then become a state-emerged. In addition, Arami 

influence is also seen in the Late Hittite artifacts. The stele of Muvaharnas 

-the son of Varpalavas who was known as Mugallu among the Assyriansfound 

in Ni¤de, belonging to around 700 BC, is one of the latest Hittite 

monuments. Another stele of this king was found in ‹vriz. Another stele, 

the epitaph of which cannot be read, was also obtained on Kefllik Plateau 

near Bor. Apart from that, Çalapverdi near Bo¤azl›yan and E¤riköy to the 

South of Mount Erciyes are the other places where there are epitaphs. 

Karaburna near Hac›bektafl is, on the other hand, a small castle settlement. 

It has been theorized that the center of the Kingdom of Tabal might have 

been Kullulu which is 68 km. to the north east of Kayseri. In this city which 

is established on a rocky area, hieroglyph epitaphs have been obtained. 

A palace, as well as human, lion and sphinx carvings made of stone have 

also been found here. 

The information about the region is limited, due to the few known 

settlements in the surroundings and these have not been fully researched. 

However, it is understood from the sculptural works that during the 

Hittite and Late Hittite Periods, the Hittite culture existed in the 

settlement of Göllüda¤, which is near the village of Kömürcü of the town 

Gölcük to the north of Ni¤de and is established on a volcanic mountain 

where there is a crater lake at a 2172 m. altitude. The architectural 

structures belonging to 8 th century BC were built on a sloped area by the 

crater lake. In the city found on an area measuring 1700x1000 m., a palace 

measuring 112x228 m. is situated in the middle. Embossments of a lion 

and sphinx have been found on the monumental gate of entry of this 

palace. Another example which indicates that Hittite culture continued in 

the land of Tabal is the 8 line epitaph which the Great King of Tabal 

Vasusarma commissioned to be written in the 8 th century BC Apart from 

the Kingdom of Tabal, there is the Principality of Milidia in the east, in 

Malatya, where four generations from the Hittite Dynasty lived. We learn 

about their art from the works having been commissioned by King 

Sulumeli. Aslantepe, which was the capital of the Kingdom of Milidia, will 

69


70 

Inscribed Gate Lion. Basalt, Height 63 cm. Marafl. Late Hittite, Ca 800 BC 

be discussed in detail in the following chapters. In Çukurova, a Late 

Hittite State, the State of Que, which was described in the Assyrian 

sources as Qunki, is found. In an Assyrian document dated 858 BC, while 

describing the coalition formed in the north of Syria, reference is made to 

Kate the King of Que and Phirim the King of Hilakku. The Kingdom of 

Que was in the Adana region, whereas the Kingdom of Hilakku was in 

the mountainous regions of Çukurova. In 834 BC, the Assyrian King 

Salmanassar III attacked the land of Que and took a portion of the Que 

territories. It is seen that six years after this, the Assyrians dethroned King 

Kate and enthroned his brother Kiri in lieu of him. 

It is understood that, during the period of Tiglathpileser III., Urriki the 

King of Que paid tributes to the Assyrians. The name of this king is 

encountered both on the epitaph of the King Asitivatas found in Karatepe 

and on the epitaph discovered in 1998 in the Adana village of Cine, which 

is exhibited today in the Adana Museum. In the bilingual epitaph found on 

the pedestal of the sculpture of Tarhunza in the cart pulled by two bulls, 

Urriki introduces himself as the King of Danunas, coming from the 

Mopsos lineage. It is understood that the Kingdom of Hilakku, situated in 

the mountainous region of Çukurova, was in the hands of the Assyrians 

during the period of Sargon II. Around 705-681 BC, during the reign of 

Sanharip who ascended to the throne after Sargon II, the people of


Column-base from Zincirli. Neo Hittite-Aramaean style with Assyrian influences. 

Hilakku rebelled together with Tarsus and some other cities. Even though 

the Assyrians suppressed this rebellion, the fact that they set on new 

expeditions to this region later on indicates that this rebellion was not fully 

suppressed. However, during the period of Asurbanipal (669-631 BC) King 

Sandasarme of Hilakku was forced to accept the rule of the Assyrians. 

Another principality contained in the Assyrian documents is the 

Principality of Kummuh which is situated between Ad›yaman and 

Carchemish. Despite the lack of detailed information on this principality, 

on the epitaphs in Kummuh, the names of Shuppiluliuma and his son 

Hatuflili are read. Shuppiluliuma cited corresponds to Ushpilulume cited in 

the Assyrian sources of between 805 and 773 BC. The information of this 

region is limited to the Assyrian documents. The Assyrian King 

Asurnasirpal II states that it took tribute from the Kummuh King called 

Qatazilu during an expedition it set out to the region. In yet another 

Assyrian document, it is stated that the Assyrian kings collected tribute 

from Kummuh. In the epitaphs belonging to Salmanassar IV dating back to 

779 BC, it is told that the two Late Hittite States Kummuh and Gurgum 

could not solve their border conflicts. Urartian documents tell that the 

Urartians subjugated kings of Kummuh. It is also understood from 

Assyrian documents that, the Kummuh’s King Kushtashpi together with 

Urartian King Sarduri, opposed Assyria in 743 BC. However, given the fact 

71


72 

that this king paid taxes again to the Assyrians later on, suggests that he 

must have been defeated in that expedition. Later on, when Malatya was 

taken by the Assyrians, rather than appointing an Assyrian governor, the 

place was given to the Kummuh’s King Mutallu. However, in 708 BC, using 

treason of this king as an excuse, his land was turned into an Assyrian 

province. 

It is known that around this period, the Principality of Hattina existed 

near Antakya, on the Amik Plane including the cities Tell-Aççana, Tel 

Tainat, Tell-el-Cüdeyde. During the excavations in the tumuli in this 

region, ancient cultures as well as the Late Hittite Period were 

encountered and studies were carried out. Assyrian armies had to pay 

tribute to the Hattina King Labarna in 876 BC during the period of 

Asurnasirpal. Later in 858 BC, Salmanassar III took a portion of the 

territories of Hattina. After that, we see the king of Hattina named 

Qalparunda as paying taxes to the Assyrians. In the later stages, there 

was turmoil in Hattina, Labarna II was dethroned and Sasi, who was 

pro-Assyrian, was brought to power. After that the region came to be 

influenced by the Aramis. However, later, the Assyrians ravaged the 

region and attached it to their territories. A column pedestal with two 

lions at the entry of a temple dating back to 7 th century BC, found in the 

tumulus of Tell-Aççana, is important in that it reflects the characteristics 

of this period. Lion column bases in the Assyrianized Hittite style found 

near this, in Tell-Tainat, and dating back to the 8 th century BC are in 

Antakya Museum. 

Marafl, where the Kingdom of Gurgum was, poses importance in that it 

provides rich sculpture products despite not having been excavated. 

Orthmann has detected four groups of style in the embossments in 

Marafl. These groups are mostly seen in the grave stele. The fact that 

there are epitaphs in most of these has a separate importance. It is seen 

that the epitaphic sculpture of Halparuntias II dating back to 850 BC 

very much resembles Carchemish and Zincirli sculptures. From 

the epitaph on the Marafl lion from the 8 th century BC which is of 

Halparuntias III (whom we know to have been the king around 782 BC), 

we can learn the names of the previous kings of Marafl. Also, from the 

epitaphic sculpture of Panammu II dating back to 730 BC, we can draw 

important insights into the sculpture of the period. Apart from these, 

steles with scenes depicting meals for the dead are striking. It is not 

possible to come across this elsewhere. The embossments of the grave


A high bas 

relief in the form 

of a goddess (Kubaba). 

A bust of a goddess wearing a 

hat. On the reverse side of the hat are 

helixes facing outwards and rosettes 

with row of beads. Holding a pomegranate, 

which is the symbol of plenitude and fertility. Provides information 

concerning the dress of the Hittite women and their decoration. H: 83 cm. 

W: 57 cm. thickness: 35 cm. Hittite. Second half of the 8 th century BC 

Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara


74 

Malatya Statue. The statue, found in Malatya, one of the most important 

of the late Hittite city states, represents king Tarhunza. 

of a husband and wife, found in Marafl and today exhibited in Adana 

Museum, belong to the end of 8 th century BC, and have Hittite and Arami 

characteristics, but erecting grave stones is a custom of Phoenicians 

and Aramis. Furthermore, having a nose ring as an accessory is the 

influence of Phoenicians, whereas the hair and beard is the Aramisized 

variation of the Assyrian influence. The tomb stone belonging to 

a mother and son, which is now in Marafl Museum, and the tombstone 

of Tarhunpiyas, which is now in the Louvre Museum, also belong to 

the Late Hittite Era. On the tomb stone of Tarhunpiyas, a son stands 

on his mother’s knees, while she sits, and there is a bird above the son, 

and further above, the name of her son is written. Carchemish,


Relief of the King Kilamuva, Zincirli. 

832-810 BC Berlin Museum. 

Zincirli and Sakçagözü are important Late Hittite centers found in 

the vicinity of Gaziantep. It is known that the art of the Hittite 

Period continued into the Late Hittite city states, varying in form 

ccording to the regions where they existed and ethnic groups. Four 

main artistic styles have been detected in these city states. We can 

group them into 1. Traditional Late Hittite Style 2. Late Hittite Style 

displaying Assyrian influence 3. Assyrianized Hittite style 4. Aramisized 

and Phoenicianized Hittite Style. Nearly all of the works found in 

Malatya Aslantepe, which best reflects the Traditional Late Hittite 

Style seen between 1050-850 BC, seem to be replicas of the samples 

from Hattusha. 

75


The statute of Tarhunza. 

Located in Karatepe, the statue belongs to the Storm God of the Hittites 

Tarhunza. The epitaph on it written in Phoenician and Luvian language, 

describes King Asativatas’ deeds.


Karatepe 

In the summer of 1945, a team from ‹stanbul University led by Prof. 

Bossert began an expedition on the Hittite roads originating from 

Kayseri and leading to Çukurova after surpassing the Tauruses. 

During this discovery expedition, they found the existence of Aslantafl 

in the east of Kadirli. In February 1946, they ventured on to find 

possible remnants, led by Bossert with the participation of his assistant 

Halet Çambel and the manager of Adana Museum Naci Kum. Under the 

guidance of a teacher named Emin Kuçcu, the team reached the region 

through quite a challenging journey. While they were examining the 

sculpture called Aslantafl, which actually is of a bull, they realized there 

were also various epitaphs in the surroundings. 

After the Hittite Empire had been demolished around 1200 BC, the 

customs and traditions of this empire continued to exist in the city 

states known as the Late Hittite States. This place which was discovered 

was not very far from Late Hittite city states such as Zincirli and 

Karkam›fl found in Gaziantep. This place was also very likely to have 

been a Late Hittite city state. 

In 1946 the excavations started with these considerations in mind and 

were completed by 1951. However, Halet Çambel resumed the 

excavations and restoration activities in 1952. This excavation site, 

which they named Karatepe, was given the name Karatepe-Aslantafl to 

differentiate it from other sites having the name of Karatepe in the 

future. 

The antique city which today has been turned into an open air museum 

is situated 20 km. from Kadirli, and to the west of Seyhan River. In order 

to protect about 100 artefacts, uncovered in the antique city, from 

natural conditions, they were covered with fringes and were exhibited 

this way as an open air museum. With the declaration of this 7715 hectare 

area as a National Park, the security of the relics has been insured. 

Today, the waters of the Aslantafl Dam, lightly touch the foot of the 

castle. In Domuztepe too, which is across the river and which is 

understood to have been an old settlement from the excavations 

conducted, the waters reach the edge of the antique city. 

77


78 

To which person or to which people did this castle, which could 

survive to this day from old times, belong? We learn the answer to this 

very question from the bilingual epitaphs placed in the body of the god 

of storm. These epitaphs, written in both the Phoenician language and 

Hittite hieroglyphs, provide us with unique information as to the 

establishment of this place. 

Asativatas, who introduced himself in the epitaphs as the King of 

Adanava (Adana Plain), reported that he was supported by Urikki the 

King of the Danunians of Antique Adana, that he himself had this 

castle built and named it Azativataya, and that he came from the 

lineage of Mopsos. Thus it is understood that this castle was built by 

Asativatas in 740 BC as a border castle or a summer palace location. 

In 1998, the sculpture whereby the god of storm is depicted on his 

carriage pulled by two bulls, had been obtained in Çineköy-a village of 

Adana. On a bilingual epitaph placed on the basalt pedestal of this 

sculpture, Urikki the Danunian King addresses this time, and also 

reports that he is from the lineage of Mopsos. Thanks to these 

epitaphs, Urikki who was cited in the epitaph of Asativatas proves to 

have existed based on another epitaph. As a result of new research, it 

is claimed that Mopsos who up to the present time is believed to have 

established some cities first in Klaros and then in Cilicia, after the 

legendary Troian War, was not actually the legendary oracle, but that 

he was actually a local king having a similar name. 

The castle which was founded in the 7 th century BC by Asativatas, covers 

an area of about 195x375 m.. The castle was surrounded by ramparts 

which were 4 m. thick and which were supported by 28 

battlements. Today, the outer ramparts of the castle, which face the 

river, are flooded by the waters of the Aslantafl Dam. The 90 m. 

section of the other outer rampart to the west of the castle, which 

connects with the southern gate, another section of it which was also 

supported by battlements, and another section of it facing the 

northern gate still survive. The entry into the castle is through two 

gates which are in the north and south. These gates which are 

supported by towers are able to be reached by ramps. Both doors lead 

to the inner courtyard. Inner walls of this place were adorned with 

orthostates placed on pedestals made of basalt. From here, a perron is 

Embossment of a god on a holy bull in Karatepe, 

to the left of the southern gate of entry.



80 

Karatepe Embossments. Depicted on top is King Asativatas eating. 

reached through a monumental wooden gate. Behind this are two side 

rooms, the walls of which are again covered by sculptures and 

orthostates. At both gates are pedestals, sculptures and orthostates 

furnished with Phoenician and Luvian hieroglyphic script. 

These gates lead to the palace which is on the hill near the southern 

gate. The palace is a monumental structure having an inner courtyard. 

Just to the south of this structure, in parallel with the rampart wall, 

another structure consisting of a series of three rooms exists. 

Furthermore, there are also structures around the southern gate 

which function as a depot. The collapsed sculpture of the god of storm, 

on the pedestal with two bulls, in the area before the southern gate, 

was restored and erected again. 

Basalt embossments, which amount to about 100, have a local 

character in terms of style. Depicted on the embossments are subjects 

such as feasts, instrumentalists, sacrifices, hunting scenes, warriors, 

carriers of votive offerings and musicians. The fact that these 

embossments were made by two different groups becomes apparent


Embossments of cavaliers. 

from the characteristics of the work done. The first group worked on 

side-faced, motional scenes, whereas the other group illustrated 

motionless and dead scenes. The subjects on the embossments were 

treated with an entertaining style. The remaining depictions are of the 

palatial life and of religious matters. Apart from these, some historical 

events too were in these depictions. 

On some embossments in Karatepe, the feast scene of the king was 

illustrated. On this, a group bringing food to King Asativatas is seen. 

Beside the hunter embossment, there is a bear. Beside an embossment 

depicting the carriage of a sacrifice, epitaphs in the Hittite hieroglyph 

script and Phoenician language are seen. The eyes of the sphinx 

protecting the gates of Karatepe were made from a type of white 

limestone. The eye pupils of it were pointed out with a darker stone. 

It has been understood that this sphinx dates to around 700 BC and 

was made in the Pheonicianized Late Hittite style. The city Asativatas 

later came under the rule of the Assyrians. Today, this model open air 

museum welcomes its guests with its view of the blue waters of 

Aslantafl Dam. 

81



Urartian Civilization 860-590 BC 

Human kind’s existence in the territories which are known as Van 

Urartians dates back to the Prehistoric Ages. For instance, rock paintings 

in the Triflin Plateau of Çatak extend as late as the Mesolithic Age. Cultural 

relics from the Chalcolithic, Bronze and Iron Age have been encountered 

at the Tumulus of Tilkitepe-which is within the borders of the airport 

today-and at the Ernifl Cemeteries-which are to the north of Lake Van. 

Around the beginning of the third millennium, the surrounding of Lake 

Van was a scene to intensive tribal migrations coming through the 

Caucasus. These tribes known as the Hurrians settled along Lake Van. 

Beginning approximately 2000 BC, the Hurrians possessed a large area 

starting from Lake Van. After 1500 BC, the Hurrians came together with 

the Mitannis and emerged as a large political power in Eastern Anatolia. 

However, later they came under the rule of the Hittite Empire. The 

region seems to have been under the control of the Assyrians after the 

decadence of the Hittites around 1200 BC. Assyrian sources also reveal 

that tribes known as the Nairis lived in this region. 

Salmanasar I, who was the Assyrian King during 1274-1244 BC, reported 

that the confederation named Uruatri was made up of 8 different tribes. 

The Assyrian kings struggled with these tribes until the mid 9 th century 

BC, failing to hold this region under their subjugation due to its 

mountainous nature. Assyrian sources reveal that the king of the 

Urartians was Arumu (860-840 BC) and their capital was Arzashkun. 

Salmanasar I defeated these tribes and demolished their capital. 

In 840 BC, Sarduri I-the son of Lutipri-gathered these tribes under his 

ruling and established the State of Urartu by making Tushpa (Van) the 

capital. On the north western flank of Van Castle, there is the epitaph 

telling of the construction. This epitaph belongs to Sarduri who entitled 

himself as the king of kings. During the reign of Sarduri I (840-830 BC) 

Urartian borders were enlarged and the administrative and military 

structure of the kingdom was shaped. After his death, his son Ishpuini 

(830-810 BC) ascended to the Urartu throne and commissioned defense 

castles to be built, such as Zivistan, Lower Anzaf and Kalecik. Ishpuini 

reigned by sharing his regency with his son Menua. The greatest 

undertaking of Ishpuini was his expeditions to the south. The epitaph of 

Relief of the god Haldi. 

Rusa II 685-645 BC Kef Fortress, Adilcevaz. 

Museum of Anatolian Civilizations. Ankara. 

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84 

Bronze votive plaque from Giyimli (H›rkanis). 7 th century BC 5x7.5 cm. 

Keliflin, which sheds light on the expeditions in Turkey, Iraq and Iran, tells 

that Ishpuini took the city of Mushasir from the Assyrians and erected a 

temple for the chief god. Ishpuini later set on an expedition to the east 

and extended the borders of the state to as far as Lake Urmiye. 

After Ishpuini died in 810 BC, his son Menua continued his regency on his 

own and ruled the State of Urartu for 24 years until 780 BC. Like his 

father, he continued development activities and commissioned the Upper 

Anzaf Castle to be built against the Lower Anzaf Castle-which had been 

commissioned to be built by his father. Furthermore, he continued his 

expeditions into Iran and as far as the foot of A¤r› Mountain (Mount 

Ararat) while the Körzüt Castle at the parting of Van-Muradiye road was


Relief of the God Haldi. 

being built. In addition to these military expeditions, he also commissioned 

the renowned Menua Channels to be built in order to fertilize the 

territories of his land by bringing water that originated from along the 

Hoflap Stream to the Van Plain through a 56 km. channel. 

When Menua died in 780 BC, he was buried beside his father’s grave in 

Van Castle and was succeeded by his son Argishti I (780-760 BC). 

Argishti I commissioned the 15-year summary of his 22-year regency to be 

written in front of his grave in Van Castle. His son Sarduri II who 

succeeded him, reigned between the years of 760-730 BC. We learn about 

the deeds of Sarduri from his epitaphs in the niches in the northern flank 

of Van Castle as well as other places. He called himself ‘the king of the 

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86 

world’. It is possible to derive from these documents that the Urartians 

became very strong during the reign of Sarduri and that they also entered 

Syria. They defeated the Assyrians during the war fought in 753 BC, thus 

opening the Mediterranean trade route and they began to trade with the 

Etruscans in Greece and Italy. This information is accessed through the 

metal Urartian works found in Greece and Italy. 

Having gone down to the Mediterranean, Sarduri II turned towards the 

east afterwards, subjugated 23 castles here and reached the Black Sea. In 

the meantime, Tiglatpileser III ascended to the Assyrian throne, freed 

Assyria from its inner disarrays and headed towards the north. The two 

armies confronted each other in 743 BC enroute from Ad›yaman to 

Gölbafl› and the Assyrians won the battle. As a natural outcome of this, 

the riches of the Lebanon Mountains and Amanos Mountains were now 

left to Assyria. The Assyrians did not settle for that and attacked the heart 

of the Urartians-their capital Tushpa. They were not able to fell the 

castle; however they returned to their country after ravaging it. This shook 

the authority of the Urartians and some of the border tribes split from 

them. The Kingdom of Urartu that first rose during Sarduri II, later started 

to decline. 

Sarduri II died in 730 BC and was buried in his grave in Van Castle. He 

was succeeded by his son Rusa I (730-713 BC). During his reign, the 

Cimmerians-who had migrated from the River Volga to Black Sea 

plateaus-started to descend to the south fleeing from the Scythian raids, 

entering the land of Urartu. Rusa I was defeated by the Cimmerians and 

was also subsequently defeated by the Assyrians, consequently dying in 

his grief in 713 BC. He was succeeded by his son Argishti II (713-685 BC), 

who also had to fight with the nomadic Cimmerians. Even though Argishti 

II was defeated by them, he accepted to work in the Urartian army as a 

mercenary soldier under an agreement they signed. The Urartians 

defeated the Assyrian army in 705 BC, killing the Assyrian King Sargon. 

Thereafter, the Urartians directed the Cimmerians towards the west and 

they proceeded towards Anatolia and defeated the Phrygian army in 696 

BC. It is known that the Phrygian king committed suicide in grief by 

drinking the blood of a bull. After the defeat by the Cimmerians, Argishti 

II reigned for 22 more years, during which he established the Alt›ntepe 

Castle in Erzincan. After he died in 685 BC, his son Rusa II (685-645 BC) 

succeeded him. During this king, the Urartians restored their power. No 

other king commissioned as many castles to be built as Rusa II did. Among 

these castles were Karmir-Blur, Toprakkale, Adilcevaz, Kef Castle and 

Ayanis Castle. During this period which was a peaceful period with the 

Assyrians, Rusa II relocated the capital from Van to Toprakkale-which he 

named Rusahinili-and turned Lake Keflifl into a dam to meet the water


Necklaces made from various stone beads. 

VIII-VII. BC Van Museum.


88 

Ivory Statue of a Sitting Lion. 

needs of the capital. This dam, which was the engineering wonder of that 

period, overcame the water needs of the city. Rusa II died in 645 BC and 

was succeeded by Sarduri III (645-625 BC) and then Erimena (625-605 

BC), and afterwards by Rusa III (605-590 BC) and Sarduri IV. Around this 

time, the Meds who emerged in Iran ended the Assyrian State in 612 BC. 

During the period of Rusa IV, Med-Scythian forces attacked the Urartians 

and ended the State of Urartu in 590 BC. 

Urartian Art and Cities 

The Urartians used cuneiform script. The Urartian Language was 

deciphered by making use of the bilingual epitaphs written in the 

Assyrian and Urartian languages. Their religion was polytheistic and the 

main three gods were the chief god Haldi, the god of sky Teisheba and the 

solar god Sivini. Cauldrons, belt buckles, shields, vow offering plates, and 

harnesses uncovered during the expeditions exhibit the mastery of the 

Urartians in metal workmanship. Castles, temples, palaces, dams and 

irrigation channels as well as open air temples carved in the stones are the 

monumental architecture remaining from the Urartians. They established 

their castles and cities on high rocky areas and used the level grounds for 

agricultural purposes. The temples were made of stone and the interiors 

of them were adorned with rich motifs. Excavations reveal that they 

established a very good system of removing waste and waste water.


A view from the Upper Castle of the ruins of Çavufltepe. 

Rock niches peculiar to the Urartians survived to the present time. Meher 

Kap› Monument, which is 7 km. to the north east of Van and 600 m. to the 

west of the second capital Toprakkale, was built by King Ishpuini and his 

son Menua for the chief god Haldi. Hazinepiri Gate which is 13 km. to the 

south of Van and the Yeflilal›ç Gate dating back to 820-810 BC which is 65 

km. to the east of Van are examples of the open air cult centers. The 

Castle of Toprakkale is on the ridge against Mount Erek, whereas the 

Castle of Kef is situated near Adilcevaz connected to Bitlis. King Rusa II 

commissioned the K›rcagöl dam lake, which is 2 km. to the north east of 

the Castle of Kef, to be built to meet the water needs of this place. 

The Castle of Ayanis by Lake Van which 38 km. from Van, is another 

Urartian castle. This was established in 673 BC by Rusa, the son of king Argishti, 

and therefore was named Rusahili. On the highest most point of 

this castle is the temple. At a distance of 11 km. from the capital Tushpa, 

are the Lower and Upper Anzaf Castles founded by Menua, the son of 

Ishpuini. King Menua increased the fertility of the land by commissioning 

the Upper Anzaf Dam to be built 1 km. to the east of the castle. 

This dam can still function today with the help of some repairs. This 

region is one of the most important religious centers of the Urartians. 

Furthermore, Erzincan’s Alt›ntepe as well as the Castle of Yoncatepe, 

which is 9 km from Van, are examples of other Urartian settlements. 

89



Van Castle 

The principalities along Lake Van which were called the Nairi land in the 

9 th century BC united under a single state. Sarduri I who stood out as the 

king of Urartu in 840 BC left the former capital Arzashkun and relocated 

the capital city to Tushpa (Van). He constructed Van Castle and started to 

rule his state from here. Van Castle rises on the foreland of Mount Erek 

which spans the plain and measures 1500 m. in length, 70-80 m. width and 

100 m. in height. Among the structures of various characters, which 

started to be built during Sarduri I and which were continued by the 

subsequent kings, some still exist today. 

To the south of the upper city of Tushpa is a cliff which is so steep that no 

threat would come from here. On the northern side, strong defense 

systems, built with the help of natural terraces, surround the upper city 

and the inner castle, starting from the base. The upper city was also 

bordered with two steep trenches on the eastern and western side, dug 

into the main rock. The fresh water sources at the bottom of the rocky area 

are accessed through the stairs engraved in the rocks. Among these stairs, 

the most well protected stairs were the ones called ‘Bin Merdivenler (A 

thousand stairs)’. Even though the center of their government was 

relocated to Toprakkale (Rusahinili) in the 7 th century BC during the reign 

of King Rusa II, Tushpa was not abandoned, the temples and palaces 

continued to exist here in all their glory. Furthermore, Urartian kings 

continued to use the title ‘Ruler of Tushpa’. 

At the north western end of Van Castle is the Sardur’s Battlement. This 

battlement is known as Mad›r Burcu, where there are 6 identical epitaphs 

on which Sarduri I told of the establishment of this place. After he 

introduced himself as the “Sarduri, the King of all Kings, son of Lutipri” he 

stated, “I brought these stones from the city of Alniunu and constructed 

this wall.” The limestone blocks weighing 8-10 tons have been 

commissioned by Sarduri to be brought from the stone quarries in Edremit 

which is 17 km. from Van. On the long walls to the east and west, the 

epitaph of Sarduri was repeated 6 times at different levels. On this epitaph 

written in Assyrian cuneiform script, Sarduri, with the title ‘the King of 

the Universe’, declared that he was not afraid of the Assyrians at all, as 

if challenging them, and that they were at the same level. This 

The Urartu Fortress of Van. 

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92 

Urartu inscription in Van Fortress. 

The Urartu, who used the Assyrian script as well as a script of their own, left 

inscriptions in a number of other places besides Van. 

rectangular-planned battlement measuring 13x47 m. continued with adobe 

walls on top of large stones measuring 4 m.; however these parts did not 

survive to the present time. To the east of the Sardur’s Battlement are the 

New Castle and the grave of Argishti I. At the entrance of the grave, which 

is also known as Horhor Cave and which dates back to the 8th century BC, 

annuals of the king are written in the form of columns. On this, Argishti I 

told of his deeds in his first 15 years. The grave chamber which is reached 

via rock stairs climbing down, leads to five grave chambers connected via 

a main hall. In the walls, there are 34 jars called ‘urnes’ for keeping the 

ashes of the corpses as well as niches where the presents for the dead 

were placed. Below this grave is another grave known as the Small Horhor 

Cave, which is found to have been unrelated with the Urartus, but 

belonged to the Akhamenid Period. 

At the western trench, on a large area which spans as far as the grave of 

Argishti I, the new palace is found on gradual platforms. On the ground


floor of the palace, which was commissioned to be built by Argishti I, are 

venues of varying size engraved in the stone. On the lower floor of the 

palace are service and storage rooms. The terrace wall along its northern 

side sets a spectacular example of Urartian architecture. The rampant road 

which was used to ensure the transportation of the upper city runs before 

this architectural structure and reaches to the entrance gate through the 

western trench. The structure, which is on the northern slope and is 

known as the Menua Hall, was built around the beginning of the 8 th 

century BC and led to a natural terrace. This was used for storing the 

animals which were to become sacrifices to be offered to gods. On the 

highest part of the inner castle are the remnants of the oldest Urartu 

temple. The walls of the temple having two cellae were prepared by 

inlaying the main rock. 

Right below the remnants found in this place, which is protected on the 

west side and reached through a crossing away from sight, is the grave of 

Sarduri I. The grave in the large platform section of the inner castle is made 

up of a large hall where religious rituals were held and the grave chambers 

of the king and his family connected with it. The grave of Sarduri I has a 

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94 

Urartu belt. Urartu metalworkers were extremely skilled. 

monumental side facing the southern cliff. To the side where the grave is, 

a high sitting lounge is also found. The rock stairs rising starting from the 

platform lead to the entrance gate. The main hall has an arched ceiling and 

is connected with four grave chambers. In the chambers to the north, large 

niches are found, which are for placing the sarcophagi (made of cooked 

earth) for the royal family members. The construction of the chamber to the 

east of the hall remained unfinished. The grave of Sarduri I was wrongly 

identified as the Menua Grave in older sources. 

Graves of Ishpuini and Menua lead to the large platform and the entrance 

faces the east. The first one of these graves belongs to Ishpuini-son of 

Sarduri-who was on the Urartu throne between 830 and 810 BC. The 

ceiling of the main hall is arched and the hall leads to two grave chambers. 

The second hall belongs to Menua with whom Ishpuini shared his throne. 

The hall seemingly leads to three grave chambers. To the east of the Inner 

Castle, after the eastern trench, the grave chamber of Sarduri II is found. 

The grave has a monumental platform and presents an impressive outlook 

together with the stairs leading down and with its sitting lounge. This grave 

is made up of the main hall and three grave chambers which lead into it. To 

the east of this grave, there are two gradual platforms which are thought to


have been the place for burning corpses. Rock stairs lead to this chamber 

known as crematorium where corpses are cremated. In the grave chamber, 

horizontal niches have been engraved extending along the eastern, western 

and northern walls. Inside of these niches were with 78 rounded pedestal 

cavities for placing the jars known as urnes. This shows us that the Urartus 

had both of the traditions; burying their dead, as well as cremation and 

preservation of the ashes. The Van Castle was also called the upper city. 

The lower city used to be situated in the north; however, it was relocated 

to the south during the Ottoman Period. The architectural structures here 

and the scenery of Lake Van present an unforgettable picture. Van Castle 

was used during the Ottoman Empire, after repeated repairs. The Süleyman 

Mosque, with only its minaret surviving today, stands out as if bearing 

witness. It is known that inside the two niches engraved in stone to the 

north east of the castle-one big, and one small-there are stelai which tell of 

the deeds of the Urartian King Sarduri II. On the platform before the niches 

was the altar where the sacrifices were slaughtered and the channels which 

helped pour the blood of the sacrifice. Known as ‘Anal› K›z’ among the 

public, this place is considered sacred even today. 

Across this are the cupola of Sheikh Abdurrahman Gazi, who was the 

savior of Van during the Safavid siege, and a historical cemetery. 

95



Phrygian Civilization 1200-695 BC 

“And Phorkys and godlike Askanios led the Phrygians from far 

Askania, and these were eager to fight in the battle-throng”. 

This is how Homeros talks about the Phrygians while enumerating the 

subsidiary forces assisting in the Troian War. Given that the Troian War 

took place around 1200 BC, it is apparent that the Phrygians lived in 

Anatolia around this date. However, it is also known that Phrygians 

previously inhabited Europe (where they were named Brygians or 

Brigians), they were one of the Thracian tribes who migrated to 

Anatolia crossing the straits, and their original country was Macedonia. 

The reason why Phrygians came to Anatolia was because their country 

was occupied by other European peoples. 

In the period following the decadence of the Hittite Empire in Anatolia, 

Thracian migrations intensified and they continued for about 400 years. 

These migrants settled along the River Sakarya and surroundings, while 

blending with the Anatolian people here, adopting their customs and 

traditions, thus creating their own Phrygian civilization. Phrygians, who 

considered themselves Anatolian, went to the aid of Troia like other 

Anatolian people. They were first organized in a tribal system and were 

headed by leaders such as Mygdon, Askanios and Otreus. While living 

around Lake ‹znik and in the Sakarya Valley, they later enlarged and 

expanded towards inner Anatolia. Phrygian artifacts in all the Hittite 

cities, found during modern archaeological excavations, prove this. 

Formerly organized as separate principalities, they became a state and 

made Gordion their capital. 

Gordios is the first king of the Phrygians. We do not have much 

information about this king, whom the capital Gordion (near today’s 

Polatl›) was named after, except for the knot he tied and hung, which 

was untied by Alexander the Great with his sword. It is known that after 

him, his son Midas succeeded to the Phrygian throne. Midas, who is 

cited in historical and archaeological sources and who is better known 

for his legendary character, is famous for the story about his long ears. 

Another legend about Midas as told in Ovidius’s ‘Metamorphoses’ reads: 

Midas Phrygian Monument. 

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98 

While the god Dionysos was wandering around the Phrygian mountains, 

Silenos –an aged and drunken satyr among his companions– fell asleep 

under a tree. A shepherd found the satyr and brought him to Midas. 

Midas recognized him and accommodated him in his palace for ten days 

and then took him to the god Dionysos. This made Dionysos very happy 

and he asked Midas what his wish was, saying, “You may wish from me 

anything you want.” He wished, “everything I touch shall become gold.” 

Although he was not very pleased with Midas’s wish, Dionysos made it 

come true. While Midas was on his way, the crops he touched and the 

pebbles he picked transformed into gold. Rejoicing in this, he ordered 

that a great feast be prepared when he returned to the palace, but the 

roasted thigh he grabbed became gold and the wine he wished to drink 

also transformed into gold. Then Midas understood what an imprudent 

wish he had made and went straight to the god Dionysos for 

forgiveness. The deity forgave him and told him to take a bath and to be 

purified at the source of the Paktos Stream (flowing through Sardes). 

Although King Midas has always been rooted in our minds with these 

legendary stories, the fact that his name is cited in the Assyrian 

documents puts forth his historical personality. In their documents, the 

Assyrians referred to Phrygians as Mushki, and to Midas as Mita and 

spoke of him as ‘Mita of Mushki.’ It is assumed that Midas sat on the 

Phrygian throne around 742 BC. Furthermore, it has become clear that 

he was the king of a confederative state in the Central Anatolian 

Plateau; made up of Thracian-origin Phrygians in the western division 

with Gordion as its center and of Mushki and Tabals in the eastern and 

south eastern division. 

Archaeological findings have proved that the Phrygians expanded the 

sphere of their dominion to Çorum, Tokat and K›rflehir in the east of 

K›z›l›rmak; to Samsun in the north; to Ni¤de and Konya in the south; to 

Burdur, Elmal› Plain in the south west; to Eskiflehir, Afyonkarahisar and 

Kütahya in the west, and to Band›rma in the north west. 

On one hand, King Midas had contacts with the Urartians and the 

Assyrians in the east, on the other hand, he established relations with 

Continental Greece in the west. Consequently Midas went down in 

history as the first eastern king who had relations with the Greeks. The 

Aslankaya relief, near Afyon.



100 

Phrygian Aslantafl Rock Monument. 

Greeks learned how to play the flute from the Phrygians and named the 

flutists ‘Phrygians’. Western sources state that Midas sent his throne 

“on which he sat and spread justice and which was spectacularly 

beautiful” to the prophecy center of Delphoi, thus establishing good 

relations with Greece and marrying the princess of Kyme, an Aiolian 

city in Western Anatolia. 

Again, we learn from the Assyrian sources that he had a close 

relationship with Pisiris who was the principal of the Late Hittite city 

Carchemish, with Ambaris who was the principal of Tabal, with Matti of 

Atuna as well as the Urartian King Rusa I. His biggest rival was the 

Assyrian King Sargon II (721-705 BC), a contemporary of his. In the annuals 

Sargon commissioned to be written on the walls of his palace in 

his capital Khorsabad, the name of Midas is cited, where he says, “In 

the fifth year of my regency, Pisiris of Carchemish sent messages to 

Mita of the land of Mushki to the effect that he acts in a hostile manner 

towards Assyria,” and also included there is, “Ambaris of Tabal sent a 

messenger to Rusa of Urartu and Mita of Mushki to propose to take my 

territories”. It becomes clear from these epitaphs too, that Midas was 

closely interested in the east.


View of Gerdekkaya at Midas 

The fact that the name of Midas is cited in the epitaph in the Phrygian 

language found in Tyana in Ni¤de-Kemerhisar is very important in that 

it shows his activities in the Tauruses of Cilicia. Furthermore, the 

existence of eastern-origin containers in Gordion is evidence which best 

explains these relations. 

Towards 700 BC, the Cimmerians, who entered Anatolia through the 

Caucasus and first came to the Urartu region, were directed towards 

the west by the policies diplomatically applied by the Urartian kings. 

Thus, they invaded all the regions within a short period of time as far 

as the K›z›l›rmak River. Entering the Phrygian territories from here, the 

Cimmerians fought a war with the Phrygians and won. Having lost the 

war, Midas fell with grief and committed suicide by drinking the blood 

of a bull. With the death of Midas in 696 BC, the Phrygian State came 

to an end. His people showed their love for King Midas by building a 

large tumulus in Gordion, however the fact that a warring people built 

a massive grave of this size brings doubt to the death of Midas. 

The largest of all the tumuli in Gordion, which number around 85, is 

the tumulus of Midas. This massive grave is the second highest after 

the tumulus of Lydian King Alyattes in Bin Tepeler-which is the 

101


102 

highest tumulus of Anatolia. The tumulus measuring 53 m. in height 

and 300 m. in diameter was opened in 1956 and the tomb chamber was 

obtained intact. The skeleton of Midas was lying on a bench in a wooden 

room. Examination of his bones revealed that he was 1.60 m. height and 

was in his sixties. 

Phrygian artifacts have been obtained in the chamber, including many 

earthen and metal containers as well as a wooden table. 

Phrygian Culture, Art and Architecture 

Even though the Phrygian State collapsed after the death of King Midas, 

Phrygian culture, customs and traditions continued. Almost the entire 

spectacular cult monuments in Mountainous Phrygia belonging to the 

6th century BC confirm this. 

Members of the royal family who could escape the Cimmerians 

continued forming principalities for a period of time in different parts 

of Central Anatolia and gave life to their traditional cultures. The most 

crowded group of these settled in Mountainous Phrygia lying in the 

Upper Sakarya Valley between Eskiflehir, Kütahya and Afyonkarahisar 

and created the Phrygian monuments which we admire today. 

Phrygian principals administered this region until the K›z›l›rmak 

Expedition initiated by the Lydian King Alyattes in 590 BC against 

Meds. They existed in the form of princedoms bound to the Lydian 

State until 546 BC, and came to be ruled by the Persians after the 

Persians defeated the Lydians. This region, which entered the 

Hellenistic Period after Alexander the Great defeated the Persians, was 

a backdrop for the Roman and Byzantine Periods thereafter. 

The Phrygian language was developed from the Phoenician alphabet, 

later influencing the Greek alphabet. Approximately 300 epitaphs 

written in Phrygian have been found in Anatolia. The word ‘Metar’ in 

these epitaphs has been decoded; it was used by the Phrygians to refer 

to their mother goddess, which is none other than Kubaba-the mother 

goddess of Anatolia. During the Phrygian Period, the name of Kubaba 

became Kybele, whereas Aslantafl and Aslankaya monuments portrayed 

the union of lion and Kybele. 

Small pitcher with trefoil mouth.



104 

Omphalos bowl. One of the finest examples of Phrygian metalwork. 

The most spectacular of the many cult centers that the Phrygians 

constructed for their mother goddess are seen at the intersection of the 

provinces of Eskiflehir, Kütahya and Afyon, which is called Mountainous 

Phrygia. Inside the niches of these open air temples is an embossment 

of Kybele. The goddess holding a bowl and a predator bird in her hand, 

was depicted as a mature woman with her high cap, long dress 

tightened with a belt on the waist; her arms bent at the elbow, at the 

level of her chest. The Mother goddess symbolized soil, abundance and 

fertility. The Cult of Kybele continued long after the decadence of the 

Phrygians and influenced antique Greece and Roman religion. This cult 

became the savior god of the Romans in 204 BC to such an extent that, 

to attain victory when stranded against Carthaginian Hannibal, the 

Roman Senate brought Rome the idol of Kybele from Pessinus in 

Anatolia with the accompaniment of Phrygian monks, thus defeating 

the Carthaginians with the increased morale support. 

Within the expansion area of Phrygia, as a result of the archaeological 

excavations in centers such as Gordion especially, as well as Bo¤azköy, 

Alacahöyük, Pazarl›, Aliflar, Kerkenes Mountain, Maflathöyük, 

Keman-Kalehöyük, the city of Midas-Yaz›l›kaya, Dorylaion (fiarköy) and 

Ergili Daskylaion, we are able to obtain more information on Phrygian


Phrygian omphalos bowl, Gordion. Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, Ankara. 

culture every day. Phrygian Civilization is divided into three stages as 

the Early Style (750-730 BC), Transition Style (730-725 BC) and 

Mature Style (725-650 BC). Phrygians became a kingdom from the 

second half of the 9th century BC and created significant works by leaving 

their own mark on their Anatolia-influenced arts. In addition to ceramic 

works, lion sculptures found in Gordion and the sculpture of 

Kybele found in Bo¤azköy stand out as examples of Phrygian sculpture 

art. Besides this, stone workmanship in the open air religious structures 

also gives us very good insight. Frieze plates with human and animal 

motifs obtained during the excavations in Pazarl›, Polatl› and the village 

of Emircik are fascinating. Another branch of Phrygian art is works 

made of cooked earth. Among the mono-colored and painted Phrygian 

earth containers made with a lathe, clover-brimmed containers, plates 

and kraters were the ones created delicately. 

The Phrygians also reached a high level in metal workmanship. Spring 

pins and safety pins-which were the technological inventions of the 

Phrygians-were in high demand in the world of that time. These safety 

pins known as fibula were made of bronze as well as silver and gold. 

Exquisite samples of Phrygian omphalos bowls adorn our museums 

today. It seems as if the shape of these bowls influenced the Ottoman 

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106 

Sieve spouted jug. Phrygian painted ware. Round mouth, spherical body, flat 

base, vertical ribbon handle and trough shaped spout with a strainer at the base. 

bath bowls centuries after. Cauldrons, clover-brimmed flagons, ladles, 

jugs and girdles are a few examples of success the Phrygians had in the 

metal arts. Among these, spool and handle attached bowls are an 

invention entirely of the Phrygians and give an insight into their 

creativity. 

Phrygian artists seem to have used a vast variety of materials in the 

works they created. Among these, architectural coverings from cooked 

earth with diamond motifs as well as human and animal figures are 

compelling. There are many examples of mono-colored metal container 

varieties having black or grey undercoating and glazing. Imaginative 

power and creativity of the craftsmen are apparent in these painted 

containers. Various examples of the paint-embellished type of Phrygian 

containers with fluted nozzles and strainers on the side have been 

found. On the kraters, stylized animal pictures besides geometrical 

patterns exist. Clover-brimmed containers were quite abundant with 

the Phrygians. The wooden table unraveled in Gordion from the grave


Buff ware with slip of the same color decorated with dark brown painted 

geometrical motifs. Found in tumulus W at Gordion. 

of Midas shows the mastery of Phrygian wood art. They created 

connectable furniture, without using nails in their tables, coffee tables 

and stools. They also adorned the surface of the furniture with 

geometric embellishments in the form of carving and inlays. 

Phrygians are also famous for their textiles and rugs. Phrygian rugs, 

which we may call the ancestors of Turkish rugs, were among the most 

favored goods of the ancient world. The fact that Central Anatolian 

sheep had high-quality wool must have had an impact on the 

development of weaving. Even today, the goat’s wool of Ankara which 

is known as ‘moher’, is among the most famous wools of the world. 

The ivory comb found in Gordion indicates another artistic branch of 

the Phrygians. On this ivory comb, which belonged to a noble, there is 

a sphinx in the form of an embossment. Also the sheep and goat 

embossments on the ivory furniture inlay, which was found during the 

excavations on Mount Kerkenes, are remarkably realistic. 

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Gordion 

The capital of the Phyrgian state, Gordion is situated 29 km. from Polatl› 

and 94 km. from Ankara. The Phrygians migrated to Anatolia over the 

Balkans after the collapse of the Hittite Kingdom. They settled in Central 

Anatolia and made Gordion their capital. Arriving in Anatolia in the 

mid-9 th century BC, they became a political entity about two hundred 

years later. There is not much information available about this 

civilization dating back before 750 BC. The legendary Phrygian King 

Midas lived between 725-695 BC, whereas his kingdom ruled over 

Central and Southeastern Anatolia during this period. 

The capital, Gordion was named after Midas’ father Gordios, who 

established the Phrygian State in ca. 750 BC. The Phrygians were 

decimated by the Cimmerian hordes. In fact, it is said that King Midas 

committed suicide in 695 BC by drinking bull’s blood after suffering 

defeat by the Cimmerians. Though the Phyrgian State collapsed in 695 

BC, its art forms remained prevelant until about 300 BC. The Phrygians 

were first subject to the rule of the Lydians and flourished under their 

sovereignity. After the Persian conquest of 546 BC, they achieved power 

in the region between Afyon-Eskiflehir. After crossing into Anatolia, 

Alexander the Great spent the winter in Gordion in 333 BC. It was here 

that he supposedly sliced through King Gordion’s knot with one blow of 

his sword. The Galatians settled in this region after Alexander and named 

it Galatia. Gordion lost its importance during the Roman Period. 

As an abundance of Phrygian artefacts were uncovered at Gordion, we 

feel the need to provide some information concerning Phyrgian art. The 

Phrygians who were very skilled with metals and held great influence on 

the West, produced items such as pulley- handled bronze kettles, bowls, 

pins with gold, silver and bronze hooks, belts to hold up garments, hair 

pins, and richly ornated textile products, as well as furniture decorated 

with geometric designs. In addition, the Phyrgian’s painted ceramic pieces 

were also extremely elegant. It is possible to examine Phrygian art into 

three periods, Early Style (750-730 BC), Transition Style (730-725 BC) 

and the Mature Style (725-650 BC). After these come the Subgeometric 

(650-575 BC) and the Late Phyrgian (575-300 BC). We recognize the Kybele 

statue, which was found in Bo¤azköy as well as the stone 

King Midas’s Tumulus The largest tumulus in Gordion is the one which is 

said to belong to King Midas, and is 53 m. high and 300 m. in diameter. 

Recent carbon 14 studies made it clear that it was established around 740 BC. 

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110 

The view of the city gate of Gordion. 

monuments found in the city of Midas near Eskiflehir and Aslantafl, near 

Afyon, as representative of Phyrgian statue art. Places to see in Gordion 

are the city mound and tumuli. Let’s first check out the mound, then move 

over to the tumuli. Measuring 350x500 m. the flat, wide mound which was 

once where the Phrygians lived, was formerly excavated by Rodney S. 

Young, and is being excavated currently by Prof. Kenneth G. Sams. A 

monumental gate and homes belonging to the royal family have been 

brought to light during the excavations. 

As for the city gate, it was inclined and carved from limestone, whereby a 

section measuring 9 m. high still stands. This portal, which measures 

9x23 m., was erected in the late-8 th century BC. It has two towers 

standing on either side whereas these towers had courtyards which 

opened out to the city and were used as armories. At the entry portal is a 

small house made from various colored stones and dating back to 

750-725 BC. Archaeologists have named it the ‘Polychrome House.’ The 

central section of the mound was divided into a palace edifice which was 

formed of several megarons. There were house-types with two rooms. The 

No.2 megaron, which is situated next to No.1 megaron in the first 

courtyard, was made from dark red, blue and white pebbles and covered 

with a geometric designed mosaic. Reeds covered this house with a 

semerdam roof. It was then covered with a layer of clay. The No.3 megaron 

at Gordion measures 18.30x30.40 m. and is the largest structure of the


Gordion ruins. Seen at the front are such remnants as megarons and temples. 

acropolis. Furniture worthy of a king’s abode was uncovered here and 

excavators believe that the No.4 megaron adjacent to this house to have 

been a temple. Next to these megarons are terrace structures measuring 

more than 100 m. long. Consisting of eight megarons, there structures 

must have belonged to the staff in the service of the royal family. There are 

close to 100 graves piled up on top of each which belonged to the kings, 

nobility and wealthy of Gordion. About 25 of these have been excavated to 

date. The largest tumulus in Gordion is one that measures 53 m. high by 

300 m. in diameter and supposedly belonged to King Midas. 

Next to the 69 m. high tumulus of Alyattes in Sardis, this tumulus was 

the second highest tumulus throughout Anatolia during ancient times. 

Today, the grave chamber is entered via a 140 m. long tunnel. Measuring 

5.15x6.20 m., this chamber is comprised of juniper and cedar logs stacked 

on top of each other. There is an 80 cm. thick wall on the exterior of the 

logs, whereas the grave was covered with stone and sealed with clay, then 

buried in a huge mound of earth. It has been determined that the 

skeletal remains found on the bed of the grave chamber belonged to 

someone who lived to be 60 years old and had a short stature of 1.59 m. 

Amongst the burial gifts which were uncovered in this chamber in 

abundance were nine tables, three large bronze kettles, 166 small bronze 

bowls as well as 154 hooked needles. These are all currently on display at 

the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara. 

111



Lydian Civilization 700-300 BC 

“And the Maionians were commanded of Mesthles and Antiphos, 

Talaimenes two sons, whose mother was the Gygaian mere. 

So these led the Maionians, 

whose birthplace was under Tmolos”. 

This is how Homeros talks about the Maionians while enumerating those 

who came to Troia for assistance. Evidently, Maionians-a branch of the 

Lydians-participated in the Troian War on the side of the Troians. Mount 

Tmolos is today’s Bozda¤ Mountain. Lake Gygaie is today’s Lake 

Marmara. It becomes clear that they were one of the Western Anatolian 

lineages. Furthermore, the cuneiform tablets found in Hattusha tell us 

that this place was known as the land of Assuwa and was under the 

Hittite dominion. 

Incessant migrations right after the Troian War collapsed the Hittite 

Empire. The Phrygian State was established on the territories and cities 

of the Hittites; however, it was soon collapsed by the Cimmerian raids. 

The state of Lydia came to appear on the stage of history with the fall 

of the Phrygians in their sovereign territories. Herodotos reported that 

it had been governed by many dynasties before the dynasty that was on 

the throne during its establishment. 

After Lydos became the king following his father Artys-who was Manes’s 

son-the name Maionia (which previously meant the land of mother 

goddess) was left, and the region came to be cited as Lydia. After this 

dynasty, another dynasty which was known as ‘Sons of Herakles’ and 

which was from the lineage of Alkaeus, came to power. Alkaeus’s son 

Belos, and then Belos’s son Minos, and subsequently Argon became the 

king. Herodotos reported that this dynasty ruled the country handed 

down for 505 years starting from Argon until Candaules, who was the last 

king of this dynasty. Let us now learn from Herodotos about Candaules: 

Golden sea horse with wings. 

Known as hippocamp, the golden sea horse with wings is one of 

the symbols of the Lydian treasure. There are 3 threesome chains hanging 

below it. At their tips are embroidered knobs, which contain precious stones. 

The brooch measuring 3.4x2 cm. was found in the Tumulus of 

Toptepe near Uflak. Uflak Museum. 

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114 

King Candaules was deeply in love with his wife and thought she was 

the most beautiful woman in the world. One day he told this to 

Gyges-who was his favorite among his soldiers. Seeing that Gyges was 

not quite convinced, he said “Ears are not as good as eyes in 

teaching man the truth,” and wanted to let him see his wife naked so 

that he can reaffirm what he said. Even though Gyges sharply protested, 

King Kandaules was determined; he invited him to the palace and let 

him see his wife naked. The queen saw Gyges as he was leaving where 

he had been hiding, and understood that this had been planned by her 

husband. She set her heart on bringing him to account. The queen 

proposed Gyges to have her husband killed so that he can succeed to the 

throne himself, and she forcibly made him accept this plan. Gyges killed 

King Kandaules and married the queen and sat on the Lydian throne. 

Thus the old dynasty ended and the lineage of Mermnads, initiated by 

Gyges, came to the Lydian throne. 

Initially, Gyges attacked the city states such as Miletos and Smyrna, 

acquiring Kolophon and the Plain of Manisa. Meanwhile, he prevented 

the Assyrians from subjugating his country. The raids of the Cimmerians, 

which demolished the Phrygians, were still continuing during this 

period. While fighting them, Gyges died on the battle field in 652 BC. 

The Lydians constructed a magnificent tumulus by Lake Marmara and 

buried him there. His son Ardys succeeded him. He acquired Priene, 

besides launching expeditions against Miletos with no success. The 

Cimmerian attacks still continued. King Ardys failed to prevent these 

attacks, thus the Cimmerians acquired Sardes and pillaged it. All the 

king could do was watch the pillage from the ramparts of the upper 

castle-which was very difficult to subjugate. Ardys subsequently died in 

621 BC, and the throne was succeeded by his son Sadyattes. Sadyattes 

too spent his lifetime to prevent the raids of the Cimmerians and died in 

610 BC without much success. 

With the death of Sadyattes, his son Alyattes succeeded to the throne. 

Alyattes halted the Cimmerian raids-which his father and grandfather 

had shown no success in-by defeating and dispensing them. After this 

success, Alyattes directed his attention to the region. He conquered and 

demolished the ancient city of Smyrna in Bayrakl› after a long siege. 

Even though he wanted to conquer the other Ionian cities, the Lydian 

army was halted by the Klazomenaian forces in today’s Urla. 

Expeditions against Miletos proved to be unsuccessful during his period 

too, thus peace was made with Miletos in 604 BC. Following this peace


agreement, the king commissioned two Athena temples to be erected 

in Miletos. Having thus secured the western borders, Alyattes turned 

his face towards the East. He expanded his borders towards the region 

of Bithynia. He also halted the invasive Cimmerians and expelled them 

to the other side of the River K›z›l›rmak, thus the Lydians became the 

owner of Anatolia as far as K›z›l›rmak. This development made them the 

neighbors of the Meds in Iran and before long, caused the two super 

powers of that age to confront each other. 

The Meds continued to be a large power in Iran around this time. In 612 

BC, They annihilated the Assyrians who had what was considered the 

strongest state until that period. Afterwards, in 590 BC, they joined with 

Scythians and wiped the State of Urartu-which had a great civilizationoff 

the stage of history. Then they set their eyes on the west. 

The Lydians on the other hand, started to be interested in the other side 

of the River K›z›l›rmak. As a result, a war between the Lydians and the 

Meds became inevitable. The wars continued for five years and turned 

out to be inconclusive; won by the Meds at times and the Lydians at 

other times. In the sixth year of the war, on the 28 th of May in 585, while 

the two armies engaged in a battle, suddenly a solar eclipse took place 

and it became dark. Thales of Miletos had been informed of the solar 

eclipse beforehand. However, both sides interpreted this as ‘Gods do 

not want war,’ and made peace. To solidify the peace, the daughter of 

the Lydian King Aryenis was married to the son of the Med King 

Kyaxares Astyages. Thus both sides began to live in peace. 

The Lydian King Alyattes started to stamp the first coins during this 

peace period. The first coins were made from electrum; namely, 55 % 

gold, 45 % silver and a small amount of bronze. Since the Stream of 

Gediz and the Stream of Paktolos running through Sardes were rich in 

gold content, the Lydians collected this gold and became a rich nation. 

These coins began to be used for trading and became widespread, 

bringing in trading via coins instead of via animals. The coins had 

various animal pictures on their front sides. There is a lion figure on the 

coins stamped in Sardes. Besides the coins stamped by the state, rich 

merchants also stamped coins. 

When Alyattes died in 563 BC, his son Kroisos succeeded him. Kroisos 

started by securing the western shores. He launched expeditions firstly 

to Ephesos, and then to the cities of to Ionia and Aiolis, subjugating them 

all and thus the west of Anatolia came under the Lydian dominion 

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116 

Winged solar disc pectoral on a chain. Wings and tail have cloisonne filled 

wholly. Kroisos was a very rich king. Instead of electrum coins, he 

commissioned gold and silver coins to be stamped. Kroisos also 

introduced the system where the state determined the parity between 

gold and silver. His extraordinary wealth affected his neighbors too and 

aroused their admiration for him. Kroisos used his profound wealth well 

and granted aid to the holy places. Among these places were the 

prophecy centers in Miletos and Delphoi. He also provided generous 

assistance in the creation of works of art. Around this time, he assisted 

for the Temple of Artemis which was under construction in Ephesos. 

The epitaphic columns of this temple, which are in the British Museum 

today, were built thanks to his aids. The fact that in today’s Turkish, the


with carnelian, turquoise and a brown metamorphic stone. Uflak Museum. 

expression ‘rich as Karun’ is used to refer to a very wealthy person, is a 

reminder of his wealth. While such a prosperous life was lived in Lydia, 

great developments took place in Iran. Kyros of Persian lineage became 

increasingly strong, giving him the power to rebel against the ruling 

power. He defeated Astyages-the son of Kyaxares-in a battle, and took 

the throne. Thus the Med State was annihilated and the State of 

Persia-more robust and stronger-was established. The Lydian King 

Kroisos took advantage of this mayhem in Iran and decided to launch an 

expedition to Iran both to acquire Cappadocia and to take revenge for 

his brother-in-law Astyages. He passed the River K›z›l›rmak and arrived 

in Cappadocia. The two armies met here. After a day long battle, the 

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118 

night put them apart. Kyros did not attack the next day, whereas Kroisos 

returned to his capital to attack again the next spring with a stronger 

army, and dispensed his mercenaries to be gathered again in the spring. 

In fact Kyros had not returned. He launched an expedition to Lydia in 

April 547 BC. In May, he crossed the Tigris at the south of Erbil, and 

suddenly appeared near Sardes. He had planned that Kroisos would 

dispense his soldiers and quietly came close to Sardes. Near Sardes the 

two armies engaged in a battle. 

Kyros knew that the horses would be scared of the camels and would 

flee; therefore, he put the camels-which carried his army’s load-forward. 

It unfolded as he had planned; the horses were scared of the camels and 

started to run backwards. Thus the Persians attained the advantage in 

the war, and the Lydian army was forced to withdraw regularly to the 

Castle of Sardes. 

The Castle of Sardes was very steep, and was unable to be subjugated 

easily due to its position. The Persians continued to besiege the castle 

for fourteen days, and on the fourteenth day, the Persian soldiers 

acquired the Castle by climbing it on the weaker side. When they were 

about to catch and kill Kroisos, Kroisos's son-who was dumb and 

speechless until that day-found his tongue and screamed ‘Do not kill 

Kroisos!’ The Persian soldiers understood that the person they were 

about the kill was Kroisos and took him as captive. On the other hand, 

the newly found Babylonian documents report that Kroisos was killed 

after being held captive, and a picture on a vase depicts Kroisos as being 

burnt on top of wood. Regardless of whether Kyros killed the Lydian 

king right away or befriended him-as Herodotos tells below-we chose to 

quote these philosophically beautiful words for you: 

When asked by Kyros, “Kroisos, who advised you to attack my 

territories and meet me as an enemy not a friend?” 

Kroisos said “King, this is because of your good and my bad luck. 

The god of the Greeks is to blame, who gave me the arrogance to 

attack you. Because no one is crazy enough to choose war rather 

than peace. During peace, sons lay the fathers into the grave; 

whereas during war, the fathers lay the sons in the grave…” 

These answers appealed to Kyros and he sat beside him and loosened his 

ties. Contemplating in pain, Kroisos caught sight of the Persian soldiers 

pillaging Sardes and he said “King, should I tell you what crosses my


mind given what I see, or should I just keep quiet?” When the Lydian 

king said “What is this crowd doing with heart and soul?”, “They are 

pillaging your city” replied Kyros, “They are pillaging and sharing 

all your possessions.” Kroisos replied with the following iconic words: 

“What they are pillaging is no longer my city or my possessions, 

what they are pillaging are all your belongings”. Agitated by these 

words the Persian king banned the pillage. Kyros was impressed by 

Kroisos’s words and treated him in a manner to suit kings. 

He expressed his appreciation by saying “Now tell me whatever your 

wish is from me.” These events took place only 60 years before the 

time when Herodotos lived. Herodotos told that he wrote in his book 

what had been told to him and what he had heard. 

After Kyros acquired Sardes, the State of Lydia was scratched from the 

stage of history, thus Anatolia came under the dominion of the Persians 

totally. Kyros assigned a Persian called Tabalos to govern Lydia and 

assigned Paktyes of Lydia to carry the treasure of Lydia to Iran, and set 

off for Iran. However, with this amount of wealth, this person was 

carried away by the desire to revive the State of Lydia and started to 

gather some mercenaries along the shores of the Aegean Sea. Then he 

attacked Sardes with the soldiers he had gathered. Kyros found out 

about this on his way, and instead of returning himself, he sent out a 

force from his army. Even before this force-commanded by Mazaresarrived 

in Sardes, Paktyes fled the city and sheltered in Kyme, after 

which he left for Mytilene, and then for Chios. The Chiosians handed 

him over to the Persian Commander Mazares in return for the plain close 

to the city of Atarneus. 

The Persian King Dareios, who came to power after Kyros in 521 BC, 

separated the Empire into 23 large provinces. These were divided into 

127 sub-government areas. The Province of Sardes near the Province of 

Ionia covered a vast area including Mysia. Previously included in this 

province, Mysia later came under another province known as 

Hellespontica Phrygia and Daskyleion-which is beside Lake Manyas-and 

became the capital of this province. 

The Persians owned Anatolia from 546 BC to 344 BC; however, they did 

not influence the culture of Anatolia, they only continued their political 

dominion here. Very few remnants in Anatolia belong to them. The most 

important one of these is the Persian works in Daskyleion. 

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120 

Necklace with chain pendants. Gold and glass. Uflak Museum. 

Lydian Culture, Art and Architecture 

The Lydians, who subjugated all of Western Anatolia from the 7 th 

century onwards, up to the arc of the River K›z›l›rmak, reigned over very 

rich and fertile lands in terms of natural sources. They created many 

goods using clay from clay seams containing large amounts of mica, such 

as potteries as well as tiles. They used the marble seams in the Tmolos 

Mountains (Bozda¤lar) to create engravings and sarcophagi. 

What gave the Kingdom of Lydia an important political position in those 

years was that gold was found in the sediments of the Paktalos Stream 

(Sart Çay›). Ancient authors such as Strabon and Plinius believed that all 

of Lydia’s gold was obtained from this stream. Pieces of gold found during 

the geological research conducted today confirm the ancient authors. 

The Mermnad Dynasty turned the capital Sardes into a city admired by all 

of the antique world and the Lydians created successful works during this 

period. For example, the School of Sardes-which is known for its distinct 

characteristics-was among the biggest sculpture schools of Eastern 

Greece. Sculptors and architects coming from Ionia and art ambassadors 

coming from the east were gathered in Sardes and a cosmopolitan 

environment was created. Thus the Greek effect seen in the Lydian fine 

arts combined with the Lydian region and created a new form. Power and


Golden necklace, which was found at the Tumulus of Toptepe. 

grace became characteristics of Lydia and this school experienced its 

brightest period during Kroisos. The embossments in the Temple of 

Kybele in Sardes give us an insight into this art. In the small arts of the 

Lydians, ivory carving and gold craftsmanship took a great precedence. 

The gifts left at grave sites are important in that they enlighten us about 

jewelry and works of gold. These were small embellished plates, rosettes, 

buttons and golden cords adorning the clothing of the dead. Golden plates 

were created in the impression technique and were embellished. 

The fifty golden earrings found in Sardes indicate that the women of 

Sardes were fond of their beauty. Furthermore, the Karun Treasures, 

which were found in Uflak and smuggled to America, were returned 

afterwards to the Uflak museum. They constitute a very beautiful 

collection which displays the high quality of works of gold in Lydian art. 

Golden collars, earrings and bracelets as well as necklaces made of beads 

enriched with gold, are important pieces of this section. 

Besides golden items, some silver pieces contained in this treasure such 

as cups, vases, and stones are examples of the high success of the 

Lydians in this art. Colored wall pictures obtained during the excavations 

together with multi-colored terra-cotta panels decorating the exterior of 

the buildings have revealed another distinct art of the Lydians. 

121



Sardis 

The site of the ancient Lydian capital of Sardis is located near the present 

day village of Sart in the province of Manisa. The ruins are located on 

either side of the Ankara-‹zmir highway, 72 km. from ‹zmir. Excavations 

here have shown that settlement of the sit goes back as far as 1300 BC. 

Owing to its strategic position in the Hermos (now called the Gediz) river 

valley, the city became the capital and chief city of the kingdom of the 1 st 

millennium BC. While the earliest Lydian dynasties are legendary, under 

the Mermnadae (685-546 BC) the kingdom became both powerful and cultured 

and encompassed all of western Anatolia as far as the Halys river 

(K›z›l›rmak). Sardis is where the earliest examples of minted coins (from 

the late 7 th century BC) have been found and the invention of statecontrolled 

coinage is generally attributed to the Lydians. 

The first historical Lydian king of whom we do not know anything for 

certain is Gyges, Herodotos tells us that this king ruled from 680-652 BC 

and that he was originally a Carian condottiere who later assumed the 

Lydian throne. Gyges was suceeded by Ardys (651-625 BC) and he in 

turn by Sadyattes (625-610 BC) and Alyattes (609-560 BC). In 560 BC 

King Kroisos (Kroisos) ascended to the Lydian throne and it was he 

who donated part of his kingdom's legendary wealth to help in the 

construction of the great Temple of Artemis in Ephesos. Kroisos's 

brilliant reign was interrupted however by invading Persian armies. In 

546 BC he fought the Persians led by Kyros (Kyros the Great) and in 

defeat withdrew to his capital. Sardis was besieged and before long fell to 

the Persians who set about pillaging the city and putting it to the torch. 

Taken captive and brought before Kyros, the Persian king was impressed 

by Kroisos's wisdom and uprighteousness. In the course of the interview, 

Kroisos asked Kyros what his men outside were so intentent upon doing. 

As Herodotos relates, Kyros replied: 

‘They are plundering your city and carrying off your treasures’. Not my 

city or my treasures', Kroisos answered. ‘Nothing there any longer 

View of the restored gymnasion at Sardis. 

Dating to the 3 rd century AD, this structure bears an inscription over 

the architrave referring by name to Geta, Caracalla and 

her mother Julia Domna. 

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124 

The synagogue at Sardis. 3 rd century AD. Forecourt of the synagogue at Sardis 

belongs to me. It is you they are robbing.’ This evidently gave Kyros pause 

for thought and he immediately ordered the fires be put out and the 

looting halted. With the overthrow of the Lydian kingdom. Sardis fell into 

Persian hands and the fabulous Lydian treasury was carted off to Persia. 

nevertheless, the strategic location of Sardis ensured that it would 

remain important even as the capital of a Persian satrapy. The Persians' 

famous ‘Royal Road’ connecting western Asia Minor to Kyros's capital in 

Susa terminated in Sardis and this fact further enhanced the city's status. 

In 344 BC Alexander the Great took Sardis from the Persians and after his 

death the city was ruled by the Seleucids. Antiochos the Great captured 

in the city in 213 BC after a two-year siege. In 180 BC it became part of the 

kingdom of Pergamon and in 133 BC it came under Roman control. It was 

during Roman times that the city enjoyed its greatest prosperity and many


looking from the main entrance towards the west. 

of the ruins we see today are from this period. Sardis was the site of one 

of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. Sardis continued to be important 

during Byzantine times and was an episcopal center. The Sardian church 

located behind the Artemis temple was built during the 5 th century AD. In 

615 Sardis was destroyed by the Sassanids. The city suffered from attacks 

by the Seljuk Turks who took possession of it in the early 14 th century. The 

city surrendered to the Ottomans around 1390 and was destroyed again 

twelwe years later when Tamerlane passed though. Excavations conducted 

by Americans at Sardis in 1910-14 unearthed the Temple of 

Artemis and more than a thousand Lydian tombs. The works that they 

brought to light are now in the New York Metropolitan Museum. 

Excavations by an American team under the direction of Nicolas Cahill are 

still in progress at Sardis and there are four principle areas now that may 

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126 

be visited: the Sardian acropolis, the ancient city located around it and 

along the highway, the valley of the Paktolos River (Sart Çay›), and the 

tombs at Bintepe. We will start our tour with the ruins by the highway. 

Immediately by the highway are the imposing ruins of a gymnasion and 

baths to which a synagogue was added at a later time. The complex is 

entered through a door located in the center of the eastern section. This 

door leads into a colonnade-encircled open courtyard. This courtyard 

connects to the synagogue located on the north and served as the 

gymnasion's palaestra. On the northern side of the courtyard are rooms 

used for instruction and training. From inscriptions that have been turned 

up in excavations, we know that the decorative eastern facade of the 

gymnasion was built during the reign of the emperors Caracalla and Geta 

(around the beginning of the 3 rd century AD) Taking advantage of the fragments 

found here, the gymnasion's facade has been successfully restored. 

The baths were entered through doors opening into the courtyard. 

Originally built in 161 AD during the reign of Lucius Verus, they 

underwent major repairs in 211. The synagogue and eastern section of the 

baths were restored between 1964 and 1973. The main street of the city 

streched along the southern sides of the synagogue and gymnasion. Paved 

with huge marble blocks, there were shops located on either side of this 

street. On the southern side of this marble street there where colonnades 

that where built in the 4 th century AD but they now lie beneath the 

asphalt road. The shops on the northern side of the street and those along 

the southern side of the synagogue and gymnasion are from the 

Byzantine Period. 

On the other side of the highway opposite the gymnasion is a huge 

structure called the ‘Bronze House of the Infidels’. Excavations that have 

been conducted here have turned up numerous bronze works of a 

religious nature. This building dates to around AD 550 and may have been 

a bishop's palace. South west of the bronze house are the remains of the 

Lydian agora which numerous ceramics dating from the 8 th to the 4 th 

century BC have been found. Along the southern foot of the acropolis one 

sees the remains of Byzantine Period walls. Proceeding along the highway 

in the direction of Salihli, we come to a large Roman Period structure with 

a courtyard located on the northern side of the road. Here one may see the 

ruins of a Byzantine church and of a Roman bath with wall paintings. The 

terrain on the southern side of the road rises towards the acropolis. 

Immediately by the road is a building that was used for municipal business


during the Roman Period. Passing by this and walking towards the 

acropolis a bit we come to the stadion. This Roman Period structure is 

supported by vaulting. At the eastern end of the stadion is a Roman theater. 

The original structure was built in 215 BC but was destroyed in an 

earthquake in AD 17. It could accommodate an audience of 20,000. 

The other ruins of ancient Sardis are on the road that runs along the 

Paktolos River and leads to the Temple of Artemis. On the western bank of 

the river to one's left rises the steep pinnacle of Paktolos. Atop it are the 

foundations of a Roman or Byzantine house from the 4 th or 5 th century AD 

In an excavated depression near the river one sees examples of 7 th and 6 th 

century BC ‘Lydian walls’. After passing the houses of the village, we come 

to a pyramid-shaped tomb halfway along the road rising towards the 

valley's south. This stepped structure is 300 m. high and is the 

monumental tomb of a Susan nobleman by the name of Abradates and his 

wife Pantheia. King Kyros had this monumental tomb of a Susan 

nobleman by the name of Abradates and his wife who committed suicide 

upon hearing of her husband's death. The road takes us as far as the 

Artemis temple. Let us now examine this magnificent structure. 

Excavations have demonstrated that the practice of the Artemis cult at this 

site goes back at least as far as the 5 th century BC. The red sandstone altar 

standing before temple and only partially excavated measures 21 by 11 m. 

and is from the Lydian Period. The Anatolian fertility goddess Kybele, with 

whom Artemis was identified, was also worshipped here. 

The Artemis temple went through three stages of development. The 

original temple was constructed in the 4 th century BC. This first building 

faced west and was in the Ionic order. It measured 23.00 by 67.52 m. in 

size. It consisted of a pronaos (an outer portico), a cella (an enclosure in 

which the statue of the goddess was housed), and an opisthodome (back 

chamber). The temple had a double row of columns. This temple was 

destroyed and fell to ruin; however, work resumed to build a second one on 

the same site between 175-150 BC. Thirteen of the bases of the columns on 

the east were erected during this period after which construction came to 

a halt. Had it continued, there would have been twenty columns on the temple's 

long sides and eight on the short. Only six columns were added to the 

opisthodome. Work did not begin again until 150 AD when the work of 

building was taken up for a third time and the temple was finally completed 

in the pseudodipteros plan laid down three centuries earlier with 8 by 20 

columns and measuring 45 by 97.94 m.. In Roman times, the cella was 

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128 

View of the restored gymnasion at Sardis. 

divided in two with the western half being dedicated to Artemis and the 

eastern to Zeus. During a later period, the temple was also employed in the 

worship of the emperor Antoninus Pius and his wife Faustina. The temple 

was used until the 5th century AD after which it appears to have been 

abandoned. During the Christian era, workship took place in a small church 

that was added to the southeastern corner of the temple. 

While examples of ceramics from the 7th century BC have been discovered 

on the acropolis above the Artemis temple, all the structures that have been 

unearthed here are from the Byzantine Period.


There are a number of secret tunnels along the road leading to the 

acropolis. The marble tower north of the acropolis was built by Antiochos 

III (223-187 BC). There are numerous Sardian funeral tumuli located north 

west of Salihli on the shores of Lake Marmara at the place called 

Bintepeler. Some of the largest burial mounds in Asia Minor are to be 

found here. Ninety have been identified (the Turkish name, which means 

'thousands of hills’, is a bit of an overstatement) and they belonged to the 

royal, noble, and merely wealthy inhabitants of Sardis. The largest mound 

is that of King Alyattes and measures 69 m. high and 335 m. in diameter. 

This mound may be reached by a two-hour trip over a dirt road. 

129



Ephesos 

Remains from Seljuk times are spread out over a wide part of the 

provincial district of Selçuk in the province of ‹zmir. It has been shown 

that this region was originally inhabited by the Carians and Lelegians. It 

was later settled by Ionian colonists, who came here under the 

leadership of Androclos, the son of Kodros, a king who ruled Attica. In 

the 10 th century BC they founded the city of Ephesos. In the 7 th century 

BC. Ephesos was invaded by the Cimmerians, who came from the Black 

Sea region, and in 560 BC it was occupied by Kroisos, King of Lydia. 

Kroisos relocated the city from the harbor of Koressos 1.200 m. away to 

the site of what was later to become the Temple of Artemis. 

The Persians invaded the city in 546 BC, whereby it was subsequently 

conquered by Lysimachus and his generals. Lysimachus brought the 

people living in Kolophon and Lebedos to the area around the 

Artemision, located between the two mountains, Pion and Koressos, 

known today as Panay›r and Bülbül, thus increasing the size of the city, 

which he also had encircled by a fortifying wall. During Hellenistic times, 

Ephesos was ruled by the Seleucids. 

After 190 BC it became part of the Kingdom of Pergamon, and together 

with that kingdom became a Roman dependency in 133 BC the city 

experienced its brightest period of development, from the beginning of 

the reign of Emperor Augustus whereas Ephesos became the capital of 

the Roman province of Asia Minor and thus where the Roman proconsul 

resided. That Ephesos was also of great importance during Christian 

times is attested to by the facts that St. Paul visited the city after 50 AD 

and that St. John was buried at Ayasuluk around the beginning of the 2 nd 

century. 

The city experienced its third bright period during the reign of the 

Emperor Justinianus in the mid-6 th century. It was during this time that 

the citadel at Ayasuluk and the church of St. John (located inside it) 

were built. Ephesos was destroyed during the Arab invasions of the 7 th - 

8 th centuries. The continued silting of the harbor caused a steady decline 

of the city’s commercial importance. With the arrival of the Seljuk Turks 

in the 14 th century there was a revival of activity in the vicinity of the 

Statue of Artemis. 

2 nd century AD. 

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Artemision and in the area of district that now bears their name Selçuk. 

According to Christian tradition, St. John lived on Ayasuluk Hill, and it 

is here that he died. A wooden-roofed church was built in his memory in 

the 4th century. During the reign of Justinianus (527-565), a domed 

basilica was constructed, the remains of which can still be seen. In the 

Artemision at Ephesos is the Temple of Artemis, which was once one of 

the seven wonders of the ancient world. The Artemision went through 

four stages of development, the first of which was as the sacred precinct 

of Cybele, the Anatolian goddess of fertility, worshipped by the Ionians 

when they first came to Asia Minor. The Ionians identified Cybele with 

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Plan of Ephesos 

1.Ancient harbor 5.Arcadiane street 6.Walls 9-10.Harbor gymnasion and 

baths 13.Church of the Virgin Mary 18.Byzantine building 19.Vedius 

gymnasion 21.Stadion 22.Remains of Byzantine bath 24.Theater gymnasion 

26.Theater 27.Fountain 29.Marble road 30.Commercial agora 33.Temple of 

Seramis 35.Celsus Library 36.Ruins of and octagonal tomb 39.House of love 

40.Scholastikia baths 41.Temple of Hadrianus 44.Monumental tomb 

45-46.Houses on the slopes 48.Curetes street 49.Fountain of Traian 

50.Monumental tomb 51.Herakles gate 52.Memmius Monument 53.Temple of 

Domitian 56.State Agora 58.Temple of Isis 59.Monumental fountain 

60.Fountain 61.Prytaneion 62.Temple 63.Odeion 64.Basilica 65.Varius 

baths 66.Monumental fountain 68.Lucas’s tomb 69.East gymnasion 

70.Magnesia gate 

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The Celsus Library. 

their own goddess of nature, Artemis. In the 7 th century BC they built an 

altar to this newly-combined goddess. This original altar was destroyed 

during the Cimmerian invasions and it was later rebuilt on a larger scale 

with a stepped base. By the 6 th century, the altar and surrounding 

precinct had assumed a square shape. Excavations conducted here have 

turned up precious articles of gold, silver, electrum, and ivory. Around 

the mid-6 th century BC, King Kroisos of Lydia decided to build a new 

temple to the goddess following his capture of Ephesos. Measuring 

55.10x11.14 m. in size, this marble temple was surrounded by a double 

row of columns measuring 18 m. in height. Work on this archaic temple 

began between 550-560 BC by Chersiphron, his son Metagenes, and 

Theodoros from Samos. It was the biggest temple in the Hellenic world. 

It was enclosed by 127 columns, 36 of which were sculpted. On one of 

these sculpted columns, now in the British Museum, there is an 

inscripton that is still legible, indicating that it was the gift of Kroisos, 

King of Lydia. The building of the temple took a 120 years to construct 

and its magnificence earned it great renown as a monument to art as 

well as to religion. Unfortunately, the temple was destroyed in a fire 

started by a madman. Work on building a new temple began almost 

133


134 

immediately, in 334-250 BC, and lasted 84 years. It was still under 

construction when Alexander the Great arrived in Ephesos, and it was 

due largely to his help that the new temple to Artemis was completed by 

the mid-3 rd century BC. The new structure was 2.68 m. higher than the 

previous one, and sat on a podium of 13 steps. In terms of style, it 

resembled its archaic predecessor. Scopas and Apelles, two of the most 

renowned artists of the day, worked on its sculptures. 

The temple was razed by the Goths in 265 AD, and Christian zealotry 

eventually finished it off completely. Today just one of its forest of 

columns remains standing. Our present knowledge of what the 

Artemision must have looked like is based on fragments unearthed in 

excavations. Excavation work conducted out in 1965 for example, a 

horseshoe-shaped altar measuring 32 m. by 22 m. was unearthed. 

Upon entering the Magnesian Gate in the walls built by Lysimachus in 

the 3 rd century BC, one first encounters the gymnasion of Ephesos. This 

was a complete structure containing a bath, a palaestra, an extensive 

courtyard, and training halls. It was built by the philosopher Flavius 

Damianus, one of the most famous personalities of Ephesos. To the right 

of it is a monumental tomb from the 1 st century AD, which, owing to the 

crosses in the walls, was mistakenly called ‘Luke’s Tomb.’ Just beyond 

this are the ruins of two fountains. Walking further on, one reaches the 

site of the State Agora. 

This agora appears to have been here at least as early as the 2 nd century 

BC. In the center was the Temple of the Egyptian Goddess Isis, built in 

the 1 st century BC. The foundations of the temple can still be seen. The 

agora was enclosed on the north and south by two porticos. Adjacent to 

the agora’s northern portico is a long basilica with three naves, each one 

of which is a corridor measuring 160 m. in length. To the north west of 

this basilica is an odeion running east-to-west. This odeion had a seating 

capacity of 11.400 and was built in 150 AD by Publius Vedius Antoninus. 

The ruins to the right of the odeion are the Baths of Varius, from the 2 nd 

century AD. Situated to the west of the odeion are two small temples, 

built between 14-37 AD in the name of Divius Julius Caesar and the 

Goddess Dea. West of these is the prytaneion, the place where the 

Ephesians conducted their government business. This building is in 

Grecian style, and is where the sacred flame was kept. It was 

constructed during the reign of Augustus. Two of the statues of Artemis, 

now on display at the Ephesos Museum, were found here. On the north 

The Hadrian Temple.



136 

western corner of the State Agora is a fountain built by Gaius Laecanius 

Bassus in 80 AD. Many of the statues that once adorned the side of this 

fountain facing the street are now in museums. This fountain is 

connected to another, located on the southern side of the agora, 

opposite the odeion. Also in the north western corner is a monumental 

fountain built in 93 AD during the reign of Domitian, and dedicated to 

Gaius Sextilius Pollio. The wide arch on the south western side of the 

State Agora was built for Emperor Domitian and opens into the area 

where his temple was located. The temple was destroyed during the 

Christian-era. Surrounding the Temple of Domitian are the ruins of 

numerous chambers that once formed the temple’s temenos (sacred 

precinct). All that is left of the monument are some foundation remains. 

The building once had many niches in its four sides and was built in the 

1 st century BC. 

At the northern end of the street on the west side is the Monument of 

Gaius Memmius, resembling a four-sided monumental arch. The long 

street beginning at the Monument of Memmius and sloping down to the 

Library of Celsus is Curetes Street. After passing through the Herakles 

Gate, built some time before the 6 th century AD, on the right is the 

Fountain of Traianus, a two-storied structure which, according to its 

inscription, was built between 102 and 114 AD in honor of Emperor 

Traianus. There was once a statue of the emperor located in a central 

niche of the fountain. Another interesting building on Curetes Street is 

the Temple of Hadrian. The Corinthian temple consists of a cella, where 

the statue of the emperor stood, and a portico. Along the sides there are 

two columns, whereas these support a round arch, in the center of which 

is a relief of Tyche. According to the inscription on the temple’s 

architrave, it was built by one P. Quintilius and dedicated to Hadrian, 

who reigned between 117-138 AD. 

The temple was in a state of ruin in the 4 th century when it underwent 

restoration, during the course of which four reliefs were added to the 

interior wall of the portico as decorations. The originals of these reliefs 

are now in museums whereas the ones seen on the site are only plaster 

copies. Originally, the reliefs themselves were taken from other 

buildings in Ephesos and installed here. Behind the Temple of Hadrian 

are the Scholastica Baths. Opposite the Temple of Hadrian, on the slopes 

of Mt. Bülbül, are houses that once belonged to rich Ephesians. They 

were built here in order to take advantage of the cool sea breezes that 

counteracted the oppressive summer heat that stifled the city below. 

These private houses sometimes had three or four floors. Excavations


conducted here in recent years have turned up a startling assortment of 

mosaics, frescoes, statues, and other artefacts. Walking further along 

Curetes Street, one comes to a temple, a funeral monument that was 

built between 40-20 BC. Alongside this monument is a two-storied 

structure built of half-columns that served as a gate house. At the place 

where Curetes Street and Marble Road join is the building known as the 

brothel, a complex of structures that was originally built in the 1 st 

century AD, and later restored in the 4 th century. Mosaics have been 

found in some of its chambers. 

The street extending from the corner of the brothel as far as the theater 

is known as Marble Road. Originally built in the 1 st century AD, it was 

reconstructed in the 5 th century using the money donated by a man 

called Eutropios, and it was then that the exterior was covered with 

marble. Immediately opposite side of the Curetes Street turning to 

Marble Road are traces of the foundations of a round funeral structure 

dedicated to a heroic figure. The building was constructed during the 

Hellenistic Period. At the foot of Mt. Panay›r is another heroon, built in 

50 BC. Situated at the head of Marble Road, the structure of the Celsus 

Library has recently been restored. The building was originally 

constructed between 117-125 AD by Gaius Julius Aquilia, proconsul in 

110, in the name of his father, Gaius Celsus Polamaeanus. The twostorey 

library was surrounded by decorative columns, with statues 

positioned between each of these columns. The interior measures 

10.92x16.72 m. and contains rectangular niches into which papyrus 

scrolls were stored. In the center is a large, arched niche that reached to 

the upper floor. This niche probably housed a statue of Athena, the 

patron goddess of wisdom and learning. The library was reached by a 

broad staircase of nine steps measuring 21 m. wide. The reading room 

was destroyed in a fire, though the facade remained intact. A 

sarcophagus containing the body of Celsus is located in a large, central 

niche on the lower floor. 

North of the Library of Celsus is the square-shaped commercial agora, 

three sides of which were enclosed by porticoes containing shops. 

Resting against the slope of Mt. Panay›r is the great Ephesos 

Amphitheater, which could seat an audience of 24,000. The work of 

building the theater appears to have begun in the Hellenistic Period and 

continued in stages, reaching its culmination during the reign of the 

Emperor Claudius (98-117 AD). The lower two stories of the skene were 

built during the reign of Nero, and the third was probably added around 

the mid-2 nd century. 

137


Temple of Athena, Priene. Constructed by the architect of the Maussolleion 

at Halicarnassos, Pytheos in the 4 th century BC, this temple has 6x11 

column's in the Ionic order. The ornamentation of the western 

facade indicates that this section was built in the 2 nd century 

BC. There are traces of an altar before the temple which 

also dates from the 2 nd century. During the Roman Period, 

the temple was dedicated to Athena and Augustus, 

andapropylea was added to the eastern end 

during that period. Stylobate in plan, it 

measures 37.20x19.55 m., and acted 

as a classical model for structures 

in the Ionic order.


Priene 

A beautiful site with magnificent ruins, Priene is located in the modern 

village of Güllübahçe in the county of Söke. Once a city with two ports 

whose harbors have since filled in, Priene was founded on its present site 

in 350 BC on four retaining-wall terraces. Priene was built on the 

Hippodamos system of a retangular grid of streets. There seven streets 

running east and west, the one before the Sacred Stoa being 5 m. wide wile 

the others have widths of 4.4 m.. These streets are intersected at right 

angles by fifteen side-streets rising in steep steps. Priene is one of the 

most beatiful cities (it is certainly one of the best-planned) of the 

Hellenistic Period. It was visited by Alexander the Great and from 

inscriptions we learn that he was instrumental in bringing to completion 

the much drawn out construction of the local temple to Athena. After 

Alexander's death, Priene appears to have been with that kingdom to 

Roman hegemony. As the Meander River filled the gulf, Priene lost is 

importance and in the Byzantine times it was only as the center of a 

diocese that it was able to maintain its importance. By the 12 th century it 

was abandoned entirely. The first excavations here were begun in 1895 by 

Carl Humann and then continued by Theodora Wiggand. One enters 

Priene through one of the gates in its surrounding city wall measuring 2.5 

km. in length. The main gate is on the north west and is accessed by a 

ramped road. North of it are three cisterns that provided the city's water. 

Proceeding down the road a way one comes upon a temple (a temenos or 

sacred precinct really) dedicated to the Egyptian gods of Isis Serapis, and 

Anubis were performed. 

The city's theater is located on another ramped street called, 

appropriately, ‘Theater Street’. The orchestra of its analemma walls makes 

it one of the most beautiful theater structures remaining from the 

Hellenistic Period. The skene underwent alterations in Roman times 

making it a two-storied structure with three doors and two niches in the 

facade. The twelve columns are from the Hellenistic Period. The theater 

was also used as the place where the public parliament met. It is believed 

that there were once fifty rows of seats and that the auditorium could have 

accomodated 5,000 spectators. Some of the seats were reserved for 

important persons. Inscriptions on them indicate that they were installed 

in the 2 nd century BC as a gift by a man named Nysios. Adjoining the 

theater is a Byzantine church. Opposite the theater south of the church is 

the Upper Gymnasion which was built in the 4 th century BC. During 

Roman times, a bath section was added to the northern wing of the 

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Plan of Priene 

1.Temple of Athena 2.Southern Stoa of Temple of Athena 3.Agora 4.Sacred 

stoa 5.Market and fish agora 6.Temenos of Zeus Olympios 7.Bouleuterion 

8.Prytaneion 9.Theater 10.Sacred precinct of Demeter 11.Archbishop’s 

church 12.Upper gymnasion 13.Temenos of the Egyptian Gods 14.Lower 

gymnasion 15.Stadion 16.North-East gateway 17.East gateway 18. Largest 

house 19. West gateway 20. Temenos of Kybele 21.House of Alexander the 

Great 

gymnasion. Above the gymnasion on the slope of the acropolis is the 

Temple of Demeter and Kore. The temple is located at the western end of 

the sanctuary dedicated to Demeter measuring 40.5 by 17.55 m.. The 

stone bench inside the shrine is where votive offerings were placed. The 

Temple of Athena is located in the most prominent place of Priene. It was 

built by Pytheos, a famous architect of the day. (He also was responsible 

for the Maussolleion at Halicarnassos); The temple is of the Ionic order 

having a 6x11 columned peripteros, some of which have been re-erected. 

A work of the 4 th century BC, it was the eastern part of this temple that 

Alexander had completed. An inscription on a marble block now in the 

British Museum states that ‘King Alexander presented the temple to 

Athena Polias’. The western half of the temple appears to have been 

completed much later in the 2 nd century BC when the cult statue and altar 

were renovated. The stylobate of the temple's altar measured 37.20 by 

19.5 m. but all that remains of it today is the foundation. It was decorated 

with depictions of gods and giants done in high relief, some of which are 

now in the ‹stanbul Archaeological Museum. During the reign of the 

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Priene. Bouleuterion or Council Chamber, about 150 BC. 

Roman emperor Augustus, that emperor was also worshipped here in this 

temple along with Athena. A propylon was added to the eastern side of the 

temple and in the second half of the 2 nd century BC, a stoa was built in the 

course of the work going on at the temple. This stoa consists of a row of 

Doric-order columns and a nave and measures 78.4 m. in length. The back 

of it adjoins the temple while the front looks out over the plain of the 

Menderes River. Below it is a seven meter high terrace wall and a 32column 

stoa that served as a promenade for the inhabitants of Priene. East 

of the stoa below the Temple of Athena is the Sacred Stoa. According to 

an inscription, it was built in 130 BC by King Ararathes VI of Cappadocia. 

The Sacred Stoa was approached by a flight of six steps. Measuring 6.47 

m. in width, this was another promenade. The double-nave structure had 

four Doric columns on the front and was covered over by a roof. At the end 

of the Sacred Stoa was the Prytaneion, the building in which the 

representatives of the municipal (state) council met. It was built in the 2 nd 

century BC. It is also where the eternal sacred flame was kept. Beside it is 

the bouleuterion, which could accommodate 640. In the center was an 

altar and the seats were arranged around the walls. Measuring 20 by 21 m., 

the building was originally covered with a wooden roof. Three sides of the 

structure were enclosed while the front was open. Before the Sacred Stoa 

is an agora whose eastern extremity is terminated by the temenos of the 

Temple of Zeus. Measuring 75.63 by 35.40 m., the agora was enclosed on 

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142 

Priene Theater. Built in the late 4 th century, altered in Hellenistic and 

Roman times. Above, Prohedria (front row seating, benches of honor). 

three sides by stoa in the Doric order. Only the eastern and western 

wings contained shops. The very middle of the stoa has been turned 

into sort of hall divided lengthwise in two by a row of eight columns. In 

the center of the agora was an altar to the god Hermes. In ancient times, 

the agora itself and the area in front of the stoa were decorated with 

statues. Today only their pedestals and foundations remain. The 

pedestals were also used as benches. East of this agora is the temenos 

of Zeus Olympios. The temple in this sacred precinct was built in the 3 rd 

century BC and is a prostyle (temple preceded by a porch with columns 

in front) of the Ionic order measuring 8.50 by 13.50 m.. Today only 

the foundations remain. The temple apparently showed a resemblance 

with the Athena temple and it appears that both Zeus and Hera were 

worshipped here. 

Adjacent to the west of this agora as one proceeds west along the main 

thoroughfare was an agora where meat and fish were sold. Two-storey 

houses line both sides of the street as far as the end. A large one located 

just before one reaches the western gate is known as the House of 

Alexander the Great. From an inscription that has been found we know 

that there was a place in Priene sacred to deified Alexander. In this 

house, the head and bust of a marble statuette of Alexander were


Beginning of the 2 nd century BC Below, theater seen through the western 

parados (side entrance). 

unearthed indicating that he was worshipped here and there was also 

an inscription discovered declaring that only people wearing white 

would be admitted to the sacred precinct. On this basis it is assumed 

that this is the heroon of Alexander referred to in the inscription. One 

block ahead of this house is a temenos that was dedicated to Kybele 

Following the street of steps leading south and down from the south 

western corner of the agora, we reach the Lower Gymnasion near the 

city wall. This consisted of a square sports area surrounded by four stoa 

and training salons to the north. The stadion is adjacent to the eastern 

side of the gymnasion and one part of it measuring 6 m. wide and 190 

m. long served as a promenade. Because of the lay of the land, the 

spectators' seats are located only along one side. The stadion measures 

116 m. long and like many other structures is Priene it was most likely 

built around 130 BC. The Upper Gymnasion already referred to 

probably became too small as Priene grew and so this new facility had 

to be constructed several centuries later. During Roman times, some of 

its rooms were heated with hot air. Today Priene is much farther from 

the see than it was in its heyday. Like the inhabitants of ancient Priene 

let us gaze out over the green plains of the valley of the Menderes below 

the magnificent buildings of their city and proceed on our way. 

143



Miletos 

While we do not know precisely when Miletos was founded, excavations at 

Kalabaktepe have revealed here in the second half of the 2 nd millennium 

BC. The Carians, an indigenous Anatolian people, apparently lived here in 

the 12 th century BC and Homer tells us thet they fought in the Troian War 

(on the side of the Troians) under the command of Nartes. 

According to legend, Ionians under the leadership of Neleus, son of 

the Athenian king Kodros, came to Miletos in the 10 th or 11 th century BC. 

An important seaport, Miletos flourished considerably in the 6 th and 

7 th centuries BC after 650 BC Milesians established ninety colonies around 

the Black Sea and the Mediterranean and the city became enormously 

wealthy and the most important in Ionia. In the 6 th century BC, Miletos 

withstood Lydian aggression but in 546 BC both it and the Lydian 

capital Sardis were forced to come under Persian rule. 

A proud and independent city, it was the Milesians who instigated the 

Ionian revolt against Persian rule but in 494 BC the Persians defeated the 

Milesian fleet off the Island of Lade (now a hill on the coastal plain) in 

494 BC and then proceeded to seize and demolish their city in retribution. 

The defeat of the Persian fleet in the naval battle off the promontory 

of Mycale in 479 was the signal for the reconstruction of the city of 

Miletos. The Millesian architect Hippodamos began rebuilding the city on 

the right-angled grid plan, of which, according to ancient sources, he was 

the originator. (Ancient Miletos was justly famous for its reputation 

to Hippodamos, the natural philosophers Thales, Anaximandros, and 

Anaximenes, the famous historian and geographer Hekataios, and much 

later Isidoros, one of the architects of St. Sophia in Constantinople, all 

hailed from Miletos.) 

The Miletos that rose from the ashes of Persian destruction however 

never managed to regain its former power and in Classical times Miletos 

importance steadily waned. The city did become an important 

commercial and artistic center during Hellenistic times and in the Roman 

Period it was an independent city and one of the leading metropolises of 

western Anatolia. Since its earliest days, Miletos possessed two 

Miletos Theater. The theater, which was built in the Hellenistic Period, was 

capable of holding 5300 people It survives to the present time quite intact, 

with the help of the repairs in the Roman Period. 

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146 

Plan of Miletos 

1.The Theater 2.Heroon 3-4.The Lions statues, Hellenistic times 5.Roman 

Baths 6.Little Harbor monument (1 st century BC) 7.Synagogue 8.Great 

Harbor monument 9.Harbor Stoa, Hellenistic times 10. Delphoinion, Arcaic 

Period 11.Harbor gateway 12.Small bazaar, Hellenistic times 13.Northern 

Agora, Hellenistic times 14.Ionic Stoa 15.Ceremonial road 16.Baths of 

Capito, Cladius Period 17.Gymnasion (2 nd century BC) 18.Temple of 

Asklepios 19.Sanctuary for the Imperial Cult 20.Bouleuterion 21.Fountain 

22.Northern gateway 23.Bishopric church 24.South Agora, Hellenistic and 

Roman times 25.Storage building 26.Heroon, Roman Period 

27.Temple of Serapis 28.Faustina Baths 

harbors-one commercial, the other military. Alluvion carried down by the 

River Meander (now called the Menderes) however gradually filled in the 

sea before Miletos with the result that the city now lies a considerable 

way inland. It was this silting-in more than anything else that caused 

Miletos to lose its importance. By Byzantine times, the city had shrunk to 

the citadel located behind the theater. In the 13 th century, the Seljuk 

Turks; took Miletos (which they called ‘Balat’, the name it had in Ottoman


times as well). The khan located before the theater is a work of the 

Seljuks. One may approach the site of Miletos by vehicle as far as the 

theater, which even today stands out magnificently from a distance. Let 

us start our tour of Miletos therefore from the theater. The theater of 

Miletos measures 140 m. in width and is 30 m. high. The original structure 

was built in the 4 th century BC and was later expanded during 

Hellenistic times. It was during the Roman Period that the theater asumed 

the appearance it still has today. 

The theater could seat 15,000. The emperor's box was in the lowest row 

and two of the four columns that supported its awning are still in place. 

The extensive ruins near the theater are the Baths of Faustina which, 

together with their palaestra, have survived in very good condition. The 

palaestra of the baths is nearly square-shaped, measuring 77.50 by 79.41 

m.. The colonnades surrounding its courtyard are in the Corinthian order. 

The Faustina baths, built by the Roman empress Faustina, wife of Marcus 

Aurelius (161-180 AD) are a good example of the ‘bath culture’ of the ancient 

world. 

The palaestra was entered through a long apoditerium, a room that served 

as a dressing room. In the wall at the northern end of this room are niches 

that once contained statues (The statues are now in the ‹stanbul 

Archaeological Museum). From here, one could enter the frigidarium or 

cold section. In the central room of the frigidarium was a big pool with two 

fountains-of a river god and of a lion, still in place today-that provided its 

water. From the frigidarium the bather then passed into the calidarium 

the bather then passed into the calidarium or hot section consisting of 

two big rooms with apses. From here, the bather then proceeded to the 

tepidarium or cooling chamber and then finally back to the apoditerium 

where they retrieved their clothes. Adjacent to the Faustina baths is the 

Temple of Serapis, located behind the city walls built during the reign of 

Justinianus. 

The building is a triple-naved basilica and has a four-columned portico. It 

was built in the 3 rd century AD. Before the Serapis temple lie the ruins of 

a long storage building or warehouse after which we reach the South 

Agora covering an area measuring 164 by 196 m.. Originally built in the 2 nd 

century BC it was altered during Roman times. The northern gate of the 

agora is no longer in situ having been taken to Berlin and only the 

foundations remain. It is dated to the gate, the Diocesan Church is on our 

right. Adjoining the apse is a round structure that served as a martyrion 

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148 

Didyma Temple of Apollo. As a sacred site near Miletos, Didyma had 

ritualistic links with the latter. Famous in the ancient world, the Temple of 

Apollo was sacked in 494 BC. 

or sacred burial ground. While this church was built in the 5 th century, the 

four-columned monumental structure that served as its propylon 

(entrance) actually belonged to a 3 rd century Roman building. Beside the 

church are the remains of a 2 nd century nymphaion. Opposite the fountain 

is a bouleuterion (senate house), consisting of a propylon, a colonnaded 

courtyard in the Doric order, and a roofed auditorium that could 

accommodate 1.500. Four doors led into the room from the courtyard. 

From an inscription that has been found we know that the building was 

constructed by the Syrian king Antiochos Epiphanes in 164-175 BC. 

Between the bouleuterion and the North Agora are a temple to Asklepios 

built on the In antis (‘between two walls’) plan and a sanctuary that


The year 311 BC saw its reconstruction and subsequently, the temple 

received great contribution from the Seleucids, who also had its 

dimensions enlarged. 

apparently was dedicated to the imperial cult-worship. Miletos' North 

Agora was built in Classical times and enlarged during both the Hellenistic 

and Roman Periods when it was still in use. Adjacent to this agora is a small 

marketplace that is encircled by shops. Before the agora is a processional 

road that measures 100 m. in length and 28 m. in width. On either side of 

it were pedestrian pavements 5.75 m. wide. Running along the 

processional road is a stoa of shops in the Ionic order. The gymnasion was 

built in the 2 nd century BC and has a propylon and palaestra with five 

training rooms. Next to this are the reign of Claudius (AD 41-54). The 

ruins of the baths (not shown in the plan) built partly on the northern 

end of the stoa and partly along the road are of Seljuk origin. 

149



Halicarnassos 

As native homeland of the famous historian Herodotos, Bodrum is one of 

Turkey’s most important tourism centers, which attracts attention by 

virtue of its natural beauty. We know that the native inhabitants, namely 

the Lelegians and the Carians, lived in the hills above the Bodrum 

Peninsula. In fact, although there are very few remnants in existence, it 

has been determined that a number of Lelegian cities such as Termera, 

Pedesa, Theangela, Syangela, Myndos and Telmissus existed above the 

peninsula. In his work, The Iliad, Homer tells us that the Lelegians, 

under the command of Altes, and the Carians, under the command of 

Nartes, fought on the side of the Troians during the Troian Wars of ca. 

1200 BC. 

Around 1000 BC, those who came here in the Dorian migrations settled 

in the vicinity where the fortress stands today, and when the local 

inhabitants came down to the coast, they established the city of 

Halicarnassos, the remains of which are buried under today’s Bodrum. 

Halicarnassos was captured by the Lydians in the first half of the 6 th 

century BC, and the Persians took it by force in 546 BC. Subsequently, 

this region was joined with the suzerainty of Sardis. In 494 BC the people 

of Halicarnassos joined in the uprising against Persian rule, which was 

started by the western Anatolian cities. 

Herodotos (490-425 BC) tells us that in 480 BC, ‘King Lygdamis’ 

daughter Artemisia I ruled Halicarnassos and that this queen joined with 

the Persians in the Salamis naval battles, scoring some major successes. 

Pisindalis ascended as the ruler of Halicarnassos after this heroic queen, 

and Lygdamis II succeeded Pisindalis upon his death. The great historian 

Herodotos along with this king’s uncle, the poet Panyassis, started a 

freedom movement but was banished from the land. Herodotos 

continued to wander around the known world later to return to 

Halicarnassos in 454 BC. Although Lygdamis II had been dethroned, 

Herodotos hit the road once more in order to finish the book on history 

he had started. When Caria broke away from Sardis in 412 BC it became 

its own suzerainty with Hyssaldomos from Mylasa appointed as its 

satrap. When he died in 387 BC, his son Hecatomnos ascended to the 

Bodrum, which was established over the antique city of 

Halicarnassos, is seen at night. 

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152 

View of Bodrum Castle, which was built in 1402 by Rhodian knights from 

the Maussolleion stones, and the Hellenistic-era theater of Bodrum. 

throne, and he was succeeded by his eldest son, Maussollos in 377 BC. 

Maussollos ruled over western Anatolia and made a number of cities 

prosperous in the Carian region, but most importantly was the fact that 

he moved the capital of Caria from Milas to Halicarnassos in 367 BC. In 

order for this city to expand, he brought the inhabitants of six of the 

eight Lelegian cities here, and by encircling the city with walls, he had it 

adorned with palaces, a theater and temples. After ruling for 24 years, 

Maussollos died in 353 BC. He, in turn, was succeeded by his wife and 

sister, Artemisia II. At first, she conquered a rebellious Rhodes, 

convincing its inhabitants into accepting her as ruler. Later, she 

continued with the construction of her husband’s monumental tomb that 

he began in 355, but died in 351 before its completion in 340.


The castles, the architect of which was a German named Heinrich 

Schlegelholt, has Italian, English, French and German Towers. 

Construction was halted for quite some time due to a lack of finances, 

but the artesians continued to work without pay and eventually were 

able to complete it by raising the necessary funds. Known as the 

Maussolleion, the tomb was destined to become one of the Seven 

Wonders of the World. According to information recorded by the Roman 

historian Pliny, the tomb was comprised of four sections; there was a 

high base at the lowest level, a gallery of 36 columns over it, and a roof 

of 24 steps upon which the statues of Maussollos and his wife were 

placed. The architect of this 50 m. high maussolleion was Pytheos, 

whereas the relief engravings were chiseled by famous sculptors such as 

Scopas (east side), Leochares (west side), Bryaxis (north side) and 

Timotheos (south side). Unfortunately, this huge tomb remained 

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154 

standing until the 14 th century, when it collapsed in an earthquake. More 

significant was the damage caused by the Knights of Rhodes, when they 

erected the castle walls we see today by plundering the ashlar blocks 

from the memorial tomb in 1402. In 1846, the Ottoman Sultan 

Abdulmecit issued a decree permitting British Ambassador Lord 

Stratford Canning to ship the Maussollos friezes that were in the Bodrum 

Castle to the British Museum. As the director of the excavation site at 

the time, Newton had shipped off the remaining frieze fragments as well 

as the statues of both Maussollos and his wife Artemisia that originally 

stood atop the Maussolleion, to the British Museum in 1857. Today, the 

remnants of this memorial’s foundation, measuring 32x38 m., can be 

seen in a field measuring 242.5x105 m. next to the road to Gümbet. 

When Queen Artemisia died in 351 BC, Idrieus ascended to the throne 

and was succeeded by Ada in 344. However, she was deposed by her 

younger brother Pixodaros, who exiled Ada to Alinda. When Alexander 

entered Anatolia in 334, he found Ada in Alinda. She proclaimed him to 

be her adopted son and in return, he reinstated her to the Halicarnassos 

throne. After Alexander’s death, the region was ruled by Lysimachus in 

301 and then later on by the Ptolemic dynasty. In 189 BC, Halicarnassos 

was forced under the yoke of Rhodes, then over to the Pergamon 

Kingdom in 167 BC. The city came under Roman rule after 133 BC. 

While the Roman states were being reorganized in the 4 th century AD, 

Caria constituted a separate state, whereas Halicarnassos became the 

Archbishopric under the administration of the Aphrodisias Metropolitan. 

Upon entering Anatolia in 1071, the Turks began establishing provinces 

in the regions they had settled. Case in point, under the command of 

Mentefle Bey, the Turks took over this region and established the 

Mentefle Province in 1274. This area was finally put under Ottoman rule 

during the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent. As was mentioned at the 

beginning of this chapter, not much remains to this day of Halicarnassos 

as it is buried under the modern town of Bodrum. The theater on the hill 

belongs to the Maussollos Period. Excavation and restoration work on 

the theater was conducted in recent years, during which 30 rows of 

seating in the lower section have been brought to light. On the southern 

slope of the theater, the upper section of which is heavily damaged, we 

encounter rock tombs belonging to the Hellenistic-and Roman-Periods. 

Ancient sources reveal that 1) the Temple of Mars and the stoa of Apollo 

lie beneath the road in front of the theater, 2) the Temple of Hermes and 

the Temple of Aphrodite were situated on both sides of Kaplankale,


across from the castle and 3) there was the palace of King Maussollos 

where the mosque is located, in the square in front of the castle. Today, 

the Myndos Gate, which was a portion of the wall once surrounding the 

city, can be seen on the road to Gümbet. As the symbol of modern day 

Bodrum, the castle was built by the Knights of Rhodes in the year 1402. 

It measures 180x185 m. and its first battlements were erected by 

German architect Heinrich Schlegolholt. Later on, the castle was 

reinforced with the Italian, French, English, German Towers as well as 

the Snake Tower. There are a total of 249 coat-of-arms found 

throughout the castle walls. The Turks captured it in 1523, and today it 

serves as the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeological. In the 

adjacent garden, you are bound to encounter numerous peacocks which 

seemingly stand guard over the treasures, not terribly unlike their 

Beefeater counterparts at the Tower in London. There are not many 

Turkish structures in Bodrum. The famous Bodrum boats or gulet in 

Turkish, were constructed during the Ottoman Period in a shipyard just 

beyond the yacht marina. Today, the manufacture of these fine wooden 

vessels continues in this area. 

There is the tomb of Kaptan-› Derya K›z›lhisarl› Mustafa Pasha and his 

son Cafer Pasha situated where this shipyard is located. There is also the 

mosque in the quay square that was built by Mustafa Pasha in 1720. The 

Pasha’s steward also had the Tepecik Mosque built. Erected in 1769, the 

Hac› Molla Inn survives to this day, but not in its original manner. It is a 

great pleasure just to wander around the Bodrum peninsula and its 

wonderful bays such as Bardakç›, Gümbet, Bitez, Turgut Reis, Ortakent, 

Karg›, Adabo¤az›, Aspat Kalesi, Kad›kalesi and Gümüfllük, where the 

Myndos ruins are found. You can take a daily excursion boat tour to 

these bays and Karaada, or even if you wish, you can also rent a car to 

cruise around these bays, as well. Bodrum is one of the traditional points 

of embarkment for Blue Voyagers; its many bars, cafes, clubs and 

restaurants offer countless opportunities for fun until the crack of dawn. 

There are several ruin sites around Bodrum Peninsula, such as the 

ancient city of Herakleia, established on top of a hill overlooking Bafa 

Gölü. There you will see the Temple of Athena, which was erected 

during the Hellenistic-Period. Also, 12 km. outside of Milas, on the side 

of the road, you will encounter the Roman-era Temple of Euromos Zeus 

with its 6x11 colonnade. Moreover, situated 13 km. outside Milas, are the 

impressive ruins of Labraunda. In addition, Iasos, which is located in the 

village of K›y›k›fllac›k, is worth a visit. 

155



Xanthos 

"The Persian army entered the plain of Xanthos under the command 

of Harpagos and did battle with the Xanthians. The Xanthians fought 

with small numbers against the superior Persian forces with 

legendary bravery. They resisted the endless Persian forces with 

great courage but were finally succumbed and forced to retreat 

within the walls of their city. They gathered their womenfolk, 

children, slaves and treasure into the fortress. This was then set on 

fire from below and around the walls, until all was destroyed by the 

conflagration. The warriors of Xanthos made their final attack on 

the Persians, their voices raised in their battle cries, until every last 

man from Xanthos was killed." 

Only the Xanthians who happened to be in other places at the time were 

spared and it was they who returned at a later date to resurrect the city. 

After reading this passage from Herodotos of Halicarnassos, we learn that 

Xanthos existed during the 6 th century BC. They fight as allies of the 

Troians, coming "from distant Lycia and the eddying Xanthos"; their 

commander Sarpedon was among the minor heroes during the battles 

that took place in the 12 th century BC. This indicates to us that there was 

a Xanthos around 1200 BC, as well. However, this hapless though 

magnificent city was completely burnt down between 475 and 450 BC. 

During excavations, this was confirmed by a thick layer of ash covering 

the site. In 429 BC, all of Lycia united against their Athenian satrap 

Melasandros, who wanted to impose new taxes on them. Melasandros 

died in this war and relations with Athens fizzled out. Xanthos was 

captured by Alexander the Great in 334 BC. The Xanthians' dealings with 

him are a matter of uncertainty. The historian Appian, writing in the 2 nd 

century AD, records that 'they are said to have been unwilling to submit 

to him, and to have suffered as one the previous occasion, destroying 

themselves in the name of freedom.This is not, however, confirmed by 

any other evidence, and Arrian, our most respectable authority for 

Lycian Sarcophagus and the Monument of Harpies. Lycian grave 

monument, which rests on a high-pedestal base, is 8.59 m. high. Which 

king this Lycian grave monument belonged to is unknown. It was built in 

the 6 th century BC. The Monument of Harpies is from 480 BC and is 8.87 m. 

high. The embossments at the top, which describe the family of the deceased 

and the Sirens, has been taken to the British Museum. We can see the 

plaster copies replacing them today. 

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158 

Alexander's campaign, also writing in the 2 nd century, observes merely 

that Xanthos was surrendered to Alexander along with P›nara, Patara, 

and other places. Appian's hearsay account therefore should no doubt be 

rejected. While Alexander was in the region, a prophecy is said to have 

occurred. A fountain near Xanthos suddenly welled up of its own accord 

and threw out a bronze tablet inscribed with archaic letters announcing 

the overthrow of the Persian Empire by the Greeks. Alexander was 

encouraged by this to clear the whole coast of Persians as far as Cilicia. 

In the confused period following Alexander's death, Xanthos came into 

the hands of Antigonus. Lycia was, however, claimed by the Egyptian 

king, and Ptolemy I came in 309 BC with a fleet and took it from him by 

force. Subsequently, we hear of the fortunes of Xanthos, which comes 

from an inscription, later erased but still just legible, on a jamb of the 

city's southern gate. This informs us that King Antiochus the Great 

dedicated the city to Leto, Apollo, and Artemis.' From this unusual text 

it is inferred that Antiochus III engaged in 197 BC in taking Lycia from the 

Ptolemies, finding himself unable to occupy Xanthos by force, made an 

agreement with the citizens, who were no doubt tired of being besieged, 

that they should make a nominal surrender of the city to him, on 

condition that he should consecrate it to the national deities of Lycia, that 

is in effect that he should declare it free and inviolable. This benefit, 

however, was not of long duration. After Antiochus' defeat at Magnesia, 

Xanthos along with the rest of Lycia was given to Rhodes. An attempted 

tyranny at Xanthos in the 2 nd century, which may have had Rhodian 

support, is mentioned above. 

During the Roman civil wars of the 1 st century BC, the Xanthians staged 

their second (if it was not their third) melodramatic holocaust. In 42 BC, 

Brutus, who was engaged in raising forces and money for the forthcoming 

showdown with Octavian and Antony, came to Lycia. The Lycian League 

resisted him, but was defeated, and Brutus proceeded to besiege Xanthos. 

He demolished the Lycian acropolis and slaughtered its inhabitants. 

Plutarch recorded that after the fall of the city, a woman was seen 

hanging from a noose with her dead child slung from her neck, setting 

fire to the house with a burning torch. Hearing this, Brutus was moved to 

tears and proclaimed a reward for any of his soldiers who saved a Lycian 

from death. A bare 150 Xanthians fell alive into Roman hands. The 

following year, Marc Antony, hoping to heal the scars left by Brutus, 

tended the hand of peace to the Xanthians by having their city rebuilt. 

Emperor Vespasian seemed to have treated the city with care, for a


monumental arch in his name was erected in Xanthos. In Byzantine times 

the city-walls were renovated and a monastery built on top of the hill. 

The city had its bishop, though he ranked rather low under the 

metropolitan of Myra. It was deserted once the Arab raids started. 

Xanthos was discovered in 1838 by Sir Charles Fellows, who had all the 

reliefs and archaeological finds of any significance transported to London 

on a warship that anchored in Patara. Many works of art from this site 

are now on display in the Lycian rooms of the British Museum. 

Excavations which have been ongoing since 1950 were undertaken by the 

French, then by Dr. Pierre Demarque, later taken over by Prof. Henri 

Metzger. The diggings were later cotinued by Prof. Le Roy. Currently, 

excavations are in progress led by Prof. Jacques des Courtils. 

Xanthos is on the border of the Mu¤la and Antalya provinces, a natural 

boundary created by the Eflen Stream. It is situated near the village of 

K›n›k, 55 km. from Fethiye. On the left as one ascends, the slope near the 

village is the gateway to the city that was built during the Hellenistic 

Period. A little further on are the ruins of the Vespasian Arch. On the 

right are the remains of the base of the Nereids Monument, which was 

carted off in sections and shipped to London. This Ionic-order structure, 

which dates back to 400 BC, was in the form of a temple. Placed on a high 

pedestal measuring 10.15x68x5.15 m. high, it has two series of reliefs 

depicting battle scenes. Above the reliefs ran architectural ornamentation 

and an architrave supported on four columns. Friezes with scenes from 

everyday life decorate this architrave. Between the columns were 

situated statues of sea fairies or 'Nereids' for which the temple was 

named. The Hellenistic walls encircle the city of Xanthos and are 

reinforced by towers added at various periods, whereas the eastern flank 

of the battlements dates from the 4 th century BC. 

In place of the present theater stood the Lycian acropolis, whereas the 

acropolis is surrounded by a wall dating back to the 5 th century BC, with 

polygonal stones worked into it. Directly across from this is the Roman 

acropolis. Let's wander around the Lycian acropolis, the site where the 

Roman theater stands, which we encounter as soon as we enter. As it 

stands this was built in the mid-second century AD; a handsome 

donation of 30,000 denars by Opramoas of Rhodiapolis was earmarked 

specifically 'for the construction of the theater'. Located nearby are three 

splendid monuments, one of which is a Lycian pillar-tomb. Standing 

4.35 m. high, this monument was built during the 4 th century BC, but was 

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160 

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Plan of Xanthos. 

1.City gate 2.Vaspasian gate 3.Nereid Monument 4.Hellenistic walls 

5.Polygonal walls 6.Lycian palace 7.Lycian building 8.Church 9.Lycian 

tomb 10.Roman theater 11.Roman agora 12.Ruins of Roman tombs 

13.Lycian tomb 14.Monument of the Harpies 15.Byzantine basilica 

16.Lycian tomb 17.Column with insription 18.Church 19.Basilica 20.Tomb 

of the dancers 21.Lion tomb 22.Payava monumental 23.Lycian 

monumental tomb 24.Byzantine monastery 25.Necropolis-Merihi 

Sarcophagus 26.Main Street 27.Basilica 

carried to its present site during the erection of the theater in the Roman 

Period. Water from the village of Çay, which is located 15 km. from 

Xanthos, was brought here via an aqueduct, the cistern of which is found 

on the Lycian acropolis. 

On the western flank of the theater, which is remarkably preserved and 

carries the characteristics of the Roman Age, are three rather flashy 

monuments. The first one of these dates from the 1 st century AD and is a 

Roman pillar-tomb; the second monument is a Lycian pillar-tomb, which 

sits on a high base, has a total height of 8.59 m. and was constructed in 

the 4 th century BC. The third monument is that of the famous Harpies 

Tomb, thusly called since Fellow's time through a dubious interpretation 

of its reliefs. The whole monument, measuring 8.87 m. high, has a base 

5.43 m. in height. Large square lifting-bosses have been left projecting on 

three sides. The chamber at the top was of marble and decorated with 

reliefs; they were removed by Fellows and the covering stones propped 

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The Xanthos Theater dates back to the Roman Age. 

up with wooden struts and a pile of stones. The tomb remained in this 

mutilated condition until 1957, when Turkish authorities installed the 

cement casts which have done much to restore the beauty of the 

monument. The reliefs are interesting, but, as often, not easy to 

understand. On all four sides are seated figures receiving gifts, on the 

south and east sides a bird, on the north a helmet; on the west side are 

two seated females, that on the right approached by three standing 

figures, the other receiving an indistinct object. On the east side are three 

other female figures, that on the right apparently accompanied by a dog. 

The figures which have given the tomb its name are on the north and 

south sides on either side of the seated figures; they represent 

bird-women with female heads, wings and tails, carrying children in their 

arms. When the tomb was first discovered, these were recognized as 

Harpies carrying off the daughters of Pandareos, as described by Homer; 

the children were left orphaned and were befriended by Hera, Athena, 

Artemis, and Aphrodite; when Aphrodite went to Olympos to arrange a 

suitable marriage for them, leaving them unprotected, the Harpies came 

and snatched them away to be servants of the Furies. That Pandarus was 

a Lycian hero seemed to give support to this interpretation. But there are 

difficulties. Pandarus and Pandareos are two different heroes; the latter 

had two daughters, not four; and the children on the relief are obviously 

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not of marriageable age. More recently scholars have preferred to see in 

the winged females the other bird-women of mythology, the Sirens, 

carrying the souls of the dead, in the form of children, to the Isles of the 

Blessed. The seated figures are then members of the dynastic family; 

formerly Hera and Aphrodite were recognized on the west side, and 

Artemis with her hound on the east. All the reliefs were originally 

colored, chiefly in red and blue, traces of which were visible at the time 

of the discovery. On the back of the relief-slabs were painted crosses and 

other symbols, suggesting that at some time the grave chamber was used 

as a refuge by some Christian anchorite. 

To the rear of these monuments is an agora dating from the Roman Period. 

On the corner facing the tombs is a Byzantine basilica. Behind the 

2 nd century AD agora at a north east angle is the famous Xanthian Obelisk. 

‘Obelisk’ is not in fact a good name for it, as it is simply a pillar-tomb of 

perfectly normal type. The upper type has suffered a good deal of 

damage, but many of the fragments have been recovered by the 

excavators; they show that the tomb possessed the usual grave chamber, 

enclosed like the Harpy Tomb by slabs with reliefs showing the dead man, 

surely one of the dynasts, victorious over his enemies. The topmost block 

of the roof bears marks of the feet of a statue, no doubt the dynast himself. 

But the fame of the monument derives from the inscription which covers 

all four faces of the stone; it is the longest Lycian inscription known, 

running to over 250 lines. Linguistically it falls into three parts; beginning 

on the south side it continues on the east and part of the north side in the 

normal Lycian language; then follows a poem of twelve lines in Greek; but 

the rest of the north side and whole of the west is couched in that strange 

form of Lycian which appears elsewhere only on a tomb in Antiphellos. 

As was said above, the Lycian language is little understood apart from the 

frequently repeated epitaph formulae; the present inscription, on the 

other hand, evidently gives a narrative account of the dead hero's 

exploits, and is still undeciphered. It does, however, contain a number of 

recognizable proper names, from which the approximate date and some 

idea of the contents may be gathered. The hero in question is called, in 

the Lycian and in the Greek, son of Harpagus (not of course the Persian 

general of the 6 th century); his own name is lost in both places, but he 

appears to be the Xanthian dynast, known from the coins, who appears 

several times elsewhere in the inscription in the Lycian form Kerei. In the 

Greek epigram, he is said to have been a champion wrestler in his youth, 

to have sacked many cities, slain seven Arcadian Hoplites in a day, set up


more trophies than any other man, and added glory to the family of 

Karikas. This Karikas appears as Keriga seven times in the Lycian; he too 

is known from the coins as a Xanthian dynast. Both he and Kerei are 

dated to the latter part of the 5 th century BC. And to this same period 

belong the historical name recognizable in the Lycian. In addition to 

Athenians and Spartans, Darius and Artaxerxes, we have more especially 

a mention of the Athenian Melasandros, who was sent to Lycia in 430-429 

BC to collect tribute and prevent the Spartans from intercepting the 

Athenian corn ships. He failed and was killed in battle. It is likely that his 

defeat was among the exploits of Kerei. 

In the southeast corner of the Lycian acropolis are the foundations of a 

square building comprising several rooms which is thought to have been 

the palace of the dynasts in the earliest times, destroyed at the time of the 

capture by Harpagus. It was replaced by another building of which the 

basement survives; the upper parts were apparently of wood. This was 

destroyed by fire in 470 BC and was not replaced. Higher up to the west 

is a small sanctuary with three parallel chambers, and the scanty remains 

of a temple of the Lycian equivalent of the Greek Artemis. At the west 

extremity stood a building which must originally have been very 

handsome; its architecture seems to have imitated the wooden houses 

whose features appear also in the tombs of house-type, and was 

decorated with a sculptured frieze; the blocks of this frieze were re-used 

by the Byzantines for repair of the acropolis wall, and were later removed 

to London by Fellows. Just to the north west of this building is a 

rectangular foundation on which stood a pillar with a pediment on two 

sides; this too has gone into the Byzantine wall. 

Most of the north eastern part of the acropolis is occupied by an extensive 

monastery. This includes a church set against the east acropolis wall, and 

to the west of this an open courtyard with wash-basins along one side. 

There are several mosaics in the Lycian acropolis. One of these mosaics 

has the famous scenes of the Calydon hunt as well as Thetis drowning 

Achilles in the river Styx. Today, they are on display at the Antalya 

Museum. However, remains of the mosaic can be seen on the floor. For 

example, one can see the Leda and swan scene on the exterior of the 

southeast corner of the city walls. Directly across from the Lycian 

acropolis is the Roman acropolis. Let's examine the artefacts here by 

walking in an eastern direction. We first encounter a Byzantine basilica. 

This incredible structure of which Lycian Age stones were used, is a 

basilica with three aisles. Some of the steps where the choir would stand in 

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The view of the Byzantine Church in Xanthos from the west. 

the apse can still be seen. In the apse's northern section is a polygonalshaped 

room with marble plates of geometric motifs on the floor, whereas 

one encounters a fountain in the middle of the room. The entire floor of the 

basilica is covered entirely in mosaics, whereas there is a cistern under 

the middle aisle. After seeing the wall remains of the agora across from 

the basilica, and walk towards the east one shall see the Belly Dancer's 

Sarcophagus. War is depicted on one of the lid's long faces, while a 

hunting scene is seen on the other. As for the lid's two narrow faces, they 

depict two belly dancers turning towards each other. For this reason, this 

mid-4 th century BC sarcophagus has been called the ‘Belly Dancer 

Sarcophagus’. From here, if we walk along the length of the north wall, we 

shall encounter of the pedestal of the Lion Pillar amongst the bushes at 

the corner where the wall turns. The upper portion is in the British 

Museum. In coming into the clearing, one comes across the necropolis 

where numerous sarcophagus can be seen. 

The house-type tombs amongst the rocks are rather interesting. The 

Lion's Tomb and the Merihi Monument are the most striking tombs here. 

The Lion's Tomb, which depicts reliefs show lions attacking a bull, dates 

back to 480-450 BC. The sarcophagus lid, which is not in its place, depicts 

a wild boar hunt on one face and a feast scene on the other face. Just 

beyond this is the overturned pedestal of the Merihi Sarcophagus, which 

dates to 390 BC. The sarcophagus lid was transported to the British 

Museum in the year 1840 by Sir Charles Fellows. One sees chariots pulled


by four horses in a struggle against the Chimaera monster on both sides 

of the lid, which has the word ‘Merihi’ inscribed on it. Looking at the rock 

tombs next to the Merihi Sarcophagus, let's go inside the wall. 

There are four monument tombs next to each other. The most striking of 

the four is the Lycian pillar tomb which was built from dressed stone 

during the 4 th century BC. It has three steps leading to the burial 

chamber, the floor of which is faced with marble. The facade, constructed 

in the Ionic order, measures 6.39 m. high. A little further on is the site of 

the Payava tomb, which dates from 370-360 BC. It was transported in its 

entire state to London by Sir Charles Fellows in 1842, whereas there 

remains a very small part of the pedestal in a rather dismal state. On one 

face of the monument one can find a Lycian inscription of two sentences 

which mentions the name of the Persian Satrap Autophradates.The other 

face has a relief of a war scene and a one-sentence Lycian inscription on 

the top part which states that the tomb was a work of Payava. On the long 

carved sides of the sarcophagus lids are reliefs with four horses pulling a 

chariot. South of the Payava Sarcophagus lies another 4 th century 

sarcophagus which is plainer than the others. There is a magnificent 

Lycian sarcophagus, known as the Ahqqadi Sarcophagus, which stands 

to the west of these tombs. 

After seeing these, we can pass by a Byzantine basilica at the top of the 

acropolis which was built over an ancient Roman temple. From here we 

can return to the parking lot. 

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Patara 

The ancient city of Patara is situated between Fethiye and Kalkan, in the 

south west corner of the plentiful Xanthos Valley. Exit off the main road 

onto the Gelemifl Road, then drive down this road for five kilometers 

until you reach the ruins of Patara. Coins and ceramic fragments 

uncovered during recent excavations date the site to the 7 th century BC. 

But there is reason to date Patara’s history even further. Patara is 

renowned as the birthplace of Apollo and is one of the oldest and most 

important cities of Lycia. The Hittite King Tudhalia IV (1250-1220 BC) 

was known to have said, 

“I made sacrifices and presented votives while facing Patar 

Mountain, I erected stelai, and constructed sanctuaries”. This 

implies that Patara was known during the Hittite Age as ‘Patar’. As the 

principal port along the Lycian coast, Patara has a long history. For this 

reason, future excavations are bound to bring the city’s ancient history 

to light. We know that the city existed in the 5 th -6 th centuries BC and that 

it was saved from destruction when it opened its gates to Alexander. 

During the wars of Alexander’s successors, Patara enjoyed considerable 

importance as a naval base, in which capacity it was occupied by 

Antigonus in 315 BC and by Demetrios at the time of his siege of Rhodes 

in 304. For a period, it bore the Egyptian name of Arsinoe; this name did 

not survive beyond Egyptian rule. Patara was re-captured by Antiochus 

III in 190 BC; Livius uttered the phrase Caput Gentis, meaning, ‘The 

Ancestors’ Capital,’ to describe Patara, which exalted it above all the 

other cities. 

Along with the cities of Xanthos, Tlos, Olympos and Myra, Patara had a 

three-vote right in the Lycian League. The league generally held its 

assemblies in Patara, which served as its harbor as well. Having 

maintained its importance during the Roman Empire, Patara was also 

the seat of the Roman provincial governor, who converted it into a port 

from which the Roman fleet maintained contact with its provinces in the 

east. Concurrently, Patara was the harbor where crops harvested in 

Anatolia were stored and later shipped to Rome. As in Adriace, silos 

were erected here to store grain during the reign of Emperor Hadrianus, 

who had briefly visited Patara with his wife Sabina. During the Roman 

A view of the Harbor (Hurmal›k) Bath. 

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Period, Patara, which became the capital of both Lycia and Pamphylia, 

also became famous as one of Apollo’s soothsaying centers. Ancient 

writers refer to Patara as the birthplace of Apollo as well as the home of 

an important oracle, for whom it is said interpreted omens during the 

winter in Patara and during the summer in Delos. During the Byzantine 

Period, Patara maintained its significance to become an important 

center of Christianity. Case in point, St. Nicholas, whom we know as 

Santa Claus, was born here. Moreover, St. Paul sailed to Rome from 

Patara. The city got a boost in its popularity ratings when Lycia’s only 

authorized signatory, Eudemos was appointed the position of Bishop of 

Patara at the Nicaea Council, held in 325 AD under the chairmanship of 

Emperor Constantinos. 

Unfortunately, subsequent to this period, as if rejected by the gods and 

saints alike, the harbor of Patara, formerly 1.600 m. long, 400 m. wide, 

silted up, preventing seagoing vessels from berthing. Thus, the city’s 

importance steadily declined. Over time, the city was overrun by sand 

dunes, giving it the appearance of a desert, resulting in the obliteration 

of all ruins left standing. In recent years, Prof. Fahri Ifl›k and his team 

from Akdeniz University have been trying to dig this spellbinding city 

out from under the sand. Let’s take a walk together through one of the 

most famous cities in history. On the way to Patara, we may see the 

remains of Roman Period, Lycian-style monument tombs. Excavation 

work conducted on the tumuli behind these monument tombs in recent 

years has revealed a large structure from the early periods which 

indicates a temple or palace. 

We also notice a monumental portal still standing, apparently the 

entrance to the city. According to its inscription, this victory arch was 

built in 100 AD by Rome’s Lycian Governor, Mettius Modestus. This 

victory arch was also utilized as part of the aqueducts that brought water 

to Patara. Before arriving at the arch, one can see the monument tombs 

situated in the lower part of the road, along the edge of the lake, which 

has taken the place of the ancient harbor. These magnificent tombs have 

survived mostly intact to the present. From here, one may notice the 

harbor church, measuring 12x9.10 m., with three aisles. This church 

remains submerged for most of the year. A large bust of Apollo was 

discovered on the hill beyond the city gate, which indicates the 

existence of an Apollo Temple, the whereabouts of which are still 

uncertain. In fact, what we do know is that during the 1 st century of 

Roman rule, the center of the oracle of Apollo fell into disrepair, but that


Opramoas, the philanthropic Lycian whose name is seen throughout 

Lycia and who himself came from Rhodiapolis, had the town of Patara 

resurrected. Though the birthplace of the god Apollo, who was one of 

two children of Zeus and Leto, may be shown to have been several 

places, it is accepted that he was born in Patara. Apollo is an Anatolian 

god. In the Iliad, Homer mentions him as Phiobos, which means 

‘illuminated’, and ‘the famous Lycian archer, Apollo.’ For this reason, he, 

along with his Anatolian sister Artemis, always aided the Troians and 

their Anatolian city, Troia. The name ‘Lycia’ meant ‘Illuminated Nation’ 

in ancient times, and their head god, Apollo, was perceived to have light 

in his lineage. Right next to the victory arch is a sarcophagus from the 

Roman Period. To the west of the sarcophagus are the ruins of the Date 

Baths. With its floor decorated with thick stones and mosaics, these 

baths derived their name from the giant date trees next door. These 

baths belonged to the Roman Period, and were also used during the 

Byzantine-era. 100 m. ahead is a road sign which was discovered in 

recent excavations, that was made by Quintus Veranius on the orders of 

Emperor Claudius, and it is extremely important as it shows the 

distances between the Lycian cities. 

This is the world’s oldest and most comprehensive road sign. If you stroll 

along the asphalt road for a short distance, you will encounter the ruins 

of a church. From the architectural parts in the inner walls of the 

church, it is understood that it was constructed of blocks from much 

older edifices. Walking just beyond this church, you will encounter the 

Tomb of Marciana in the middle of a long wall, and you will also find the 

Vespasianus Baths in the west corner of this tomb. They are called the 

Vespasianus Baths on account of the money he had set aside for their 

construction. The baths measure 105x48 m. and were partitioned into 

five sections. In order to see inside the baths, you need to step over the 

large stones. If we stay on the footpath next to the baths, we shall reach 

Anatolia’s widest main avenue, which was 12.5 m. wide and covered in 

marble. Under the main avenue was an advanced sewage system 

network. There are stoa lined up along the western side of the main 

avenue, which opens out to several roads. Today, this main avenue 

spends most of its time submerged. The city’s central baths are located 

at the eastern end of the avenue, and there are ruins of a small baths 

complex at the west end. A little further along the road you will 

encounter the vast walls of a Byzantine fortress. To the east of this 

fortress is a Corinthian temple that was constructed from ashlar blocks, 

the owner of which is unknown. Measuring 13x11 m., this 2 nd century AD 

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Plan of Patara. (Prof. Dr. Fahri Ifl›k) 

1.Tepecik Necropolis 2.Necropolis 3.Arch 4.Harbor Bath 5.Stadiasmus 

Patarensis 6.Basilica 7.Korinth Temple 8.Church 9.Vespasianus Bath 

10.Bouleuterion 11.Theater 12.Cistern 13.Monumental tomb 14.Antique 

harbor 15.Granarium 16. Pseudoperipteral temple-tomb 17.Light house 

18.Harbor basilica 19.Cape sanctuary 20.Agora 21.Marciana tomb 

22.Main street 

In antis plan temple once had plenty of architectural ornamentation. The 

theater, which is set into a slope, is unfortunately half-buried in sand. 

Nevertheless, an archaeological team from Akdeniz University in ‹zmir is 

continuing its excavation studies and just like other sites around Patara, 

sand has been removed from the theater. An inscription on the eastern side 

of the skene indicates that it was built by Velia Proila and her father 

Quintus Velio Titionus in 147 AD Constructed during the Hellenistic 

Period, this 5,000 seat theater was comprised of 34 rows of seating, 20 in 

the lower tier and 14 in the upper tier. The lower tier is divided by eight 

sets of steps whereas the upper tier is divided by 14 sets of steps. The 

three-storey skene building was 41.5 m. long and 6.5 m. wide. Located 

north of the theater is what was known as Anatolia’s largest administration 

building called the ecclestrium, which measures 43x29 m. The main 

entrances of this 1,400 seat assembly building were located on its southern 

and northern sides. With a height of 17 m., there was once a marble-paved 

orchestra pit and a skene in the center of this structure, indicating that it


Dating back to 100 AD, this city gate has become the symbol of Patara. 

was used occasionally as an odeion. There was also a stoa situated in front 

of this structure. At the top of the hill behind the theater is a monument 

tomb, and, nearby is cistern with a depth of eight meters, carved into the 

rock. To the west of the town is the ancient harbor. At the wide mouth of 

this harbor, one can see the lighthouse, which could be rebuilt in its original 

spot. From an inscription uncovered here, it is understood that it was built 

during the third quarter of the 1 st century AD by State Governor Marcus 

Sextius Priscus, who also had the Vespasianus Baths constructed. 

Hadrianus’s Granary can be seen in a swamp where the harbor used to be. 

This building, which was called the horrea or granarium, measured 67x19 

m. and was divided into eight sections. Next to this, one can encounter a 

large temple tomb that is still intact. This temple tomb, which was 

constructed from thick and showy stones, must have been magnificent 

during ancient times. From here, there are a number of monument tombs 

of various sizes stretching all the way out to the village. Moreover, there are 

tombs to be found on the hill opposite the ticket office. The marshy reeds 

in the lake that used to be a harbor in antiquity whisper of the splendor of 

ancient Patara. We believe that new findings will continue to be discovered 

in new excavations conducted in Patara and that fame will return to this 

city that has been hibernating throughout the millennia. 

171



Myra 

One can easily reach the famous ancient city of Myra, which is situated in 

Antalya's district of Kale, 24 km. outside Finike, on the Kafl-Finike coast 

road. Myra retained her fame throughout the Middle Ages as the see of the 

servant of God, St. Nicholas, who spouted forth myrrh, in accordance with 

the city's name. Myra was established on the seaward cliffs of the 

mountains surrounding the plain of Demre from the north west. At first, 

the city was established on top of the hill where the rock tombs are, then 

later on, it expanded by moving down below where it became one of the 

six important cities of Lycia. The city's first coins, which were minted in 

the 4 th century BC, depicted the figure of a mother god. 

Rather surprisingly, there is no literary mention of Myra before the 1 st 

century BC; but the surviving monuments and inscriptions leave no 

doubt of her importance from at least the 5 th century. In 42 BC, after 

the capture of Xanthos, Brutus sent his lieutenant Lentulus Spinther 

to collect money; the Myrans were reluctant and Spinther had to force 

an entry to the harbor at Andriace by breaking the chain which closed 

it. The Myrans then submitted and complied with his demands. The 

city was treated well by the emperors; in AD 18, Germanicus and his 

wife Agrippina paid it a visit and were honored with statues erected in 

the harbor of Andriace. In AD 60, St. Paul changed ships at Myra, that 

is, at Andriace, on his way to Rome. Myra's neighbor to the east was 

Limyra, and we learn from an inscription that there was a ferry service 

between the two. 

Dignified by the title of metropolis, handsomely endowed by gifts of 

money from Opramoas of Rhodiapolis and Jason of Cyaenai, whereas 

the theater and its portico were constructed by Licinus Lanfus of 

Oenoanda, to whom 10,000 denars were donated for its completion. 

Myra was finally made the capital of Lycia during the time St. Nicholas 

was the bishop of Myra by Theodosius II (408-450). Myra and the 

church were demolished during the Arab raids in the 7th and 9th centuries, whereas the Church of St. Nicholas was totally razed to the 

ground during a naval assault conducted by the Arabs in 1034. As a 

Lycian rock tombs at Myra. Myra was the site of the bishopric of 

St. Nicholas (Santa Claus). Apart from these rock tombs, other structures 

of interest on the site include a theater in a fine state of preservation. 

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result of the discomfort caused by the Arab raids, the frequent flooding 

over of the banks of the Myros Stream in which some structures were 

filled with earth, along with earthquakes that hit the region, the city 

was abandoned whereas Myra was subsequently identified as being a 

village. When the Turks arrived in this area, they encountered a 

shrunken Myra. 

There isn't much remaning on the acropolis, which is situated on the 

mountain above the theater. Spratt, who visited Myra in 1842, stated 

that besides some small rocks nothing else remained on the acropolis. 

The city walls, from the Roman Age have some wall remains that date 

to the Hellenistic Age and in fact even as far back as the 5th century BC. 

Near the theater as you go towards the city, you will come across some 

later period ruins on the left side of the road that could be either baths 

or a basilica. Myra's water needs were met through aqueducts that 

opened onto the rock face on the side of the valley where the Demre 

Stream flowed. It is possible to see these aqueducts today. The other 

structures of Myra are buried underground and are waiting for the time 

when they see daylight again. While arriving in Myra, one will notice a 

well-preserved Roman Period monument tomb at a place called 

Karabucak above the road. Andriace, which is the harbor of Myra at the 

mouth of the stream, was known as a famous soothsaying center, 

where as there is also the ancient city of Trabenda, which is in Gürses, 

a few kilometers outside Soura. Now beginning from the theater, let's 

get acquainted with the rock-tombs and the Church of St. Nicholas. 

Rock Tombs: The famous rock-tombs of Myra are in two main groups, 

one above the theater and the other in a place called the river 

necropolis on the east side. 

Just to the west of the theater the steep cliff is honeycombed with 

closely packed tombs of greatly varying form and size, though the 

majority are as usual of house-type. Many of them are quite elaborate, 

and some are decorated with reliefs in color. A few are of temple-type. 

Again, one can see steps carved out of the rock that lead to the 

temples. The tomb found at the level of the theater orchestra is of 

house-type with a pediment in which are two warriors carrying shields 

and moving to the left; the man on the right appears to be grasping the 

other's shield as if to tear it from him.


In the middle of the group, about half-way up, are two tombs one above 

the other, with a third at the side; over the upper tomb is a more 

elaborate relief showing a man reclining on a couch, with his wife 

sitting beside him and three armed men, apparently his sons, standing 

to the left; smaller figures carrying a bowl and a double flute approach 

the bed from the left. The most interesting inscription is found on the 

tomb next to the theater, in which it reads, ‘Moschus loves Philiste, 

daughter of Demetrius.’ 

After sufficiently inspecting these tombs, let us check out the tombs on 

the eastern face of the hill, that is, the place that is called the river 

necropolis on the east side. The tombs here resemble those next to the 

theater. Not much above ground-level, and approached by a somewhat 

uncomfortable rock-path, is the monument known as the Painted 

Tomb, certainly one of the most striking throughout Lycia. 

It is of the usual house-type and has in the interior a bench on the right 

and left sides; in front is a leveled platform with steps leading up on 

one side. But the outstanding feature is the group of eleven life-size 

figures in relief. In the porch on the spectator's left is the reclining 

figure of a bearded man raising a wine-cup in his right hand, evidently 

the father of the family, and on the opposite wall a seated woman, 

presumably his wife, with her children on either side of her. 

On the smoothed rock-face outside the porch there stands on the left 

a tall commanding figure, apparently the same as the reclining figure, 

but dressed for outdoors with a cloak and a long staff in his right hand. 

On the rocks to the right are five more figures: first a tall female raising 

her veil, similarly no doubt identical with the seated woman in the 

porch; her daughter stands beside her holding her hand. In addition to 

the family, servants are also depicted in the tomb. The identification of 

this scene is not entirely clear, but it appears that the figures in the 

porch represent the family's indoor life, while those on the rocks 

outside show them issuing forth from the house. 

The three on the extreme right must then depict a separate scene. At 

all events it is clear that there is no question of a family visit to the 

tomb; the monument as a whole represents not a tomb but the family 

dwelling. The colors, which Fellows saw as red, blue, yellow, and 

purple, have now nearly disappeared, apart from a red and blue 

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The Myra Theater dates back to the Roman Age. 

background to the reclining man. Higher up in the eastern group is a 

tomb with a pediment showing a lion savaging a bull; in the porch 

inside is a scene, including eight figures, somewhat similar to that on 

the Painted Tomb. 

The Theater: The theater is large, some 115 m. in diameter, and of 

the Roman type. The vertical rock-face could not be utilized for the 

slope of the cavea, which is accordingly wholly built up. The building 

has recently been cleared and its appearance much improved; the 

general state of preservation is good. The cavea has a single diazoma 

with 29 rows of seats below it and six above, with fourteen stairways; 

it is surrounded by two concentric vaulted galleries, of which the outer 

gallery was in two stories. In the west gallery, on the wall between the 

two corridors, is an inscription reading 'place of the huckster Gelasius'; 

we may imagine him at his stall purveying the ancient equivalent of


peanuts and ice-cream to the spectators as they flocked in. The 

diazoma is broad and backed by a 1.90 m.-high wall the point of which 

has a projection with steps on either side giving access to the upper 

seats. On the front of the projection is a figure of Tyche, with the 

inscription; "Fortune of the city, be ever victorious, with good luck." 

Fragments of the decoration, including broken columns and carved 

blocks, are lying on the ground. In the orchestra is an interesting 

inscription concerning imports and exports at Myra, requiring the city 

to pay to the League Treasury 7,000 denars annually out of the 

revenues from the import duty. The theater was destroyed as a result 

of an earthquake in AD 141 whereas the theater and its portico were 

reconstructed by Licinus Langus of Oinoanda, to whom 10,000 denars 

were donated for its completion. The theater was used as an arena 

later on, which was the reason why some alterations were made. 

177



Phaselis 

If you are driving towards Antalya along the recently opened coastal 

highway, which allows the most spectacular view of the beauty of the 

Mediterranean, you will encounter a road sign at the exit some 35 km. 

before Antalya that points in the direction of Phaselis, which is down a 

forested road in the village of Tekirova. Although the nearby Beldibi Cave 

shows some signs of prehistoric dwellings, we can trace the city of 

Phaselis back no further than the 7 th century BC. As it possessed three 

harbors and was in close proximity to a rich forested region, Phaselis was 

established as a colony of Rhodes in 690 BC Phaselis, which derived its 

existence from the sea in the 6 th -7 th centuries BC, was captured by Persia 

after they took Anatolia, and later by Alexander the Great after he 

defeated Persia. However, the inhabitants of Phaselis opened their gates 

to Alexander and accommodated him in their city. It was here that 

Alexander accepted many of the envoys from the cities of Pamphylia, then 

advanced to Gordion, taking each of the coastal cities in quick succession. 

After the death of Alexander, the city remained in Egyptian hands from 

309-197 BC under the the Ptolemiac Dynasty. With the signing of the 

Apameia Treaty, it was handed over to the Kingdom of Rhodes, along with 

the other cities of Lycia, where it remained under the sovereignty of 

Rhodes from 190-160 BC. Soon after, it was absorbed into the Lycian 

League under Roman administration. Like Olympos, Phaselis was under 

constant threat of pirates in the 1 st century BC, and the city was even 

taken over by the pirate Zenicetes for a spell. The threat was eliminated 

when Zenicetes was ignominiously defeated by the Romans. In 42 BC, 

Brutus had the city annexed to Rome. During the Byzantine Period, the 

city became a bishopric. In the 3 rd century AD, its convenient harbor had 

fallen under the threat of pirates once more and it began to lose 

importance, suffering further losses at the hands of Arab hordes until 

becoming totally impoverished. Phaselis’ fate was permanently sealed 

when the Seljuks began concentrating on Alanya and Antalya as their 

ports of preference. As we previously indicated, Phaselis was a city of 

harbors, of which it possessed no less than three. The north harbor is 

beyond the place where we parked the car, next to that is the naval base, 

and the southern harbor is to the south. It was with the sealing off of two 

small islets with a breakwater that the north harbor was made secure, 

whereupon it was subsequently enlarged and dredged to accommodate a 

large number of ships. The military harbor to the south of this was 

An aerial view of Phaselis. 

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Plan of Phaselis 

1.Military Harbor, 2.South Harbor, 3.Main Avenue, 4.Hadrian’s Agora, 

5.Baths-Gymnasion, 6.Town Square, 7.Hadrians Agora, 8.Byzantine 

Basilica, 9.Fountain, 10.Domitian’s Agora, 11.Late-Period Agora, 

12.Small Baths, 13.Public Toilets, 14.Theater. 

protected by a breakwater which was an extension of the fortification 

walls that surrounded the peninsula, and it is possible to see traces of all 

this. Let’s take a look at the other remains to be found at the spot where 

the forest splashes into the sea, an insatiable view that made it one of the 

favorite harbor cities of antiquity. As you begin to wander about Phaselis, 

which was established on top of a peninsula that narrowed into bays to the 

north and south, you will first encounter the intact ruins of an aqueduct. 

While water needs were met during Phaselis’ early period with cisterns 

and wells, later on, a system of aqueducts brought in water from faraway 

places as well as from a spring to the north of the city to the hill behind 

the Hadrian Agora, where it was then distributed throughout the town via 

a network of channels and water pipes. The actual ruins of the city lie on 

both sides of the main avenue that connects the military harbor with the 

south harbor. Measuring 125 m. long by 20-25 m. long, the avenue has 

sidewalks on either side that are reached by ascending three steps. You 

will reach the south harbor after encountering a plaza in the middle of the 

avenue. This avenue, which was laid with flat stones, also had a sewage 

and drainage system running under it. Now, as you enter the avenue from 

the military harbor, you will come across ruins on both sides. The rubble 

that you see on the west side used to be shops lined up along the avenue. 

Behind these, you will come across a structure with a confusing plan, and 

then you will also see the bath-gymnasion complex a bit further down 

from this. Behind these were the training rooms. Because the gymnasion, 

which had mosaics on the floor, was used for different purposes in later


Ruins of the structures lining the main avenue that ran through Phaselis. 

ages, it hasn’t maintained its original layout. One entered the bath 

dressing room through two doors in the south, and stepped into the cold 

and warm sections from here. The floor and walls of the baths, which were 

constructed in the 3 rd century AD, were once covered in marble. From the 

looks of it, we assume that it was renovated and put into use again at a 

later date. The large structure to the south of the bath is an agora. The 

layout of the agora, which had a wide gate that opened up into the town 

square, was almost square-shaped and as it was constructed during the 

reign of Hadrianus (AD 117-138) it was called ‘Hadrian’s Agora.’ The 

agora was surrounded by porticoes and behind these were the shops. A 

basilica with a rectangular layout was added in the 5 th -6 th centuries to the 

north west half of Hadrian’s Agora, and the tri-windowed apse can still be 

seen today. In addition to this, several wings were added onto the agora’s 

east and south sides. The large cistern found here is rather interesting. It 

is understood that statues were once lined up along the rim of the agora 

wall which overlooked the avenue. It is known that there were two statues 

extant on either side of the entry gate; one of Opramoas, from 

Rhodiapolis, who helped a number of Lycian cities and who had provided 

Phaselis with major assistance during this time; the other one was of Saxa 

Amyntianus. In addition to these statues, there was also once a fountain 

that decorated the facade of the agora. In making a wide angle, the second 

section of the avenue begins after the square and turns south. You will 

immediately see the Domitian Agora at the corner. This building had two 

gates facing the avenue; this was called the ‘Domitian Agora’ as there was 

an inscription written in honor of Emperor Domitian (AD 81-96) which 

was found above one of the gates. The courtyard of this agora was in the 

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shape of a major structural complex. On the west side of the avenue are 

ruins of yet another agora which date to a later period. This agora’s inner 

courtyard was surrounded by corridors in a portico fashion, and the shops 

were located in the rear. This agora was connected to the south harbor. 

At the end of the main avenue lies the Hadrian Gate, and from here it is 

possible to look out into the south harbor with all its grandeur. The view 

of myriad shades of blue sea with mountains in the background topped 

with winter snow and fog gives this place a mysterious aura. Before falling 

too far into a hypnotic trance, you should take a look at the ruins on the 

east side by returning to the main avenue. Below the theater, one comes 

across the remnants of another baths complex. The formation of this bath, 

which is mainly intact and dating back to the 3 rd -4 th centuries BC, is 

comprised of three main spaces running parallel to each other. The first 

one, which once held the swimming pool, was known as the frigidarium; 

the second section was the tepidarium; the third part was the caldarium. 

Today, the brick foundations that once provided heat for the baths can 

still be seen. Moving along south of the bath, you will may encounter ruins 

of the town’s mosaic-covered public toilet, which was situated above the 

avenue. Up above this bathing complex, you will see the town’s theater, 

which once had a seating capacity of 1500-2000 spectators. This 

Hellenistic theater was established on a hill overlooking the town, with a 

panoramic view of the sea, as well. You will ascend stone steps to reach 

the theater from the avenue. The entrance and exit were located on either 

side. These sections underwent major changes during the Byzantine Age. 

The cavea, which was in the shape of a semi-circle, had 20 rows of seats. 

The auditorium was divided into five sections by four sets of stairs. The 

stage originally had two storeys, but today only the bottom one remains 

intact. It also had five gates. The theater continued to be utilized during 

the Roman Period after some renovations were made. On the acropolis in 

the Temple of Athena, located above the upper section of the theater, was 

the broken spear of Achilles which was crafted from ash wood. Ancient 

writers wrote that while Alexander was in Phaselis, he visited the temple 

and touched the spear. In addition to the Temple of Athena, we know that 

there were also the temples of Herakles, Hestia and Hermes on the 

acropolis, which goes back to the early period. Moreover, there were also 

palace and official buildings on this site. Today, late-period ruins and 

cisterns can be seen through a thick blanket of vegetation. Phaselis’ 

necropolis is found in several locations, the most widespread of which is 

along the coastline at the edge of the north harbor, where you can see a 

number of various types of tombs. 

The Roman Theater of Phaselis.



Head of Alexander. 

Found at Pergamon, thought to be inspired by the 4 th century BC portrait of 

Alexander executed by the sculptor Lysippos, and bears the lion's 

mane-like hair the Lysippos original is known to have immortalised. 

Hellenistic, (first half of the 2 nd century BC) 41 cm. in height, marble. 

‹stanbul Archaeological Museum.


The Hellenistic Period 330-30 BC 

Culture, Art and Architecture in the Hellenistic Period 

Cultivated and raised in Anatolia, this civilization was a result of the 

mixture of the Hellenistic culture and the culture of the east. It is 

important in its creative nature and universal character. A feature of 

the Hellenistic culture, which spanned a wide spectrum, was that it 

was made of diverse races as opposed to Greece or Macedonia which 

were of the same race, and had a supranational policy which did not 

discriminate on the grounds of religion and language. For instance, 

the state founded by Alexander the Great was by no means a 

nationally characterized Macedonian Empire. 

Alexander held the opinion that the Hellenistic culture he wanted to 

form shall be based on the Hellenistic culture in general. However, he 

was highly impressed by the cultural and scientific accumulation of 

the east and this interaction was reflected in the Hellenistic culture. 

To transfer the Hellenistic life style here, he established about 70 

cities-mostly named Alexandria-organized them as Hellenist city 

states and settled Macedonians and Greeks here. Alexander also 

encouraged those local people who sympathized with this culture to 

settle here. In these cities, the people had the right to select their own 

laws and administrators. The cities continued to exist in the 

Hellenistic Period for many years as a cultural center. Wanting to 

establish this culture, Alexander married a Persian princess despite 

protests by the Macedonians, and encouraged his soldiers to marry 

Persian women as well. 

Greek was the common language in the territories of Alexander and 

the only difference between the free people was whether they 

assimilated the common culture or not. The blending of people also 

led to the blending of their beliefs in the ancient times, Kybele in Asia 

Minor, Istar in Mesopotamia, Astarte in Syria, Isis in Egypt, and 

Demeter in Greece were goddesses who were worshipped ever since 

the earliest times. Tykhe represented all of these gods during the 

Hellenistic Period and The Kingdom of Seleucos declared her the chief 

goddess. While the cult of Kybele continued in Anatolia, Zeus, 

Dionysos, Apollon and Athena retained their importance in Western 

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Anatolia and magnificent temples were erected for them. Important 

steps were taken in positive sciences during the Hellenistic Period, 

during which the first academies (akademia) for scientific research 

were established. Schools, which were formed in an organized and 

detailed manner, played an important role in spreading the bright 

civilization of the period. Tarsus and Alexandria were cities where university-level 

education was provided and where many Anatolian scientists, 

whose inventions retain their importance even today, were 

educated. 

Euklides of Alexandria, who organized the geometrical knowledge 

available up to then, Apollonios of Perge, who put forward intriguing 

theses in mathematics, Philon of Byzantion, who is known for his 

invention in the area of war machinery, and Hipparhos of Niceae 

(‹znik), who calculated the times when day and night are equal, were 

the famous scientists of that age. Aristarkhos of Sisam found that the 

Sun was 12 times greater than the World’s diameter, put forward that 

the World revolved on its own axis and around the Sun, and thus he 

was blamed for impiety. 

One of the most important artistic segments of the Hellenistic Period 

was the art of sculpture. This art is divided into three sections as the 

Early Hellenistic (330-225 BC), the Middle Hellenistic (225-160 BC) 

and the Late Hellenistic Period (160-30 BC). Since realism dominated 

Hellenistic sculpture, sculptures of people from all walks of life and 

from all ages were made, while the slender and gracious bodies of 

idealism were replaced by seemingly large, muscled bodies with the 

influence of the east. Their facial expressions were calm and their 

body lines were soft. Many famous sculptors were produced during 

this age. However, among these, Lysippos’s style dominated the 

Hellenistic Period. Lysippos was the sculptor of the palace of 

Alexander the Great during the transition period to Hellenism and 

worked under the philosophy “I want to display a human not as it 

actually is but as it seems to me.” Today, however, only the Roman 

replicas of his sculptures exist. 

Alexander’s Sarcophagus, which was supposedly created in 312 BC 

and which has scenes of Alexander hunting and battling, is one of the 

leading works of the Hellenistic Era. Even though this work in Sidon 

was named after Alexander because of the embossments of Alexander 

on it, it in fact belongs to Abdalonymos the king of Sidon. This king


was made the king of Sidon by Alexander; consequently he adorned 

his own sarcophagus with embossments of Alexander to express his 

gratitude. 

Rodos sculpture of Helios, the sculpture of Aphrodite (Milo) found in 

Melos, and the sculpture of Tykhe who held the fate of the cities at her 

hands are the colossal works created during this age. The most 

famous sculpture of Tykhe was created for Antiocheia-the capital of 

Seleucoses-by Eutyhides, who was the student of Lysippos. The 

Crouching Aphrodite sculpture by Doidalses, who worked in 

Nicomedia (center of the Kingdom of Bithynia), was important in that 

it provided depth. 

When the King of Egypt Euergetes expelled the pundits from 

Alexandria in the 2 nd century BC, The Kingdom of Pergamon received 

them with open arms, thus the city became the center of science of 

that age. Besides the King’s palace, the antique sources suggest that 

a library including 200.000 parchment rolls was established. This 

spectacular library was given to the Egyptian queen as a gift by 

Antonius in 41 BC, and was later burnt by the Romans. Furthermore, 

Pergamon had a significant place in sculpture and a school of 

sculpture was formed here. The bronze sculptures of Attalos I, 

reflecting his victory against the Galatians, can be recognized by their 

Roman replicas made from marble. An important one among these is 

the sculpture of the Galatian who first killed his wife and then thrust 

his sword in to himself, so as not to be taken as a prisoner. The Zeus 

Altar that is currently in Berlin has embossments measuring 120 m. in 

length and 2.30 m. in height which display the battles of giants and 

gods with exaggerated motions, flitting clothes, hairy heads, bearded 

faces, and excessively muscled bodies. All of these characteristics 

reflect the style of the Pergamon sculpture school. Emotional 

expressions are prominent with Pergamon-style sculptures. 

Furthermore, glamorous works were created by playing with the 

shade and light. 

The main themes of the Hellenistic Period were the mythological pairs 

as well as children and people in the street. Around the end of the 

2 nd century BC, the Pergamon school became weaker, the Middle 

Hellenistic Period came to an end, and the Late Hellenistic Period 

started. This period had a picturesque character, while the majority of 

the themes were taken from every day life. The sculptures were 

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Diokaisareia Zeus Temple (Uzuncaburç). Temple in the Corinthian order on 

the Mediterranean coast at Uzuncaburc, 24 km. from Silifke. 6x12 columns, 

peripteros plan, columns fluted on upper part. According to its inscription, 

the temple was founded by Seleucos Nikotor. 

created in groups of two and three. The muscles were bulky and soft. 

Terracotta sculptures also seem to have been created. In this period 

the Tralles (Ayd›n) sculpture school was effective. Apollonius and 

Tauriskos of Tralles created monumental groups of sculptors here. 

The sculpture ‘Young Athlete (Ephebos)’, which is currently in ‹stanbul 

Archaeological Museum, is an important work of art from the school of 

Tralles which was influenced by Lysippos. Samples of sculpture from 

the late period of the Hellenistic Age can be seen today in Perge,


Dated stylistically to the beginning of the 3 rd century BC-mid-2 nd century. 

The temple was converted into a church during the Byzantine Period. This 

temple, together with the surviving tombs and the tower after which the 

settlement was named are the most interesting ruins on the site. 

Magnesia on the Meander, and Chalcedon. With the territories of the 

Kingdom of Pergamon being left to Rome in 133 BC, the artists went to 

Aphrodisias, continued to produce excellent works from marble 

extracted from the nearby marble quarries, and established a sculpture 

school here, creating the school of Aphrodisias. 

In the Hellenistic Period, another branch of art which combined the 

grace of Greek art with the splendor of the east, creating a synthesis, 

was architecture. Cities were established generally in the west and 

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190 

south of Anatolia due to political and cultural needs. These cities were 

developed thanks to the advantages provided by the sea, in addition to 

the influence of transportation. Smyrna is the best example for these 

cities, which were made up of rectangular building blocks and had grid 

plan with streets vertically intersecting with each other. During the 

Hellenistic Period, educational and cultural structures with 

monumental appearance were created, and columned streets became 

the main elements of the cities. Agoras, which retained their 

importance, were surrounded by stoa at three sides, the buildings 

related to the city administration were each transformed into a covered 

theater, and the cities were surrounded by ramparts, which were made 

from stone and had numerous towers and gates. 

During this age, even though some elements were taken from eastern 

architecture, the basic points remained faithful to Greek architecture. 

Whereas the Ionic order continued in Anatolia, the Corinthian order 

was also used. The best examples built in this order were the Temple of 

Zeus Olbius in Uzuncaburç from the 3 rd century BC and the Temple of 

Hekate in Lagina in Caria from the 2 nd century BC. 

The fourth biggest temple in Anatolia belonging to the Hellenistic era is 

the Temple of Artemis in Magnesia on the Meander which was created 

by the architect Hermogenes in the 2 nd century BC. The seemingly 

Pseudodipteros plan Hermogenes used in this temple was invented and 

implemented by him. The Temple of Apollon at Didyma, which was 

demolished by the Persians, was rebuilt around 300 BC. Even the 

surviving sections of the temple, which was the third largest building of 

the Hellenistic world after Ephesos and Sisam, appear capable of 

capturing one’s admiration. The other temple built in Anatolia during 

the Hellenistic Period was the Temple of Dionysos in Teos with the Ionic 

order, again created by Hermagones as reported by Vitruvius. The 

Temple of Chryse Apollon in the Troas region, which has recently been 

uncovered, belongs to the 2 nd century BC. Homeros’s Iliad tells that 

there used to be another temple, belonging to Apollon, in the place of 

this temple during the Troian Wars. Therefore, it is also important in 

that it shows that the cult of Apollon existed in Anatolia. 

Another temple belonging to the 2 nd century BC is located in the city of 

Alabanda which is in the Caria region. Vitrivius recorded that this temple 

of Apollon with the Ionic order had been built by the architect Menestheus. 

The friezes of this temple display the Amazon Wars.


Another temple of Apollon built at the beginning of the Hellenistic 

Period is in Klaros, which was an equestrian center near Ephesos. The 

Temple of Aphrodite, which is located in Aphrodisias and which belongs 

to the Late Hellenistic Period, is still standing and compels admiration 

with its 14 columns. Aphrodite here, like Artemis in Ephesos, identifies 

a goddess symbolizing fertility, preserving the legacy of Kubaba-the 

mother goddess of Anatolia. The Temple of Artemis in Sardes was 

re-designed as the second stage in the place of the previous temple, 

during 175-150 BC. There are many temples like these in Anatolia. 

These temples were used during the Roman Age with minor changes. 

The most spectacular examples of monumental architecture during the 

Hellenistic Period were the altars. The forerunners of these structures, 

which were surrounded by porticos on high and stepped pillars and 

which were located in front of the temples, are Priene Athena, 

Magnesia Artemis and Pergamon Zeus. The Belevi Monument in the 

vicinity of Ephesos built in 246 BC and the Gümüflkesen Monuments in 

Milas from the 2 nd century BC are the splendid grave monuments of the 

Hellenistic Period. 

Theaters 

The art of theater emerged as an outcome of the festivities held in 

Athens around the end of the 7 th century BC and beginning of the 

6 th century BC for the god Dionysos to increase fertility. Organization of 

these festivities became an annual tradition, and for more people to be 

able to watch them, wooden benches were placed at the foot of a slope 

of choice. The festivities held in the center were then watched from 

here. However, in 498 BC, these wooden benches collapsed and many 

people died. After this disaster, stone benches were built instead of 

wooden benches, resulting in the creation of the first theater buildings. 

Afterwards, the small wooden structure before the theater was 

developed and transformed into a stage. The stage gained its typical 

form from the 3 rd century BC onwards and a background was created for 

the actors. 

Previously performed by a single person, the works of the drama authors 

were later staged with the addition of the chorus and other individuals. 

The first dramatic performances were staged in the 5 th century BC in 

Athens in Piraeus, and in the 4 th century BC in Epidauros, whereas they 

also started to be performed in Anatolia in Priene and Magnesia, at the 

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The Arycanda Theater. 

beginning of the 3 rd century BC, in Ephesos, and at the beginning of the 

2 nd century BC in Pergamon. The first plays were in a dance form and 

were staged before the seats. After the construction of the stage 

building, they started to be performed on the proskenion section of the 

stage. Until the 1 st century BC, the construction of the theaters was 

attempted outside of the cities. In cases where they had to be built 

inside the city, special consideration was given so that they would be 

built at an independent location. The Hellenistic theaters were rested 

on a slope and special attention was given so that a beautiful view would 

be seen from the seats. Furthermore, mobile wooden stages were also 

used, like in the Pergamon theater.


The type of stone, travertine or marble materials used in the construction 

of the theaters were chosen depending on the situation of the region. The 

first theater samples in Anatolia made from stone belong to the end of 

the 3 rd century BC. Because the previous ones were wooden, they did not 

survive to the present time. The most beautiful examples of the theaters 

leaning against a slope, as characterized by the Hellenistic Period, are 

seen in Anatolia in the ancient cities such as Pergamon, Ephesos, Miletos, 

Priene. In these theaters, the stage was one-storey, the proskenion was 

narrow and high, whereas the orchestra section was made from earth. 

Theater structures went through great changes during the Roman 

Period, which is subsequent to the Hellenistic Period. This will be 

discussed separately under the Roman section. 

193



Pergamon 

Located in ‹zmir's provincial district of Bergama, Pergamon is one of 

the major sites of antiquity in Turkey. During the Archaic Period, 

Pergamon appears to have been a minor settlement. After the 

overthrow of Persian rule, the city came under Alexander's rule in 

333 BC. Following Alexander's death, Pergamon was governed by 

one of his generals, Lysimachus, who ruled Anatolia from 301 BC 

onwards. 

Lysimachus entrusted 9,000 talents to Philetairos, the commander of 

Pergamon, to be used in the defense of the city. When Lysimachus died, 

Philetairos declared himself king and used the money to develop the city. 

For 150 years, Pergamon was one of the outstanding cultural centers of 

the Hellenistic Period. During 20 years of rule (283-263 BC) Philetairos 

extended his kingdom to the shores of the Sea of Marmara. Upon his 

death, he was succeeded by his nephew Eumenes I (263-241 BC) After 

Eumenes I, his son Attalos (214-197 BC) ruled and he fought with 

Galatians and built up his capital city. Attalos was succeeded by 

Eumenes II (197-159 BC), who transformed Pergamon into a powerful 

kingdom. It was during the reign of this king that the beautiful Pergamon 

acropolis was adorned with its finest buildings whereas the city became 

one of the most important centers of culture, architecture and sculpture 

in the Hellenistic world. Eumenes II was succeeded by his brother 

Attalos II and after him Pergamon ruled by his son Attalos III who, upon 

his death in 133 BC bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. Pergamon 

continued to be an important center in Roman times. Augustus had the 

victory monuments of the Pergamon Kingdom resurrected. Hadrian 

completed the Temple of Trajan while Caracalla had the Temple of 

Dionysos restored. During Byzantine times, Pergamon was the center of 

a diocese. Stones from previous Hellenistic and Roman buildings as well 

as ancient statuary were used as building material. In 716 the city was 

occupied by Arab invaders for a while and captured by the Turks in 1330. 

The site of Pergamon was first excavated by the German archaeologists 

Carl Humann, Alexander Conze and R. Bohn between 1878-1886. It was 

during this time that the magnificent reliefs of the Altar of Zeus were 

The Trajaneum. A temple erected in honor of the deified Emperor Trajan 

was completed after his death by Emperor Hadrian (117-138). This 

Corinthian-order temple once stood 18 m. high and was faced by six 

columns with nine along each flank. The temple has been partially restored. 

195


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discovered and shipped off to Berlin. A second round of excavations took 

place in 1900-1913 while a third study was carried out from 1927-1936 by 

Theodor Wiegand. Interrupted by World War II, a fourth round of 

excavations did not begin until 1957 whereas restoration work is still 

being conducted under the direction of German archaeologists. 

Excavations are continued today headed by Associate Professor Felix 

Pirson. The main part of the city of Pergamon was located between two 

streams, the Selinus (now called Bergama Çay›) to the west and the 

Cetius (modern day Kester Stream) to the east. 

Today, the ruins are comprised of an acropolis or ‘upper’ city, a 

middle, or ‘Roman’ city, the so-called 'Red Courtyard' (actually the 

Temple of Serapis) and the Temple of Asclepios, the latter of which 

is located outside the city proper. In addition, there is a fine museum 

in the town of Bergama that houses artefacts from Pergamon as well 

as from the surrounding area. Let us now begin our tour from the 

Acropolis. 

The Upper City: The first building (1) is a heroon from the 

Hellenistic Period. This was a temple in which the Pergamon kings 

Attalos I and Eumenes II were worshipped as deities. This building 

underwent alterations during the Roman Period. The remains (2) 

before it were once a row of shops built in Hellenistic times. The main 

entrance (3) to the Acropolis takes us to the upper city. As we 

advance along this road we come to the outlines of the foundations 

of a propylon (4) or monumental outer gateway built by Eumenes II. 

This was originally a two-storey structure decorated with reliefs. The 

upper storey was in the Doric order while the lower was Ionic. 

A recreation of this structure was made in the Berlin Museum using 

fragments found during excavations. The propylon led to the Temple 

of Athena (6), which was also built by Eumenes II. The precinct was 

Plan of Acropolis of Pergamon 

1.Heroon 2.Shops built in Hellenistic age 3.Main entrance of the Acropolis 

4.Propylon 5.Flight of steps leading up to the palaces 6.Sacred precinct 

(temenos) of Athena 7.Temple of Athena 8.Library 9.A house-complex 

dating from Hellenistic times 10.Palace of Eumenes II 11.Palace of Attalos I 

12.Remains of some Hellenistic houses 13.Barracks and command tower 

14.Arsenals 15.Trajaneum Temple 16.Theater 17.Temple of Dionysos 

18.Theater terrace 19.Stoa 20.Altar of Zeus, built by Eumenes II 21.Upper 

Agora 22.Temple of Agora 23.Bath of acropolis 24.Sacred precinct of 

Demeter 25.Sacred precinct of Hera 26.Eastern Bath 27.Upper Gymnasion 

28.Middle Gymnasion 29.Temple 30.Attalos house 31.Lower Gymnasion 

32.Lower Agora 33.Fountain 34.Houses 

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198 

surrounded on three sides by two-storied stoa in the Doric order. 

Within the precinct was a temple dedicated to the Athena (7), 

Measuring 12.72x21.77 m. at the base, this temple was of the 

'peripteros' plan in the Doric order and had six columns on the ends 

and 10 along each side. 

Today only sections of the foundation remain whereas fragments of 

the temple displayed in the Berlin Museum indicate that it was built 

in the early-3 rd century BC. The Temple of Athena was apparently 

adorned with many bronze statues depicting the victories of the 

Pergamon kings. While the originals are lost, marble copies of some 

do exist. One found in the Museum of Rome is of a defeated Galatian 

warrior committing suicide with a dagger, having just killed his wife. 

The round structure in the center of the precinct was the base of a 

bronze statue of Emperor Augustus, a marble copy of which is now 

in the Vatican Museum. Adjacent to the northern stoa of the sacred 

precinct was the famous Pergamon Library (8) built during the reign 

of Eumenes II. In the middle of the library's main reading room is the 

podium on which there stood at one time 3.5 m. high statue of Athena 

that is now in the Berlin Museum. Ancient authors tell us that the 

Pergamon Library once contained 200,000 volumes. Mark Anthony 

carted them off to Egypt as a gift for Cleopatra, ostensibly to replace 

the ones that had been lost when the library in Alexandria, Egypt was 

burned during Caesar's campaign in that city. To the left of the 

library (9) are the remains of a big house. If we leave the Temple of 

Athena by the stone-paved road at the entrance, the stairway (5) 

before us leads to the old palace of Eumenes II. The smaller ruin (11) 

is the palace of Attalos I. Both palaces were of the peristyle type in 

which a set of colonnades surrounded an open courtyard. Mosaics 

found in these palaces are also displayed in the Berlin Museum. We 

come now to the magnificent theater of Pergamon, rising up a steep 

hillside below the Temple of Athena. This impressive Hellenistic 

theater attained its present magnificent state during the reign of 

Eumenes II. There was undoubtedly an earlier theater situated on 

the same slope whereas very few fragments of its retaining walls may 

still be seen. 

The auditorium had 80 rows of seats that are divided horizontally into 

three sections. Stairs 74 cm. wide divide the lower section into seven 

parts and the middle and upper sections into six parts. The Pergamon 

Theater once accommodated 10,000 spectators. Just above the


center of the lower diazoma was the royal box where the king sat. 

This was built from marble, a stone not much used in Hellenistic 

Pergamon, while the rest of the seats were of the ordinary greyish 

andesite stone, more typical of Pergamon architecture. 

The stage of the theater underwent alterations during Roman times. 

Situated before the theater is a terrace (18) consisting of a Doric stoa 

246.5 m. longx16 m. wide extending as far as the Temple of Dionysos 

(17), which is still impressive with its marble steps and podium. The 

Ionic temple measured 11.80x20.22 m. It is approached by 25 steps 

that rise to a height of 4.5 m. The temple was originally built in the 

2 nd century BC and underwent alterations during the reign of 

Caracalla (211-217 AD) when it was renovated in marble. Retracing 

our steps from the Temple of Dionysos, we proceed in the direction 

of the Altar of Zeus (20). This structure was built by Eumenes II and 

was decorated with reliefs depicting the battles between gods and 

giants. The sculptures were intended to symbolize the victory of the 

Pergamon kings over the Galatians. The altar was located in the 

middle of a precinct measuring 69x77 m. Today all that remains here 

of this magnificent altar is the foundations. The structure originally 

sat on a three-tiered podium in the center of which was the marble 

altar. The top of the podium was surrounded on three sides by an 

Ionic order stoa giving the structure a horseshoe-like appearance. 20 

steps led up to the open rectangular area on top where the altar was 

located. This monument consisted of four stages. The lowest was a 

crepidoma with five steps and measuring 36.44x34.20 m. at the base 

(This is all that still remains in Pergamon). This was surmounted by 

a podium, a middle frieze of reliefs and a columned portico forming 

an enclosing wall. The frieze measured 120 m. long and 2.30 m. high 

and depicted a battle between the Greek gods and the giants. 

The friezes are currently displayed in the Berlin Museum. To the west 

of the Zeus Altar is the Pergamon Agora (21). Originally built in the 

3 rd century BC, the agora is enclosed on the north east and south west 

by Doric stoa. The altar of the agora was in the western part of the 

square where the foundations (22) of a small temple measuring 

12.30x6.70 m. may be seen. Between the Temple of Athena and the 

Altar of Zeus was a double-aisled stoa (19) which dates from the 

late-Hellenistic Period. Proceeding in the direction of the row of 

Hellenistic shops again (2) we may return to where we left our car 

having completed our tour of the magnificent upper city of Pergamon. 

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View of the Asklepieion. These columns are part of the temenos of Asklepios, 

the so-called red courtyard, which was linked to the acropolis of Pergamon. 

The Middle City: Immediately below the acropolis lies the middle 

city of Pergamon. Excavations are still in progress here. Among the 

buildings unearthed thus far are the Temple of Hera Basileia, which 

was built during the reign of Attalos II; the Temple of Demeter, 

constructed in the early-3 rd century BC; the Temple of Asclepios (2 nd 

century BC), as well as upper, middle and lower agoras. 

The Roman City: The region between the Selinus Stream (Bergama 

Çay›) and the Asclepieion was settled during Roman times. The Roman 

city possessed an amphitheater that seated 50,000 as well as another 

with a seating capacity of 30,000. Both have yet to be excavated.


Built after 263 BC, to grow into an important capital city and one of the most 

interesting ancient cities in Turkey. 

The Temple of Serapis: Located today within the city of Bergama, 

this structure was the biggest building in ancient Pergamon. Owing to 

the red tiles used in its construction, it is known locally today as K›z›l 

Avlu (Red Courtyard). It is a basilican structure with a central nave, 

two aisles, and an apse that was dedicated to worship the Egyptian 

gods. The temple and its two tower-like structures open onto a 

courtyard measuring 200 by 100 m.. The Selinus runs beneath this big 

courtyard through two vaulted canals. The temple was built during the 

2 nd century AD during the reign of Hadrian. In Byzantine times the 

main building was converted into a church. 

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Hierapolis-Pamukkale 

Located 20 km. away from the town of Denizli, Pamukkale is one of the 

most interesting places in the world. 

Over the millennia, the calcium-oxide rich waters flowing down the 

southern slope of Çal Da¤›, located north of the ruins, have built up 

deposits of white travertine on the plateau. These deposits explain both 

the site’s ancient name, Hierapolis-Holy City-and its modern name, 

Pamukkale-Cotton Castle. 

Ancient Hierapolis appears to have been founded by King Eumenes II of 

Pergamon. Its name is derived from Hiera, the wife of King Telephos, the 

legendary founder of Pergamon. The city came under Roman control in 

133 BC. In 17 BC, during the reign of Tiberius, it suffered a heavy 

earthquake that substantially destroyed the city, requiring it to be rebuilt. 

Preliminary excavations at Hierapolis were undertaken by a German team 

towards the end of the last century whereby since 1957, excavation and 

restoration work has taken place under the direction of an Italian group 

of archaeologists. 

The ancient city was strung out on either side of a long colonnaded 

avenue called the Plateia. Measuring 13 m. wide, this avenue ran from the 

gateway in the south to the Arch of Domitian in the north. It was paved 

with huge blocks of limestone. The first structure one encounters upon 

reaching the plateau are the city baths, which have been very well 

preserved. The baths are Roman, and were built in the 2 nd century AD. 

In the eastern part of the baths is a palaestra measuring 36.13 by 52.25 m.. 

Immediately to the north and south of the palaestra are two large rooms 

that were reserved for the emperor and for ceremonial use. A large hall, 

once used by athletes as a gymnasion, stretches the length of the 

western side of the palaestra. 

This hall led into the frigidarium from which one proceeded to the 

barrel-vaulted rooms of the calidarium. A small room adjacent to the large 

hall now serves as a museum in which artefacts discovered in the 

View of Pamukkale. Calcium oxide deposits from a nearby stream have 

created these extraordinary formations on the plateau of Pamukkale, which 

means ‘Cotton Castle’ in English as they resemble tufts of cotton. 

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Hierapolis excavations are on display. Since Hierapolis was principally a 

luxurious resort town, it was richly adorned with magnificent sculptures 

showing the influence of the Aphrodisias school and is well worth a visit. 

The theater of Hierapolis commands a magnificent view of the plain 

below. The original theater was located above the northern gate, but 

when the city was rebuilt during the reign of the Flavian emperors (60 

AD) the theater was relocated, though the seats from the old structure 

were used when it was relocated. During the reign of Septimius Severus 

(193-211 AD) the theater’s skene was modified and richly decorated with 

reliefs. In 532 it was discovered that the skene had been weakened by 

age and the almost daily seismic activity that takes place here, and it was 

reinforced with pillars. 

Since the theater has been restored, it is now possible to see the friezes 

of mythological scenes in their original positions, depicting Apollo and 

Artemis. Thirty rows of the seats of this theater have survived. Passing 

through the city walls above the theater one may proceed to the 

Martyrion of St. Philip, an octagonal building erected on a square 

measuring 20 by 20 m., built in the early 5 th century AD. Near the road is 

the Temple of Apollo, the principal deity of the city. While the foundations 

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Plan of Hierapolis. 

1.South honorary gate 2.South Byzantine gate 3.City wall 4.Bouleuterion 

5.Gymnasion 6.Basilica 7.Church 8.City Baths (museum) 9.Roman Baths 

10.Plutonion 11.Nymphaeion 12.Temple of Apollo 13.Theater 14.Church 

15.Basilica-Cathedral and Baptistery 16.Main Street 17.Byzantine gate 

18.Frontinus street 19.Frontinus gate 20.Church 21.Latrina 22.Commercial 

agora 23.Old theater 24.Remains of the northern baths 25.Necropolis 

26.Martyrion of St. Philip 27.Water reservoir 28.Necropolis 

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The Theater of Hierapolis, 2 nd century AD. 

of this temple go back to late Hellenistic times, the present remains of 

the upper structure are from the 3 rd century AD. Next to it is a cave called 

the Plutonion from which poisonous gases emerge. (According to Strabo, 

an ox thrust into this cave would keel over and die. He himself 

experimented with doves.) The temple measures 20 by 15 m. and sat on 

a platform that was 2.5 m. high. In front of the temple is a monumental 

fountain. Built during the late 3 rd century AD, the walls of this 

rectangular fountain are very well preserved. 

There was once a pool located in front of the fountain and the structure 

was richly adorned with statues and columns. East of the present 

museum is a Christian basilica consisting of a nave and two aisles. It dates 

from the 6 th century AD. Walking along the route of the Plateia (which 

now passes through the modern swimming pool and a motel) reminds 

one that this main street dividing the ancient city was once decorated 

with colonnades, porticos, and important buildings located on either side. 

The street runs directly toward the city walls passing through a gateway 

built in Byzantine times atop an earlier fountain. On the way is a basilical 

structure with two aisles and a nave whose eastern end terminates in an 

apse. The city walls were built in 396 AD and were reinforced by 

twenty-eight towers. Passing through the Byzantine gate we come to a 

rather well-preserved section of the Plateia. This part was built during the 

reign of Domitian (81-96 AD) and terminates with the Arch of Domitian. 

This monumental gateway was actually erected by Julius Frontinus, who 

was proconsul of the Roman province of Asia in 82 and 83 AD, and it was 

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Ruins of ancient street now in a swimming pool. 

dedicated to the emperor. The gate has two round towers and three 

portals. Excavations are now in progress to reveal the remains of shops 

and houses that once lined both sides of the street. North east of the street 

between the Byzantine and Domitian gates was the agora of ancient 

Hierapolis. The traces of the city’s original theater may be seen above. 

Following the road in the direction of the necropolis one passes by the 

imposing walls of a building which originally served as baths around the


end of the 2 nd century AD. It was converted into a church in the 

5 th century. The huge necropolis of Hierapolis spreads out on either side 

of the road for a distance of two kms. It contains tumuli, sarcophagi, and 

house-shaped tombs that range in date from the late Hellenistic Period to 

early Christian times. It is one of the most extensive and best preserved 

ancient cemeteries in Anatolia and a stroll through it leaves a deep, 

mystical impression upon a visitor, particularly on a moonlit night. The 

road proceeds onto the hot springs of Karahay›t located 4 km. away. 

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Aphrodisias 

Turning off the road from ‹zmir to Denizli toward Karacasu, one arrives at 

the magnificent ruins of Aphrodisias. The site was once occupied by the 

village of Geyre, which has been relocated. Excavations here have 

unearthed numerous well-preserved ancient structures, including a 

theater, odeium and sebasteium. Located in the foothills of Babada¤ on 

the north eastern border of ancient Caria, Aphrodisias had been inhabited 

at least since the Early Bronze Period. Excavations on the acropolis, 

which was dug into a prehistoric habitation mound as well as those 

conducted on Pekmez Hill suggest the area was inhabited as far back as 

the Neolithic era. 

The original name of the city here was Ninoe. It was not until Hellenistic 

times that it came to be called Aphrodisias. The height of its prosperity 

occurred during Roman times, when the city became one of the region's 

cultural and artistic centers. White and blue-grey marble extracted from 

quarries on nearby Mt. Babada¤ was skillfully crafted by artists from 

Aphrodisias. 

The earliest excavations at Aphrodisias were carried out by French 

archaeologist Paul Gaudin in 1904-05, and were later taken up again in 

1937 by Italian scholar Giulio Jacopi. It was not until 1961, however, that 

the work was taken up systematically under the direction of Kenan T. 

Erim. Through his diligent efforts, many sculptural works of incredible 

artistic value were unearthed every year. Despite the recent, untimely 

death of Professor Erim, his work at Aphrodisias is resumed by Prof. R. 

Roland Smith today. Every season reveals new and startling examples of 

sculptural antiquities. 

Spread out over an area of 520 hectares, the city was encircled by a wall 

3.5 km. long. Originally built in late Roman times the wall was damaged 

and repaired on numerous occasions. As the region is seismically quite 

active, material scavenged from other structures that had collapsed in 

earthquakes was often used in these repairs. Turning left before the 

museum, one comes first to the theater. On the right as one approaches 

the theater are the recently excavated ruins of a sebasteium, which 

consist of two three-storey arcades, each 80 m. long, running parallel to 

Tetrapylon. To the east of the Temple of Aphrodite is the Tetrapylon, 

one of the most interesting remainings in Aphrodisias. 

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Plan of Aphrodisias 

1.Temple of Aphrodite 2.Odeion and Bishop’s Palace 3.Complex of the 

Northern Temenos 4.Agora 5.Hadrianus bath 6.Theater 7.Martyrion 

8.Tiberius porticos 9.Stadion 10.Tomb 11.Water channel and city gate 

12.City gate 13.Tetrapylon 14.Nymphaeion 15.Aphrodisias Museum 16.The 

theater baths and spa 17.The agora gate 18.Sebasteion 19.Gymnasion 

one another at a distance of 14 m. At the eastern end is a late-period 

stairway that connects the two arcades, which are in turn connected by a 

large gate at the western end. Beyond the steps stands a temple and an 

altar which were connected with the imperial cult worship. Originally built 

in the 1 st century AD, this structure collapsed in an earthquake around the 

beginning of the 5 th century. There after it continued to be used, but for a 

different purpose, most likely as a marketplace. Excavations here have 

turned up numerous fragments of reliefs and statues indicating that the 

structure must have once been quite ornamental. Today, the marble 

pavement of the sebasteium and the Doric columns in its first storey can 

still be seen. The second storey had capitals in the Ionic order, while those 

in the third storey were Corinthian. Between the columns were reliefs 

depicting the labors of Hercules. Between the sebasteium and the theater 

lies the eastern gate to the agora. This monumental two-storey structure 

was built in the 2 nd century AD and was converted into a fountain in the 

5 th century AD. 

A lovely Aphrodisian theater rests against the acropolis. The original 

structure is from the Late Hellenistic Period. During the reign of Marcus


Aphrodisias Theater. 

Aurelius (161-180 AD) it underwent an important restoration. The 

theater could accommodate an audience of 10,000 and has a double 

diazoma. The entire lower diazoma has been uncovered, revealing 27 rows 

of seats. Both the orchestra and the skene of the theater are very well 

preserved. 

The wall of the skene facing the northern parados is full of inscriptions 

that provide a wealth of information about the history of Aphrodisias as 

well as that of Asia Minor. One sees that the seats are divided by 11 aisles. 

Next to the theater are the remains of the theater baths. South of the 

baths is a gymnasion and the remains of a Byzantine house with a doubleperistyle 

courtyard. 

Continuing around the acropolis mound, one reaches the Baths of Hadrian 

and Aphrodite. With their richly decorated facade and huge rooms, they 

formed what must have been the grandest building in ancient Aphrodisias. 

The Portico of Tiberius stood before the baths, dedicated to Emperor 

Tiberius (14-37 AD). The portico measured 212x69 m. was surrounded on 

three sides by a covered Ionic colonnade, forming the southern extremity 

of the agora. Measuring 205x120 m., the northern part of the agora was 

located between the baths and the odeium. Three sides of this area were 

surrounded by a Doric-style portico. The Aphrodisias odeion is probably 

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the loveliest and most perfectly built structure on the site. Until it was 

unearthed in 1963, this small theater was buried under a lentil field. The 

auditorium could accommodate an audience of 1.700 and was probably 

used as a concert hall. The odeium was built in the 2 nd century AD and was 

destroyed in an earthquake in the 4 th century. 

West of the odeion is an elaborate complex of rooms and halls called the 

'Bishop's Palace'. This was a private residence probably built in late 

Roman times. A short way from the odeium stands the impressive remains 

of the Temple of Aphrodite. 14 columns of its peristasis are still erect. The 

original structure was built in the Late Hellenistic Period on the site of an 

Archaic-Age temple. The Goddess of Beauty, Aphrodite was associated 

with Cybele, the Anatolian Mother Goddess and both were worshipped 

here as fertility symbols. The temple had Ionic-order columns arranged in 

a peripteros. The temple was surrounded by a sacred precinct during the 

reign of Emperor Hadrian. Eight columns of an imposing propylon were 

excavated and re-erected to the east of the temple. Two of the columns 

are spirally fluted. 

The temple was converted into a Christian church in the 5 th century. 

Later, the cella was removed and the columns were shifted to the sides, 

forming a nave and two aisles, giving the church a basilical form. An apse 

was also added to the eastern end. Between the temple and the 

Aphrodisias stadion, on the way from the temple, there is a building whose 

floors are paved with mosaics. This is known as the 'northern sacred 

precinct complex,' and appears to have been a school of philosophy. The 

stadion of Aphrodisias is the best-preserved ancient stadion throughout 

Asia Minor. It is 262 m. long, 59 m. wide and once seated 30,000 

spectators. It was probably built in the 1 st -2 nd centuries AD. In later times, 

the theater was also used as an arena for gladiatorial and wild animal 

combat. The museum at Aphrodisias is truly magnificent. Sculpture was 

big business in ancient Aphrodisias and its products were exported all 

over the ancient world. As a result, artefacts uncovered here may be 

thought as what the Aphrodisians considered as their best work, since 

they were used to adorn their own city. 

The expressive power of the Aphrodisian masters becomes apparent in 

works such as the reliefs in the Zoilos friezes, the lovely busts of 

Aphrodite, the statue of Hercules and the marble portraits of the 

Aphrodisians themselves. 

Temple of Aphrodite.



On the way to Uzuncaburç, monumental Roman graves found in Demircili.


The Roman Period 30 BC-AD 395 

The Roman State, which emerged in Italy, grew and became a large 

empire. By 30 BC, it had also included Anatolia into its vast 

territories, thus leading to the end of the Hellenistic Period and the 

start of the Roman Period in Anatolia, with Augustus. This period 

continued until Rome was divided into two parts in 395. After the 

Pergamon King Attalos III left all of his territories to Rome in 133 

BC, Rome became the ruler of all of Anatolia. The treasure of 

Pergamon was transferred to Rome, while its territories were 

annexed into the first state of Rome: the Asian State. 

During this period, another kingdom which became stronger in 

Anatolia was the Pontos Kingdom. Having fought with this kingdom 

for a long while, Rome included it into its territories as well. The 

king of Bithynia, Nicomedes died in 74 BC and like the king of 

Pergamon, bequeathed that his territories be given to Rome. 

Pontos, Cappadocia and Commagene were left as vassal kingdoms 

committed to Rome. These kingdoms were later annihilated and 

Rome became the absolute power of Anatolia. 

Like in the Hellenistic Period, Anatolia retained its favorable 

position during the Roman Period. Anatolian cities were among the 

richest and most important centers of art during that period 

(around the 1 st and 2 nd centuries BC). Temples, main streets, baths, 

houses, areas surrounded by columns, theaters, stadions and 

remnants of many grandiose structures found in most of the ancient 

cities of Anatolia today, give us some tangible information about the 

architecture of the Roman Era. 

Although the art of Rome started as the art of the city of Rome, later 

it became the art of the State of Rome. This art later influenced 

Byzantine in the east and Europe in the west. One of the most 

important reasons in the development of Roman art was the 

transition from a kingdom to a republic. Sulla, Julius Caesar, 

Augustus and the subsequent emperors shaped the art with the 

policies of their periods. As the emperor’s cult gained importance in 

the life of Rome, temples were built, arches were established and 

many sculptures were erected in the name of the emperor. 

Architecture had special importance in Roman art. These structures 

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were built for two purposes; public interest and spreading the fame 

and honor of the emperor. While the Romans used domes, vaults 

and arches skillfully, they also developed new types of structures 

such as triumphal arches, aqueducts, basilicas and baths with the 

development of new construction techniques. Large structures 

were built with the adaptation of architectural elements to large 

sizes. Front sides gained importance, multi-storey sides were 

embellished with statues, and marble constituted the main material 

of the structures. However, the biggest novelty of the Romans was 

that they found ‘Horasan’. This material, which was obtained by 

pouring liquid mortar on broken pieces of stone and bricks, was first 

used in functional buildings by the Romans. Monumental fountain 

structures and the stage buildings of the theaters are indicators of 

how special attention was paid to the side view. Monumental twostorey 

fountains built at the squares and on the main streets of the 

city were embellished with sculptures on their frontal sides. The 

most beautiful examples of them were the Fountains of Pollio and 

Traianus in Ephesos, the Fountain of Septimius Severus in Perge, 

and the Fountain of Antonines in Sagalassos. 

Sebasteions, which were the cultic centers of the empire, were also 

a type a structure that emerged during the Romans. Sebasteion in 

Aphrodisias reflects the best example of them. A new type of 

structure in Roman architecture was basilicas. These structures, 

having a thin and long form, were used for multiple purposes such 

as market places, banks, stock markets and court halls. The 

basilicas, which were transformed into a church during the 

Byzantines with the addition of an apse, is best exemplified in 

Aspendos. 

In Anatolia, some examples of the temples created in the Roman 

cities, reached to the present time intact, and some of them only 

have their superficial structures remaining. In most of the Roman 

temples, which were constructed within a holy area and located 

according to the axis of the area, the Hermogenes’s rules for 

temples, as recognized before, were applied. Besides rectangularplanned 

small temples, circular-planned structures specific to 

Roman architecture are also found as in Bergama Asklepieion. The 

Temple of Zeus in Aizanoi, Çavdarhisar, which could mostly survive 

with its plans and epitaphs, the Temples of Athena and Apollon in 

Side are some of the examples of this period. Besides the temples


built in the name of gods, temples were also built for the deified 

Roman empires or some of them were used for this purpose. The 

Temple of Traianus in Bergama and the Temple of Augustus in 

Ankara are the examples we encounter. Mostly the Corinthian order 

seems to have been used in Roman temples. During this period, the 

temples had three sections made up of a podium, which would be 

accessed by stairs, a front courtyard and a cella. The Temple of 

Dionysos, Pergamon is the best example for of this. 

The most beautiful novelty that Roman architecture formed in 

urbanization was the technique of constructing columned roads. 

Shops and houses were lined up behind the galleries lying on both 

sides, and the top of the galleries were covered to protect the 

people from heat or from getting wet. Ephesos Arkadiane, Perge, 

Xanthos and Patara are the most beautiful examples of the 

columned streets in Anatolia. 

In cities, which had an advanced social level and which were 

enriched, arches and sculptures were placed on the columned 

streets, and magnificent gates were erected at points where these 

streets intersected. They were built not only at points where two 

streets intersected, but also at points where three or four roads 

intersected. The most spectacular of these gates is the Tetrapylon 

in Aphrodisias which has been re-erected today. Triumphal 

monuments-typical Roman structures-are not seen much in 

Anatolia. Vaulted structures seen in Antalya, Perge and Patara are 

not triumphal monuments but mere city gates. 

Besides the great stone bridges of Rome, aqueducts-which were 

constructed for bringing water to the city and the baths-are also a 

style of structure peculiar to Rome. The most spectacular example 

of this is seen in Side and Aspendos. 

Bath buildings constructed in almost every Roman city took up an 

important part of the social life of this period. Baths, where long 

conversations were enjoyed, were based on a system of warming 

with hot air coming from the boiler below the floor through the 

holed bricks, which was an invention of around 80 BC. Romans, who 

valued baths very much, did not withhold from adorning their walls 

with sculptures and their floors with mosaics. The bath, which 

Faustina-the wife of Marcus Aurelius (l61-180)-commissioned to be 

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Antonin Fountain


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built by Miletos, together with the Vedius baths in Ephesos are 

examples which reflect the magnificence of this architecture. 

Sculptures which decorated the cool room of the Faustina’s Bath 

are exhibited at ‹stanbul Archaeological Museum today. Mosaics 

mostly feature mythological scenes, but there were also mosaics 

which had geometrical patterns. Today, the remnants of these 

monumental bath structures can be seen in Ephesos, Perge, Side, 

Aspendos and Aphrodisias. Furthermore, we encounter the most 

beautiful examples of frescoes decorating the houses of the rich 

among the hillside houses of Ephesos and villas in Antandros, 

which gave an insight into the development of the art of painting 

during the period. 

Roman theaters were not leaned against a hill, unlike in the 

Hellenistic Period, but they were established on arches and vaults. 

However, the architects in Anatolia preferred to lean the theaters 

on a slope even during the Roman Period. In the Theater of 

Aspendos, which was one of the spectacular structures of the 

Roman Period, arches and vaults-that were newly developed by 

the Romans-were used and it was also leaned on a hill. This is an 

indicator that the older systems were also used besides the new 

systems. In Roman theaters, the two-storey wall forming the stage 

is elevated, aiming to separate the audience from the outer world 

and direct their attention to the theatrical play. Side entrances, 

which were diagonal during the Hellenistic Period, became vertical 

during the Romans, and the horseshoe-shaped orchestra was 

transformed into a semicircle. In the former theaters, the audience 

was also able to watch a view, whereas in the Roman theaters, the 

audience was disconnected from outside. The Romans created a 

distinction by decorating the stage of the theater with the most 

beautiful examples of architecture and sculptures. The theaters in 

Aspendos and Perge are the best examples of this. Sculptures 

decorating the stage section in the theater of Perge are so rich that 

there is a separate Perge Hall in Antalya Museum. 

Romans also did not ignore the theaters left from the Hellenistic 

Period, but they repaired and used them, as we see in the Theaters 

of Miletos and Priene. During the Roman Period, amphitheaters 

where gladiators and wild animals fought were not very popular. 

They were still built in some cities. While imitating the works of art 

of the Classical and Hellenistic Periods, Roman sculptures also


created their own sculptures, which were large and muscled. 

Portrait sculpture was most developed during this period, as 

evidenced by the portraits of the emperors adorning our museums. 

Roman sculpture works were mostly created to decorate buildings 

and squares, besides temples, and to make them look richer. 

Besides the sculptures of the emperors, the sculptures of 

triumphant commanders and of those people who benefited the 

city were also created and were put at important places. Roman 

sculptures were not bothered with the balance factor in the works 

they created, they solved this problem with a support they 

attached on the sculpture. Sculpture schools of Aphrodisias and 

Perge seemingly became prominent during the Roman Period. It is 

possible to see the works of these schools across the whole 

Mediterranean. Works bearing the signature of masters from 

Aphrodisias are encountered especially in Greece. Apparently, 

masters migrating from Pergamon established a school in 

Aphrodisias and very skillfully processed the colorful marbles 

extracted from the nearby marble quarries. 

In the 1 st century AD, during the Augustus Period (27-14), a return 

to the Classical Period is seen. Motifs were idealized, and 

embossments created the effect of pictures. While the classical 

style dominated the portraits, a naturalist perception is dominant 

in the embossments. During the Claudiuses Period (41-54) on the 

other hand, historical embossments seemingly became prominent. 

The classical art of the Augustus Period became softer and more 

animate, whereas details gained more importance. During the 

Flaviuses, the animate and naturalist style was departed from, in 

the 2 nd century AD during the period of Trianus, historical 

embossments became important and the portraits were presented 

with the bodies. 

During the Hadrianus Period (117-138), a gracefulness appeared 

in the figures; however, creativity diminished, and portraits and 

embossments lacked in vitality. They had messy hair and ornate 

armors. An intriguing hair fashion in women and a beard fashion in 

men started. After this, during Antoninus Pius (138-161), the 

perspective style began, and portraits were presented on their 

necks and shoulders. It is possible to see Roman works of 

sculpture in almost all of the antique cities. 

221



Perge 

The ruins of Perge are located sixteen kilometers along the Antalya- 

Alanya highway in the district of the town of Aksu. It is one of the 

better-preserved archaeological sites in Turkey. 

Although the Pergeans attributed the founding of their city to Kalkhas, 

Mopsos, and Amphilokhos after the Troian War, a tablet discovered at 

Bo¤azköy is proof that it existed at least during Hittite times when it 

was known as ‘Parha’. We have little information about the city until 

Alexander's arrival here in 333 BC. 

The Pergeans opened up their gates to Alexander and allowed him to 

make use of the city as a base during his Pamphylian campaigns. With 

the death of Alexander, Perge remained in Seleucid hands until 190 

BC, in which year it was annexed to the kingdom of Pergamon. Like all 

the Pergamene possessions, it too came under Roman rule in 133 BC 

and it was during the Roman imperial period that the city flourished. 

Most of the ruins we see at the site today are from Roman times. 

Excavations at Perge were begun in 1946 by Professor Arif Müfit 

Mansel. Following his death they were taken up by Professor Jale ‹nan 

and are still in progress. 

Before coming upon the ruins of Perge proper we first encounter the 

city's magnificent theater. Of the Greco-Roman type, this theater 

could seat 15,000 and was built in the second half of the 2 nd century 

AD. 

The stage building had two stories on the lower of which there were 

scenes concerning Dionysos and reliefs of a river-god, Kaystros. It is 

still possible to see some of these in place today. The seats of the 

theater are divided into two sections with thirteen sets of steps. During 

late Roman times, the theater was used for spectacles of gladiatorial 

combats and a fountain was built into the outer wall. Before the 

theater is a U-shaped stadion which is in a fine state of preservation. It 

too was built in the 2 nd century AD and there are seats for 12,000 

supported by barrel-vaulted constructions. The entrance to the 34 by 

234 m. arena is on the southern side, but the once monumental 

Monumental fountain, Perge. 2 nd century. 

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224 

The City Gates of Perge. 

Flanked by two Hellenistic towers, the portal leads into a horse-shoe shaped 

courtyard. During the 4 th century AD, a second gate was added to the main 

gateway has been destroyed. Below the vaults on the eastern side 

there are thirty shops. 

Perge is surrounded by a Hellenistic Period wall reinforced here and 

there with towers. The fortifications on the southern side were 

expanded in the 4 th century AD. We enter the ruins through a gate 

built during the reign of Septimius Severus (193-211 AD) that passes 

into a courtyard in the walls. The rectangular courtyard before the


portal as further reinforcement. A large number of statues were found in 

the portal court, which is 92 m. in length, and are now in 

the Museum of Antalya. 

gate was created when the 4 th century walls were built. After entering 

through the Roman gate we are confronted by a round portal that 

was-the main gate of Perge in Hellenistic times. Between the two is a 

courtyard measuring 92 m. in length from the 2 nd century AD. 

On the western side of the courtyard is a nymphaion, a richlydecorated 

monumental fountain that was dedicated by Septimius 

Severus to the Pergean Artemis. The statues of the emperor and his 

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226 

Agora columns at Perge. 

wife that were once here are now in the Antalya museum. Beside the 

fountain there is a propylon belonging to the baths. This entranceway 

was also richly decorated with statues, many of which have been 

unearthed in excavations, and was also built during the reign of 

Septimius Severus. 

After passing by both structures we come again to the Hellenistic 

Period gate. This well-preserved structure is flanked on either side by 

towers and leads to a horseshoe-shaped courtyard that was 

magnificently beautified between AD 120 and 122 by Plancia Magna, 

daughter of Plancius Varus, the Roman governor of Bithynia. Plancia 

Magna contributed much to the development of Perge. 

Her tomb is located at the right of the main gate and there is a statue 

of her in the Antalya museum. The northern side of the courtyard has 

three entranceways built in the form of a two-storied entrance. The 

niches once contained statues of the Roman emperor and empress. 

On the eastern side of the Hellenistic gate is the Pergean agora, a 

column-enclosed area with shops and rooms around the perimeter 

that was built in the 4 th century AD. In the center of the agora is a 

round temple. Excavations have revealed a colonnaded portico 

measuring 4.30 by 96 m. alongside the agora. On the southern side of


the agora is a church. Recent excavations have shown that the Roman 

baths located opposite the agora are very well preserved. A broad, 

marble-praved double-colonnaded street measuring 300 m. in length 

extends from the main gate to the acropolis. A water channel two 

meters wide runs down the middle. There are shops on either side of 

the street. Another street running east and west intersects this main 

street and the remains of a monumental palaestra is to be found on its 

western extension. Measuring 76 by 76 m. in size, this structure is in 

a very good state of preservation. The building was dedicated by C. 

Cortunus to the emperor Claudius (AD 41-54) At the western 

extremity of the street adjacent to the city walls are the ruins of 

baths. 

These two main streets thus divide Perge into four quarters. In the 

western section there is an episcopal basilica with a double nave. At 

the north western end of the street at the skirts of the acropolis is 

another nymphaion, a semicircular structure from the reign of 

Hadrianus (AD 130-150). 

A statue of a river god was located in the center of this huge fountain, 

which measured 21 m. long and 37.5 m. wide and from which 

numerous examples of sculpture have been recovered. The acropolis 

of the city of Perge is located above the fountain. 

227



Aspendos 

Turning off the Antalya-Alanya road after driving 30 km. in the direction 

of the village of Belk›s, one reaches to the best-preserved ancient 

theater in Turkey. According to Strabo, the city of Aspendos was 

founded by colonists who migrated from Argos under the leadership of 

Mopsos. Coins minted in the 4 th -5 th centuries BC give the city's name as 

Estwediya. Aspendos had the distinction of being the only city besides 

Side that coined its own money at such an early period. For a while, the 

city was a member of the Athenian maritime alliance known as the 

Delian Federation. 

A naval battle fought off the shores of Aspendos in 469 BC, saw the 

defeat of the Persian fleet by the forces of the Athenian General Cimon. 

Despite this, Aspendos was used as a Persian base in 411 BC. With 

Alexander's defeat of the Persians in 334 BC, Aspendos was freed of the 

Persian yoke. It was ruled by various Hellenistic kings following 

the death of Alexander and like most other Asia Minor cities, it was 

annexed to Rome in 133 BC. The city flourished particularly in the 

2 nd -3 rd centuries AD. In the 5 th century, the city's name was changed to 

Primupolis. Aspendos was badly affected by the Arab incursions in the 

8 th century. The Seljuks, who arrived in the area in the century, appear 

to have made use of some of the ancient structures, the theater being 

among them. 

The Aspendos Amphitheater was built of regularly dressed blocks of 

conglomerate stone, while the door and window frames were of a creamcolored 

limestone. Access to the skene was through five doors, the one 

in the middle on the east being larger than the other four. The stage 

building is a two-tiered facade with four rows of windows, each row of 

which is of a different form and size. The niches once contained 

decorative statuary. Even today the facade has an attractive appeal. 

From inscriptions at the amphitheater we know that the structure was 

Aspendos Theater. One of the best-preserved theaters in Anatolia, 

the theater of Aspendos was constructed by the architect Zeno, son of 

Theodoros during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (AD 161-180), and 

dedicated by Curtius Cripinus and Curtius Auspicatus to the deities of the 

city and the throne of the emperor, according to the inscription on the lentil 

of the portal. Fine dressed stone resembles a fortress on the exterior, 

possesses a double diazoma and a columned promanade behind the upper 

row of the auditorium. The theater itself is well-preserved, although the 

skene is in ruins. Originally this was decorated with fine statuary. 

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230 

Aqueducts of Aspendos. 

Still standing in various places, these aqueducts supplied the city of 

Aspendos with water. They were part of a complex system by which 

built by two brothers, Curtius Crispinus and Curtius Auspicatus during 

the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180) and was dedicated to 

the gods and the emperors. The architect's name was Zeno. The 

auditorium is divided in two by a diazoma and there is a gallery of 

columns surmounting the top row of seats. While the amphitheater 

appears to have been built on barrel-vaulted substructures, parts of it 

rest against the hillside. With a seating capacity of 20,000, the Aspendos 

Amphitheater is still utilized today. The Aspendos Stadion is north of the 

amphitheater at the same level. The stadion resembles the one at Perge, 

with spectator seating also set on vaults. To the south of the theater are 

the remains of a gymnasion and baths. Ascending up to the acropolis on 

the hill above the theater along the path connecting the theater and 

stadion, one passes through the easternmost of the city's three gates and 

into the ruins of the city proper. Proceeding west from this gate, one 

comes upon a basilica, part of which was used for government and civic


water was brought from the surrounding hills. According to their 

inscription, the aqueducts were built by Tiberius Cladius Italicus in 

the 1 st -2 nd centuries AD. 

affairs and as a courthouse. Much of this section is still standing. The 

triple-nave basilica, extending 105 m. to the west, was a commercial 

building and the agora lay to its west. The agora was surrounded by 

public buildings. West of the agora is a covered marketplace, measuring 

70 m. long. The front was open and consisted of a row of shops with a 

stoa in front. North of the agora are the remains of a nymphaion 

(fountain) of which only the 32.5 m. long, 15 m. high facade still exists 

today. This elaborately decorated facade has two rows of niches. North 

west of the fountain are the remains of the bouleuterion, which was used 

as the city-state's parliament hall. In the center of the ruins are the 

traces of the foundations of a monumental arch. At the southern end of 

the basilica are the remains of exedrae, which served both as pedestals 

for statues and stone benches for the public. Another of the remains 

worth mentioning at Aspendos are the city's magnificent aqueducts, 

parts of which are in the nearby village and on the site of the ruins. 

231



Side 

Side is situated on a peninsula that is almost a kilometer long and four 

hundred meters wide. 

Although the geographer Strabo tells us that Side was founded by the 

inhabitants of Kyme, a city located near present day ‹zmir, in the 

7 th century BC, the word 'side' in the indigenous Anatolian language 

means 'pomegranate', from which we may conclude that the city's 

origins are much older. 

Though Side became a Lydian possession in the 6 th century BC, the 

Persians captured it in 546 BC and it remained in their hands until 

taken by Alexander the Great in 334 BC. 

Although the Kingdom of Pergamon founded Antalya in the 2 nd 

century BC, Side never came under Pergamon rule and enjoyed its 

greatest period of prosperity in the 2 nd century. However, it fell under 

the control of pirates at the end of that century, and was not freed 

from their control until they were defeated in 72 BC by Servilius 

Isauricus, a Roman consul, who duly added Side to the Roman 

Empire. 

As Roman authority in Asia Minor waned, Side became the target of 

raids and attacks by tribes coming from the mountainous region to the 

north around the mid-4 th century. For this reason, a fortifying wall 

was built across the peninsula, dividing the city in two and the north 

eastern half of the city was abondoned. Side suffered steady 

impoverishment and decline. It became the center of a diocese in the 

5 th -6 th centuries. 

Following the Arab attacks in the 10 th century and the later influx of 

pirates to Side, most of its inhabitants moved to Antalya, leaving the 

city en masse. The present village was founded in the 20 th century on 

the site of its ruins. 

After leaving the main road, Side may be entered through the main 

gate in the city walls, built in the 2 nd century BC. This gate resembles 

the Hellenistic Period gate in Perge. It is protected by towers set on 

Temple of Apollo, Side. 

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234 

Plan of Side. 

1.City wall 2.Main gate 3.City fountain 4.Aqueduct 5-6.Colonnaded streets 

7.Sacred fountain 8-9.Peristyle house 10.Agora 11.Theater 12.Bath 

13.Monumental gate 14.Temple of Dionysos 15.Colomned street 16.Basilica 

17.Bath l8.Temple of Apollon 19.Temple of Athena 20.Basilica 21.Temple of 

Men 22.Byzantine fountain 23.Bath 24.Byzantine house 25.State agora 

26.Byzantine building 27.Little Byzantine church 28.Byzantine basilica 

29.Citedal wall 

either side that comprise of a semi-circular courtyard. Opposite the 

gate by the roadside is a monumental fountain with three large 

niches. This structure was built in the 2 nd century AD and is 

magnificently decorated. Originally three storeys high, today only the 

first storey remains. The fountain's water was brought here by means 

of aqueducts from the Manavgat River. 

On the right-hand side of the road leading to the theater are Roman, 

5 th century AD baths that are currently used as the local museum. On 

display here is an excellent collection of Roman statues, busts and 

sarcophagi that were turned up in the course of excavation. The 

statuary is in very good condition and depicts such mythological 

figures as Hermes, Herakles and Nike. 

The broad area in front of the museum and to the east of the theater 

is Side's commercial agora. Built in the 2 nd century AD, it measures 

90.8x94 m. and is surrounded by a portico of columns that contained 

shops. In the center was a temple dedicated to Tyche. A well-


State Agora, Side. The hall of the agora, which was ornamented with a large 

number of statues was known as the emperor's hall. The statues, which stood 

in niches around the hall are mainly to be found in Side Museum. 

preserved public lavatory in the north western corner of the agora 

could seat 24 patrons. The state agora of Side was located along the 

sea. The wall on the right was constructed in the 4 th century and 

considerably reduced the size of the city. The state agora consisted of 

a courtyard surrounded by colonnades 7 m. in breadth and 3 large 

rooms on the east. Measuring 69.2 by 88.5 m., this structure was 

surrounded by Ionian columns. As we may see from the eastern 

section, which remains standing, the hall was richly decorated with 

columns and statues. 

Originally a two-storied structure, the building appears to have been 

reserved for the emperor's use on ceremonial occasions. The 

2 nd century streets in the city are lined with Corinthian columns. The 

street running south is overgrown with weeds. On the left side of the 

street is a 5 th century Byzantine basilica. Opposite to it is a small 

Byzantine church from the 8 th century. This street leads to a small 

road that passes the state agora. 

On the way back to the theater, one first comes upon the fountain of 

Vespasianus (now restored) alongside the monumental gate. This 

structure originally stood somewhere else in the city and was later 

brought here and converted into a fountain. The area also contains 

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236 

Aerial view of Side. 

the remains of two more fountains. The monumental arch was 

blocked up in the 4 th century with a wall containing a smaller door. 

Through it is Side's magnificent theater, built in the 2 nd century AD. 

The two-tiered structure measures 20 m. wide and is constructed on 

barrel-vaulted galleries. Once seated 15,000 spectators the stage of 

the theater consisted of three tiers and was richly decorated with 

statues and mythological reliefs. The auditorium is divided into 12 

sections by means of 11 sets of stairs. The orchestra pit was 

surrounded by a wall to protect spectators when it was used for 

gladiator contests and wild animal spectacles during the late-Roman 

Period. Beside the road passing by the theater is a temple to 

Dionysos. 

This temple is set on a podium measuring 7.23x17.55 m. and 65 cm. 

high. The temple is from the early Roman Period. The colonnaded 

street, proceeding the theater in the direction of the village, reaches 

as far as the seashore. It is the continuation of the street entering 

Side, though today it lies below the village. Down this street, a 

Byzantine basilica stands on the right, while on the left are the ruins


of baths and the remains of a house from the Byzantine Period. At the 

point where street ends, there is a semi-circular Corinthian temple 

between the street and sea walls. Set on a podium once ascended by 

steps, this temple is believed by some to have been dedicated to Men, 

the Anatolian Moon God. The podium, which still survives, measures 

2.2 m. high. To the south of this temple is a Byzantine fountain. 

On the harbor side of the plaza there were two temples, one dedicated 

to Athena and the other to Apollo. Before the temples is a Byzantine 

basilica, a 5 th century structure that was built on the foundations of 

the earlier temples. In the 8 th -9 th centuries, a small church was built in 

the nave of the ruined basilica. The southernmost of the two temples, 

first, dedicated to Apollo, built in the Corinthian order, had 6x11 

columns and measured 16.37x29.5 m. The second temple had 6x13 

columns, dedicated to Athena and measured 17.65x35 m. Near the 

temples is the harbor, which is now filled in by sand. Behind the main 

harbor are the remains of 2 nd century baths. Ancient Side also 

possessed an acropolis located outside the city walls. The eastern 

necropolis contains a number of monumental tombs and is located 

behind the beach. 

237



Nemrud 

“The day of my birth will be a day of feasting and rejoicing, a 

holiday to be celebrated every month and every year. On these 

days, the high priest shall robe himself in the robes of Persia, 

granted him by my royal personage and by the laws, in honor 

of the gods, my ancestors and myself. To each of us shall he light 

much incense, make sacrifice where it is fitting and lay out 

sacred banquet with the finest dishes and wines. Here the 

people of my nation shall gather and celebrate this banquet in 

our honor”. 

This is the text of an inscription belonging to King Antiochos 

Epiphanes I of Commagene, who erected the 50 m. high grave and 

the sacred court on the summit of Mt. Nemrud, on a plateau 150 m. 

wide. The mountain is itself 2150 m. high and 105 km. from 

Ad›yaman. Antiochos I (62-32 BC) was the most renown monarch of 

the land of Commagene, which encompassed the region of 

Ad›yaman, Kahramanmarafl and Gaziantep. In 72 BC, Commagene 

was taken under Roman hegemony, but three years later, the 

Roman commander Lucullus allowed the prince of Commagene, 

Mithridates I Kallinikos, to bear the title of king. The monarchs of 

Commagene, like the Persian, Macedonian, Hellenistic monarchs, 

were regarded as gods and were worshipped as such and they 

ordered sacrifices performed in their own honor. Mithridates I and 

Antiochos I, son of Laodike, built magnificent tumuli in their own 

names at the summit of Mt. Nemrud and had their own statues 

placed among those of the gods on the sacred court, ordering their 

people to celebrate their birth with feasts and sacrifice every month 

and year. 

The sacred place, covered with enormous statues, at an altitude of 

2150 m., was first discovered by the German Marshall H. von Moltke. 

In 1953, the site was excavated by Professor Theresa Goell and 

continued by Professor Friedrich Karl Dörner at the city of 

Arsameia for Münster University in Germany. The Commagene 

Dynasty, claiming common ancestry with the Persians on one hand 

and Alexander the Great on the other, came to an end in 72 AD, 

Heads of gods, west terrace of Mountain Nemrud. 

239


240 

Eastern terrace. The Commagene monarch, Antiochos Epiphanes I built a 

tumulus grave for himself here, on mount Nemrud, at a height of 2300 m. 

above sea-level, and declared the site of the tumulus a sacred temenos. On 

the north eastern and western flanks of the tumulus, which is 50 m. high, 

when their land was annexed by the Roman Emperor Vespasianus 

to the province of Syria. The king, who had his tumulus erected on 

this sacred terrace, also placed an inscription tablet on the southern 

face of the ancient fortress, which stated that the capital of 

Commagene was Arsameia, describing the city, borders and the 

religious ceremonies of the Commagene. Immediately above the 

inscription, at a height of 3.43 m., was a relief depicting Mithridates 

I, the father of Antiochos and Hercules. This relief was studied by 

J.S. Young, who concluded that it dated back to 50 BC. 

Apart from these, another tumulus of interest is to be found 10 km. 

south west of the city of Arsameia, which lies on the Nymphaios 

River, (today's Kahta Stream), built for the ladies of the court. 

Uncovered here were three columns, bearing the statues of a lion, a 

bull and an eagle. A bridge over a tributary of the Kahta Stream, also


and 150 m. in circumference and constructed of rubble, are to be found 

huge seated statues, the heads of which have fallen at some time. The figures 

shown here include the heads of lions and eagles, but also the heads of 

Antiochos, Tyche-Zeus, Apollo and Herakles on the eastern terrace. 

contains an inscription stating that it was built in the 3 rd century AD, 

for S. Severus, his wife Domna I and their two sons. This shows that 

the region retained its importance during the Roman Period. The 

fortress known as the 'New Fortress', situated in the village of old 

Kahta, on Mt. Nemrud, 26 km. outside Kahta, contains, at its 

summit, the palace of the Commagene. The present remains date 

from the Mameluke Period. 

At the sacred place built by Antiochos I on the summit of Nemrud 

are three terraces that were cut into the rock to the east, west and 

north. On the western side of the eastern terrace are numerous 

giant sculptures resting on a tall podium and opposite these figures 

is the now restored stepped altar. To the south and north of the 

terrace is surrounding by a low wall, built on a long and narrow base. 

The nine statues on the podium, standing between 2 m. and 10 m. 

241


242 

high, have managed to survive in reasonably good condition. They 

are protected by the symbols of an eagle and lion. As the traditions 

and beliefs of the Hittite, Persian and Hellenistic Periods combined 

in the Kingdom of Commagene to form a new religion, these giant 

statues bore the attributes of more than one god amalgamated into 

a single figure. The first figure on the left bears the attributes of 

Apollo, Mithra, Helios and Hermes, while the second figure 

represents the fertility goddess of the Commagene. Tyche of 

Fortuna, the third figure, represents Zeus Oromasdes and the 

Persian Ahuramazda. 

The fourth figure is Antiochos I while the fifth figure combines 

Hercules-Artagnes and Aries. They are represented together with lion 

and eagle figures. The heads of some of the gods and goddesses, such 

as Tyche, are broken and have fallen to the ground. The facial features 

of these statues reveal the idealized forms of the late Hellenistic 

Period. Some of the gods wear a diadem, while the goddess has a 

garland of fruits on her forehead, which was decorated with a feather. 

The bases around the eastern courtyard bear inscriptions giving 

details of the ceremonies carried out here. References are made to the 

birthdays of the kings and to the laws of the kingdom. The statues on 

the western terrace are similarly arranged. Here, Antiochos I shakes 

hands with the gods. The 19 stars and crescent moon on the trunk of 

the lion represent the date of Anthiochos’ accession to the throne, 

7 June 62 BC. The tumulus is situated on solid rock and is constructed 

of stones the size of a fist. This leads one to think that the solid rock 

of the mountainside was once covered with rubble. The excavations of 

Professor Theresa Goell have confirmed this hypothesis. 

The northern terrace is in the form of a ceremonial road, slabs lying 

on the ground were once the part of a wall measuring 3 m. high, 80 m. 

long. This road runs to the summit, passing through an entrance portal 

in the center of the terrace wall. The portal is guarded by a massive 

eagle figure. The gestures of the figure of the king and the general 

arrangement of the sacred terrace, is extremely interesting and 

provides much important information about ancient Hittite culture. 

Head of Anthiochos I on Mt. Nemrud. Similar statues are to be found on the 

western slopes of the mountain. Astrological symbols are seen on the lion 

figures in this group, from which can be read the date of 7 July, the year 

62 BC, which is when Antiochos was appointed to the throne by Pompeius.




Zeugma 

Excavation work has been carried out by numerous archaeologists 

over the past year in order to save the artefacts of the ancient city of 

Zeugma from becoming totally submerged by the waters of the 

Birecik Dam constructed over the Euphrates River. Currently 

excavations are carried out by Assoc. Prof. Kutalm›fl Görkay. Zeugma 

is located 10 km. from the provincial district of Nizip in the province 

of Gaziantep. One of Alexander the Great's generals, Seleuchos 

Nicator I established the city of 'Apameia' at the most convenient 

crossing point on the Euphrates for his Persian wife Apama in the 

year 300 BC. He also established a city directly across from here 

which he called 'Seleucheia Euphrates.' Moreover, he had a bridge 

constructed which connected the two sides. As it was situated on the 

Silk Road that stretched from Antioch to China, these cities 

expanded and became affluent. 

During the 1 st century BC, Zeugma became one of the four major 

cities of the Kingdom of Commagene that was expanding in the 

region. It became rich through trade conducted with Samsat via the 

river's waterways. The city was then put under Roman rule in the 

year 64 BC. It was the Romans who gave the city the name Zeugma, 

which means 'bridgehead.' As a consequence, Zeugma continued to 

expand under the Roman administration. The city's position took an 

immediate importance when four legionnaire garrisons of a total of 

7,000 men was placed here. 

The city became outfitted with incredible beauty when the 

merchants had new villas constructed next to those of the military 

administrators, facing the magnificent view of the Euphrates. As 

there was marble quarried in the region, the wealthy and the military 

administrators decorated their villa floors with mosaics comprised of 

the colorful stone of the Euphrates. Their walls were also decorated 

with frescoes that were made from a sublayer of stone and an upper 

layer of adobe brick. Zeugma's glittering days were during the 1 st -2 nd 

centuries AD whereas it hosted the top Roman administrators and 

officers for 200 years. Thus, the city continued to be the most 

important Roman outpost and this was proven by the 65,000 tablets 

Also uncovered at Zeugma, this mosaic shows that Achilles participated in 

the Troian War. 

245


246 

uncovered in the excavation work. Just as most of these stamp 

presses were communiqués, some of them had to do with customs 

procedures. Consequently, it is understood that there was once a 

customs office here. In 256 AD the city was assaulted by the famous 

Sassani King Shapur I, who burned and destroyed everything in sight. 

The city was never to make a recovery; it was annexed by the 

Byzantines in the 5 th century and later on was razed to the ground 

once again, this time by the Arabs in the 7 th century. The wrecked 

city became the small settlement of Abbasid during the 10 th 

centuries. Belk›s Village is established in the 17 th century. Spread out 

over 20,000 acres of land, the city is divided into three parts; A, B and 

C. The cliffs towering 300 m. over the Euphrates were utilized as 

residences. The Temple of Tyche, the Goddess of Good Fortune, is 

found in the acropolis over the cliff. The acropolis was divided by the 

necropol in the south and west, districts to the east and north east as 

well as the city's administrative area to the north. Concurrently this 

was also the Legionnaire region as well. While the first excavation 

work at Zeugma was conducted in the necropol section in 1987, this 

was halted until 1992 when an illegal excavation at the site uncovered 

a mosaic. Around this time the issue of the construction of Birecik 

Dam was under discussion. Because a section of Zeugma is slated to 

be lost forever under the dam waters, around 100 archaeologists from 

11 countries have been working at feverish pace to save what they 

can. 

In 1992, a priceless floor mosaic panel depicting the wedding of 

Dionysos and Ariadne was uncovered in the guestroom of a 2 nd 

century villa with columns belonging to a rich Roman. The daughter 

of Minos and Pasiphae, Ariadne fell in love with Theseus who came to 

Crete to slay the Minotaur, a monster with the body of a man and a 

head of a bull. After slaying the bull, Theseus departs Crete with 

Ariadna only to abandon her on the island of Nakos. The God 

Dionysos finds her on this island is a state of despair and takes her off 

the island. They married later on and the panel depiction shows their 

wedding scene sitting on a throne in the center with Eros, the 

goddess of Love, extending them a bowl full of love potion. There are 

10 figures positioned on this 730x350 cm. panel. Five of the figures 

were removed from their settings and smuggled out of the country. It 

is understood that the mosaics found at the site in 1993 were 

removed from their settings much earlier and smuggled. Depicting a


man while the other depicts a woman, one of these mosaics was 

found in America and was later donated to the Gaziantep Museum. 

The two heroes of a mythical love satyr, Metiochos and Parthenope 

are seen in this mosaic. While progress on the construction of Birecik 

Dam continued at full speed in 1996, an excavation at the site of the 

ancient city's gymnasion and hamam were conducted where the main 

body of the dam stands. 36 mosaic pieces were removed from here 

and carted off to the museum. Artifacts dating from the Bronze Age 

uncovered in 1997 at the site where the dam was being constructed 

proved the city was established far back in the pages of history. 

Incredible mosaics such as those of Acratos and the Gypsy girl were 

brought to the surface during the 1998-1999 excavation studies. 

There are 65,000 stamp presses found in the archives room. Used 

between the 1 st century BC and the 3 rd century AD, these stamp 

presses are on display at the Gaziantep Museum, which hosts the 

richest collection of its sort in the world. Besides these, a large 

mosaic panel was uncovered in the lower part of the city during this 

excavation season. The mosaic, which depicts Oceanos and Tethys 

together with sea animals, has been carried off to the museum. 

Another panel showing Dionysos, small Nike and Bachhus in a cart 

pulled by Pars was brought to light during the 1999 excavation 

season. Meanwhile, another breathtaking mosaic panel depicting how 

Achilles joined the Troian War on the side of Odysseus was also 

discovered. Achilles is the son of Peleus and one of the sea 

goddesses, Thetis. He lit his heel on fire in order to render his mother 

immortal and was to die if his heel was ever to be wounded. 

When Thetis realized that her son was going to die in this war, she 

sent him to the island of Shyros where he was hidden amongst the 

king's daughters. Nevertheless, the Troian War could not be won 

without him. So, he assigns Odysseus to take him to the war front. In 

order to differentiate him from the girls, Odysseus takes some 

essence in one hand and a priceless dagger in the other. While the 

girls were interested in the essence, someone showed interest in the 

dagger, which turned out to be Achilles, who was pressed into service 

for the Troian mobilization. Well, this panel shows Achilles joining up 

in the mobilization. 17 floor mosaics were uncovered in the 

excavation of two Roman villas besides the bronze statue of Mars. Of 

these, four are of geometric designs while the remaining mosaics 

depict figures including those of Achilles, the Muses, Eros, Psyche, 

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The Gypsy Girl (Menead) mosaic was uncovered at the Zeugma excavations. This 

the goddess Demeter, Dionysos-Telete-Skyrtos-Perseus-Andromeda- 

Zeus dressed up like Satiros-Antiope, the God Poseidon-Oceanos- 

Tethys, Dionysos-Ariadne, the birth of Venus and that of Satiros- 

Antiope. Among these mosaics, Oceanos and Tethys are found 

under the mosaic of Poseidon, who is pulling silvery horses. 

Additionally, the mosaic of the River God Euphrates has been 

uncovered. Oceanos and Tethys are the ancestors of all the rivers. 

All rivers emerged from them. Euphrates, which provided Zeugma 

with plentitude, was their son and was considered to be a god. 

Artists from Zeugma used the six primary colors very much in their 

mosaics. Glass was used in place of stones the hues of which were


striking mosaic with meaningful looks is on display at the Gaziantep Museum. 

hard to find. Thus, the mosaics were even more attractive. 

Excavations at Zeugma have been conducted in three areas. The 'A' 

and 'B' areas have been cleaned, disappeared under the water in the 

year 2000. 'C' area is the region which will not be affected by the 

rising waters. Future excavation studies will be made in order to 

uncover new works and enhance and enlighten the history of 

Zeugma in a better fashion. The mosaics uncovered here are 

currently stored in the Gaziantep Museum, which has passed 

Antakya Museum for the title of 'Museum with the Most Mosaics in 

Turkey'. It will not be long before it surpasses the museum in Tunis 

to earn the title of 'Museum with the Most Mosaics in the World'. 

249



The Byzantine Period 395-1453 

At the outset of the 4 th century, Rome had become a large empire 

having territories on three continents. Emperor Diocletianus wanted 

to ease the administration of his country-which was very extensiveand 

to make ‹zmit the capital of Rome. However, when Constantine 

the Great came to power, Byzantion was prepared as the capital. The 

city was adorned with new structures and announced as the capital 

city with a ceremony in 330. Afterwards, the city was named as 

Constantinopolis. The Empire was divided into two in 395 as Eastern 

and Western Rome. Rome became the center of the Western Roman 

Empire, whereas Byzantium (‹stanbul) became the center of the 

Eastern Roman Empire. Eastern Rome, which remained as the sole 

Roman Empire after the western section was divided into various 

feudal kingdoms and which left its mark on the Middle Ages, was to 

be known as Byzantion later on and continued to exist until 1453. 

Byzantium, which was the other name for the Eastern Roman 

Empire, was derived from the old name of the capital ‹stanbul: 

Byzantion. This name was a term used by historians in the 19 th 

century. In other words, the Byzantine Empire was the continuation 

of the eastern section of the Roman Empire. Perhaps, the word ‘Rum’ 

which we use today is a distorted way of naming the people who were 

left from Byzantium as Romans. 

Over its long history, Byzantium was not only a scene to many 

historical events, but it also left traces of its culture and art in the 

territories it owned. In the emergence and formation of the Byzantine 

Civilization, different civilizations, particularly Anatolian, as well as 

Iranian, Syrian, Egyptian, Italian, Balkan and various Mediterranean 

civilizations were influential. The independent traces of the Byzantine 

Civilization are best seen in the works of Anatolia. The start of 

Byzantine art cannot be delineated sharply. During the initial stages, 

it remained strictly committed to Roman art; however, Christianity 

left its mark upon this Period. Therefore, Byzantine art is also called 

Early Christianity Art. This period lasted until the first quarter of the 

8 th century. The start of the Iconoclasm period in 726 caused a very 

Mosaic of Emperor Constantine presenting a model of the city to 

the Virgin Mary. Hagia Sophia. 

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252 

significant change in Byzantine art, during which religious pictures 

were banned and destroyed. The monasteries were closed, while 

monks and nuns were forced to adopt a civil life. During the Middle 

Byzantine Period, which lasted from 842-when this period came to an 

end-until 1204, Byzantine art re-attained its bright period. The last 

period of this art starts in 1261-when Mikhail Palailogos VIII ended 

the Latin dominion-and continued until 1453. During this period, 

after a short-lived revival, Byzantine art entered into a period of 

recession starting from the mid-14 th century. 

In small lands such as the state of Trabzon, which was split from 

Byzantium, or the despotates of Mora and Epiros, art schools that 

bore the Byzantine identity essentially-but at the same time had their 

peculiar local characteristics-emerged and developed. Anatolia, 

which stood out as a continuous center of art from the old times, 

influenced Byzantine art as well. For example, the two architects of 

Hagia Sophia-which is an important place in Byzantine art-were both 

Anatolian. 

One of the important centers of Byzantine art in Turkey is ‹znik, 

which once served as the capital of the state. The ramparts survived 

to the present time. Hagia Sophia in ‹znik-which was later turned into 

a mosque-lies in ruins today, nevertheless it has retained its 

architectural integrity. Furthermore, it is possible to see some other 

church remnants here. 

Trabzon, which was the capital of the Komnenoses, is another 

important center of Byzantine art. We encounter a mixed art here, 

which is due to several factors. The natural cave at the Sumela 

Monastery, which stands as attached to the slope of a mountain, and 

the church in front of it belong to the Byzantine Age. The other 

structures were added at different times. The existence of such 

monasteries in this region is common knowledge. 

Ephesos (Efes) in Western Anatolia has considerably precious 

Byzantine works or art. Here, the church constructed in the name of 

Mother Mary-who replaced the antique goddess Artemis-and Saint 

John Church commissioned to be built by Justinian (527-565) are 

among the most magnificent churches. Another antique city where 

Byzantine art is seen is Aphrodisias. An episcopacy palace was 

uncovered here, one of the Roman basilicas was transformed into a


church, and the Temple of Aphrodite was used as a church. Basilicas 

are also encountered in Hierapolis-known as Pamukkale today-and 

in Xanthos which is within the borders of Antalya. The Alahan 

Monastery near Mut, which is very impressive with its architecture 

and decorations, is a Byzantine structure. Again, in Konya-Karaman, 

in the region known as the 1001 churches, in different parts and the 

summit of Karada¤ are structures from the Byzantine Period. Even 

after Christianity, the Anatolian people retained some of the 

architectural knowledge which they had known since the old times, 

for which reason the structures in this region are different from the 

structures which are familiar to us. 

Many Byzantine works of art exist in the vicinity of Silifke and Adana 

and especially on the Taurus Mountains. In this region, where 

transportation is hard and settlement scarce, the structures survived 

to the present time in quite good condition. The church in Demre 

where Saint Nicholas worked, which was built in his name, is visited 

as a museum today. 

Byzantine structures are encountered in almost all of the antique 

cities of Anatolia. Anemourion near Anamur, Korykos near K›z Kalesi 

and Kanytelis known as Kanl›divane are places which retained their 

importance during the Byzantine Period and which still has Byzantine 

structures. The relics of the monastery which is located on a 

mountain that is 18 km. from Antakya and which was built in the 

name of Saint Simeon can still be seen today. 

Cappadocia is one of the places in Anatolia where Byzantine art is most 

commonly seen. In the valleys of So¤anl›dere, Göreme, Güzelyurt, 

Ihlara, Zelve and Güzelgöz in the region, churches and monasteries 

were carved from rocks and were decorated with examples of 

Byzantine painting art. Icons having religious pictures on gold-plated 

panels are among the important artistic works of Byzantine art. 

The most spectacular works of art were created in Constantinopolis, 

which was not only the capital of the political desires of Byzantium 

but also of its art. Land ramparts made up of two walls are the best 

example of the Byzantine defense architecture, whereas the Basilica 

Cistern (Yerebatan), the Philoxenus Cistern (Binbirdirek) and 

Sultan’s Cistern are the best examples of the water architecture. The 

floor mosaics of the Great Palace (Büyük Saray), which evidently 

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254 

One of the impressive domes of Chora Museum depicts a mosaic of Jesus 

and his 24 ancestors. 

formed a large building complex in Sultanahmet, were the most 

remarkable examples of the period. 

Mosaics created in Hagia Sophia during different periods, and the 

mosaics in Chora (Kariye) Church, belonging to the last stages, 

constitute the most beautiful examples of Byzantine mosaics. In 

‹stanbul, apart from the Great Palace, Blakhernai and the Tekfur 

Palace are the significant palaces of this era. 

Many religious buildings, most of which have been transformed into 

mosques, also exist besides churches such as Hagia Sophia 

particularly, as well as Hagia Eirene. Chore Monastery, Pantokrator 

Monastery and Pammakaristos Monastery among these, still serve as 

a museum today. 

Apart from the widespread architectural works of Byzantium, 

examples of small arts can also be seen. Some of these are works of 

art, whereas some are works created for commercial purposes. In this


group, which was also known as industrial arts, diptikons (boxes with 

two lids), ivory plates, thuribles, kerosene lamps, different church 

goods, golden glazed works, precious fabrics and goods made from 

cooked earth can be listed. 

Small-size jewelry and medallions are examples of golden decorative 

goods, whereas the items in the church treasure, which were found 

in Kumluca and smuggled overseas (some of which were brought 

back), constitute examples of silver works of art. 

During the Byzantine Period, embossments are also encountered. 

Among these, an important example is the pedestals of the 

sculptures erected in the hippodrome of the wagoner Porpehyrios in 

the Topkap› Palace courtyard. The embossments inside of the 

churches are seen on the ambones and parapet plates, which are 

commonly encountered. 

Whereas the works of art inside of ‹stanbul are presented in the 

Istanbul section, Byzantine works of art in Anatolia too will be 

addressed incidentally. 

255



Cappadocia 

In ancient times, the region called Cappadocia was a mountainous 

district of eastern Asia Minor (central modern Turkey), falling 

roughly within a triangle formed by Nevflehir, Ni¤de and Kayseri. 

Geologically, it is one of the most amazing places on earth. Volcanic 

activity in this region continued at least until the Pleistocene Era 

and possibly later. The detritus from volcanic eruptions formed 

‘tuff,’ a soft, porous rock easily eroded by the elements. This erosion 

has produced the marvelous 'fairy chimneys' and other remarkable 

formations of the Cappadocian landscape and the easily carving and 

chipping of the rock has made possible the elaborate underground 

tunnel systems that can be seen today. 

Cappadocia appears to have been settled during the Early Bronze, 

Hittite and Phrygian Periods. Its original name was Katpatuka. St. 

Peter refers to Christians (Peter 1:1) dwelling in Cappadocia as 

early as the 1 st century AD and it is known that there were groups in 

Caesarea who had accepted Christianity during the 2 nd century. 

Cappadocia was the home of a number of famous theologians during 

the 4 th century, such as Gregory of Nyssa, whose sermons and 

writings were very influential in the region, causing it to become a 

center of anchorites and communities of monks and nuns. In the 5 th - 

6 th centuries, Cappadocia suffered incursions and raids by the Huns 

and by 605 the Sassanids had gained control. Subsequently, it was 

ruled by the Byzantines, though it frequently changed hands during 

the two centuries of war with the Arabs. Stability was not restored 

until the reign of Leon VI (886-912). The following years were a time 

of peace and prosperity. 

In 1071, the Seljuk Turks, under Alparslan, defeated and captured 

the Byzantine emperor Romanus IV Diogenes at Manzikert, now 

Malazgirt, about 25 km. north west of Lake Van. This effectively 

crushed Byzantine power in the Anatolian peninsula and opened it 

up to Turkish settlement. Just nine years later, the Seljuks took 

Iconium (now Konya) and made it the capital of their empire. 

However, even under Seljuk rule the Christians of Cappadocia 

continued to live in peace, for the Seljuks did not interfere in their 

Wonder of World views spring time in Zelve. 

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258 

Dark Church (Karanl›k Kilise) at the Göreme Open Air Museum. 

religious practices. (One piece of proof for this harmony between 

the Christians and the Seljuks is a portrait of the Seljuk Sultan Mesut 

II in the K›rkdamalt› Church at Ihlara). The Cappadocian religious 

communities proliferated in number beginning in the 14 th century. 

The name of the town Göreme comes from Korama, a medieval 

religious center. From the 11 th -13 th centuries, Matianoi (Avc›lar) was 

a diocese subject to Makisos (Viranflehir). Avanos is an old town 

whose former name was Venesa. Prokopios (Ürgüp) was another 

diocese subject to Caesarea (Kayseri). Other places in which 

Christian communities widely seen were Çavuflin, Güldere and 

K›z›lçukur. At the beginning of the 18 th century, the Frenchman Paul 

Lucas was the first European traveler to visit Cappadocia. 

He described the geological marvels and other wonders of the region 

(accompanied by rather fantastic drawings) in his travelogue. 

Thereafter, numerous other travelers visited the region and made it 

famous around the world. Within the borders of the Göreme Outdoor 

Museum, there are 15 churches, seven refectories, numerous burial 

crypts, storerooms and cellars. Immediately opposite the entrance is 

a church in the form of a Greek cross, with four free supports. In the 

church, built in the early-11 th century, is a portrait of Jesus. On the 

right hand side of the path is an unnamed chapel in which there are 

pictures of Mary and the infant Jesus, Saint Demetrius, Saint George 

and Saint Theodore. After this small chapel is the Elmal› Kilise 

(Apple Church), one of the most important in Göreme. It is in the 

form of a closed Greek cross with four free supports. It dates from 

the 12 th or 13 th centuries. The frescoes inside depict scenes from the


The inner view of the Tokal› Church found in the valley of Göreme. 

New Testament as well as the Old Testament, including the 

hospitality of Abraham (a favorite theme) and Shadrach, Mesach 

and Abednego (Daniel III: 13-27) in the fiery furnace. Next to the 

Elmal› Kilise is the church of Saint Barbara. 

This is another church with the plan of a closed Greek with two free 

supports and a portrait of Christ the Pantocrator in the main apse. 

The northern arm of the cross has portraits of St. George and 

Theodore and the western arm depicts St. Barbara (hence the 

church's name). The church was built in the first half of the 11 th 

century. Next to it is a small church called the Y›lanl› Kilise (Serpent 

Church), a church with a rectangular plan that is covered in a low 

vault and also dates from the 11 th century. The entrance to this 

church faces north and there are graves to its south. In the apse on 

the long eastern wall is a painting of the Deisis. A small flight of 

stairs leads to the Karanl›k Kilise (Dark Church). The western end 

of this monastery has collapsed. Below it is a smooth-floored 

entranceway that is open in front. Three doorways provide access to 

the interior. On the east is a refectory with a table and benches 

carved from natural rock. There are three more rooms upstairs. The 

church and its narthex are richly decorated with frescoes. There are 

scenes from the Old Testament such as the hospitality of Abraham. 

The frescoes are dated to the mid-11 th or early-12 th centuries. 

At the northern end of the valley is Çar›kl› Kilise (Sandal Church), a 

monastery that is entered by an iron stairway. This church is in the 

form of a closed Greek cross with two free supports. Inside it are 

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260 

Göreme Open Air Museum. One of the churches located in 

11 th and 12 th century paintings of scenes from the life of Christ, the 

hospitality of Abraham and portraits of the saints and the patriarchs. 

Below the museum, on the road leading to the town proper of 

Göreme, is Tokal› Kilise (Buckle Church). This church consists of 

four sections: an old church, a new, larger one, a chapel and a lower 

church. The old church serves as the entranceway for the later one 

and is lavishly decorated with scenes from the life of Christ. From 

the 10 th century, these paintings are done on the surface of the vault 

and the upper parts of the walls. The new church is rectangular in 

plan and covered in a barrel vault divided into three sections by 

supporting arches. The church contains scenes from the life of 

Christ including his childhood, adulthood and the Passion. There are 

also scenes from the life of Saint Basileios and portraits of other 

saints. The building of this church spanned several centuries, from 

the late-11 th century to the 13 th century. 

Both the chapel and lower church were added to the complex after 

the construction of the new church. Behind Tokal› Kilise, 300 m. 

from the museum exit, is Meryem Ana Kilisesi (Church of the Virgin


the poplar rocks of the Open Air Museum is the Maidens’ Monastery. 

Mary), decorated with black contoured figures on a blue 

background. In the direction of the town of Göreme, on the right, is 

a wrecked church called El-Nazar (Evil Eye), built in the first half of 

the 10 th century. Inside are scenes from the life of Christ-the 

Annunciation, the Visitation, the Nativity, the Baptism, the 

Transfiguration and the Resurrection, arranged in chronological 

order. On the right-hand side of the Göreme ravine is Sakl› Kilise 

(Concealed Church), which was discovered in 1957. This church is 

from the late-11 th century and its interior is richly decorated with 

frescoes depicting the life of Christ. Two other famous churches in 

Göreme are called Durmufl Kadir and Bezirhane. 

Continuing on from Göreme, are the ravines of Uzundere and 

Avc›lar. At the Avc›lar village is the Yusuf Koç church, whose 

frescoes are in good condition. 10 km. from Göreme, in the direction 

of Nevflehir, Ortahisar and Uçhisar rise magnificently. On the right 

side of the asphalt highway leading from Uçhisar to Göreme, the 

ravines of Uçhisar, Avc›lar and Uzundere are all interesting sights. 

Behind the Göreme ravine are K›l›çlar and Aktepe, two more places 

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262 

of incredible scenic beauty. The Çavuflin Church is located 2 km. 

from Göreme and 4 from Avanos, 200 m. from the village. In the 

ruined narthex of the church are portraits of the archangels Michael 

and Gabriel. In the apex of the dome's interior is a fresco of the 

Ascension and portraits of saints in medallions. Below them are 

scenes from the life of Christ. In the arroyo just before Çavuflin are 

two deep ravines called Güldere and K›z›l, in which there are 12 

churches. 

On the Nevflehir-Avanos highway there is a road branching off 3 km. 

from Avanos that leads to Göreme. Here there is a creek that 

extends north of the road as far as Uçhisar. The creek contains many 

interesting rock formations. On the right, proceeding from Çavuflin 

to Zelve, is an area called Cinnes, where there are many interesting 

sights. After passing Akgedik is a place alongside the road called 

Paflaba¤›, or Keflifller Vadisi (Monks Ravine). Zelve is a triple fork-like 

structure that extends into a flattish hill called Aktepe. This was a 

Christian settlement as early as the 8 th -9 th centuries. The largest 

church is Üzümlü Kilise (Grape Church), which lacks any pictures 

and there are another 15 smaller churches as well. 15 km. from 

Avanos is the underground city called Özkonak. In Mustafapafla 

there is a very interesting 19 th century church worth seeing. 

There is a fascinating old mosque at Taflk›npafla whose pulpit is now 

in the Ankara Ethnography Museum. The stone gateway of the old 

school of theology, the Muslim theological school which was built as 

part of the mosque, is also still standing. 30 km. from Ürgüp is a 

ravine called So¤anl› in which there are numerous churches, the 

most interesting of which are called Karabafl Kilisesi (Monks 

Church), Canavar Kilisesi (Dragon Church), Kubbeli Kilisesi 

(Domed Church) and Gök Kilisesi (Sky Church). 

Another important ravine is called Ihlara and is located 14 km. off 

the main highway between Aksaray and Nevflehir. In addition to 

Özkonak, Cappadocia contains two other interesting underground 

cities at Kaymakl› and Derinkuyu. The underground city at Kaymakl› 

also has seven levels and contains storerooms, churches, wineries 

and secret passageways. 

The Pink Valley and scenes from Zelve.



The Map of Ancient Regions and Cities

Anatolian Civilizations and Historical Sites - TEDA

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