Journal of Eurasian Studies - EPA

JOURNAL OF 

EURASIAN STUDIES 

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Journal of the Gábor Bálint de Szentkatolna Society 

Founded: 2009. 

Internet: www.federatio.org/joes.html 

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Volume II., Issue 3. / July — September 2010 

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ISSN 1877‐4199

July‐September 2010 JOURNAL OF EURASIAN STUDIES Volume II., Issue 3. 

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Publisher 

Foundation ʹStichting MIKES INTERNATIONALʹ, established in The Hague, Holland. 

Account: Postbank rek.nr. 7528240 

Registered: Stichtingenregister: S 41158447 Kamer van Koophandel en Fabrieken Den Haag 

Distribution 

The periodical can be downloaded from the following Internet‐address: 

http://www.federatio.org/joes.html 

If you wish to subscribe to the email mailing list, you can do it by sending an email to the 

following address: 

mikes_int‐subscribe@yahoogroups.com 

The publisher has no financial sources. It is supported by many in the form of voluntary work 

and gifts. We kindly appreciate your gifts. 

Address 

The Editors and the Publisher can be contacted at the following addresses: 

Email: mikes_int@federatio.org 

Postal address: P.O. Box 10249, 2501 HE, Den Haag, Holland 

Individual authors are responsible for facts included and views expressed in their articles. 

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ISSN 1877‐4199 

© Mikes International, 2001‐2010, All Rights Reserved 

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© Copyright Mikes International 2001‐2010 2


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CALL FOR PAPERS 

We encourage everybody to submit to the Editorial Board (joes_cfp@federatio.org) 

papers in the fields covered by the Journal. The papers will be assessed solely on their 

academic merits, and these are the few prerequisites the authors and their papers 

should adhere to: 

Can be written in any language. However, if written in a language other than 

English, please provide an English summary of at least A4 length. 

A brief (max. 10 sentences long) professional CV in English. 

NEWS BRIEF 

The news brief section features the latest news from the past three months prior to 

publication of each Journal of Eurasian Studies issue in the areas of anthropology, 

archaeology, ethnology, folklore, genetics, and linguistics with a special focus on Asia 

and the interaction between various European and Asian peoples. News pieces outside 

the three‐month period or our scope of focus may also be included if they are found to 

be of great value and relevance by our editorial board. Please submit a short summary 

of those newsbytes (max. 100 words) in English to the following email‐address: 

joes_newsbrief@federatio.org, indicating the source as well (also URL if applicable). 

The column is edited by Andor Zombori. If the original news is only available in 

hardcopy, please send us a copy to the following address: Journal of Eurasian Studies, 

P.O. Box 10249, 2501 HE, Den Haag, Holland. The names of the contributors will be 

published in the journal unless they ask otherwise. 

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Editor‐in‐Chief 

EDITORIAL BOARD 

FARKAS, Flórián The Hague, Holland 

Deputy Editor‐in‐Chief 

Editors 

OBRUSÁNSZKY, Borbála Budapest, Hungary 

ALIMBAY, Nursan Almaty, Kazakhstan 

ARADI, Éva Budapest, Hungary 

BÉRCZI, Szaniszló Budapest, Hungary 

BÍRÓ, András Budapest, Hungary 

CSORNAI, Katalin Budapest, Hungary 

CZEGLÉDI, Katalin Pécs, Hungary 

ERDÉLYI, István Göd, Hungary 

HORVÁTH, Izabella Hangzhou, China 

KARATAY, Osman İzmir, Turkey 

MAHAPATRA, Debidatta Aurobinda Mumbai, India 

MARÁCZ, László Amsterdam, Holland 

MARCANTONIO, Angela Rome, Italy 

MURAKEÖZY, Éva Patrícia The Hague, Holland 

SECHENBAATAR Hohhot, China 

UCHIRALTU Hohhot, China 

ZOMBORI, Andor Nagoya, Japan 

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CONTENTS 

Dear Reader,.............................................................................................................................................7 

Our Authors .............................................................................................................................................8 

NEWS BRIEF.................................................................................................. 13 

HISTORY ........................................................................................................ 22 

BENCZE, Mihály 

Katyn Seen with Hungarian Eyes...................................................................................................23 

MARÁCZ, László 

Multilingualism in the Hungarian Kingdom (1867‐1918): Language Policy and Practice .27 

OBRUSÁNSZKY, Borbála 

Silk Road – Then and Now..............................................................................................................62 

LINGUISTICS................................................................................................ 69 

WINTERS, Clyde 

Greek Influence on Sanskrit Language.........................................................................................70 

LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGIES ....................................... 78 

MOLNÁR, Zsolt & MOLNÁRNÉ CZEGLÉDI, Cecília 

The Creative Hungarian Language and Its Special Teaching Method 

Part 5.: Relators in the Structure of Sentences..............................................................................79 

ANCIENT WRITING SYSTEM RESEARCH ............................................. 84 

MELLÁR, Mihály 

From a Kafkania Pebble to the Staff of Asclepios.......................................................................85 

ETHNOGRAPHY........................................................................................... 90 

TODORIKI, Masahiko 

Tuwa‐Ren: The Emerging Ethnic Identity of the Altai‐Tuvans in Xinjiang..........................91 

GEOSTRATEGY .......................................................................................... 104 

ABILOV, Shamkhal 

Historical Development of the Azerbaijan Oil Industry and the Role of Azerbaijan 

in Todayʹs European Energy Security..........................................................................................105 

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MAHAPATRA, Debidatta Aurobinda 

Post‐Cold War World Order and Ideal Human Unity: A Perspective from 

Sri Aurobindo’s Philosophy ..........................................................................................................142 

LITERATURE & ARTS............................................................................... 153 

EKUKLU, Bülent 

Zeki Demirkubuz ve “Kader” .......................................................................................................154 

EKUKLU, Bülent : Zeki Demirkubuz ........................................................................................................................... 158 

MURAKEÖZY, Éva Patrícia 

A propos d’une exposition: Hans Bellmer — Louise Bourgeois Double Sexus .................159 

TRAVELOGUE ............................................................................................ 163 

TAPON, Francis 

The Hidden Europe: What Eastern Europeans Can Teach Us ................................................164 

BOOK (P)REVIEW...................................................................................... 175 

BÉRCZI, Szaniszló 

Etruscan, Roman and Toscan Art..................................................................................................176 

CLASSICAL WRITINGS ON EURASIA.................................................. 183 

HIRTH, Friedrich 

Die chinesischen annalen als Quelle zur Geschichte asiatischer Völker.............................184 

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DEAR READER, 

PALIMPSEST 

This is the title of Gore Vidal´s famous memoir. The author identifies its way of writing his memoir 

with the definition of the word, which is: “1. Paper, parchment, etc., prepared for writing on and wiping 

out again, like a slate. 2. A parchment, etc., which has been written upon twice; the original writing 

having been rubbed out.” Thinking of the history and heritage of Eurasia (and of the world in general), it 

is probably the best term to use. 

This beautiful and exciting nature of mankind´s history and cultural heritage was oversimplified and 

shadowed during the Cold War in the 20 th century. In the battle of good versus evil (depending on where 

you stood or where you were placed) there was not too much room left for subtle nuances, at least in the 

open public space. With the end of it the situation changed dramatically. Since the 1990s more and more 

people are searching for their roots. History does not show any sign of ending, neither in a Marxist nor in 

a Fukuyama manner; in fact never did. History, culture, race, language, heritage and alike are all aspects 

of human existence that count heavily again. Not for nothing can we witness a real identity renaissance 

throughout Euarasia and beyond. 

When we launched our Journal of Eurasian Studies in March 2009 we envisioned a free journal that 

would cater to a wide intelligent audience that expects a combination of scientific articles of high quality 

and other material, which is topical, interesting and readable. Both our readers´ and the volunteer 

authors´ reactions surpassed our wildest expectations. The journal, after almost two years, contains more 

material from newcomers than from its original founders. It could not be better! 

There is another fact that proves that we were right in launching our journal: Elsevier, the publishing 

powerhouse, launched in January this year, one year after our journal´s launch, a periodical with exactly 

the same name as ours. Despite the differences in scope, frequency of publication (theirs is published 

twice a year) and the way it is edited and marketed, Elsevier´s journal too shows the changing of times. 

And this can not be by accident. It is Zeitgeist. 

Flórián Farkas 

Editor‐in‐Chief 

The Hague, November 28, 2010 

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OUR AUTHORS 


Born in Yardimli, Republic of Azerbaijan in 1985. Received a BA degree in International 

Relations from Qafqaz University (Baku, Azerbaijan) in 2008. Currently he is studying for a 

MA‐Double Degree in the field of Global Studies. He already completed the first year in 2009 at 

the University of Lepizig. At present he is completing the second year at the University of Vienna. 

Mr. Abilov´s main research areas are: Azerbaijan‐Conflict Studies, Caucasus, European Union, 

International Relations Theories & Globalization; in these fields he authored several articles. He is 

native speaker of Azeri and Turkish, fluent in English and has a reasonable working knowledge 

of German. 


Mathematician, teacher, poet. Born in Négyfalu in Transylvania in 1954. Graduated from the 

Babeş‐Bolyai University, Kolozsvár/Cluj/Klausenburg (Transylvania), Faculty of Mathematics in 

1978. Since his graduation he is teaching mathematics in high schools, currently in the Áprily 

Lajos High‐School in Brassó/Braşov/Kronstadt (Transylvania). Next to teaching his activities 

cover the following fields: he was involved in the establishment of a Hungarian high‐school 

system in Brassó/Braşov/Kronstadt; founded the Hungarian Mathematics Competition in 

Transylvania; founded the József Wildt International Mathematical Competition; mentor of students 

who create student periodicals; editor‐in‐chief of the international mathematical journal 

OCTOGON MATHEMATICAL MAGAZINE; founder of the publishing house Fulgur (1993), 

which specializes in publishing Hungarian books. He is author of several books including poetry 

and mathematics and several hundreds mathematical papers. 


Physicist‐astronomer who made a new synthesis of evolution of matter according to the 

material hierarchy versus great structure building periods. This model is a part of his Lecture 

Note Series Book on the Eötvös University. He also organized a research group on evolution of 

matter in the Geonomy Scientific Committee of the Hungarian Academy of Scince (with Béla 

Lukács). He wrote the first book in Hungary about planetary science From Crystals to Planetary 

Bodies (also he was the first candidate of earth sciences in topics planetology). He built with 

colleagues on the Eötvös University the Hungarian University Surveyor (Hunveyor) 

experimental space probe model for teachers for training purposes and development of new 

constructions in measuring technologies. 

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Was born in 1973 and graduated from the Middle East Technical University, Computer 

Engineering Department. In 1998 he started his MA studies at the Cinema‐TV Department at 

Yeditepe University; he did further research in cinema in 2001 in Italy. In 2003 he successfully 

completed his master degree education with the thesis ʺChange of Cultural Society of Turkey in 

post‐1980 and Cultural Construction of Yavuz Turgul Cinemaʺ. Since then he has been working 

in various TV series, short films, radio programs, documentary films as script writer and 

consultant. Starting from 2005, he attended a master class called ʺPlaywriting Workshopʺ for a 

period of one year at Mehmet Ergen management. After that class, he finished his first play 

entitled ʺAmber‐eyed womanʺ. Since 2006, he is giving lectures called “Dramatic Writing and 

Script Writing Workshop” at Sinematek Association. Since 1998 he has been working in different 

roles in the IT sector and currently is working as IT consultant. 

HIRTH, Friedrich (1845‐1927) 

German‐American sinologist who was born at Gräfentonna, Saxe‐Gotha. He was educated at 

the universities of Leipzig, Berlin, and Greifswald. He was in the Chinese maritime customs 

service from 1870 to 1897. In 1902, Professor Hirth was appointed to the professorship of Chinese 

in Columbia University, New York. He is the author of numerous books and articles. 


Received a Ph.D. degree from the School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru 

University, New Delhi. He is currently part of research faculty at Centre for Central Eurasian 

Studies, University of Mumbai, India. He is also associated with the Institute for Conflict 

Research, Belfast, International Mediating and Negotiating Operational Agency, Rome, Human 

Dignity and Humiliation Studies Network, and Journal of Alternative Perspectives in Social 

Sciences, Florida. Mr. Mahapatra was a research fellow at Moscow University in 2003‐2004. He 

has written two books, co‐authored two and co‐edited one. He has contributed over hundred 

papers to various national and international journals and magazines. His prominent works 

include India Russia Partnership: Kashmir, Chechnya and Issues of Convergence (2006), Central Eurasia: 

Geopolitics, Compulsions and Connections (2008) and “The Peace Process and Prospects for 

Economic Reconstruction in Kashmir,” Peace & Conflict Review (United Nations University of 

Peace, Fall 2008). His areas of expertise are conflict and peace building, Kashmir, terrorism and 

strategic aspects of Central Eurasia. 


Born in 1960 in Utrecht, the Netherlands. Received his degree from the University of 

Groningen. Between 1984 and 1990 he was with the University of Groningen as assistant 

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professor. Between 1990 and 1992 as a Niels Stensen scholar he was with MTI, MTA and CNRS as 

a guest researcher. Since 1992 Mr. Marácz is lecturer of the East‐European Institute of the 

University of Amsterdam. His areas of research cover general syntax, Hungarian grammar, the 

relationship of Hungarians and the West. Author of numerous scientific publications and books. 


Mathematician, Academia of Sciences, Belgrade. Since 1980 he is living in Australia, working 

as Australian Aboriginal and Papua New Guinean art and craft dealer, researching organic and 

endogen cultures. 

MOLNÁR, Zsolt 

Received a doctor univ. degree in Management and Organization from the Budapest 

University of Technology, Faculty of Social and Natural Sciences in the field of “Cognitive 

Modeling of Organizations”. Currently he is working in the field of cognitive sciences focusing on 

the research of creation of meaning. His special interest is the investigation of the Hungarian 

language based on the meaning principle. In line with his research he is also working on new 

language teaching methods based on theoretical findings. 

MOLNÁRNÉ CZEGLÉDI, Cecília 

Ms. Molnárné Czeglédi is working as teacher and teaching methodology developer. Currently 

she is working in an elementary school, does applied research, practical adaptation and effective 

introductions in the field of teaching methodology development. At present her main area of 

interest is the developmnet of a new Hungarian language teaching method, based on the 

theoretical findings of the meaning principle. 


Born in 1971, Budapest, Hungary. Received her diploma (M.Sc.) in Agricultural Sciences and 

her Doctorate (Ph.D.) in Plant Physiology, in 1995 and 2001, respectively, both from the Szent 

István University of Gödöllő, Hungary. In 2003 she graduated as an engineer in Plant Protection 

at the University of Veszprém, Hungary and worked for the Hungarian Plant and Soil Protection 

Service. Between 2004 and 2005 she worked as a postdoctoral student at the Technopôle 

Brest‐Iroise in Brest, France. She is specialized in the physiology and molecular biology of 

halophyte plants. From 2007 she studies fine arts at the Academy of Fine Arts of The Hague, The 

Netherlands. Her special field of interest is the artistic depiction of organic growth processes. 

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Historian, orientalist. She completed her studies at the University Eötvös Loránd in Budapest 

between 1992 and 1997 in history and Mongol civilization. This is followed by a postgradual 

study at the Mongol State University, where she is awarded a Ph.D. degree in 1999. Between 2000 

and 2002 she worked as external consultant of the Asia Center at the University of Pécs, and 

organized the Mongol programs of the Shambala Tibet Center. During this period she 

participated in several expeditions in Mongolia and China. Ms. Obrusánszky is member and/or 

founder of several Hungarian scientific associations and she is author of numerous books and 

articles, and regularly provides analyses on Central‐Asia in the scientific press. Next to that she is 

the editor‐in‐chief of an educational journal. 


Author of The Hidden Europe: What Eastern Europeans Can Teach Us, which comes 

out August 21, 2011. 

Author of Hike Your Own Hike: 7 Life Lessons from Backpacking Across America. 

Has visited all 25 Eastern European countries at least twice and has traveled there 

nonstop for 3 years. 

Has traveled to over 80 countries, walked across America 4 times, backpacked over 

12,500 miles in the mountains, and was a finalist in the California Outdoors Hall of 

Fame. 

He’s been covered in The New York Times Magazine, San Francisco Chronicle, San Jose 

Mercury News, Backpacker Magazine, TGO (The Great Outdoors) Magazine in the UK, 

New Mexico Magazine, and others. He’s been interviewed on radio stations and 

podcasts. 

Amazon.com & Lincoln Mercury selected him as the best example of someone who is 

fulfilling the dream of traveling the world, and produced a video profile on him. 

His dad is French, his mom is Chilean, and he was born in San Francisco. Speaks 

several languages. He has never owned a TV, chair, table, couch, bed, or rocket ship. 

Has a BA in Religion from Amherst College and an MBA from Harvard Business 

School. 


Born in 1965, Nagano Prefecture. Received PhD of Biotechnology from Osaka University in 

2007. Besides his musical career, he has been a researcher at the National Museum of Ethnology 

Osaka (2007‐2010), the National Agricultural Research Center Tsukuba (2007‐2008), and a lecturer 

in the Institute of Oriental Culture at the University of Tokyo (2008‐2009) in the fields of biology 

and ethnology. Since 2009, he assumed his present post in the Department of Economics at the 

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Osaka University. Latest publications: Old maps of Tuva 1—The detailed map of the nomadic grazing 

patterns of total area of the Tannu‐Uriankhai— (2008); Old maps of Tuva 2—Tannu‐ Uriankhai Maps in 

18th Century China — (2009); “The dynamics of symbiosis: an essay on evolution from the 

endogenous point of view” (2009). 


Dr. Winters is the Director of the Uthman dan Fodio Institute’s Afro‐Asian Research Project. 

He is a Curriculum Specialist and Linguist. Dr. Winters has taught Applied Linguistics at Saint 

Xavier University in Chicago and Curriculum Studies at Governors State University, University 

Park Illinois. He is especially interested in Archaeogenetics, Indian languages and the Indus 

Valley writing. Articles by Dr. Winters, have appeared in Science, Papers in Japanese Linguistics, 

International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics, Journal of Central Asia and the Central Asiatic 

Journal. 

ZOMBORI, Andor 

Born in Budapest, Hungary. Acquired a B.A. degree in Japanese language and international 

relations in 2003 at the California State University, Long Beach in the United States. Also studied 

Japanese language, culture, and international affairs for one year at the Osaka Gakuin University 

in Japan and Korean language and culture for another year at the Kyungbuk National University 

in Korea. Mr. Zombori has been living in Japan since 2004 and working at a Japanese automotive 

industry consulting company as the department head of English‐language publications. His 

primary area of specialization is the Asian automotive industry and market. 

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NEWS BRIEF 

COPYRIGHT INFORMATION: Please note that the copyright of these news briefs belongs to 

each website as indicated at the bottom of each story. 

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This News Brief was compiled and edited by Andor Zombori. 

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ARCHAEOLOGY 

Afghanistan: Archaeologists seek protection for Afghan treasures 

http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jf‐EWqmhK3CiG7XGyGyVtOsNWZ8g 

AFP (Jun. 21, 2010) 

Armenia: Researchers find worldʹs oldest leather shoe and more 

http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010‐06/plos‐rfw060710.php 

EurekAlert! (Jun. 09, 2010) 

Armenia: Archaeological excavations of the city of Tigranakert in Artsakh get under way 

http://www.panorama.am/en/society/2010/06/21/tigranakert/ 

Panorama.am (Jun. 21, 2010) 

China: Researchers may know identity of ancient town in Xinjiang 

http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90782/7019250.html 

People’s Daily Online (Jun. 09, 2010) 

China: Buddha remains unveiled in east China temple 

http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010‐06/12/c_13346882.htm 

Xinhua (Jun. 12, 2010) 

China: Rare emerald pearl inserted in Cao Caoʹs mouth found 

http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90782/90873/7023898.html 

Peopleʹs Daily Online (Jun. 12, 2010) 

China: Human Sacrifices Found at Ancient China Complex 

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/06/photogalleries/100615‐human‐sacrifice‐china‐tombs‐science‐archaeology‐ 

pictures/#/china‐western‐zhou‐era‐skeletons_21478_600x450.jpg 

National Geographic (Jun. 15, 2010) 

China: Ancient voyagers tomb found in E China 

http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90782/90873/7041564.html 

People’s Daily Online (Jun. 26, 2010) 

China: Revealing the Ancient Chinese Secret of Sticky Rice Mortar 

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/05/100530093704.htm 

Science Daily (Jun. 01, 2010) 

Cyprus: Ancient figurine ‘factory’ uncovered 

http://www.cyprus‐mail.com/cyprus/ancient‐figurine‐factory‐uncovered/20100610? 

Cyprus Mail (Jun. 10, 2010) 

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Cyprus: Diggers discover Phoenician army complex 

http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKTRE65H2W520100618 

Reuters (Jun. 18, 2010) 

Cyprus: Dig reveals ancient palace 

http://famagusta‐gazette.com/cyprus‐dig‐reveals‐ancient‐palace‐p10650‐69.htm 

Famagusta Gazette (Jun. 19, 2010) 

Cyprus: Rich finds at Bronze Age settlement 

http://www.cyprus‐mail.com/cyprus/rich‐finds‐bronze‐age‐settlement/20100704 

Cyprus Mail (Jul. 04, 2010) 

Cyprus: An archaeological window on ancient farming 

http://www.cyprus‐mail.com/archaeology/archaeological‐window‐ancient‐farming/20100722 

Cyprus Mail (Jul. 22, 2010) 

Georgia: Unique archaeological discovery in Adjara 

http://www.geotimes.ge/index.php?m=home&newsid=21977 

The Georgian Times (Jun. 21, 2010) 

Indonesia: Chinese Ancient Earthenware Found in Dieng 

http://en.vivanews.com/news/read/157453‐chinese‐ancient‐earthenware‐found‐in‐dieng 

VIVAnews (Jun. 14, 2010) 

Israel: Dig reveals 3,500 yr old relics 

http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=177711 

The Jerusalem Post (Jun. 07, 2010) 

Israel: Ancient bees found in Israel hailed from Turkey 

http://articles.latimes.com/2010/jun/08/science/la‐sci‐ancient‐bees‐20100608 

Los Angeles Times (Jun. 8, 2010) 

Israel: Pagan Antiquities Unearthed in Israel 

http://news.discovery.com/archaeology/pagan‐antiquities‐unearthed‐in‐israel.html 

Discovery News (Jun. 09, 2010) 

Israel: Oldest written document ever found in Jerusalem by Hebrew University 

http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010‐07/thuo‐owd071210.php 

EurekAlert! (Jul. 11, 2010) 

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Israel: Philistine Temple Ruins Uncovered in Goliaths Hometown 

http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/138843 

Arutz Sheva (Jul. 29, 2010) 

India: Remains of another ancient varsity found 

http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Remains‐of‐another‐ancient‐varsity‐found/articleshow/6018165.cms 

The Times of India (Jun. 07, 2010) 

India: Archaeologists confirm Megalithic find 

http://www.hindu.com/2010/06/11/stories/2010061153330600.htm 

The Hindu (Jun. 11, 2010) 

India: Buddhist structures found in Simhachalam hill range 

http://www.hindu.com/2010/07/11/stories/2010071163040600.htm 

The Hindu (Jul. 11, 2010) 

India: Archaeological Findings Point to Ancient Indo‐Roman Trade 

http://www.indiajournal.com/pages/event.php?id=11753 

India Journal (Jul. 15, 2010) 

Iran: Alamut yields decorative tiles 

http://edition.presstv.ir/detail/128647.html 

Press TV (Jun. 01, 2010) 

Iran: Alamut yields ancient water reservoirs 

http://edition.presstv.ir/detail/131837.html 

Press TV (Jun. 24, 2010) 

Iran: Sassanid fire temple discovered in central Iran 

http://www.payvand.com/news/10/jul/1043.html 

Payvand Iran News (Jul. 05, 2010) 

Iran: Ancient Subterranean Secret Complex Discovered in Hamadan Province 

http://www.cais‐soas.com/news/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=122:an‐ancient‐subterranean‐secret‐complex‐ 

discovered‐in‐hamadan‐province&catid=42 

CAIS (Jul. 27, 2010) 

Jordan: 6,000‐year‐old statue discovered in Jordanian desert 

http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/middleeast/news/article_1572260.php/6‐000‐year‐old‐statue‐discovered‐in‐Jordanian‐ 

desert 

M&C (Jul. 21, 2010) 

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Jordan: Ancient City of Petra Tombs Reveal 61 Burials and Islamic Gold Medallion 

http://heritage‐key.com/blogs/owenjarus/ancient‐city‐petra‐tombs‐reveal‐61‐burials‐and‐islamic‐gold‐medallion 

Heritage Key (Jul. 23, 2010) 

Japan: Ancient site suggests meat diet 

http://www.asahi.com/english/TKY201006180433.html 

The Asahi Shimbun (Jun. 19, 2010) 

Japan: Remains of oldest palace for emperors accession ceremony found 

http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=D9GM6QFO0&show_article=1 

Breitbart (Jul. 01, 2010) 

Kenya: Chinese archaeologists African quest for sunken ship of Ming admiral 

http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jul/25/kenya‐china 

Guardian (Jul. 25, 2010) 

Korea, South: 12th century dike discovered in Nakdong River 

http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/culturesports/2010/06/21/17/0701000000AEN20100621000900315F.HTML 

Yonhap News Agency (Jun. 21, 2010) 

Kazakhstan: Kazakh Archeologists Discover Ancient Scythian “Sun Lord” 

http://www.eurasianet.org/node/61549 

Eurasianet.org (Jul. 19, 2010) 

Lebanon: Life in Bronze Age Levant is rediscovered 

http://www.archaeologydaily.com/news/201007194519/Life‐in‐Bronze‐Age‐Levant‐is‐rediscovered.html 

The Daily Star (Jul. 19, 2010) 

Lebanon: Dig unearths 5000 year old artefact in Sidon 

http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=1&categ_id=1&article_id=117518#axzz0uzhgs17S 

The Daily Star (Jul. 28, 2010) 

Myanmar: Archaeological research to prove origin of Myanmar 

http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/sci/2010‐07/07/c_13388000.htm 

Xinhuanet (Jul. 07, 2010) 

Malaysia: First Century Iron Industry Site Found In Jeniang 

http://www.archaeologydaily.com/news/201007034494/First‐Century‐Iron‐Industry‐Site‐Found‐In‐Jeniang.html 

Bernama (Jul. 03, 2010) 

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Near East: The Phoenician archaeology a common Euro Mediterranean heritage 

http://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201006206291/Travel/the‐phoenician‐archaeology‐a‐common‐euro‐mediterranean‐ 

heritage.html 

Global Arab Network (Jun. 20, 2010) 

Philippines: Boffins find mystery seafaring ancestor in the Philippines 

http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/health/boffins‐find‐mystery‐seafaring‐ancestor‐in‐the‐philippines_100375049.html 

Thaindian News (Jun. 04, 2010) 

Pakistan: Peshawar Is the “ Oldest Living City” in South Asia 

http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn‐content‐library/dawn/news/pakistan/metropolitan/03‐peshawar‐oldest‐living‐ 

city‐in‐south‐asia‐ss‐09 

Dawn (Jul. 03, 2010) 

Pakistan: Ancient Civilization Remains Shrouded in Mystery 

http://www.voanews.com/english/news/asia/Mystery‐Shrouds‐Ancient‐Civilization‐in‐Pakistan‐‐98967839.html 

VOA News (Jul. 21, 2010) 

Russia: Two Birch Bark Manuscripts Found 

http://www.russia‐ic.com/news/show/10306/ 

Russia IC (Jun. 21, 2010) 

Russia: Archeologists Discover 4000‐Year‐Old Tombs 

http://www.russia‐ic.com/news/show/10462/ 

Russia IC (Jul. 28, 2010) 

Syria: Clay pieces and bathtubs unearthed 

http://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201006086138/Related‐news‐from‐Syria/belgian‐archaeologists‐unearthed‐clay‐ 

pieces‐and‐bathtubs‐in‐syria.html 


Syria: Mosaic, pillars and inscriptions unearthed 

http://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201006136195/Related‐news‐from‐Syria/french‐archaeologists‐unearthed‐mosaic‐ 

pillars‐and‐inscriptions‐in‐syria.html 


Syria: Temple dating back to Hellenistic and Roman eras unearthed 

http://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201006296398/Related‐news‐from‐Syria/syria‐archaeologists‐unearthed‐a‐temple‐ 

dating‐back‐to‐hellenistic‐and‐roman‐eras.html 


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Syria: Jars Dating Back to the Bronze Age Unearthed 

http://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201007066470/Culture/canadian‐archaeologists‐jars‐dating‐back‐to‐the‐bronze‐age‐ 

unearthed‐in‐syria.html 

Global Arab Network (Jul. 06, 2010) 

Syria: 5th Century Monastery Unearthed 

http://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201007226640/Related‐news‐from‐Syria/archaeologists‐5th‐century‐monastery‐ 



Syria: Archaeological Tombs Dating Back to Bronze Age discovered 

http://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201007236645/Related‐news‐from‐Syria/archaeological‐tombs‐dating‐back‐to‐bronze‐ 

age‐discovered‐in‐northern‐syria.html 


Syria: 5,000‐Year‐ Old Archaeological Pottery Craft Unearthed 

http://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201007246659/Related‐news‐from‐Syria/5000‐years‐old‐archaeological‐pottery‐craft‐ 



Turkmenistan: Turkmen capital is 8 thousand years old, archeologists say 

http://www.turkmenistan.ru/?page_id=3&lang_id=en&elem_id=17115&type=event&sort=date_desc 

Turkmenistan.ru (Jun. 07, 2010) 

Turkey: Ruins of four ancient castles discovered in western Turkey 

http://www.todayszaman.com/tz‐web/news‐213071‐100‐american‐archaeologists‐find‐ruins‐of‐four‐ancient‐castles‐in‐western‐ 

turkey.html 

Today’s Zaman (Jun. 14, 2010) 

Turkey: Warrior Sarcophagus at Parion Unearthed 

http://www.balkantravellers.com/en/read/article/2118 

Balkan Travellers (Jul. 14, 2010) 

Turkey: 900‐year‐old Byzantine church unearthed in S Turkey 

http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=900‐year‐old‐byzantine‐church‐unearthed‐in‐mediterranean‐‐province‐2010‐07‐15 

Hurriyet Daily News (Jul. 15, 2010) 

Turkey: 1,800‐year‐old care set found in southern Turkey 

http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=1800‐years‐old‐care‐set‐was‐found‐2010‐07‐28 

Hurriyet Daily News (Jul. 28, 2010) 

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United States: Computer automatically deciphers ancient language 

http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2010/ugaritic‐barzilay‐0630.html 

MIT News (Jun. 30, 2010) 

United States: Pottery find leads to recreation of 9,000‐year‐old beer 

http://www.theage.com.au/world/pottery‐find‐leads‐to‐recreation‐of‐9000yearold‐beer‐20100720‐10jfh.html 

The Age (Jul. 21, 2010) 

Vietnam: 18th century tomb excavated in Nha Trang school 

http://www.thanhniennews.com/2010/Pages/20100618115006.aspx 

Thanh Nien News (Jun. 17, 2010) 

Vietnam: Ancient tomb site uncovered 

http://vietnamnews.vnagency.com.vn/Life‐Style/Antiques‐Relics/201226/Ancient‐tomb‐site‐uncovered.html 

VietNamNews (Jul. 06, 2010) 

DEMOGRAPHICS 

China: Demographics Indian workers are not ready to seize the baton 

http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/573033de‐bec6‐11df‐a755‐00144feab49a,dwp_uuid=9bee261a‐bec7‐11df‐a755‐00144feab49a.html 

Financial Times (Sep. 13, 2010) 

Japan: Long‐term incentives needed to counter population decline 

http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a844c8a0‐b94b‐11df‐99be‐00144feabdc0,dwp_uuid=9507aeb2‐b94e‐11df‐99be‐00144feabdc0.html 

Financial Times (Sep. 07, 2010) 

Korea, South: The challenge of becoming a ‘multiethnic Korea’ in the 21st century 

http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2010/03/18/the‐challenge‐of‐becoming‐a‐multiethnic‐korea‐in‐the‐21st‐century/ 

East Asia Forum (Mar. 18, 2010) 

ECONOMICS 

China: Passes Japan as Second Largest Economy 

http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/16/business/global/16yuan.html?pagewanted=1 

The New York Times (Aug. 16, 2010) 

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GENETICS 

Americas: Skulls show New World was settled twice study 

http://www.physorg.com/news195759989.html 

PhysOrg.com (Jun. 14, 2010) 

Americas: Ancient woman suggests diverse migration 

http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/feedarticle/9188095 

Guardian (Jul. 14, 2010) 

China: Tibetans adapted to altitude in under 3,000 years 

http://www.intellasia.net/news/articles/society/111298321.shtml 

IntellAsia.net (Jul. 03, 2010) 

Russia: Russians restore face to 30,000 plus‐year‐old Kostenki cave man 

http://www.allvoices.com/contributed‐news/6113665‐russians‐restore‐face‐to‐30000‐yearold‐kostenki‐russia‐cave‐man 

All Voices (Jun. 19, 2010) 

GEOGRAPHY 

China: Yangtze River’s Ancient Origins Revealed 

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/06/100603091831.htm 

ScienceDaily (Jun. 06, 2010) 

China: China’s Wars Driven by Climate 

http://news.discovery.com/history/china‐climate‐wars.html 

Discovery News (Jul. 14, 2010) 

NATURAL RESOURCES 

Afghanistan: US Identifies Vast Mineral Riches in Afghanistan 

http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html?_r=1&no_interstitial 

The New York Times (Jun. 13, 2010) 

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HISTORY 

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Katyn Seen with Hungarian Eyes 

Half of the lads from Hétfalu ran to Northern Transylvania, fighting through World War II as 

Hungarian soldiers, the other half as Romanian soldiers. Many of them stayed at the bend of the river 

Don, the ones who survived ran to Csíkszereda (Miercurea Ciuc) or Kolozsvár (Cluj). After the great 

fights, a big part of the ones who survived went home to their families. At gatherings they would tell 

stories about their life as soldiers and the war, remembering the ones who died. I heard from them for the 

first time about the tragedy in Katyn. After this came the Radio Free Europe’s report about the event. 

After the fall of socialism and communism everyone was expecting the solution of this delicate issue, but 

the Russian leadership stayed hidden. Finally Gorbachev broke the silence. 

Andrzej Wajda’s movie Katyn drew the attention of the world again to this historical issue, which 

follows exactly, from the beginning, the story of the deported Polish officers and intellectuals, 

approaching the historical reality and lies from the point of view of the women left behind. After all of 

this, exactly after seventy years the second tragedy happened in Katyn, in which almost 100 members of 

the Polish state and church leadership lost their lives. 

The Soviet Union attacked Poland, which was fighting the German army, on September 17, 1939 and 

occupied its Eastern region, which was made possible by the secret clause of the Molotov‐Ribbentrop 

pact. During this campaign almost 15 thousand Polish officers were captured, together with many 

policemen and frontier‐guards as well, and were brought to three huge concentration camps in Kozelsk, 

Starobielsk and Ostaskov. These are the places where those few Hungarian men lost their lives who were 

willing to fight in the Polish army as a token of the Hungarian‐Polish friendship. 

Stalin always looked at the Polish people suspiciously, primarily at its officers, because most of them 

were part of the Polish aristocracy and were heated by a strong patriotic feeling and anti‐Russian 

emotions after the Tsarist repression. The reservists were mostly intellectuals, and Stalin thought that this 

layer would be in the future the core and engone of every anti‐Soviet organization. The first wave of the 

Polish prisoners was transported on April 3, 1940 by the Soviet political police; the last group was taken 

on May 12 to the terminal in the woodland near Katyn, Harkov and Kalinyin. The exterminations were 

held in turns of 300, and the executioners of the NKVD used Walther pistols of German manufacture. A 

great part of the Polish citizens who were held hostage, more than 6000 people, were executed in 

Dergachev near Harkov in the same way. Such civilians, mostly intellectuals, died, because the Soviets 

expected them to fight against the Soviet occupation. The details of tragedy of many hundred Polish 

prisoners and civilians, who were transported by the Soviets to the Black See and put on two enormous 

fishing boats which were then sunk, are still not clear. Supposedly here was one of the two Hungarian 

civilians. Nearly 500 officers survived the execution; no one survived the sinking of the ships. 

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The news of these executions was first presented to the world by Germany in the spring of 1943, but 

the Red Cross was not willing to examine the situation, so the Germans set up an international 

commission for the clarification of the events. The famous Hungarian pathologist professor, dr. Ferenc 

Orsós was a member of this commission, and he was declared later a war criminal. Moscow put the guilt 

of the executions in Katyn on the Germans, but the event was not part of the trial in Nürnberg. The Soviet 

official statements tried to falsify the events that happened in Katyn during the war. After 1945, in Poland 

it was prohibited to talk about the executions that happened in Katyn. Only in 1956, at the time of the 

so‐called meltdown, seemed possible that the Polish community can find out something about the stories 

of the victims, but Wladyslaw Gomulka, the leader of the party, was afraid of Moscow’s revenge, and 

backed down. The silence was broken finally by Mihail Gorbachev in 1990. He made an announcement in 

which he said that the Soviet Union was responsible for the executions that happened in the woods of 

Katyn. Two years later Boris Yeltsin gave to Lech Walensa copies of many important documents about 

Katyn, one of them of the decision of the party dated March 5, 1940 in which Stalin agreed to the 

executions of the Polish officers. 

Things are not in their right place even in our days. 1 Vladimir Putin, in spite of the documents and 

evidence that were presented, is doubtful that the Soviets killed Polish prisoners in Katyn in the spring of 

1940. Hearing about the Wajda movie, some papers in Moscow say the same thing. The Russian military 

prosecutor’s office started an investigation of this matter at the beginning of the 1990’s, and this 

investigation was closed only in 2004. The documents of the prosecutor’s office – in spite of Putin’s 

opinion – do not question the fact that the Soviets executed the Polish officers and the civilians in Katyn, 

but they claim that that was not a crime of war and against humanity, but an ordinary crime. The exact 

number of the victims will be never known, and there is strong evidence that Moscow destroyed many 

documents related to this event in 1959. According to the research up until now 14,736 Polish officers and 

more than 10,600 Polish civilians were executed by the NKVD in Katyn. 

This execution had two Hungarian victims as well. One of them was born in Poland in 1897, he was 

Hungarian‐born, Oskar Rudolf Kuehnel. He fought against the Nazis as senior captain of the Polish 

army. He was imprisoned by the Soviets and sent to a camp in Koselski by the NKVD. He was murdered 

in April 1940 in the woods of Katyn. His body was exhumed in 1943. In his uniform they found his 

personal belongings and his journal, and the last date registered was April 7, 1940. The other Hungarian 

victim was Emánuel Aladár Korompay, born in Budapest in 1890, captain of the Polish army, who fought 

in Galicia during World War I. After the war he did not return to Hungary, but he joined Jozef Pilsudski’s 

legion and defended the Polish homeland from the Red Army in 1920. He graduated from the Reformed 

School; got a degree in philosophy from the University of Budapest; then he settled in Warsaw. He is 

considered as a pioneer of Hungarology in Poland and he was the editor of the first Hungarian‐Polish 

dictionary. He worked at the University of Warsaw as a lecturer and in the same time he was the cultural 

attaché of the Hungarian Embassy. He was mobilized in September 1939. He could have asked for his 

acquittal for having double citizenship and being an employee of the embassy. However, he did not do 

such thing. He was imprisoned and taken by the NKVD to a camp in Starobelski. Although the body of 

1 Very recently, on November 26, 2010 the Russian Duma, Russiaʹs lower house of parliament has condemned Joseph Stalin by 

name for the mass execution of Polish officers and civilians at Katyn during World War II. The Duma declared that the Soviet 

dictator and other Soviet officials had ordered the ʺKatyn crimeʺ in 1940. — Ed. Journal of Eurasian Studies. 

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Emánuel Aladár Korompay was never identified, his name can be found amongst the ones executed in 

Harkov. On the wall of his home in Warsaw a plaque was placed in 1992; in 2002 the University of 

Warsaw also commemorated him by placing his name on a plaque. From his family, only his eldest 

daughter Ilona survived World War II. His daughter Márta was killed in September 1939 in Warsaw by a 

German bomb, Elzbieta, as a prisoner of the Gestapo, in 1943 committed suicide; his wife, Mieczyslawa 

lost her life in a concentration camp. 

Emánuel Aladár Korompay 

As a third victim of Katyn we can refer to Ferenc Orsós, who was born on August 22, 1879 in 

Temesvár. He graduated from the Medical University of Budapest in 1903; then during World War I he 

was imprisoned by the Russians. After his captivity, starting from 1918 he was an employee of the 

University of Debrecen, wher he showed a great interest towards pathology. From 1921 he was the head 

of the Institute for Forensic Medicine, where he made an active and scientific contribution, so in 1928 he 

became a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and from 1940 until his 

exclusion a full member. In 1935 he became professor at the Medical University of Budapest and the head 

of the Forensic Institute, too. As a delegate of the Medical Chamber he was a member of the Hungarian 

Parliament’s Upper House. In December 1944 he left for Germany. Until his retirement he worked as a 

professor at the University of Mainz, where he on July 25, 1962. 

Dr. Orsós was a well‐known pathologist, the Germans asked him to examine the bodies of the victims 

from Katyn in April 1943. The German leadership knew very well that the murders were committed by 

the Soviets, so they asked for professional studies from different people. They asked the presence of their 

immediate allies, the neutral countries and the representatives of the Polish and International Red Cross. 

With a little pressure they also took the imprisoned Anglo‐Saxon officers to the scene, and they asked the 

Polish resistance and the exiled Polish government in London, too. The commitee which made the 

examination chose dr. Orsós as the leader of the group. The exhumation lasted from the April 29, 1943 

until July 4; they revealed eight mass graves, and identified 2730 bodies. Dr. Orsós examined 150 bodies 

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himself. The graves were filled up during the retreat of the Germans. At Stalins’s command, after the 

recapture of the land, the Soviets also asked for examination, asking some óutstanding experts´. Aleksei 

Tolstoi, the writer and many metropolitans came to the conclusion that the Nazis are responsible for the 

murders. 

The story of Katyn after that is known, the relationship between the Polish government in London and 

the Soviets went from bad to worse and came to an end. The allies supported the lies of Stalin; kept the 

silence about the affair, and made sure that those who conducted the examinations disappear. After the 

war the Polish lawyer Roman Martini, who urged an inquiry, was murdered. The murder was 

well‐known to George VI and Churchill as well, via the Britisch officers who participated in the 

examination, but these leaders only admitted it at the start of the Cold War. 

Ferenc Orsós was a very important scientist for the NKVD so he had to escape to the West in December 

1944 where he got American protection, but he had to stay quiet. A dedicated Soviet group is looking for 

him in Budapest. They impound, confiscate his files and test results, and the occupiers take everything. 

Ferenc Orsós diagnosed the exact time of the murders with his pollen study, by the lime deposition 

thickness in the skull and by the size and breed of the corpse insects. The time is certified by the 

witnesses, the found documents, the papers and the trees which were planted on top of the mass graves. 

Orsós was excluded from the Hungarian Academy of Sciences at the same time as Bálint Hóman. Ferenc 

Orsós’ rehabilitation is still waiting to happen. By presenting his work to the world would not only mean 

his recognition as an important scientist, but would also help the recognition of the Hungarian science. 

Dr. Ferenc Orsós 

Translated by Andrea Muerth 

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Abstract 


Multilingualism in the Hungarian Kingdom (1867‐1918): 

Language Policy and Practice 

With the Compromis of 1867, the Hungarian kingdom received an equal status within the Austrian 

part of the Austro‐Hungarian Dual Monarchy. Hungary became a sovereign entity within the 

Hapsburg Monarchy. Next to a common monarch from the House of Hapsburg who had the title of 

‘emperor’ in Austria and that of ‘king’ in Hungary, three ministries were in common, including the 

Ministries of Foreign Affairs, Finances and Defence. The Compromis marking the autonomous 

position of Hungary in the Double Monarchy ended in 1918 with the dissolution of the Hapsburg 

Empire. Hence, the time framing from 1867 until 1918 of this study. 

The Austro‐Hungarian Monarchy was a clear multilingual state in which fourteen languages were 

officially recognized, including Croatian, Czech, German, Hungarian, Italian, Lithuanian, Polish, 

Romanian, Ruthanian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Ukrainian and Turkish. Although not all the 

languages were spoken throughout the empire and sometimes very much restricted to certain regions 

and local areas multilingualism was regulated by law. 

In this paper, I will concentrate on the Hungarian, i.e. the Transleithanian part of the Dual 

Monarchy paying credit to the pioneering studies of Goebl (1994) and especially Rindler‐Schjerve 

(2003) who insightfully analysed multilingualism in the Cisleithanian part, i.e. Austria adopting a 

sociolinguistic framework. 1 I will break with post World War I tradition in historiography claiming 

that multilingualism was severely restricted in the Hungarian kingdom and that the non‐Hungarian 

state languages were suppressed being the only reason for causing harsh language and ethnic 

conflicts. 2 Rather the analysis of multilingualism in the Hungarian kingdom is more complex than 

1 This paper appeared in Jolán Róka (ed). 2010. Concepts & Consequences of Multilingualism in Europe. Budapest: Századvég 

Kiadó. 55‐96. It is my conviction that the phenomenon of multilingualism and the phenomena related to it in both parts of the 

Austro‐Hungarian Empire, i.e. Cisleithania and Transleithania cannot be studied separately. It is obvious that the relation 

between Vienna, Budapest and the regions in both parts are a kind of power triangle that was inherently connected. In the case 

of Bosnia or Croatia, Vienna and Budapest were even in competition. Here I am indebted to Nikola Rasic for bringing this to my 

attention. To get deeper insight into Cisleithania and Transleithania and their mutual relation these cases must be studied in a 

comparative framework. Also comparing separate case studies, like the multilingual cities of Trieste and Fiume in both parts of 

the empire would offer an interesting insight into the policy and practice of multilingualism in the whole empire. 

2 It is not easy to find unbiased historic studies of the Hungarian kingdom under dualism. The reason for this is that 

historiography of the non‐Hungarian successor states of dualist Hungary has been dominated by the nationalist paradigm. This 

favors a bipolar analysis of all the nationality conflicts in the Hungarian kingdom in terms of the Hungarian versus non‐ 

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setting up a simple, bipolar opposition in terms of ‘Hungarian’ versus ‘non‐Hungarian’. In fact, it will 

be argued that the language and ethnic conflicts in the Hungarian kingdom can be studied more 

insightfully by employing a layered and overlapping model as the ‘flower configuration of languages’ 

that has been developed in De Swaan (2001). The relation between languages and their speakers in the 

Hungarian kingdom did not display a bipolar structure but rather an intersecting one. 

The language policy of the Hungarian kingdom stipulated in ‘Nationality Law’ XLIV (1868), 

although declaring Hungarian the language of the state did allow the use of any other official 

language than Hungarian at the local level, both in government, judiciary, church organizations and 

schools. In present‐day terminology, we may say that language use was organized in terms of 

subsidiarity in the Hungarian kingdom. It must be admitted that even the application of this principle 

did not prevent however the outbreak of language and ethnic conflicts in the period under study. Our 

analysis incorporates this fact. The paper concentrates on the school system in Transylvania where 

next to Hungarian, Romanian and German was being spoken and taught (see, Bíró 1992). We will 

conclude our efforts by making some comparisons with the Cisleithanian case and referring to lessons 

to be learned from the experiences of the Hapsburg Empire for present‐day language policy within the 

European Union. 

1. The Hungarian kingdom in the Dual Monarchy 

During the Hapsburg domination of the Hungarian kingdom lasting from the roll back of the Ottoman 

Empire from Central Europe by the end of the eighteenth century and the dissolution of the Hapsburg 

Empire at the end of the World War I, the Hungarian kingdom enjoyed a specific position in the 

framework of the Hapsburg Empire. Although this specific position, including the Lands of the 

Hungarian Holy Crown of Saint Stephen, named after the first king of Hungary was not always respected 

by the ruling Hapburgs it was clear that the Hungarian kingdom had its own legal system, its own 

territorial division based on the Hungarian county system and had its own social stratification and ethnic 

distribution. The Lands of the Hungarian Holy Crown of Saint Stephen included Hungary Proper, the 

Principality of Transylvania, Croatia‐Slavonia and the free royal city of Fiume (present‐day’s Rijeka in 

Croatia). This peculiar structure also formed a territorial unity displaying a peculiar geographically and 

social‐cultural entity in the centre of Europe. 3 In the age of Enlightenment it was the Austrian Emperor 

Joseph II (1780‐1790), the son of Empress Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary (1740‐1780) who tried to 

conduct an ambitious centralization policy to modernize the Hapsburg Empire. Consequently, the 

Hungarian kingdom was governed from Vienna and next to Latin that was the traditional state language 

the so‐called ‘patria lingua’ of the Hungarian kingdom, German received the status of official language in 

Hungary. 

Hungarian nationalities involved. An additional problem is the fact that Marxist historiography in Hungary is biased towards 

the Hungarian kingdom under dualism for ideological reasons as well. In some cases, the position of the Hungarian Marxist 

tradition matches with those of nationalist historiography in the non‐Hungarian successor states. 

3 See Count Teleki (1923). 

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The Hungarian kingdom under Hapsburg rule was a feudal society in which the social stratification of 

the empire played an important role in the struggle for power. At the core of this power struggle stood 

the Hungarian king, an Austrian Hapsburg and the Hungarian nobility. 4 The Hungarian nobility enjoyed 

traditionally a strong position in the Hungarian kingdom because it controlled the main sources of 

economic activities, i.e. the agricultural sector. 5 The different nationalities of Hungary, including most of 

the ethnic Hungarians, were subordinated as villeins to the Hungarian nobility. The Hungarian king tried 

to restrict the power of the Hungarian nobility by forming a coalition with the upper ranks of the nobility, 

the magnates and the lower echelons of the society, i.e. the villeins. With the slow disappearance of the 

feudal society and the awakening of modern nationalism in the beginning of the nineteenth century, this 

constellation of social power in the Hungarian kingdom started to change. 6 The Hungarian nobility, 

especially the members of the Hungarian Royal Noble Guard that was established by Empress and Queen 

Maria Theresa opposing the centralization and Germanization efforts of Joseph II launched a program of 

Hungarian Renewal. The catalyst of this program became Count István Széchenyi who initiated a number 

of modernization projects in the first half of the nineteenth century. One of his projects was to make the 

Hungarian language suitable for the country’s administration. For this purpose, the Hungarian Diet of 

Pozsony (today’s Bratislava) honored a proposal of Count Széchenyi to establish the Hungarian Academy 

of Sciences in 1825. One of the goals of the movement of National Renewal was to replace Latin and 

German as official state languages by Hungarian. 7 In a series of language acts the Hungarian Diet ordered 

step‐by‐step the Hungarian language as the official language of administration. 

The Diet communicated with the king in the forms of addresses. The language of these addresses was 

Latin until 1805. From 1805, the Diet ordered that both Latin and Hungarian could be used (compare, act 

IV. 1805 § 1). Civil servants and act‐student’s final examination before being called to the Bar had to be 

done in Hungarian (see act VIII. 1830 § 4 and 5). The language of the registry had to be Hungarian and 

priests had to know the Hungarian language (compare act VI. 1840 § 7 and 8). From 1840, the Estates of 

the Realm could only address the king “in accordance with the will of his Majesty” in Hungarian 

(compare, act VI. 1840 § 1). The same act specified that the municipalities could address the Diet only in 

Hungarian (see, act VI. 1840 § 2). The acts itself were phrased in Latin and Hungarian but the Diet 

ordered in 1836 that the Hungarian language version (act III. 1836 § 1) was to be considered as the 

original. Act II. 1844 § 1 stated that the king had to communicate with the Diet in the Hungarian language. 

With the language act of 1840 and the one of 1844 the language of communication between the king and 

the Diet became officially the Hungarian language. From 1844 onwards, (see act II. 1844 § 2) the language 

of legislation was Hungarian exclusively because Hungarian served already as the language of legislation. 

In fact, act II. 1844 made the language of communication of the Diet only Hungarian. However, the 

members of the Diet from the other Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen were exempted from this act for 

another six years. These members were allowed to address the Diet in Latin (see act II. 1844 § 3). The Diet 

ordered that the language of instruction in Hungarian schools became Hungarian (compare act II. 1844 § 

9). However, this act was only operative in Hungary proper, the other Lands of Saint Stephen’s Crown 

4 See Cadzow, John, F. et all. (1983). 

5 See Rady (2000). 

6 Bogdan (1989, 88‐93). 

7 Mikó (1944, 20‐28). 

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were exempted from this act. The Hungarian language became a compulsory subject of instruction in 

1792 (see act VII. 1792). But in primary and secondary education of the other Lands of the Hungarian 

Holy Crown of Saint Stephen this happened only 52 years later (see, act II. 1844 § 8). The municipal 

authorities were still allowed to correspond in Latin six years after the Hungarian language had become 

the official state language in 1844. However the series of language laws declaring the Hungarian language 

the official language of the state were only a few years operative. After the crushing of the anti‐Hapsburg 

Hungarian Revolution and War of Independence of 1848/1849 Hungarian legislation and the Diet itself 

were abolished. 

In the first half of the nineteenth century the traditional social stratification of the Hungarian kingdom 

became less relevant and the concept of the nation was embraced by the different ethnic groups of the 

Hungarian kingdom. Instead of manipulating the social classes the Hapsburg rulers of Hungary started 

now to play off the different ethnic “nationalities” against each other in order to maintain control over the 

Hungarian kingdom. The Hapsburgs had employed this strategy with much success already in the 

Austrian parts of the Empire. In the Hungarian part, one of the first successful cases of Austrian “ethnic 

divide and rule” was the Hungarian Revolution and War of Independence of 1848‐1849. 8 Vienna 

organized the Serb, Croat and Romanian forces in order to crush the Hungarian ambitions for a more 

democratic and independent Hungary. These engineered antagonisms between Hungarians and non‐ 

Hungarians formed the roots of the ethnic conflicts between these groups. The hierarchies between the 

ethnic groups were sometimes reversed. In the period of dualism after the Compromise of 1867, for 

example, the Hungarians became the primus inter pares when the Viennese Court and the representatives 

of the Hungarian nobility divided power in the framework of the Dual Monarchy. The non‐Hungarian 

nationalities of the Hungarian kingdom had to accept Hungarian supremacy in the Transleithanian 

parts. 9 

After the crushing of the Hungarian Revolution and War of Independence of 1848‐1849 by the 

Austrian forces with help of the Tsarist army the ambitions for a restoration of Hungarian autonomy 

within the Austrian empire were frustrated for a few decades. The Hungarians were harshly punished by 

the Austrian government for their rebellion. Thirteen of their leading generals were executed at Arad and 

martial act was imposed on the country. Vienna appointed an Austrian governor, Alexander Bach 

representing the king whot ruled and Germanized the country with a rod of iron. Bach had even the 

intention to Germanize the language of communication of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. A 

desperate Count Széchenyi wrote even a letter of protest in exile in 1858 against the plans to Germanize 

the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. 10 During the so‐called Bach‐era the Hungarians moved into passive 

resistance. Both camps, the House of Hapsburg and the Hungarians led by the aristocracy were willing to 

conclude a compromise in 1867, however. For Austria a compromise with Hungary became urgent 

because Prussia had defeated Austria in 1866 and because Austria was excluded from the German 

Customs Union that was dominated by Prussia. The Hapsburgs were looking to the East of their Empire 

for compensating the loss of power in the West. 

8 Bideleux, Robert and Ian Jeffries (1998). 

9 Bogdan (1989, 113‐126). 

10 See Marácz (1996, 67). 

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The Ausgleich of 1867 turned the Empire into a dual structure. The Austro‐Hungarian Dual Monarchy 

consisted of two parts, i.e. Austria the so‐called Cisleithanian parts of the empire and Hungary, the so‐ 

called Transleithanian part of the empire, i.e. the Hungarian kingdom. The Dual Monarchy was headed 

by one and the same monarch, Franz Joseph Emperor of Austria and king of Hungary, abbreviated as K. 

und k. The Ministries of Foreign Affairs, Defense and Finance were incorporated, but apart from that 

Hungary’s status remained equal to Austria’s. Consequently, the kingdom of Hungary became a 

sovereign state within the framework of the Dual Monarchy. Transylvania and Vojvodina were integrated 

into Hungary proper. Croatia‐Slavonia enjoyed a separate status that was confirmed by the Ausgleich 

between Hungary and Croatia‐Slavonia in 1868. The third equal constituting part of the Hungarian 

kingdom was the free royal city of Fiume. 

We will restrict our study of multilingualism in the Hungarian kingdom to the period between the 

Ausgleich and the dissolution of the Austro‐Hungarian Empire in 1920. Hence, the restriction in time, i.e. 

the era of dualism has a well‐defined starting‐point and an end point. In space, the Hungarian kingdom is 

defined during dualism as the Transleithanian parts of the Austro‐Hungarian Empire. However highly 

relevant is that dualism brought long term stability in the Central European area which in turn stimulated 

economic growth. This was a pre‐condition for the modernization of the whole Austro‐Hungarian Empire 

but also in particular of the kingdom of Hungary. The Hungarian kingdom though it perpetuated the 

conservative, semi‐feudal structure of the Austro‐Hungarian Empire, such as the lack of universal 

suffrage developed during dualism into a modern Hungarian state. Thanks to dualism legislation and 

institutions to set up education, health care, infrastructure, the development of urban dwellings, 

industries, mechanization of agriculture and the development of the army improved enormously. The 

development of the modern state caused also new types of social stratifications in the Hungarian 

kingdom. A new class consisted of more educated, literary civilians that had enjoyed education and could 

send their children to school. In this multinational, multi‐ethnic and multi‐lingual state the legislation of 

multilingualism, the institutions for which multilingualism is relevant, like the school system can be 

studied insightfully. The results can be compared with the case of the Cisleithanian parts of the Austro‐ 

Hungarian Empire but also with contempory cases of multilingualism in the area itself or with those in 

the present‐day European Union. 

2. Multilingualism in the Hungarian Kingdom 

The Austro‐Hungarian Monarchy was a multi‐ethnic, multilingual state in which multilingualism was 

officially recognized by law. In the Transleithanian part of the Empire the following thirteen languages 

were officially recognized and used as vehicular languages, including Hungarian, Slovak, Romanian, 

Ruthenian, Croatian, Serbian, Slovenian, Bunjevac (Stokavian dialect of Serbian or Croatian), Bulgarian, 

Czech, Polish, Roma and Italian. 11 As we can observe from the diagrams 1 and 2 all these languages were 

11 Lökkös (2000, 28). 

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spoken in the three constituent parts of the Hungarian kingdom, i.e. Hungary proper, Croatia‐Slavonia 

and in the free royal city of Fiume, although the distributions are different: 12 

Diagram 1: The distribution according to mother tongue in the Hungarian kingdom in the 1910 

census 

Mother tongue Hungary proper Fiume Croatia‐Slavonia Total 

Hungarian 9.938.134 6.493 105.948 10.050.575 

German 1.901.042 2.315 134.078 2.037.435 

Slovak 1.946.165 192 21.613 1.967.970 

Romanian 2.948.049 137 846 2.949.032 

Ruthenian 464.259 11 8.317 472.587 

Croatian 181.882 12.926 1.638.354 1.833.162 

Serbian 461.091 425 644.955 1.106.471 

Slovenian 75.062 2.336 15.776 93.174 

Bunjevac 88.204 5 0 88.209 

Bulgarian 22.945 1 321 23.267 

Czech 31.198 238 32.376 63.812 

Polish 38.179 46 2.312 40.537 

Roma 108.825 0 108.825 121.097 

Italian 5.037 24.212 4.138 33.387 

Other 4.655 496 648 5.772 

Non Hungarian total 8.276.593 43.313 2.516.006 10.835.912 

Total population 18.214.727 49.806 2.621.954 20.886.487 

12 Lökkös (2000, 197) 

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Diagram 2: The distribution according to mother tongue in the Hungarian kingdom in the 1910 

census in percentages 

Mother tongue Hungary proper Fiume Croatia‐Slavonia Total 

Hungarian 54.56 13.04 4.04 48.12 

German 10.44 4.65 5.11 9.75 

Slovak 10.68 0.39 0.82 9.42 

Romanian 16.18 0.28 0.03 14.12 

Ruthenian 2.55 0.02 0.32 2.26 

Croatian 1.00 25.95 62.49 8.78 

Serbian 2.53 0.85 24.60 5.30 

Slovenian 0.41 4.69 0.60 0.45 

Bunjevac 0.48 0.01 0 0.42 

Bulgarian 0.13 0 0.01 0.11 

Czech 0.17 0.48 1.24 0.31 

Polish 0.21 0.09 0.09 0.19 

Roma 0.60 0 0.47 0.58 

Italian 0.03 48.61 0.16 0.16 

Other 0.03 0.94 0.02 0.03 

Non Hungarian total 45.44 86.96 95.96 51.88 

Total population 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 

Before we comment on these statistical data it is important to clarify the notions like ‘nation’, 

‘nationality’, ‘ethnicity’ and ‘language’ and their mutual relations in the Hungarian kingdom. 

The Hungarian kingdom recognized one nation, the political Hungarian nation. Consider the 

introductory part of Law on the Equality of Nationalities Act XLIV. 1868: 13 

13 See for the English version of act 1868: XLIV in Seton‐Watson (1972, 429‐433), for the German version Faluhelyi (1946, 5‐12) 

and for the Hungarian version the official website of the Hungarian Parliament (www.1000ev.hu). The provisions of this law 

were only valid for Hungary proper (compare § 29). 

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Since all citizens of Hungary, according to the principles of the constitution, form from a political point 

of view one nation – the indivisible unitary Hungarian nation – of which every citizen of the fatherland is 

a member, no matter to what nationality he belongs: since, moreover, this equality of right can only exist 

with reference to the official use of various languages of the country, and only under special provisions, in 

so far as is rendered necessary by the unity of the country and the practical possibility of government and 

administration; the following rules will serve as standard regarding the official use of the various 

languages, while in all other matters the complete equality of the citizens remained untouched. 

The nationality law of 1868 tried to combine a ‘civic’, i.e. a Western European interpretation of the 

nation and an ‘ethnic’, i.e. Central and Eastern European interpretation of the nation. 14 Consequently, the 

Law on the Equality of Nationalities not only distinguishes a ‘political civic nation’ but also the concept of 

nationality, i.e. ethnicity. This latter originates from the view characteristic for nineteenth century’s 

Central and Eastern European nationalism that the ‘nation’ is first and foremost a community of common 

descent and a member is organically connected to it. 15 Note further that this law introduces a special 

relation between ethnicity, nationality and language. The most important marker of ethnicity, nationality 

is in fact one’s mother tongue. This has to do with the fact that in early nineteenth century’s Central and 

Eastern European nationalism the place of law in the Western civic model is taken by vernacular culture, 

usually languages and customs in the ethnic model. Following Smith (1991, 11‐13, 20), we will adopt the 

generalization that in Central and Eastern Europe there is a strong correlation between vernacular 

language and culture on the one hand and ethnicity, nationality on the other hand. Observe that Smith’s 

generalization for Central and Eastern Europe stipulates the following correlation between ethnicity and 

language: 

Smith’s generalization for Central and Eastern Europe: 

If you are of X ethnicity, then language X is X’s mother tongue 

This expresses the fact that nationality in this area of Europe was determined quite often on the basis of 

mother tongue. 16 The five censuses that were hold in the Hungarian kingdom during dualism, i.e. 1869, 

1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 only inquired about the mother tongue of the persons interviewed and not 

about their nationality. 17 Although Smith’s generalization is always true when it goes from left‐to‐right it 

is not always the case vice versa. There are a number of exceptional cases due to the fact that there is no‐ 

one‐to‐one matching between ethnicity and mother tongue language or sometimes this matching is not 

relevant for determining ethnicity. Bi‐ or multilingual speakers can have more than one mother tongue. 

This was true in the Hungarian kingdom as well. In case of the Serbs and Croats it was hard to decide on 

the basis of the language criterion only Serbian or Croatian ethnicity for the languages are quite similar. In 

14 Compare Smith (1991, 11‐13). 

15 See Smith (1991, 11). 

16 See Faluhelyi (1946, XLV). 

17 See Lökkös (2000, 27) 

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those cases also religious criteria were employed. Serbs having a Greek Orthodox faith and Croats being 

Roman Catholics. 18 Sometimes there is no strong connection between ethnicity and language as in the 

case of Roma. Although these cases exist, I will consider them as an exception to Smith’s generalization 

for Central and Eastern Europe. Hence, with respect to the diagrams 1 and 2 the data on mother tongue 

reflect the ethnicity, nationality of the speakers. Let us consider these diagrams again. 

Firstly, note that the total population of the Hungarian kingdom was 20.886.487 persons and that the 

biggest group, the Hungarians with 10.050.575 had an absolute majority in Hungary proper of 54.56 

percent and only had a relative majority of 48.12 percent compared to the other nationalities in the 

Hungarian kingdom. The non‐Hungarian nationalities together had an absolute majority of 51.88 percent 

in the Hungarian kingdom. In the remainder of this paper, we will concentrate on the case of Hungary 

proper only. The absolute majority of Croatian within Croatia with 62.49 percent was much clearer than 

the absolute majority of Hungarian in Hungary proper. Furthermore, Croatia had its own jurisdiction in 

agreement with the Compromise of 1868 with Hungary. The free city of Fiume (today’s Rijeka) is also an 

interesting case for the study of a multilingual city. The following five languages, including Italian, 

Croatian, Hungarian, German and Slovene were vehicular languages in Fiume but the language of 

business and trade was Italian. I will leave the linguistic situation in the city of Fiume as a case for further 

research. 

Secondly, let us discuss the distribution of the languages. The ethnic map of the Hungarian kingdom 

displayed a heterogeneous picture. Although there were a number of mixed regions it was clear that in 

biggest part of the country there was an absolute or relative majority of some of the nationalities. From the 

data it can be observed that in 34 and 36 percent, i.e. 70 percent in total, of the territory of historic 

Hungary there was a bigger than two‐third majority of the Hungarian nationality and the non‐Hungarian 

nationalities respectively. 19 

The Hungarian kingdom was divided in eight regions: 

1) Transdanubia 

2) Western Upper Hungary 

3) Between the rivers Danube and Tisza 

4) Eastern Upper‐Hungary 

5) East of the river Tisza 

6) Between the Rivers Tisza and Maros 

7) Transylvania 

8) Croatia and Slavonia 

18 See Lökkös (2000, 29). 

19 Lökkös (2000, 57). 

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In these regions, the Hungarians dominated the central areas of Hungary proper, i.e. (1), (3) and (5). 

The Germans lived mostly in the Western part of (1) and the southeastern part of (7). The Slovaks lived in 

(2) and (4). The Romanians lived mainly in (6) and (7), i.e. historic Transylvania. The Ruthenians in the 

eastern parts of (5). The Croats dominated (8). The Serbs lived mainly in (3), (6) (in the areas of the Banat 

and Vojvodina) and (8). The Slovenes in the southern parts of (1). 20 The Hungarians had an absolute 

majority in (1), (3), (4) and (5). The Slovaks had an absolute majority in (2). The Romanians had an 

absolute majority in (7) and a relative majority (6). The Croats had an absolute majority in (8), Croatia‐ 

Slavonia. 

The regional division of the nationalities can be made more specific by looking into the counties and 

the cities with jurisdiction. From the 71 counties in the Hungarian kingdom 31 had a Hungarian majority, 

while in 28 counties there was a non‐Hungarian majority. In 4 of the counties there was a Hungarian 

relative majority and in 8 a non‐Hungarian relative majority. The Romanians had in 11, the Slovaks in 9, 

the Croats in 6, and the Germans and the Serbs each in 1 county an absolute majority. The Ruthenians had 

in two counties a relative majority. In 18 of the 31 cities with jurisdiction the Hungarians were in an 

absolute majority, while the Germans in 1 (Sopron), the Slovaks also in 1 (Selmecbanya) and the Croats in 

2 cities (Zagreb and Varasd) respectively. Only nine towns with jurisdiction had a relative majority, 

including 1 Hungarian (Ujvidék), 4 German (Pozsony, Temesvár, Versec and Zimony), 1 Croatian (Eszék), 

2 Serbian (Pancsova and Zombor) and 1 Italian (Fiume). 21 

Thirdly, Act XLIV. 1868 § 1 on the Equality of the Nationalities declared the Hungarian language as the 

official language of the state in Hungary proper. This decision was supported by the fact that the 

Hungarian nationality, i.e. the mother tongue speaker of Hungarian were in the majority with 54.56 

(10.050.575) percent of the total population. Although the other nationalities constituted together 45.44 

percent of the total population, the individual languages, including Romanian 16.18 percent, Slovak 10.68 

percent and German 10.44 percent were much smaller than Hungarian. Furthermore, these minority 

languages were concentrated in specific area of the Hungarian kingdom, while Hungarian was the 

dominating language spoken throughout Hungary proper by more than 20 percent of the population in 

the seven regions of Hungary proper. Hungarian had an absolute majority in 31 of the 63 counties and in 

18 of the 31 cities with jurisdiction. Finally, the number of Hungarian speakers was actually higher 

because Hungarian had also the largest number of L2 speakers, i.e. 9.29 percent, 1.939.987 in the 1910 

census. This was more than the L2 speakers of German, i.e. 8.08 percent, that is 1.687.388. 22 It is striking 

that almost one‐third of the population could not speak the official language of Hungary proper, i.e. 

Hungarian. Nevertheless, Hungarian was in fact the only candidate for becoming the lingua franca in the 

20 Lökkös (2000, 238‐239). 

21 The study of multilingualism in the cities of the Hungarian kingdom requires a different approach than multilingualism in the 

periphery of the Hungarian kingdom. The cities in the Hungarian kingdom displayed more aspects of a modern multicultural 

society due to the fact that they were the points of modernization in dualist Hungary than the peripheral regions. The ethnic 

separatist movements in dualist Hungarian, like the one of the Romanians or Serbs in Transylvania or the Banat were actually 

anti‐modernity movements. For the languages involved this means that the relation between let us say Hungarian and German 

in multicultural cities was completely different than the one between Romanian and Hungarian in a peripheral region like 

Transylvania or Banat. Here I am indebted to Rosita Rindler‐Schjerve for raising this issue. See also Mintzel (1998) for discussion 

of these cases in a wider perspective. 

22 Lökkös (2000, 214‐215). 

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Hungarian kingdom. 23 It was spoken by 57.41 percent of the total population, that is 11.990.562 speakers. 

The other candidate, German although enjoying a high status as the dominating language in the Austrian 

parts of the Empire was spoken by 3.724.823 persons, that is by only 17.83 percent of the total population 

of the Hungarian kingdom. This position of Hungarian was strengthened by the fact that country‐wide 

organizations and companies, like the Hungarian army (honvéd) and the Hungarian state railway 

companies used Hungarian as the language of command or communication. 24 

Fourthly, although the Hungarian kingdom acknowledged a state of multilingualism in which 12 

minority languages had an official status next to the Hungarian state language, multilingualism was in 

fact a state of ‘separate’ monolingualism practiced in the different national communities. True 

multilingual speakers were actual a very small minority. 77 percent of the inhabitants of the Hungarian 

kingdom were monolingual only knowing their own mother tongue being unable to communicate with 

people outside of their ethnic group. The percentage of speakers not able to communicate with other 

ethnic speakers was even higher because the pairs, triples, etc. of languages among the bi‐ or multilingual 

speakers did not always match restricting the options for communication. Only 23 percent of the 

inhabitants, that is 4.880.000 inhabitants were bi‐ or multilingual. The rata for Hungary proper were 

somewhat better than the rata for Croatia‐Slavonia: 75 percent only spoke its mother tongue in Hungary 

proper and this was true for 85 percent of the inhabitants of Croatia‐Slavonia. Consequently, 25 percent of 

the inhabitants of Hungary were bi‐ or multilingual and only 15 percent in Croatia‐Slavonia. Among the 

nationalities the percentages of bi‐ or multilingual speakers were rather different. A large majority of the 

Hungarians, the Slovaks, the Romanians, the Ruthenians, the Serbs and the Croats, i.e. 79, 46, 75, 86, 82 

and 88 percent respectively did not speak any other language than their mother tongue. 25 The only ethnic 

group having a majority of bi‐ or multilingual speakers were the Germans with 54.26 percent, i.e. 

1.105.429 of the 2.037.436. It is fair to conclude that hardly any direct communication between the ethnic 

groups in the Hungarian kingdom was possible. Only 12.69 percent of the Romanians could speak 

Hungarian, i.e. 374.106 persons, while only 3.99 percent of the Hungarians spoke Romanian, i.e. 400.674 

persons. Only 21.28 percent of the Slovaks, i.e. 418.724 could speak also Hungarian, while only 5.45 

percent of the Hungarians, i.e. 547.802 people could speak Slovak. This state of separate 

23 Nikola Rasic (personal communication) is of the opinion that German was the lingua franca of the Austro‐Hungarian Empire. 

True German had a strong position in the Austro‐Hungarian Empire but it was functioning only as a lingua franca among the 

Austrian and Hungarian elites. In Hungary proper, a general introduction of German already failed under Emperor Joseph II 

(1780‐1790) and in the period of neo‐absolutism (1848/1849‐1860) under Emperor Franz Joseph I. In both periods, the 

Hungarians and large parts of their elites resisted the introduction of German as an official lingua franca. The introduction of 

German during dualism would have run counter to the spirit of the Ausgleich. If an ethnically bound language as Hungarian 

during dualism was unacceptable for the non‐Hungarian nationalities was unacceptable, then Latin as a neutral language 

would have been an option. But Latin as the official language in the Hungarian kingdom was changed for Hungarian in the age 

of Hungarian Renewal in 1844. Hence the only option left was Hungarian, the best possibility which turned out to be not good 

enough. 

24 The Hungarian language was first stipulated as the language of business and command in Law V. 1890 on the Honvéd 

(Hungarian army). Consider § 18. See Faluhelyi (1946, XXVI), Rothenberg (1972) and Goebl (1994) for a discussion of the status 

of languages in the Austro‐Hungarian army and the Hungarian army (honvéd) during dualism. See Law XLIX. 1907 on the Rules 

of Railway Service. §1 of this law specifies that only those people can be employed by a Hungarian railroad company that have 

a Hungarian citizenship and have a control of the Hungarian language. 

25 See Lökkös (2000, 71‐72. 

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“multilingualism” was conserved by the strict organization of society. Firstly, most of the inhabitants of 

the Hungarian kingdom, i.e. 81 percent 16.923.000 lived in the country‐side in small agricultural 

settlements. Only the Hungarians and the Germans remained with 71 percent and 81 percent under or at 

this average respectively. Almost all the other nationalities lived in the country‐side, including Slovaks, 

Romanians, Croats and Serbs with 92, 95, 91, 90 percent respectively. Almost all the Ruthenians, i.e. 99 

percent lived in the country‐side. 26 Further, the nationalities were often organized in terms of church 

denominations. The Hungarian state recognized the Roman Catholic church, the Greek Catholic church, 

the Greek Orthodox church, the Calvinist church, the Lutheran church, the Unitarian church and the 

Jewish faith. These denominations enjoyed ecclesiastical autonomy. 27 Although the relation between 

ethnicity and church denominations was not a strict one‐to‐one matching in the Hungarian kingdom 

some churches were represented more dominantly than others among the different nationalities. Almost 

all the Croats, i.e. 99 percent were Roman Catholic. An equally high number of Serbs belonged to the 

Greek Orthodox Church. Almost all the Ruthenians, i.e. 98 percent were Greek Catholic. Most of the 

Hungarians were either Roman Catholic or Calvinist, i.e. 59 and 26 percent respectively. Most Romanians 

were either Greek Orthodox, i.e. 61 percent or Greek Catholic, i.e. 38 percent. 28 These church 

denominations were active in fostering the identity and language of the ethnic groups they were attached 

to. One of their effective vehicles to do this was by being an active player in the educational system. 

Finally, one of the main reasons why separate “multilingualism” existed in the Hungarian kingdom was 

due to the liberal Law on the Equality of the Nationalities in the Hungarian kingdom, i.e. Act XLIV. 1868. 

The law assigned the nationalities the right to establish their own schools and choose their own language 

of instruction in these schools. 

Fifthly, the legal situation of the nationalities was regulated in the Law on the Equality of Nationalities 

Act XLV. 1868. The Law counted 29 paragraphs stipulating individual and collective nationality rights 

referring foremost – in accordance with Smith’s generalization ‐ to the use of the languages of the 

nationalities. This law next to specifying the Hungarian language as the language of the state to be used in 

all branches of government and administration (compare § 1) recognized individual and collective rights 

for the nationalities, i.e. the Slovaks, Romanians, Serbs and so on to use all registers of their own mother 

tongue in offices, schools, at courts and in county and communal assemblies. During the whole period of 

dualism the Law on the Equality of Nationalities and their provisions were almost unchanged and 

remained into force. It was an effective tool for protecting the identity of nationalities, also against 

homogenization policies of Hungarian nationalism. Consider section 3 below for more discussion. 

The individual rights included the following rights among others. In county and communal 

assemblies, everyone had the right to speak its own mother tongue (compare § 3, §24) and to use the non‐ 

state languages of the nationalities for the minutes of the county and communal assemblies, if more than 

twenty percent of the deputies asked for it (compare §2, § 20). The assemblies had the right to 

communicate internally (compare § 5) and with higher instances of the state and each other in the 

language(s) of the nationalities (compare §4) in agreement with § 2 and § 20. Further every citizen had the 

right to use its own mother tongue before court (compare § 7), to use his own mother tongue in church 

26 Compare Lökkös (2000, 63). 

27 See the study of Hévizi (1996). 

28 See Lökkös (2000, 65). 

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assemblies (compare § 24) and to correspond with the state and ecclesiastical authorities in his own 

mother (compare § 23). 

Churches as the main non‐governmental organizations in society played a central role. This is also 

expressed in the Nationality Law. The churches and importantly the churches of the nationalities enjoyed 

full autonomy in the determining the language of their church affairs. They could freely use their 

language in administration, to draw up registers in their language and to use the language of instruction 

they wished in their schools within the limits of the Education Act (compare § 14) and to prescribe their 

language of business in church courts (compare § 10). Churches and congregations had the right to 

establish their own primary and secondary schools and choose their own language of instruction 

(compare § 26). 

Interestingly, the provisions of the law do not only specify the linguistic rights of individual citizens 

and non‐ governmental organizations but also refer to the obligation of state servants to use languages 

other than the Hungarian state language. The officials of the counties and communal authorities had to 

employ the language of those state authorities, non‐governmental organizations or private individuals 

(compare § 6, § 21 respectively) that used another language than Hungarian . In this case, not only the 

right of the individual citizen to use his own language in communication with the authorities was 

guaranteed but in fact real communication with the non‐Hungarian speaking nationalities because the 

authorities had to answer in the language they were addressed in. This was also the duty of judges when 

pronouncing the verdicts (compare § 8). Further, the Law also explicitly refers to the non‐discrimination 

of members of the nationalities in the judicial and administrative offices of the state, especially in the 

office of the governor of the county, the highest official of the state in the county system (§ 27). 29 The Law 

wanted to guarantee in this way that in each state office the languages of the nationalities were 

represented. 

The establishment of schools was of course in the fundamental interest of the Hungarian state and the 

nationalities. The state, the Minister of Education had the right to prescribe the language of instruction in 

schools erected by the state but the state had to ensure that citizens of whichever nationality had to obtain 

primary and secondary instruction in their mother tongue, if living together in considerable numbers. 

This provision guaranteed that the language of instruction in state schools in territories where the 

nationalities lived was in their language (compare § 17). Apart from this, the nationalities, individual 

citizens, communes and congregations had the right to establish their own educational institutions at their 

own expenses. The language of instruction and administration in these private institutions was prescribed 

by the founders. In practice, the right of the nationalities to establish private schools allowed them to 

stress their cultural and linguistic autonomy against the state. During the period of dualism cultural and 

linguistic autonomy in non‐state, non‐Hungarian schools was guaranteed by law. The Hungarian state 

language was only compulsory as a subject of instruction in elementary schools from 1879 specified in the 

Education Act XVIII. 1879. The introduction of this law hardly affected however the linguistic autonomy 

of the non‐state, non‐Hungarian nationality schools. 30 

29 The county governor, in Hungarian föispán, was appointed by the Hungarian king acting upon the advice of the minister of 

Interior. 

30 See Faluhelyi (1946, 121‐124) for Education Act XVIII. 1879. 

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3. Primary Education in the Hungarian Kingdom 

Although the Hungarian legislation on the equality of the nationalities was certainly a liberal law 

designed by the Hungarian founding fathers of the Ausgleich of 1867, i.e. Ferenc Deák and Baron József 

von Eötvös to protect the nationalities the Hungarians and the non‐Hungarian nationalities were not 

satisfied with it. The Hungarians could not introduce their language being the official language of the 

state in the whole country for the church schools of the nationalities had the right to choose their own 

language. By tradition the educational system was in Hungary until 1867 mainly in the hands of non‐state 

agencies like religious denominations. 31 The non‐Hungarians on their turn feared interference from the 

Hungarian state in what they saw as their autonomous right, the establishment of their own schools. In 

order to understand this conflicting situation we will discuss the case of primary education in the 

Hungarian kingdom during dualism in this section. 

According to the official data of 1905‐1906, the total number of primary schools belonging to the state 

in Hungary proper was 2.045. 32 This proportion was 12.34 percent of the total number counting 16.561 

schools. In all the state schools the language of instruction was Hungarian, except for one in which the 

language of instruction was Slovak. The number of private schools mainly managed by the several church 

denominations was 14.516, that is 87.66 percent of all the primary schools. In 21,73 percent, i.e. 3.154 of 

these schools the language of instruction was non‐Hungarian and in ten percent, i.e. 1.665 of these school 

the language of instruction was mixed, Hungarian and one of the languages of the other nationalities. 

These schools were not ‘utraquist’ or bilingual schools however. 33 There were separate classes for pupils 

with a Hungarian mother tongue and for pupils with non‐Hungarian mother tongues. Consequently, in 

31.73 percent of the cases, the language of instruction was non‐Hungarian. For two reasons, it was 

understandable that the nationalities of Hungary constituting 48.6 percent of the population felt 

discriminated. First of all, the Hungarian state did not establish state primary schools, except for one, 

where the language of instruction was the language of a non‐Hungarian nationality. According to § 17 of 

the Law on Nationalities (see, Law XXXVIII. 1868) the Hungarian state should have established much 

more state primary schools with the language of instruction being the languages of the non‐Hungarian 

nationalities in territorities inhabited by them and should have taken care of their implementation in a 

consistent way, at least confirming to the system of parallel classes in mixed schools. Because of this 

neglect it is fair to criticize Hungarian educational policy during dualism. 

Note however that the number of Hungarian primary schools managed by church denominations to 

the total number of primary schools was 9.698, that is 58.5 percent in 1905‐1906. In these schools, the state 

could not interfere because of church autonomy. Hence, the state even if it had fulfilled its duties in the 

existing state primary schools and introducing the languages of the non‐Hungarian nationalities as the 

language of instruction as well would have increased the number of cases of non‐Hungarian language 

instruction with 12.34 percent maximally. This would have resulted into 44.07 percent of all the primary 

schools with a non‐Hungarian language of instruction at most remaining behind the proportion of the 

31 Teleki (1923, 157). 

32 See for these data Seton‐Watson (1907, 439). 

33 See Rindler‐Schjerve (this volume) for utraquist schools in Cisleithania. 

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non‐Hungarian nationalities to the total population of 48.6 percent. Second, the 31.73 percent of the 

primary schools teaching in the languages of the non‐Hungarian nationalities remained under the 

proportion of the non‐Hungarian nationalities to the total population of 48.6 percent. 34 This was even 

more striking in the case of primary schools in which the language of instruction was Slovak and 

Romanian alone. 35 These schools numbered 241, i.e. 1.4 percent and 2.440, i.e. 14.7 percent respectively of 

the total primary schools in 1905‐1906. We observe a discrepancy at the expense of these nationalities 

indeed, if we compare these figures with the distribution of the population of the 1910 census where the 

Slovaks constituted 10.68 percent and the Romanians 16.18 percent of the total population. We hasten to 

add however that the discrimination of the Slovaks was much more serious than in the case of the 

Romanians. 36 This asymmetry between the Slovaks and the Romanians is also demonstrated by the fact 

that the number of primary schools with Slovak language instruction dropped dramatically during 

dualism: from 1822 in 1869, 1716 in 1880, 1115 in 1890, 500 in 1900 to 241 in 1905‐1906, while the number 

of Romanian language primary schools remained almost unchanged: 2569 in 1869, 2756 in 1880, 2582 in 

1890, 2309 in 1900 and 2440 in 1905‐1906. 37 Probably this asymmetry is due to the fact that the Hungarians 

traditionally had a better relation with the Slovaks than with the Romanians not rendered difficult by 

religious difference. 38 As a consequence, the Slovaks were earlier willing to send their children to mixed 

Hungarian‐Slovak state or denominational schools, like the Roman Catholic primary schools, whereas the 

Romanians clung to their exclusive Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic primary schools where the 

language of instruction was Romanian only. 

The Hungarian educational policy was criticized in due course for being an important means of 

Magyarization of the non‐Hungarian nationalities living in the Hungarian state. Let us discuss the 

arguments of the most important critic of dualist Hungary, the British author Robert Seton‐Watson 

presented in his book ‘Racial Problems in Hungary’ that appeared in 1907. A whole chapter of the book is 

devoted to the policy and practice of the Hungarian educational system. 39 We get the impression from 

this chapter that Seton‐Watson means by ‘Magyarization’ the establishment of state schools with 

Hungarian as the language of instruction only in territorities inhabited by non‐Hungarian nationalities 

and the introduction of Hungarian as a subject of instruction in the private schools with non‐Hungarian 

language of instruction. According to Seton‐Watson, the whole focus of educational policy during dualist 

Hungary was on Magyarization “where they [i.e. state primary school, LM] serve to develop Magyar 

patriotism and to extend by artificial means the boundaries of the Magyar race.” 40 The British author even 

claimed that the extreme focus on the Magyarization policy of the successive Hungarian governments 

34 Note that Seton‐Watson (1907, 438‐439) adds the primary schools of the mixed type to the Magyar language instruction only. I 

do not think that is a correct interpretation of the data. Consequently, his percentage of non‐Magyar language instruction is only 

19.0 percent against the 31.3 percent if we do otherwise. 

35 See Seton‐Watson (1907, 437). 

36 Seton‐Watson (1907, 438) does only present the Slovak figures and is neglecting the cases where there was hardly any 

discrimation of the nationalities, like in the case of the Romanians. 


38 See Teleki (1923, 152). 

39 Compare Seton Watson (1907, 205‐233). 

40 Compare Seton‐Watson (1907, 218). 

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resulted in a bad school system neglecting the state schools in the territories inhabited mainly by the 

Hungarians. 41 We agree with Seton‐Watson, as we spelled out above, that the Hungarian state should 

have done more to erect state schools with the languages of the non‐Hungarian nationalities as one of the 

languages of instruction or as the only language of instruction in mixed Hungarian‐non‐Hungarian 

territories and in territories where the nationalities lived, even if the state would have violated § 17 of the 

Law on Nationalities Act XLV. of 1868. Above we pointed out that in the educational system of dualist 

Hungary most of the schools were run by private non‐state agencies, like church dominations leading in 

fact to a marginal influence of the state in these schools. This was made possible by § 26 of the same law 

stipulating that private organization, like church congregations had the right to establish schools and to 

choose the language of instructions in these schools. The non‐Hungarian nationalities, especially the 

Romanians and the Serbs extensively made use of this right. This is also acknowledged by Seton‐Watson 

stating that the Serbs and the Romanians are more favorably placed than the Slovaks. 42 In conclusion, the 

Nationalities Law which was liberal in intent and content led to inconsistencies in the educational system 

at the disadvantage of the non‐Hungarian languages as language of instruction. The state should have 

supported the teaching in and of the languages of the non‐Hungarian nationalities in state schools but 

because of the liberal Law of Nationalities the state only controlled 12.34 percent of the primary schools. 

True in these schools the state could have done more to support the languages of the non‐Hungarian 

nationalities as language of instruction. 

Another asymmetrical development between the Hungarian versus non‐Hungarian primary schools 

set in with the Law on the Education of the Hungarian Language XVIII. 1879 that made the teaching of 

Hungarian a compulsory subject in all primary schools (compare § 1 and § 4). The reason for this was to 

offer all citizens the opportunity to learn the state language, i.e. Hungarian. 43 Furthermore, the law also 

specified that schoolteachers had to have a sufficient knowledge of Hungarian to be capable of teaching in 

the primary school (compare § 2‐3). Although this were reasonable provisions from the point of view of 

the state the introduction of this law violated §17 of the Nationalities Law and did violate the autonomy 

of the churches. Consequently, I do not agree with Seton‐Watson that the introduction of the teaching of 

Hungarian, the official language as a compulsory subject a few hours a week was a grave mistake the 

Hungarian state made, for in this way the non‐Hungarian citizens could have been included in the 

communicational networks of the state. 44 This would have served their interest as well. Rather the neglect 

of the parallel introduction of the languages of the non‐Hungarian nationalities as a language of 

instruction in the territories inhabited by them should have been a serious point of criticism. 

However, the Education Law XVIII. 1879 did not fulfill its expectations, as Seton‐Watson correctly 

points out admitting that Magyarization was not effective. 45 In 1890, eleven years after the introduction of 

the law Hungarian as an obligatory subject was either not taught at all or was taught entirely without 

success in 34 percent of the non‐Hungary schools. The source of Seton‐Watson, departmental order nr. 

41 Compare Seton‐Watson (1907, 209). 


43 See Faluhelyi (1946, 121‐124) for Law XVIII. 1879. 

44 Departmental order nr. 72.000 of 1905 specified that in non‐Magyar primary schools with one teacher nine hours a week must 

be reserved for the teaching of the mother tongue and 8 hours for Hungarian. 


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72.000 of 1905 speaks of a percentage of failures even higher than 34 percent. According to this 

departmental order, the teaching of Hungarian as a subject was unsuccessful in 1340 of the 3343 non‐ 

Magyar schools, i.e. 40 percent. 46 In 1890, 1600 of the 2600 teachers in 1879 who had no sufficient 

knowledge of Hungarian or did not know the language in the non‐Hungarian schools had still no control 

over the Hungarian language. In 1906, 27 years after the introduction of the Law XVIII. 1879 this was true 

for still 957 of the non‐Hungarian teachers. Finally, in 1905 the minister of Culture and Education had to 

admit that still 40 percent of the population of Hungary was completely ignorant of the Hungarian 

language and that 83.2 percent of the non‐Hungarians did not speak the official state language. 47 

The successive Hungarian governments during dualism strengthened the asymmetrical developments 

between Hungarian and non‐Hungarian schools by not introducing the compulsory teaching in the 

languages of the non‐Hungarian nationalities as well, at least in the state schools in mixed territories or 

territories inhabited by them. However, it would have been better to make the language of the non‐ 

Hungarian nationality compulsory language of instruction as well in all the Hungarian schools in mixed 

territorities and in territories inhabited by the non‐Hungarian nationalities. Further, the Hungarian 

governments intensived their efforts to introduce Hungarian as a compulsory subject of instruction after 

finding out that this had been unsuccessful. This educational policy suffered from inconsistencies and 

violated the Nationality Law of 1868. As a consequence, the introduction of Hungarian as a subject of 

instruction was boycotted and sabotaged in the non‐Hungarian schools, mainly private schools, leading 

to the escalation of the conflicts in the mixed territorities and the territorities inhabited by the non‐ 

Hungarian nationalities. The result of this policy was that the separatist model of education was 

maintained and strengthened leading in the end to unbridgeable point of views between the Hungarian 

government and the non‐Hungarian nationalities. 

In this vein, act XVII. 1907 on the legal status of the non‐state primary schools and the appointment of 

teachers in communal and denominational schools restated the introduction of the Hungarian language 

as a compulsory subject of instruction in non‐Hungarian schools. Note that the language of instruction in 

the non‐Hungarian schools, i.e. the languages of the non‐Hungarian nationalities remained unchanged. 48 

The law that was promulgated by the minister of Culture and Education, Count Albert Apponyi further 

implied a stricter control of the policy he wanted to implement hereby violating the Nationality Law of 

1868 and the autonomy of the church denominations in the Hungarian kingdom. This led to a rising of the 

tension between the Hungarian government and the non‐Hungarian nationalities. Let us consider the 

criticism of Seton‐Watson concerning ‘Lex Apponyi’. 

Seton‐Watson criticizes the linguistic provisions of the law, for the children must be taught Magyar in 

a manner and for the time prescribed by the minister, “so that the child of non‐Magyar tongue on the 

completion of its fourth school year can express its thoughts intelligibly in the Magyar language in word 

and writing.” (compare § 19). According to Seton‐Watson, this provision “opens the door to all kinds of 

wild linguistic experiments, such as are bound to prove fatal to the general culture of the victims.” 49 Here 

46 See Faluhelyi (1946, 166). 

47 See Seton‐Watson (1907, 219) and departmental order nr. 72.000 of 1905 in Faluhelyi (1946, 219). 

48 See for this law Faluhelyi (1946, 187‐190). 


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Seton‐Watson is simply exaggerating or he is consciously misreading the law because the law does not 

speak about the introduction of the Hungarian language as the language of instruction but as a subject of 

instruction. Hence, the language of instruction in non‐Hungarian schools remained the mother tongue of 

the children. His point about violating §14 of the Law of Nationalities of 1868, i.e. the provision of freely 

choosing the language of instruction in private schools is more substantial, as we have pointed out above. 

Paragraph §1 of Education Act XXVII. 1907 specifies that all teachers in communal and denominational 

schools are state servants. In §2 their salaries are regulated bounding the salaries of these teachers to a 

minimum. In this case Seton‐Watson, does not credit the Hungarian state for the improvement of the 

social position of teachers being state officials who enjoy a fixed salary. For Seton‐Watson these provisions 

are only meant as instances of “Magyarization” making teachers dependent on the state and giving the 

state a plausible excuse for interference in the autonomy of private schools. 50 So, he rejects the provisions 

of the Education Act of Apponyi, including that teachers must have a control of the Hungarian language 

(§15), that all Magyar instruction in arithmetic, geography, history, civil rights and duties must be 

sanctioned by the minister (compare §20); that all books of instruction must be approved by the minister 

(§20); that no books hostile to the state may be used in instruction; that the minister is allowed to make 

inquires in the schools that neglect the instruction of Hungarian and follow a policy or using books hostile 

to the state or incite against confessions or social classes (compare §22 and 24). According to Seton‐ 

Watson, the right of the minister if there is a second dismissal in connection with the violation of the 

provisions under §22 to dissolve the school (compare §25) is an arbitrary way of the Hungarian 

government to put pressure on the non‐Hungarian nationalities in dualist Hungary. 51 

An interesting provision of Lex Apponyi that is not discussed in Seton‐Watson (1907) is §18. This 

paragraph specifies what to do when there is no Hungarian language school in a place where there is a 

non‐Hungarian language primary church school with Hungarian children or non‐Hungarian children 

whose parents wants their children to be instructed in Hungarian. According to §18, for these [italics are 

mine, LM] children Hungarian is to be used as a language of instruction. Education in Hungarian for these 

[italics are mine, LM] children is compulsory, when their proportion to the total pupils of the school is at 

least 20 percent. Again in this case, the Hungarian state violated autonomy of the denominational school 

but even in this case we cannot speak about enforced Magyarization because the Hungarian language 

instruction is compulsory for Hungarian children or children who want to be instructed in Hungarian. 

Rather what is at stake here is that in this case again, the Hungarian state respected and even 

strengthened the separatist education of Hungarian and non‐Hungarian pupils. 

In conclusion, indeed some of the provisions of the Lex Apponyi were restricting the autonomy of 

church schools, violating the Nationality Law and demonstrated that the Hungarian state wanted to 

control matters in non‐Hungarian schools as well. To suggest however that these provisions were 

effective tools of Magyarization as done in the work of Seton‐Watson (1907) is not convincing at all. The 

supposed Magyarization is neither supported by a more detailed analysis of the population data of 

dualist Hungary. 



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From the census data it appears that in a period of forty years beginning from 1869 until 1910, the 

population in the Hungarian kingdom increased by 35 percent, i.e. by 5.375.000 persons from 15.512.000 

to 20.887.000. 52 In a period of thirty years between 1880 and 1910, the percentage of Hungarian mother 

tongue speakers grew by 7.17 percent, from 40.95 percent to 48.12 percent, while in the same period the 

non‐Hungarian mother tongue speakers dropped by 6.55 percent, from 58.43 percent to 51.88 percent. In 

actual numbers, the Hungarian mother tongue speakers increased by 3.605.088, that is 55.9 percent. The 

non‐Hungarian mother tongue speakers decreased only in percentages but not in absolute numbers. In 

absolute figures there was an increase of non‐Hungarian mother speakers as well. This group grew by 17 

percent, i.e. 1.582.000 persons. Consider the following diagrams: 53 

Diagram 3: population growth in the Hungarian kingdom on the basis of mother tongue from 1880 

until 1910 

Mother tongue 1880 1890 1900 1910 

Hungarian 6.445.487 7.477.334 8.742.301 10.050.575 

Non‐Hungarian total 9.196.615 9.986.457 10.512.258 10.835.912 

Slovak 1.864.529 1.921.599 2.019.641 1.967.970 

Romanian 2.405.085 2.604.027 2.799.479 2.949.032 

Diagram 4: population growth in the Hungarian kingdom in percentages of the total population on 

the basis of mother tongue from 1880 until 1910 

Mother tongue 1880 1890 1900 1910 

Hungarian 40.95 42.82 45.41 48. 48.12 

Non‐Hungarian total 58.43 57.18 54.59 51.88 

From these diagrams it appears that in the period between 1880 and 1910 not only the Hungarians 

grew in absolute numbers but also the Slovaks and the Romanians, although the proportion of the 

Romanians to the total population grew harder than that of the Slovaks who suffered a minor fall back in 

the last ten years of this period. In any case, we can conclude that there was no substantial population 

drop among the larger nationalities. Hence, the growth of population among the larger nationalities does 

not support the accusation of Magyarization of the Hungarian nationalities by the Hungarian state during 

dualist Hungary. Neither does the growth of the number of nationalities speaking their mother tongue 

52 See Lökkös (2000, 79). 

53 See Lökkös (2000, 222) for the data of the 1910 census. 

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only and the marginal growth of Hungarian L2‐speakers during dualist Hungary. During dualist 

Hungary most speakers, but especially the non‐Hungarian nationality speakers remained mainly 

monolingual, while the group of bi‐ or multilingual L2‐speakers of Hungarian only increased marginally. 

From the 1910 census, it appears that 77 percent of the total population of dualist Hungary spoke 

his/her mother tongue only. Note that during dualism the actual number of most of the nationalities who 

could only speak their mother tongue had increased as well. This was especially the case with the 

Romanians and the Serbs. 54 The Germans and the Slovaks formed an exception to this due to the fact that 

they lived scattered on the territory of the Hungarian kingdom. Between 1880 and 1910, among all 

nationalities the percentage of the mother tongue speakers knowing only their mother tongue decreased, 

including the Germans from 62.48 percent in 1880 to 5.74 percent in 1910, Slovaks from 85.89 percent in 

1880 to 75.01 percent in 1910 and Romanians from 92.36 percent in 1880 to 85.69 percent in 1910. The 

absolute figures however give another picture. The number of Germans and Slovaks speaking only their 

mother tongue decreased from 1.220.769 in 1880 to 932.006 in 1910 and from 1.601.367 in 1880 to 1.476.100 

in 1910, respectively. The actual number of Romanians however only speaking their mother tongue raised 

from 2.221.302 in 1880 to 2.527.014 in 1910. 55 So in 1910, among the nationalities only the Slovaks and the 

Germans were becoming rather slowly bi‐ and multilingual but the other nationalities remained mainly 

monolingual. 

From the 1910 census, it appears that 65 percent of the population of Hungary proper could speak 

Hungarian and that 35 percent did not master Hungarian at all. So, in 1910, 7.310.270 persons could not 

speak Hungarian. 56 The percentages become even more dramatic, if we consider the numbers of 

Hungarian L2‐speakers among the non‐Hungarian nationalities only. In 1910, averagely 82 percent of the 

non‐Hungarians could not speak Hungarian. The percentages for the Germans, Slovaks and Romanians 

were 60, 78 and 81 percent respectively. 57 

In 1880, from the non‐Hungarian speakers only ten percent, i.e. 1.597.000 persons spoke next to their 

mother tongue another language. By 1910, this proportion increased to 2.765.000 persons, i.e. thirteen 

percent of the total population. Hungarian functioned for 1.940.000 of these persons as an L2. 58 

In conclusion, above we have discussed the primary school system of dualist Hungary in more depth. 

The educational system of dualist Hungary can be characterized best as a separatist model. This model 

was in line with a general feature of the Hungarian society respecting the existence of different 

nationalities and their languages. This was also the basis of the liberal Law on the Equality of 

Nationalities of 1868. Because of this, the educational system was especially controlled by private 

organizations based on nationality, such as the church denominations. The state was in fact a minor 

player in the educational field possessing only 12.34 percent of the primary schools at the end of dualist 

era. Hence, the Hungarian state even if it had wanted could not have changed the separatist model due to 

customs and Hungarian legislation. The Hungarian educational policy led to inconsistencies, 

54 See Lökkös (2000, 88‐89, 230‐232). 

55 See Lökkös (2000, 232). 

56 See Lökkös ((2000, 68). 

57 See Lökkös (2000, 208). 

58 See Lökkös (2000, 88, 230). 

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asymmetrical developments and in some cases to the discrimination of the educational options of the non‐ 

Hungarian nationalities. This contributed to the escalations of the nationality conflicts. These conflicts 

have been referred to by critics of dualist Hungary, like Seton‐Watson as the intentional Magyarization of 

the non‐Hungarian nationalities. Although it cannot be denied that the educational system and the 

implications of the educational legislation contributed to the escalation of conflicts instead of appeasing 

them the claim that the primary school system of the Hungarian kingdom favored Magyarization of the 

non‐Hungarian nationalities is unmotivated. If some Hungarian policy makers thought that by 

establishing Hungarian language state schools in mixed territories and the territorities inhabited by the 

non‐Hungarian nationalities and that by the compulsory introduction of Hungarian as a subject of 

instruction in non‐Hungarian language schools the non‐Hungarian nationalities of Hungary could be 

Magyarized then this has turned out to be a fatal misconception. In Central and Eastern Europe there is 

indeed a specific relation between language and nationality but this language factor is ‘mother tongue’ 

and not ‘L2’. With the same force however one can argue that the resistance against the introduction of 

Hungarian as an L2 in the non‐Hungarian primary schools was motivated by the same conceptual 

misinterpretation. Rather this false conceptual relation between L2 and nationality has been misused for 

power political motivations from both sides. 59 Furthermore, from the population statistics and the data on 

mother tongue speakers, including the high proportion of monolingual speakers among the non‐ 

Hungarian nationalities and the marginal growth of L2‐speakers of Hungarian during dualism it clearly 

appears that the non‐Hungarian nationalities were not affected by Magyarization, i.e. the Hungarian 

educational policy had no serious consequences for the identity of Hungary’s non‐Hungarians. 

4. Studying the practice of multilingualism in dualist Hungary 

In the previous chapter, I have discussed the educational policy in the Hungarian kingdom by focusing 

on primary education as a case study. We have concluded that this policy had discriminative aspects 

restricting the options of the non‐Hungarian nationalities but at the same time it cannot be characterized 

as Magyarization. Consequently, sweeping statement like the one of Seton‐Watson “so today the 

non‐Magyars of Hungary are breeding‐machines whose children must be taught Magyar from their 

earliest age, in the hope that they may become renegades to the tradition of their ancestors” are 

unmotivated. 60 It is true however that dualist educational policy contributed to the escalation of conflicts 

between the Hungarian and non‐Hungarian nationalities. 

Note that we observed above that the national communities during dualism had separate institutions 

respected by the Hungarian state and that the proportion of the bi‐ and multilingual speakers to the total 

population was rather low. In this climate lacking reliable “bridges”, stereotypes, images and self‐images 

played an important role for fuelling further escalations between Hungarians and non‐Hungarians. 

59 I agree with Seton‐Watson (1907, 233) that language and nationality are not related necessarily but in Central and Eastern 

Europe there is an implicational relation between nationality and mother tongue as we discussed above. . 

60 See Seton‐Watson (1907, 222) 

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Among the Hungarians, negative qualifications, images and stereotypes of the nationalities were 

singing around in the kingdom, like ‘the Germans are pranky’, ‘the Romanians have a hairy sole’, ‘the 

Serbs are wild’, ‘the Slovaks are not men’ and ‘the Jews are stinking.’ 61 Note that some of the nationalities 

were referred to in these exclusive, derogatory stereotypes by names they only had in the Hungarian 

language, like oláh for Romanians that means in fact “someone originating from Wallachia”, tót “Slovak” 

and rác “Serb.” 

On the other hand, negative stereotypes of the Hungarians were also to be found in the world view of 

the leading intellectuals of the nationalities, like in the work of Ioan Slavici (1848‐1925), the editor‐in‐chief 

of the nationalist newspaper Tribuna that appeared from 1882 in the Transylvanian town Nagyszeben 

(today’s Romanian Sibiu). 62 Already in Slavici’s early work ‘Studies on the Hungarians’ written as a 

young student in Vienna at the young age of 24 between 1871‐1873, just four years after the Ausgleich we 

can find a collection of the traditional anti‐Hungarian stereotypes. 63 According to Slavici, the Hungarians 

were unable to integrate into Europe and European culture because of their Asian origin and culture. As a 

consequence, they were not part of the European civilization; their state of mind was characterized by rich 

phantasy and emotional extremes; the Hungarians were arrogant and looking down upon the other 

nationalities living in the Hungarian kingdom; they did not achieved anything in the field of sciences; 

they were unable to spread culture, literature or arts and the Hungarians used all their energy to do 

politics which was dominated by their strive to Magyarize all their nationalities. Slavici concluded his 

studies on the Hungarians by stating that the Hungarians were unfit to play a role in the civilization of 

Central and Eastern Europe. Instead Slavici assigned this role to the Romanians due to the fact that they 

were a European nation with Latin roots; their Latin language was more beautiful than Hungarian and 

the Romanians were more tolerant than the Hungarian. The anti‐Hungarian stereotypes and images of 

Slavici were not an incidental case among Romanian and other non‐Hungarian intellectuals during 

dualism. These traditional anti‐Hungarian stereotypes, ‘Hungarians as Asian intruders into Europe’ and 

‘oppressors of their nationalities who did nothing for civilization’ are also reflected in poem read by the 

Romanian member of the Hungarian Parliament Alexandru Vaida‐Voevod (1872‐1950). The 

representative of the Romanian National Party read this poem during a session of the Hungarian 

Parliament in 1907: 64 

Everything is in vain, in vain… you will perish/scum from Asia that tramples on all rights… /For ten 

cursed centuries you lived like parasites/bloodthirsty bedbugs feeding on this country./ And it has put up 

with a lot, but forgotten nothing/because the Romanian is cine mintye 

61 In Hungarian: a német huncut, szöröstalpú oláh, a rác vad, a tót nem ember, a zsidó büdös. See for discussion Köpeczi (1995, 178). 

62 See Köpeczi (11995, 161‐203) for a discussion of Slavici’s stereotypes and images of the Hungarians in his Studies on the 

Hungarians (In Rumanian: Studii asupra Maghiarilor). 

63 See for a discussion and analysis of the set of traditional anti‐Hungarian stereotypes Marácz (1995, 25‐41; 1996). 

64 The poem that is published in Bíró (1989, 262) sounded in Hungarian: Hiába minden, minden… el fogsz veszni, Jogtipró ázsiai 

söpredék…, Tíz átkos század óta élösködtök, Mint vérszomjas poloskák e hazán, És sokat türt, de semmit sem felejtett, Mert 

cine mintye a román.” The original Romanian expression “tine minte” written according to Hungarian prononciation as “cine 

mintye” means “one who harbors a grudge”, but literally it means “keep in mind.” Note that Vaida‐Voevod did not read this 

poem in Hungarian Parliament in 1908 as Bíró states but on April, 8 2007. This fact does not affect our analysis. 

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In fact, the nationality conflicts during dualism became gradually political power conflicts about 

national superiority in the Hungarian kingdom. In these conflicts nationalism and feelings of superiority 

run high strengthened by society structure consisting of separate ethnic groups and their institutions and 

the exclusive, negative stereotyping of other nationalities. 65 

Illustrative of this political power struggle was the so‐called Memorandum of 1892. 66 The 

Memorandum was a petition addressed to the Emperor Franz Joseph in which the Romanians of 

Transylvania and Banat complained about their bad treatment in the Hungarian kingdom. According to 

them, this included persecutions and the Magyarization of the educational system. The Hungarian 

Romanians requested his Majesty to interfere politically in the Hungarian kingdom on behalf of the 

Romanians. A committee of 25 Romanian leaders from Transylvania and Banat, including dr. Ioan Ratiu 

who was the chairman of the committee, Gheoghe Pop de Basesti, Eugen Brote, Aurel Popovici, Albini 

Septimius and Vasile Lucaciu signed the petition. 

The Memorandum did not only contain a list of Romanian complaints about their situation in the 

Hungarian kingdom but the petition itself and the activities of the petitioners made clear that Hungarian 

Romanians questioned the legitimacy of the Hungarian state and its constitution. Firstly, the petitioners 

addressed Franz Joseph as the Emperor of Austria and not as the king of Hungary. In order to hand over 

the petition to the Emperor they traveled to Vienna and neglected Budapest as the seat of the Hungarian 

king and the seat of their own government. Franz Joseph was brought into a difficult position by this 

move of the Memorandum petitioners being forced to take sides in this affair. The Emperor skillfully 

managed to get out of this by forwarding the Memorandum to the Hungarian government in Budapest. 

Second, the Memorandum rejected the Hungarian constitution and legislation. The liberal intent of the 

1868 Law of Nationalities was denied criticizing the “unitary Hungarian political nation” and the fact that 

the Hungarian language was introduced as the official language of the state. The Memorandum was 

however silent about the rights assigned to the nationalities in the same law. Further, the Memorandum 

wanted to undo the introduction of the Hungarian language as a subject of instruction of eighteen hours a 

week in non‐Hungarian primary schools calling this an instance of Magyarization. 

In May 1894, the petitioners were tried by the Kolozsvár Court on the basis of paragraphs 171 and 173 

of the Criminal Law Code. 67 This implied that they were accused of ‘agitation against the law through the 

medium of the press.’ In this ensuing press trial the petitioners were sentenced to prison. Vasile Lucaciu 

was punished hardest, condemned for five years of prison; the other leaders to each two years. The 

condemned persons did not have to sit out their sentences however, since they were to benefit from 

amnesty after a year and a half. 68 

The Romanians gave the condemned petitioners a martyr status. This was also supported by the 

political and cultural institutions of the Old kingdom of Romania, like the Liga Culturala. This prestigious 

organization published an occasional pamphlet called Golgota with a highly suggestive picture on the 

65 See Turda (2003) for further discussion. 

66 Jáncso (2004, 131‐132; 135‐152) for discussion of the content of the Memorandum. 

67 See Jancsó (1992, 187‐197) for discussion of the Memorandum trial. 

68 See Bíró (1992, 17). 

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cover depicting five of the Memorandum petitioners as being crucified. 69 On the cross in the middle, 

Ratiu is crucified, to his right Lucaciu and to his left Pop de Basesti. A Hungarian wearing spurs being 

dressed in braided heyduck‐clothes, i.e. a Hungarian military uniform used in the 17 th century anti‐ 

Hapsburg uprising under the leadership of István Bocskai nails the feet of Ratiu onto the cross. Four other 

Hungarians in similar clothes hit the martyrs on the cross with a whip. The message of this publication 

referred to as Golgota with the picture of the crucified Memorandum petitioners is clear. The petitioners 

who are considered the personifications of the Romanians suffer as much as Jesus Christ did at the 

mountain Golgota where he was crucified. For their sufferings the Hungarians are responsible being 

personified by the Hungarian soldiers on the picture. The Liga Culturala distributed 100.000 copies of this 

political pamphlet in the Romanian kingdom and also among Hungarian Romanians in secret. It did not 

come as a surprise that in this political climate, anyone who professed friendship with Hungarians and 

showing loyalty to the Hungarian state was considered a renegate. 

The Hungarians as harsh Magyarizers subjugating their nationalities was in fact a case of anti‐ 

Hungarian stereotyping, already present in the work of Slavici only four years after the Ausgleich and the 

Memorandum of 1892. Above we have argued that the educational policy of the Hungarian kingdom was 

indeed discriminating the non‐Hungarian nationalities but had not the effect of Magyarizing them. 

Magyarization during dualism was not a consequence of the educational policy but rather of the geo‐ 

ethnic distribution of the nationalities and economic factors as the Hungarian geographer Count Teleki 

correctly pointed out: 70 

“The density in the highlands is less numerous than the lowlands. From the highlands there is a 

constant emigration into the central lowlands, the lowlands are practically magyar, so there is an absolute 

“Magyarization” of these people who come down to the plain. The towns also have a “Magyarizing” 

influence. The towns themselves, which in former times were German, later became Hungarian owing to 

their surroundings. The Germans changed their nationality the most quickly and in towns have become 

Hungarian. These towns, when absorbing population “Magyarize”. These show an increase from 1869 to 

1910 of nearly 43 percent, whereas in the whole land the increase of population was only 19 percent.” 

The geo‐ethnic distribution was mainly responsible for the spontaneous Magyarization in the 

Hungarian kingdom when after the Comprise economy was starting to boom and industrial and 

commercial centers were developing in the central lowlands and the towns. Note that especially the 

Germans and Slovaks were affected mostly by this spontaneous Magyarization because the Slovaks lived 

in the highlands neighbouring the central lowlands and the Germans mainly lived in the towns. This 

explains also why especially the Germans and Slovaks became gradually bi‐ and multilingual during 

dualism. The Romanians however were hardly affected by this type of Magyarization because they lived 

mainly in the Transylvanian area that was not continuous with the central lowlands. Furthermore, 95 

percent of the Romanians lived in the villages immune to the Magyarizing effects of the towns. 71 

The political conflict between Hungarians and non‐Hungarians had a bipolar structure which led to 

asymmetrical developments in the educational system. These developments triggered more tensions and 

69 Compare Jancsó (2004, 197). 

70 See Teleki (1923, 163). 

71 See Lökkös (200, 63). 

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were reinforced by the negative stereotypes and images of the other. However, the postulation of bipolar 

opposition useful for a study of the dynamics of the political conflict is not fitted for studying the 

phenomenon of multilingualism in the Hungarian kingdom and its power political implications. 

Although a bipolar theory tells us something about the political intentions and the goals of the different 

nationalities and the character of the political antagonisms between them it obscures the analysis of 

linguistic diversity in the Hungarian kingdom. A bipolar approach will not provide sufficient insight into 

the complicated relations between the communication networks of groups of monolingual and those of 

groups of bi‐ and multi‐lingual speakers. Not the languages used are in a bipolar opposition but social 

groups attempting to maintain and improve their position against each other. A bipolar approach 

restricting the political and linguistic conflicts of dualist Hungary to a Hungarian versus non‐Hungarian 

opposition only completely neglects the fact of bi‐ and multilingual speakers and the political role they 

played in society. 

Recall that in the Hungarian kingdom 23 percent of the population, i.e. 4.880.000 persons were bi‐ and 

multilingual controlling one or more languages next to their mother tongue. A bipolar model does not tell 

us anything about how and when these languages in communicational networks are used in daily 

practice. A bipolar model of study does not explain why members of regional non‐Hungarian elites were 

against the introduction of Hungarian as a subject in primary education, although by preventing this, 

their peers were excluded from the Hungarian communicational networks of the state weakening the 

power and legal position of their clientage. A good example of this anti‐Hungarian attitude violating the 

interests of his own peers is provided by Miron Roman, the metropolitan bishop of the Transylvanian 

Orthodox Church. 

In 1904, an Educational Committee under the presidency of Albert Berzeviczy reporting to the 

Hungarian Parliament upon the reform of primary education and the teaching of Hungarian in primary 

schools argued for the inclusion of non‐Hungarian nationalities in the Hungarian communicational 

networks of the state, since “without knowledge of the language of the state the citizen is not in a position 

to assert himself in all circumstances with equal right and equal power.” 72 The Committee wanted to 

achieve this by proposing Hungarian to be a compulsory subject in primary schools education. However, 

the Romanian metropolitan bishop, Miron Roman argued that the proposed bill violated the principles of 

pedagogy in establishing as the chief aim of primary education not general culture, but the acquisition of 

a particular language, in this instance the Magyar.” 73 So, a bipolar approach to these conflicts does not 

explain why the Romanian Orthodox Church in Transylvania clung to a strict separatist educational 

model excluding their Romanian peers from the communicational networks of the Hungarian state. 

Neither is a bipolar approach to dualist Hungary’s ethnic and linguistic conflicts very helpful to 

understand the generalization Seton‐Watson made ”… foremost champions of the nationalities have 

received a Magyar Education and have a complete mastery of the Magyar Language.” 74 To put otherwise: 

why was it that nationality activists like Slavici and the Memorandum petitioners were fighting against 

the introduction of the Hungarian language as a subject of instruction in non‐Hungarian schools, while 

they themselves had enjoyed instruction in Hungarian schools and had received a perfect control of the 


73 See Seton Watson (1907, 226). 


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Hungarian language? In fact, they were the living example that L2‐instruction of Hungarian had not 

threatened their nationality. Rather because of this L2‐instruction they had created more changes for 

upward mobilization in society, something they intended to deny their peers with their political activities. 

It is my assumption that the so‐called floral figuration model defended in the work of the Dutch 

sociologist De Swaan referring to the language competence of social groups that are struggling for power 

can give good insights in above and related questions. 75 Let us briefly introduce this model here. 

Consider the following figure: 

Figure 1: The Floral Figuration of Languages 

In the floral figuration model, the outer circles represent the speakers of the regional languages; the 

shaded area represents speakers of the standard language, i.e. the lingua franca of the national 

communication network. Those in the unshaded part of the outer circle speak only the regional language, 

i.e. those are the mother tongue speakers of the regional language. Those in the core star, the 

metropolitans speak only the standard language. Note that local or regional speech communities hardly 

intersecting with one another but all of them are linked to one central or national language community 

through the mediation of bilingual and literate local elites. The bilingual mediation elites are to be found 

in the overlapping areas of the shaded central circle with the outer circles. The shaded area may also be 

interpreted as representing all literates, the outer circles as regional communities of oral 

communication. 76 

In the case of dualist Hungary, we will use this model in order to analyze the sociological aspects of 

linguistic diversity in a more insightful manner. Our analysis in terms of this model is to be considered as 

a first approximation of the various interest involved in the use and learning of language and the learning 

of alphabetization in the Hungarian kingdom. Observe that this model allows an analysis in which not 

only the dynamics of the conflict in terms of class is accounted for but also in terms of religion and region. 

In some cases, these categories are intersecting. 

75 See De Swaan (1988, 60‐76). 

76 De Swaan (1988, 65). 

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First, the Hungarian state tried to promote the lingua franca, i.e. Hungarian on its entire territory in 

order to have direct communication with their citizens, i.e. to increase the power basis of the state. This 

served the interest of the Hungarian metropolitan elites in the capital of the kingdom, i.e. Budapest. The 

regional elites consisting of local gentry, church officials and notables were against the extension of the 

Hungarian lingua franca in their region for two reasons. First, they feared to loose the monopolistic 

mediation position which made them profit from the state communicational network. Secondly, at the 

same time this mediation position gave them power over their clientage. These were in the Hungarian 

kingdom quite often the monolingual peasants, especially in the case of the Romanians, Serbs, Slovaks 

and Ruthenians. Note that the state operated quite often in mixed territories, like Transylvania through 

regional Hungarian agents that had to deal with bi‐ and multilingual members of the local non‐ 

Hungarian elites. 

Second, let us interpret the conflict over the introduction of the Hungarian language as a subject of 

instruction in non‐Hungarian private schools in terms of the strive for power between the social groups in 

the floral figuration. The state, i.e. the metropolitans and their local agents saw the introduction of 

Hungarian as a subject in primary schools as the first step to gain control of these schools. This was 

opposed however by the regional non‐Hungarian elites because they did not want state involvement in 

matters considered to be controlled by them. As a consequence, the presence of linguistic diversity within 

the school building was seen as a reflection of the power relations between the Hungarian metropolitans 

and the non‐Hungarian regional elites. The control of the schools was seen as fundamental because the 

struggle for power was attended with a different ideological transmission. This becomes especially clear 

from the different missions Slavici assigns to the nationalities in dualist Hungary. 

Third, we observe inconsistencies in attitude not only on the side of the State both also on the side of 

the nationalities, when taking into account the floral figuration model instead of a bipolar approach. The 

bipolar model predicts that the non‐Hungarian nationalities were the subjugated party who could only 

practice marginally their rights. However, local elites but certainly the local mediation elites, although 

opposing or completely rejecting the law in order to be on an equal footing with the metropolitans refer to 

the same law in order to accentuate their own position in the system and to mobilize support from their 

peers. For example, local elites rejecting the Law of Nationalities of 1868 refer to this law when they want 

to use their own language in the administrative and the judicial domain. 

The Hungarian historian Bíró (1992) reports an incident on a meeting of the assembly in the county of 

Krassó‐Szörény in 1884. The meeting was held in Lugos, the capital of Krassó‐Szörény. 77 At the meeting, 

the Hungarian delegates were in the majority but according to the 1910 census the Romanians had a clear 

majority of 72.10 percent of the population in this county in the southern parts of Hungary. 78 During the 

meeting a discussion arose on the filling of two vacant positions in a selection committee of the assembly. 

The Romanian delegates demanded that their candidate was taken. This was opposed however by the 

Hungarian members of the assembly. One of the Romanian members of the assembly, Popovici who 

could not understand Hungarian wanted the Hungarian county governor to speak in Romanian. The 

Romanian delegate argued that Romanian is one of the languages of the registry implying that the 

77 See Bíró (1992, 102‐103). 

78 See Lökkös (2000, 252). 

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language of communication in the assembly must be in Romanian as well. In the end, the county 

governor had to give in and also accepted the Romanian candidate as a member of the selection 

committee. According to the then account of the meeting in the Romanian press the Romanian members 

of the county assembly in Lugos did not only speak in their Romanian mother tongue at the meeting 

referring to § 2 of Law XLIV. 1868 but could afford an aggressive tone, when speaking to the county 

governor when referring to the law. 

Another instance of inconsistence in attitude among the non‐Hungarian nationalities was the case of 

the Memorandum trial before the Kolozsvár Court in May, 1894. At the trial in which the condemned 

Romanians were complaining about their rights being trampled down by the Hungarian state they 

exclusively spoke in the Romanian language throughout the trial. Hereby they were making use of the 

right to speak one’s own mother tongue before court (compare, § 7 of Law XLIV. 1868).” 79 

Fourth, recall that in 1910 only 23 percent of the inhabitants of dualist Hungary, i.e. 4.880.000 were bi‐ 

and multilingual. In the case of the nationalities, these figures were even more negative. Only 15.67 

percent of the Romanians were bi‐ and multilingual, i.e. 465.000 persons. Most of the Romanian bi‐ and 

multilingual speakers had control over the Hungarian language, i.e. 12.69 percent, 374.106 persons of the 

total number of the Romanians. The second biggest L2 among the Romanians was German with 2.05 

percent of the total of Romanians, i.e. 60.587 persons. 80 In the early decades of dualism the situation was 

even more dramatic. Hence, the Hungarian state had hardly the possibility of direct communication with 

the Romanians. This was only possible through the mediation of bi‐ and multilingual speakers. Two 

groups were available, including Hungarians that could speak Romanian as an L2. Their number counted 

in 1910 400.674 persons. The second group consisted of Romanians having control over Hungarian as an 

L2. 81 The first group was not trusted by the Romanian commoners. Hence, the bi‐ and multilingual 

Romanians being a rather small group enjoyed a monopolistic position as mediators between the 

Hungarian state and their peer Romanians. Note that this group has hardly been studied because it does 

not fit into the bipolar approach of analyzing the nationality conflicts of dualist Hungary. This category is 

however interesting between it offers insight into the inconsistencies in attitude among the non‐ 

Hungarian nationalities. These mediators argued against the interference of the Hungarian state in the 

matters of non‐Hungarian, mostly denominational schools and against the introduction of the Hungarian 

language as a subject of instruction to oppose the expansion of state power, similarly to the 

representatives of the private schools of the non‐Hungarian nationalities. Note however that these 

mediators had benefited optimally from the Hungarian educational system and the instruction of 

Hungarian as an L2. These mediators, although all the time campaigning against “Magyarization” of 

non‐Hungarian schools were the living examples that by learning Hungarian as an L2 one’s nationality 

was not changed automatically. Let us here discuss two of these mediators, i.e. Ioan Slavici and 

Alexandru Vaida‐Voevod. 

Ioan Slavici (1848‐1925) was born in Világos, a multinational and multilingual village in the Banat area. 

This area was characterized by the Hungarian geographer Count Teleki as “… one of the most mixed 

79 See Bíró (1992, 110). 

80 Lökkös (2000, 214). 

81 Lökkös (2000, 214). 

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regions in the world.” 82 Világos and its surrounding were typical for the Banat. Four languages were used 

in daily communication, including Hungarian, Romanian, Serbian and Swabian‐German. Actually his 

mother learned Slavici as a child to respect people with another nationality:”…say good day to everyone 

in his own language, do not ridicule the people who belong to a different nation, rather treat the strangers 

as if they were your co‐nationals.” 83 Slavici attended relatively good schools in his home village Világos 

and in the cities of Arad and Temesvár (today’s Rumanian Timisoara) before he enrolled the University of 

Vienna where he wrote his ‘Studies on the Hungarians’ in 1871‐1873 full of anti‐Hungarian stereotypes 

and images, discussed above. 

Alexandru Vaida‐Voevod (1872‐1950) being born in Alparét close to the city of Kolozsvár (today’s 

Romanian Cluj‐Napoca) also represents an illustrative case of a multilingual mediator. Vaida‐Voevod did 

not only come from a multinational and multilingual setting, i.e. Hungarian‐Romanian‐German, like 

Slavici but he was actually of a mixed Hungarian‐Romanian descendant. The latter fact one will search for 

in vain in official Romanian bibliographies not meeting the bipolar model that acknowledges only an 

opposition between Hungarians and non‐Hungarians when analyzing the political and linguistic conflicts 

in the Hungarian kingdom during dualism. 84 In his memoirs, Vaida‐Voevod provides some information 

on the ethnic background of his family. 85 His grandmother named Rozália Boér was an offspring from a 

well‐to‐do Hungarian Calvinist family. The mentor of his father Dionisie was a fine Hungarian 

intellectual from Kolozsvár, the scientist and Unitarian bishop of Kolozsvár, János Kriza. The father of 

Alexandru, Dionisie was lyrical about the Hungarian culture. The young Alexandru visited the 

prestigious Unitarian primary school in Kolozsvár before he attended quality schools in Beszterce and 

Brassó. In the latter city having a German majority he learned German before he enrolled in medicine 

studies at the University of Vienna. In Vienna, at the age of twenty he became politically active being the 

mediator between the Memorandum petitioners and the Romanian authorities of the Old Romanian 

kingdom. Vaida‐Voevod became later member of the Hungarian Parliament for the Romanian National 

Party and in 1920 after the establishment of Greater Romania in 1920 he was appointed the first prime 

minister of the new state that was enlarged with his native country Transylvania. 

In sum, both Slavici and Vaida‐Voevod profited optimally of the multilingual culture and educational 

opportunities the Hungarian kingdom offered. However, in course of time they became the most fanatic 

anti‐Hungarian nationalists doing everything to prevent the Hungarian state from directly 

communicating with their Romanian citizens and preventing their Romanian peers from enjoying what 

they had enjoyed in dualist Hungary, i.e. full participation in the communicational networks of the 

Hungarian state. 86 In this way, Slavici and Vaida‐Voevod could maximally benefit from their position as 

being members of the Romanian bi‐ and multilingual mediation elite. 

82 See Teleki (1923, 221). 

83 Köpeczi (1995, 165). 

84 See Serban et al. (2003, 31‐34). 

85 See Vaida Voevod (2006, Vol. I, 13‐14). 

86 After World War I he moderated his struggle against the integrity of the Austro‐Hungarian Empire:”During the WW I 

Hungarian Romanians were loyal to Austro‐Hungarian Monarchy and to the House of Hapburg, …the political struggle 

between Magyars and Romanians can only be considered as a dissension among brothers…” See for this quotation Teleki (1923, 

153‐154). 

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Fifth, note also that the position of the bi‐ and multilingual mediation elites in dualist Hungary was 

strengthened further by the proportion and the distribution of illiteracy. This was highly similarly to the 

proportion and distribution of bi‐ and multilingual speakers among the nationalities. The proportion of 

illiterates, the number of persons that could neither read nor write, to the total population steadily 

decreased in Hungary proper, from 63.11 percent in 1869, 57.14 percent in 1880, 51.98 percent in 1890, 

47.99 percent in 1900, to 43.62 in 1910. 87 However, in actual numbers this proportion was still 7.945.264 

persons. The proportion of the illiterates was lowest among the Hungarians, 32.99 percent and the 

Germans, 39.57 percent and somewhat higher among the Slovaks, 42 percent and much higher far above 

the 53.48 percent average of the non‐Hungarian nationalities among the Serbs, 59.67 percent and the 

Romanians 71.82. 88 

From these data it is clear that the illiterates among the non‐Hungarian nationalities who are situated 

in the unshaded area of the floral figuration, similarly as the monolingual non‐Hungarian speakers were 

in need of the literate mediation elites, preferably non‐Hungarian in order to communicate in writing 

with the central area of the Hungarian lingua franca. The metropolitans in their turn could only 

communicate in writing with the non‐Hungarian regional illiterates through the mediation of the same bi‐ 

and multilingual regional elites. Hence, the proportion and distribution of illiteracy among the non‐ 

Hungarian nationalities strengthened the position of the same linguistic local mediation elites we already 

engaged in the case of oral communication. 

5. Conclusions 

In this paper, we have argued that in multilingual dualist Hungary ethnic groups being assigned the 

status of ‘nationalities’ played a dominant role. The nationalities and their languages were recognized as 

constitutional and legislative separate entities. Multilingualism in the Hungarian kingdom was in fact a 

set of separate languages. As a consequence, the number of bi‐ and multilingual speakers was relatively 

low. The educational system in the Hungarian kingdom was a reflection of this separate ethnic structure 

of society. Practically separatist schools alone existed. Only after 1879, Hungarian was introduced as a 

compulsory subject of instruction in the non‐Hungarian nationality schools without much success though. 

Educational policy that reinforced the separate ethnic structure of society suffered from inconsistencies 

and asymmetrical developments. Although Hungarian was declared the state language in the Law on the 

Equality of Nationalities of 1868, the same law allowed non‐state schools, mostly denominational schools 

to choose their own language of instruction. Further, the state tried to introduce Hungarian as a 

compulsory subject of instruction in non‐Hungarian schools but it failed to have an eye for the linguistic 

needs of the non‐Hungarian nationalities in accordance with actual and local needs. Finally, in Hungarian 

schools languages other than Hungarian were being taught, especially German and Latin but not the 

languages of the nationalities. The Hungarian state should however have done more to stimulate the 

teaching of the languages of the nationalities among the Hungarians. Even in mixed schools the teaching 

87 See Seton‐Watson (1907, 436) and Lökkös (2000, 67, 201). 

88 See Lökkös 2000, 201. 

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of the Hungarians and the non‐Hungarian nationalities in their own mother tongues took place 

separately. In sum, the educational system hampered from the start of inherent weaknesses that could not 

be repaired by the educational policy. Educational policy containing liberal elements worsened the 

existing ethnic conflicts instead of pacifying them and stimulated embittered linguistic and political 

power struggles between the different nationalities and the state. 

Although the Hungarian educational policy during dualism had it deficiencies it is unmotivated to 

label it as the Magyarization of the non‐Hungarian nationalities. In this context, “Magyarization” is in fact 

an anti‐Hungarian stereotype that was and is used by critics of dualist Hungary in order to justify the 

dissolution of dualist Hungary at the Peace Conference in Paris ending the First World War. It is not only 

incorrect to analyze the ethnic and linguistic political power constellation in terms of “Magyarization” but 

this term also obscures the sociological patterns of bi‐ and multilingualism in the Hungarian kingdom. 

We have argued that the so‐called floral figuration model gives us more insight into the cases of 

unspecified bi‐ and multilingualism that have not been studies in a systematic way so far. By making use 

of the floral figuration model we were able to track down the social groups that struggled for power using 

language and linguistic competence as instruments in the nationality conflicts. Furthermore, the floral 

figuration model provides also deeper insight into the linguistic attitudes of the social groups involved in 

the power struggles which are characterized, just like the state policy, by inconsistencies and 

asymmetries. 

In conclusion, not only the educational policy of dualist Hungary should have been critized but the 

complete system instead because it suffered from inherent weaknesses. The claims of the separate ethnic 

groups of Hungary were recognized which blocked their full integration into the state system. This state 

of affairs yielded the worsening of the ethnic antagonisms being one of the main causes for the collapse of 

dualist Hungary. However, there was no rising social class strong enough that could have changed the 

system breaking through the fixed pattern of class, religion and regions. Hence, the educational system 

preserved the social and regional status quo. Although mixed schools with two or three languages 

possessed a separatist educational regime these schools could have been a starting point to build bridges 

between the different nationalities of the Hungarian kingdom. Hence, it was unfortunate that during 

dualism their number after a steady increase dropped radically between 1900 and 1905‐1906: 1632 in 1869, 

2437 in 1880, 2878 in 1890, 3251 in 1900 and 1665 in 1905‐1906. 89 

Multi‐ and bilingualism in Cisleithania, the Austrian part of the Dual Monarchy has been studied in 

detail in the work of Rindler‐Schjerve and others. On the basis of this, we are able to draw some 

preliminary comparisons between Cisleithania and Transleithania. 

Ethnic and linguistic diversity in Cisleithania was regulated by Constitutional Decree XIX. 1867. 90 

Three paragraphs specify that all nationalities are equal (compare § 1); all traditional languages are equal 

(compare § 2) and in the mixed Länder no other official language may be enforced in education (compare § 

3). Although there are some differences between Hungarian and Austrian legislation in these domain 

these are however not conceptual ones. 


90 See Goebl (1994, 109), Rindler‐Schjerve (2003), Rindler‐Schjerve and Vetter (2007, 51) and Rindler‐Schjerve (this volume). 

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Observe that both the legislation of Cisleithania and Transleithania recognized the traditional 

nationalities and their languages as primitives of the system. True in the constituting parts of 

Transleithania the Law of Nationalities of 1868 postulated a hierarchy among the languages, unlike in 

Cisleithania. In Hungary proper, the official language was Hungarian and in Croatia‐Slavonia it was 

Croatian. 91 Note that all other traditional languages had an official status in Transleithania during the 

whole period and were next to the state language the dominating languages in the separatist educational 

system. 

Note further that although Hungary proper specified a lingua franca officially, unlike the lands of 

Cisleithania this was motivated by two reasons mainly. Firstly, the proportion of the Hungarian mother 

tongue speakers to the total population of Transleithania. In 1910, Hungarian mother tongue speakers 

numbering 48.22 percent had a bigger majority in Hungary than the German mother tongue speakers 

numbering 34.83 percent in Cisleithania. Further, the domination of Hungarian was more accentuated. 

The second and third ethnic group were bigger in Cisleithania than in Transleithania. Compare the 

proportions of Czechs (22.53 percent) and Poles (17.39 percent) in Cisleithania with the ones of the 

Romanians (14.15 percent) and Slovaks (9.44 percent) in Transleithania. 92 Secondly, the choice of 

Hungarian as a lingua franca in Hungary proper was motivated by the fact that Hungary proper during 

dualism had an outspoken Hungarian character. In practice, however there was no real difference in the 

field of multilingualism between Cisleithania and Transleithania. This was due to the fact that in 

Cisleithania German was functioning as a lingua franca, although not specified by legislation, for reasons 

of tradition and the prestige it gained from the dominant status of German in Austria proper and the 

support it received from the ruling dynasty of Austro‐Hungary, the House of Hapsburg. 

The option of a separatist model characterizing the educational system in Hungary proper by allowing 

separatist linguistic education that remained dominant even after state interference appeared in the 

Cisleithanian educational system as well. This was due to the prohibition on the enforcement of any other 

language in education. With the rise of ethnic conflicts in Cisleithania even the utraquist model, i.e. the bi‐ 

and multilingual schools in modern sense that had existed traditionally in some regions was left for the 

separatist model. In conclusion, separatist education was made possible in Transleithania by the freedom 

of choice, while in Cisleithania by the prohibition of language enforcement. In the prevailing nationalist 

context, this yielded a development into the same, separatist direction. The only difference was that in 

Hungary this development was inherent from the start. 

91 In this paper, I will not elaborate on the special relation between Hungary and Croatia‐Slavonia during dualism and the state 

of multilingualism in Croatia‐Slavonia putting these topics aside for further research. I am indebted to Nikola Rasic for bringing 

to my attention that Croatia is actually a complicated case, an “imaginary community”, including Croatia proper, Srem, 

Slavonia, Dalmatia, Rijeka (former Fiume), some parts of Istria with some islands (KrK, Cres, Rab) and two sections of the 

Military Frontier (Croatian ans Slavonian Militärgrenz), and in some periods even Medjimurje. So it is not easy to study the state 

of multilingualism in Croatia‐Slavonia. In the framework of this paper Hungary proper does not include Croatia‐Slavonia or 

Fiume. 

92 Goebl (1994). 

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To conclude this paper let us consider what lessons the European Union can learn from 

multilingualism in Transleithania. The question is justified because the European Union has a 

multilingual structure, comparable to Austro‐Hungary. 93 

First, in Transleithania the traditional, non‐state languages were recognized officially in the 

educational, judicial and administrative domains. We consider this as a positive value. Hence, linguistic 

diversity in society was not only proclaimed as a policy principle but effectively functioned in the 

practice. However, the Union although making linguistic diversity an official policy the implementation 

of this principle is mainly effective concerning state languages only. 

Secondly, in Transleithania subsidiarity included also linguistic matters that enabled regional and 

communal groups to satisfy local needs. However, at present the Union’s languages and language policy 

do not fall under a subsidiarity principle. Hence, the Union is insensitive to the local needs of all sorts of 

non‐state language speakers and let individual member‐states decide in these issues. 

Thirdly, the Transleithanian educational policy although recognizing the multilingual character of the 

state reinforced the separate ethnic structure of the society by favoring the separatist educational model. 

This policy was contra‐productive. Instead of strengthening cohesion and neutralizing the force of 

stereotyping separatist education became more and more a tool in the hands of nationalists undermining 

cohesion. The European Union should learn from this that multilingual education if implemented in a 

separatist manner will be a fission fungus. Instead the Union should stimulate the introduction of bi‐ and 

multilingual schools in order to strengthen cohesion in the Union. 

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Silk Road – Then and Now 1 

For a long period, the great Silk Road functioned as a link between Central‐ and Northern‐China, 

Central Asia, and the Caucasus. Some branches led to the eastern coast of the Black Sea, where some ports 

gained strategic importance for “Europe”, which meant the Hellenic world according to ancient historical 

sources. Another significant branch led along the the Caspian Plain, which connected Eastern Europe 

with the Middle East. From the 16 th century onwards the sea trading overtook land‐locked trade as 

Western‐Europeans started to search for new routes to reach directly the regions rich in raw material 

resources. The above mentioned international land routes lost their primacy in world trade and remained 

regional routes in Middle East and Eastern Europe. Moreover, during the Late Middle Ages, two big city 

states, Venice and Genoa freighted goods from those regions, but they lost their importance gradually. 

When Moscow conquered Central Asia in the middle of the 19 th century the official trade routes were 

moved to the north crossing Siberia. 

Fortunately, the modern economic challenges required modernization of the ancient caravan routes, so 

it was time to build new routes to transport huge amounts of raw materials from land‐locked Asia to 

Western‐Europe, where the industrial capacity already existed but lacked sufficient raw material supplies. 

The bid to create a new Euro‐Asia link was spurred by the wish to unlock the vast oil and gas reserves of 

the Caspian Sea. At the end of the 20 th century European decision‐makers realized that the European 

market required a stable supply of raw material for their own industries to process. Due to the permanent 

demand, the European countries tried to access landlocked territories like the Caucasus and the Central 

Asian region. In the 1990s more than 30 countries of the Eurasian region planned a new project, named 

TRACECA (Transport Corridor Europe‐Caucasus‐Asia). Its aim was to solve the problems related to 

transporting energy, mining products and other raw materials to Europe. The participating nations 

decided to develop a modern transport corridor along the great international trading route that once 

linked Asia to Europe in order to ease the flow of goods across the vast region. One of the strategic points 

of the route is the corridor linking the Caspian Sea and Black Sea, where a new railway line was built. 

This is known as the Kars‐Tbilisi‐Baku railway project, also named as the “Iron Silk Road”, which is to 

provide direct connection between Turkey and Georgia, from where the line will also reach to Azerbaijan. 

From there the railway leads to Central Asia and far away, to the Far East to China. To understand the 

importance of this European initiative, we should take a look at the historical background of the Silk 

Road, and analyse the existing route in the region. In the past few years experts reassessed the history and 

importance of the Silk Road, despite the increasing commercial activities in the ports. They examined the 

role of logistics in a steppe region and the special knowledge of the inhabitants, namely the Scythians. 

1 Paper prepared for the international symposium Éncounters between the Caucasus and the West: Image and Reality´ organized by 

the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 23‐24 April 2010. 

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Historical concepts 

As historical sources and archaeological findings present to us, for many centuries great trading routes 

between the Caucasus and Europe contributed to the development of both regions. In the ancient and 

medieval times the Silk Road was of great importance to the transport of peoples, goods and ideas 

between Europe and Asia. In both directions, technologies, ideologies (especially religions) were 

transmitted. 2 

As I mentioned above, the Silk Road was not only one big highway, but a vast network of more or less 

important trade routes with connecting branches from present‐day Central China to Western Europe. In 

the Caucasus region it crossed present‐day Azerbaijan and went on to Georgia, and reached the Black Sea. 

These places were inhabited since the earliest times, and early communities settled down in river valleys 

or at the shores of the Black Sea. 3 By the means of these roads, various kinds of goods (luxury goods, 

handicrafts, spices, etc.) were transported from China and Central‐Asia reaching the Caucasus. The main 

source of most raw materials was in the Caucasus Mountains, or Scythian Mountain, as enumerated by 

ancient Greek sources. 4 In some cases silk products, handicrafts were produced in the Caucasus region, 

too. 5 

Although the international literature often refers to this date, the great international trade routes and 

trading did not exist before the 2 nd century B.C., or the time of the Han‐dynasty. China was a closed 

territory for a long period, so they had no direct connection with the West; they had information about the 

Northern tribes belonging to the steppe civilisation who were related to the Scythians or Huns. As the 

Chinese scholars pointed out, the Chinese adopted many methods from them, such as metallurgy, horse‐ 

breeding, etc. 6 They accessed western goods only through the steppe people. The first man, who 

reportedly reached the Western region, was Zhang Qian. He was captured by the Huns and was forced to 

live in their empire. He lived there for a decade. After returning to China he gave an account on his 

experiences and the Chinese officials, even the Chinese royal court realized that establishing trade 

relations with the West were of crucial importance. In order to gain control over the western territories, 

the Chinese waged a war against the Huns, who had ruled that territory for centuries. The above 

mentioned date or 2 nd century B.C. refers to that period, when the Chinese Han‐dynasty gained 

supremacy over some parts of the Silk Road along the Yellow‐River bend. During that period they were 

involved directly in the world trade and they drove out the Huns, who ruled that vast region before them. 

Some scholars support the idea that commercial activity between continents probably emerged during 

the Neolithic Age. As they claim, some parts of the Silk Road of that time have already functioned, and 

goods, mainly precious stones were transported. 7 Due to fragmentary historical sources, we do not know 

the exact beginning of transcontinental commercial activities in this vast steppe region (Central Asia, 

2 

Kuzmina, 2008. 3. 

3 

Christian, 1988. 82. 

4 

The great Greek authors as Hesiodus, Herodotus, Ptolemy, Strabon, etc. 

5 

Silk products appeared from only the Middle Ages, when a Christian monk stole the secret of silk‐manufacturing technology. 

6 

Chang, 1974. 

7 

The main products were on first trans‐continental trading was precious stones, lapis lazuli in Middle‐East, and nephrite in 

Inner Asia. 

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Southern Siberia, Mongolia, Northern and Western China, etc.). We can find cultural connections between 

the western and eastern territories from the Early Bronze Age onwards and there are lots of similarities in 

material culture as far as the Ordos plateau to the Carpathian‐Basin. 

Routes had been operated in Inner Asia during the Neolithic culture, and the main export article was a 

precious stone called jade or nephrite from the Tarim‐Basin. It reached the Transbaikal region and became 

one of the most sought‐after commodities of the Longshan‐culture in Eastern‐China. 8 The trend was 

similar in the Caucasus region, where other kinds of precious stones (lapis lazuli, ruby) were the main 

export articles of that period. Besides that, some Azerbaijan archaeologists found that the Caucasus was 

also a mining centre of copper from the 4 th millenium B.C. The archaeological findings prove that trading 

activity functioned in the Bronze Age, too. 9 It is likely that the first steppe tribes, the Hurrians broke 

through the Caspian Gate and invaded Mesopotamia. Their aim was to gain control over the branches of 

the Silk Road in the Caucasus region in order to access the mining centres there. Written sources state that 

steppe tribes, such as the Scythians or related tribes, established a well‐organised “state” or tribe union 

and created an efficient logistics network all around the steppe belt for transporting goods from far away 

places. Concerning the Steppe logistical solutions, we have rather fragmentary information from the 

ancient period, based on Greek or Roman sources. We have detailed descriptions only from the late 

period, that means the Middle Ages, when external foreign sources reported how this logistic system 

operated. We have some archaeological evidence, and some rock painting, which preserved some special 

means of transport. Based on this we are more or less able to reconstruct their special communication and 

transport system. 10 They developed an efficient communication system, which was based on relay 

stations covering the whole steppe. The envoys received free services there, but travellers and merchants 

had to pay for the meals and accommodation and horses. 

In ancient times, and the Middle Ages the steppe tribes or as they called themselves “the bow 

stretching people” monopolized a great part of the known‐world trade in landlocked territories of 

Eurasia. They contributed to the dissemination of the above mentioned technologies, arts and religions. 

Moreover, they helped to popularize significant inventions, such as equestrian warfare, horse kits, and 

trappings. They collected huge amounts of taxes from commercial duties. The steppe tribes offered 

services to foreigners as armed guards along the trading routes, and protected men and goods from 

bandits. As the historical sources and archaeological findings show, they ruled the great raw material sites 

from the Altai Mountain to the Caucasus; they sold and processed the materials. The Caucasus was one of 

the most important raw material centres in the region. From time to time, the world market required 

different kinds of raw materials. The Greeks recorded precious stones, metals as copper, silver, gold as the 

8 

Settlement around Onon‐river, which is the border between Russia and Mongolia, Russian archaeologists excavated some 

settlements, where they discovered products from present‐day Northern‐ or Central‐China. Grishin, 1985. 85. As the Chinese 

excavation presented, ancient trade routed were operated between present‐day Xinjiang and Ordos. In: Cosmo, 1996. 96. 

9 

Maisa, 2009. 91. 

10 

In the past few years huge amounts of rock paintings were discovered from Inner Asia to Caucasus, where the ancient artists 

carved waggons with animals, boats, and horses. The main significant ones are at Yin‐shan in Northern‐China, carvings at 

Mongolian Altay, southern part of Hovd country. The most famous such a place in Caucasus is Gobustan, Azerbaijan. The 

Greek authors (Hesiodus, Herodotus, Hippocrates gave report on Scythian manners and their waggons. We have remains of 

wagons in various Scythian tombs. Besides those evidences, we find them on the coins of Scilurus struck in Olbia. (Minns, 1913. 

50) 

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most important raw materials. Next to these, salt and a special textile paint or minium were special export 

articles, too. During that period the above mentioned materials were as important as oil nowadays. 

The eastern part of the Black Sea was the main strategic point which belonged to Georgia, Turkey and 

Abhazia, which became independent with Russian help two years ago. This region was the meeting point 

of the Western or Greek and Eastern or Scythian world from the early period, where the Greeks got 

information about the vast Eurasian region and goods. The first expedition to this region was recorded in 

the Argonauts’ legend who reached the kingdom of Colchis searching for the Golden Fleece, i.e. they 

wanted to find gold there. 

Significant routes 

The development of the commercial routes was significantly determined by geographical conditions. 

The Caucasus region is a good example for that. There are restricted passes in high mountains, which are 

situated between two seas. It was rather difficult to travel along these routes due to lack of information. 

As Minns said, Greeks knew hardly anything of the inside of the Scythian country. 11 The mountainous 

places give some orientation points, but on plains, flat regions nothing helps to point out the directions. 

On the steppe, unregulated large rivers and marshy land caused problems for foreigners. Similar road 

conditions exist in some Central Asian countries, e.g. Mongolia, where it is very difficult to reach rural 

areas by car. Without road signs, the drivers must look at stars during night to determine their position. 

Daytime they always looked at the position of the Sun, at the branching paths, or rivers to identify any 

orientation points. This required a great routine from the drivers. Due to the difficult road conditions 

some peoples preferred to use only ships to reach new territories. That is why the easier transport method 

was shipping, and Greeks practiced that along the shores of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. We have 

written records and rock carvings which prove this. Some parts of the Silk Road were not only a single 

path, but had several small junctions. Many people were involved in this large commercial network. 

Some parts are already well known, while others still wait to be explored. Let us investigate the most 

significant ones. 

1. Eastern shore of the Black Sea – Steppe section and the Classical Silk Road 

Regarding the history of Caucasus, the western region is relatively well documented from ancient 

times, since the first cuneiform texts. The ancient Greek and Roman authors made lots of records. The 

eastern Black Sea region had developed before the Greeks. The biblical texts mentioned the Japhethid (or 

Gog and Magog) tribes referring to the steppe tribes. 12 

The Black Sea region is significant for the Western‐Eastern connections, because of its strategic 

position. Changes happened after the Trojan War, when the first non‐Eastern peoples, the Greek sailors 

appeared on the Black Sea coast, crossed the Bosporus, and for the first time settled down onn the 

11 Minns, 1913. 10. 

12 The early expression for Gog and Magog is for the northern people, as Gimmeroi, or Cimmerians, or Scythians, or Askuzai. 

(Ez. 38‐39) Boe, 2001. 

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Crimean‐Peninsula, Olbia, and then Chersones and gradually moved eastwards, and they established a 

central port at Panticapaeuum (Kerch) and beyond Cimmerian Bosporus on Taman‐Penisula built 

Phanagoria. They started to trade with the Royal Scythians, whose headquarters were located close to this 

region. The exploration and trade activities were spearheaded by Miletos, a big Greek city in Asia Minor. 

Merchants from Miletos discovered raw materials or mineral sources for Greek industries, as well as food 

commodities. The Greek mythology preserved these journeys and discoveries. 13 

The Black Sea offered a good chance for the Greeks, who were unable to access the markets along the 

Mediterranean Sea. This region was dominated by the Phoenicians, who monopolised the trading of the 

Eastern goods. The same situation emerged at the end of the 13 th century, when the crusader states of the 

Holy Land had been occupied by Muslims. Venice and Genoa built commercial bases on the remains of 

ancient Greek cities around the Black Sea. 

The Greeks settled in ports and developed good relationship with the Scythians. Historians stressed 

the role of Greeks as culture middlemen, who introduced their civilisation to the Scythians. The early 

Greek sources and some scholars do not share this view. Some of them pointed out that the Scythians had 

already a special, independent civilisation and both nations influenced each other. 14 The Steppe people 

transported goods from faraway territories, built logistics systems, which were based on horses and carts, 

and occasionally transmitted skin hoses to the mineral resources and luxury goods as well. Their main 

export products were slaves, grain, gold, fur, salt, etc. Many researchers believe that some technologies or 

luxury products came from the Altai Mountains, which was the former residence of the Scythians. 

As already mentioned, one main route passed through present‐day Kerch. They transferred Scythians 

goods from Eastern Europe. The other route was the classic Silk Road, which connected the Caspian Sea 

to Black Sea. It started from the eastern Black Sea coast, went on to ancient Colchis, crossed Iberia, todayʹs 

Georgia and the Kür‐river valley and reached Azerbaijan, where the Caucasian Albanian state existed for 

a long time. Its capital was Gabala, which was located along the Silk Road. In addition, other cities are 

built along the way, which prospered from trade. This route was integrated in the TRACECA program. 

The other important regional route is less known in the western literature because it developed 

connections with western countries only in the Middle Ages. 

13 The first legend regarding Mount Caucasus is Prometheus, who stole fire from heaven. As Apollodorus reported, Prometheus 

moulded men out of water and earth and gave them also fire, which, unknown to Zeus, he had hidden in a stalk of fennel. But 

when Zeus learned of it, he ordered Hephaestus to nail his body to Mount Caucasus, which is a Scythian mountain. In: 

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022:text=Library:book=1:chapter=7&highlight=scythian 

According to Zaur Hasanov, the story of Cyclops in Greek sources went back to Scythian origin. These kinds of peoples are well 

known along the Eurasian steppe regions, among present‐day Turkic and Mongolian folklore. 

Mythical griffins, which guarded gold, are found in Herodotus’ work. 

Iphigena’s story also regarded the Black Sea region, or Crimean‐Penisula, Tauris. Her. IV. 103. 

Regarding Odyssey’s journeys, Dubois de Montpéreux and K. E. Baer make the Black Sea coast the scene of the Odyssey. They 

identify it in a grove of poplars on the Sea of Azov. In Odyssey we find some references on Cimmerians, who lived only around 

the coast of the Black and Azovian Seas. In: Minns, 1913. 436‐437. 

14 

The ancient Greek sources reported their tight connections with Scythians. www.perseus.tufts.edu 

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2. Caspian Plain 

The west coast of the Caspian Sea also belonged to the major trade routes that joined the steppe tribes 

of the Eastern European Plain with Mesopotamia and beyond. It operated from the Early Bronze Age, as 

the archaeological findings and other direct sources (rock carvings) show. Sources often say that it was a 

military road because the northern or Pre‐Scythian peoples poured along this route into Asia. First the 

Hurrians arrived there, followed by northern or Scythian tribes breaking through the so‐called Iron Gate 

and reaching the Transcaucasus. They settled down on the northern part of Mesopotamia and established 

states there. 

Although the trading turnover was huge, there was no direct European connection, so the western 

literature scarcely recorded this aspect. The road was used by the Europeans since the Middle Ages 

during the Crusade. After this period merchants from Venice and Genoa appeared and began to trade 

with eastern goods from this region. 

The ancient Greek sources obtained mostly indirect information about territories beyond the Black Sea, 

such as the Caspian Plain. They acquired data probably from their commercial partners, who lived in that 

region. So, the Greek sources had already known the main important raw materials and other trading 

goods. 15 The best known legend of the Late Ancient Greeks was Iron Gate, which was built by Alexander 

the Great to protect the territory against the tribes of Gog and Magog. The legend refers one place along 

the Caspian Plain: Derbent, an ancient city located in present day Dagestan. If we check the meaning of 

the legend, the Iron Gate (or Turkic Temir kapi or Mongolian Temür qagalga) was a widespread 

expression used by the Eurasian steppe tribes, from Ordos to Carpathian‐Basin, and the meaning of it was 

narrow passage. 16 Indeed, near the city there is a 3,5 km wide gap between the Caspian Sea and the 

mountain. As I have already mentioned, the legendary Iron Gate was an existing geographic location in 

ancient times. It was not true that Alexander built it, because the first foundations of fortress system had 

been constructed since the 5 th century AD, on behalf of the Sassanids. 17 

The legend mentioned that the commercial route was used for military purposes, but the sources of 

that time provided evidence that it was a significant trading connection between regions, used by the 

road caravans travelling from Mesopotamia as far as the Middle East and Egypt. Western European 

literature dated from the Middle Ages mentions this legend several times and always refers to it as the 

Iron Gate. Some travellers call the road as “the route of the Muslims”. 

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BECKWITH, Christopher I. 1987. The Tibetian Empire in Central Asia. Princeton University Press. Neew Jersey. 

Boe, Sverre. 2001. Gog and Magog. Ezekiel 38‐39 as pre‐text for Revelation. Tübingen, Mohr Siebek. 

BURNHAM, Philip. 1979. Spatial Mobility and Political Centralization in Pastoral Societies. In: Pastoral Production 

and society. L’Equipe écologie et anthropologie des societies pastorals. Cambridge University Press, New York‐ 

Cambridge 

15 

I refer only some ancient authors, as Herodotus, Strabon, Ptolemy, etc. (www.perseus.tufts.edu) 

16 

Some examples: Demir‐kapi‐ in Turcic runic inscription (Kul Tegin), Temür qagalga‐ Mongolian sources 

17 See M. Gadjiyev’s investigation. 

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CHANG, Ch. 1974. Chinese civilization. Harvard University Press. London‐Massachusetts 

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LINGUISTICS 

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Greek Influence on Sanskrit Language 

Controversy surrounds the relationship between Greek and Sanskrit. Most researchers believe that 

Greek and Sanskrit are related because of their descent from a Proto‐Indo‐European language. Although 

this is traditional view explaining the relationship between Greek and Sanskrit, what if the affinities 

between Sanskrit and Greek/Latin resulted from: 1) the early contact between the Indic languages when 

the Greeks ruled India‐Pakistan; and 2) the Latin popularity and spread of Greek civilization and culture, 

when the Romans ruled the world? 

Dr. A. Marcantonio (2010) challenges the idea that Sanskrit is derived from Indo‐European (IE). She 

points out that there is an absence of archaeological and genetic evidence supporting an IE origin for 

Sanskrit or the former existence of an IE speech community. 

At the end of the 18 th century Sir William Jones suggested that Sanskrit was closely related to Western 

languages and that this could not be attributed purely to chance. Jones maintained that these Indic and 

European languages must be descended from a common ancestor. It was from this observation that Indo‐ 

European linguistics was born. In Sir Jones times we knew little about the history of the Greeks in India. 

Today we know much more about the historical evidence relating to Greek influence in India. The Greek 

textual material makes it clear that when Sanskrit was codified Greek was spoken by many Indians. This 

view is supported by the Greek inscriptions from Old Kandahar or Shahr‐i Khona that predate the 

bilingual Greek‐Aramaic edicts of King Asoka (Helms, 1982; GmbH, 1984 Sherwin‐White & Kuhrt, 1993; 

Singh, 2008). 

The presence of Greeks in Ghandahar > Kandahar during Achaemenid times and after the conquest of 

India by Alexander (Billions,1995; Mairs, 2008) suggest that, due to bilingualism, Greek elements probably 

used in the Pakrits and everyday speech became part of the link language: Sanskrit. 

The Dravidians formerly were the major linguistic group in Central Asia and India‐Pakistan. Many 

north Dravidian people are presently found in Central Asia. The cattle rearing Brahuis may represent 

descendants of the Dravidian pastoral element that roamed the steppes in ancient times. North Dravidian 

speaking Brahuis are found in Afghan Baluchistan, Persian Sistan and the Marwoasis in Soviet 

Turkmenistan (Elfenbein 1987: 229). 

There are islands of Dravidian speakers in Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan. There are over 300,000 

Brahui speakers in Qualat, Hairpur and Hyderabad districts of Pakistan. Other Dravidian speakers are 

found in Iran, Russia and Yugoslavia (ISDL 1983: 227). The distribution of Northern Dravidian speaking 

groups outlined above, corresponds to the former spread of Harappan cultures in the 3 rd millennium B.C., 

in Central Asia (Winters, 1990). 

Many researchers have suggested that the Harappans spoke a Dravidian language (Winters, 1990). 

This view is supported by: 1) the numerous Dravidian place names they left in Iran (Nayar, 1977) and 

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Central Asia (Winters, 1986); 2) the Dravidian substratum in Indo‐Aryan languages (Emeneau & Burrow, 

1962) and: 3) the evidence of Dravidian influence on trade and animal domestication in Central Asia 

(Winters, 1991) supports the former presence of Dravidian speakers in the Indus Valley and Central Asia. 

The Harappans expanded from the Indus Valley into Central Asia. The Harappans made seals, mined 

minerals and used black‐and‐red ware (BRW). The BRW pottery style was common to Dravidian 

speaking groups in South India. 

The Harappan tradition precedes the Bactrian tradition (Fracefort, 1987). Trade was the motivation 

behind the rise of Dravido‐Harappan colonies in Central Asia. The major Harappan sites in Bactria were 

located near the Oxus River at Shortughai, and Altyn‐Depe (Winters, 1990a; Francefort, 1987). 

In Turkmenia at Altyn‐Depe Harappan seals have been found. This view is also supported by the 

Indus culture colonies in the luzurite regions of Badakhshan (Winters, 1990a). Henri‐Paul Francefort 

(1987) has discussed the Harappan site of Shorgtughai on the Oxus River. 

The presence of Indus culture settlements within the lazurite region of Badakhshan has led many 

archaeologists to suggest Harappan control of the lazurite and the route to the tin and copper fields of 

Central Asia (Bremtjes, 1983). 

Due to the early Dravidian settlement of Central Asia the Dravidian speakers influenced many 

languages. There is a Dravidian substratum in Indo‐Aryan. There are Dravidian loans in Rg Veda, even 

though Aryan recorders of this work were situated in the Punjab, which was occupied around this time 

by Dravidians using BRW. Aryan speakers are believed to have made and used Grey ware. 

Emeneau and Burrow (1962) found 500 Dravidian loan words in Sanskrit. In addition, Indo‐Aryan 

illustrates widespread structural borrowing from Dravidian in addition to 700 lexical loans (Kuiper 1967; 

Southward 1977; Winters 1989). 

It is therefore not surprising that the Dravidian languages lie at the base of the Indo‐Aryan languages 

spoken in Pakistan and India. It is therefore not surprising that the Dravidian languages greatly 

influenced Sanskrit. 

Many researchers reject the idea that Sanskrit was influenced by the Dravidian languages. They 

dispute this theory because of the Greek relationship to Sanskrit. Although researchers have used the 

relationship between Greek and Sanskrit in support of an Indo‐European linguistic family, it is clear that 

the relationship between Sanskrit and Greek results from the long influence in India‐Pakistan of the 

Greeks. 

The first Greeks were deposited in Ghandahara (which was situated near the Indus River near 

Peshawar), Pakistan and Bactria in 494 BC (Mairs, 2008). These Greeks were descendants of the 

Branchidae guardians of the oracle of Apollo at Didyma near Miletos, situated on the coast of Asia Minor 

(Mairs, 2008). 

There was a massive emigration of Greeks and Macedonians following Alexander’s conquest of Asia 

between 335‐250 BC (Billons, 1995). These Greeks settled many areas already occupied by Greeks exiled to 

Afghanistan by the Persians like Shahr‐i Kohna (Old Kangahar) (Sherwin‐White & Kuhrt, 1993). Shahr‐i 

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Khona had been an Achaemenid fortified city before Alexander’s conquest (Sherwin‐White & Kuhrt, 

1993). 

The Greeks also built or successfully occupied many urban centres in India, especially Bactria 

including Ai Khanum, Begram and Arachosia (Kandahar) (Helms, 1982; Sagar, 1993; Singh, 2008). 

Consequently, there was a large Greek population in the area. Greek sources claim that Greek‐Bactrians 

ruled 1000 cities (Helms, 1982). 

Ancient Bactria was situated between the Middle Oxus (Amu Draya) River in the north, the Pamir 

mountains in the northeast, and the Hindu Kush in the south. After Alexander there was an increased 

number of Hellenistic sites between 3 rd ‐2 nd centuries especially Ai Khanoum maybe as a result of Greek 

immigration. Ai Khanoum had a Greek theatre that seated 6000 (Helms, 1993). 

The epigraphic evidence suggests a long tradition of Greeks in Afghanistan. This includes Akkadian 

and Aramaic texts recorded in Greek (Sherwin‐White & Kuhrt, 1993). The oldest monolingual Greek text 

found at Old Kandahar dates to the late 3 rd century BC (GmbH, 1984; Mairs, 2008). 

The best known Greek inscriptions were written by Asoka. There are two monolingual Asoka Edicts 

written in Greek, and one Greek‐Aramaic rock inscriptions (Mairs, 2008). One of the inscriptions, found in 

1964, was part of a public building where all of Asoka’s Edicts were probably located (Singh, 2008). 

The Asoka Edicts support the proposition that a large Greek population lived in Kandahar. Asoka 

noted the presence of Yonas (Greeks) and Kambojas (Iranians) in his Empire. It is clear from the Asokan 

Edicts that the Greeks were familiar with the words bramenai and scamenai – used to denote members of 

the Hindu priestly class (Mairs, 2008). This shows that the Greeks were fully integrated and acculturated 

to life in Kandahar. 

The epigraphic evidence from Kandahar indicates that the Greco‐Bactrians were probably mostly 

bilingual. Bilingualism can be induced through two methods: 1) state coercion or: 2) its ability to offer 

advantages to two or more populations in contact. The latter method of change usually accounts for 

bilingualism ‐ people use the new language to obtain better access to status, security, ritual or goods. The 

Greek emphasis on direct methods of political control in Bactria forced many non‐Greeks to become 

bilingual due to its advantage as a tool for greater upward mobility during Greek rule. 

Professor Marcantonio (2010) makes a solid case that the relationship between Greek and Sanskrit is 

probably the result of the use of Sanskrit and Greek in the Indo‐Greek states. After detailed discussion of 

the IE kinship terms and phonetic laws, Marcantonio (2010) demonstrates that Verner’s Law is invalid. 

This view is in line with the fact that a large number of Greek colonies formerly occupied the Indo‐ 

Pakistan region. 

The Greek colonization of Bactria made the Greek language a link language between the non‐IE 

languages spoken in Central Asia about three thousand years ago. Many generations of bilingualism led 

to an inter‐language phenomena that became a permanent feature of the literate speech community in this 

region. We can define the institutionalization of an inter‐language as language recombination, i.e., the 

mixing of the vocabulary and structures of the substratum language (Dravidian) and the super‐stratum 

language (Greek and later Slavic speaking Saka people) to form a new mixed language: Tocharian. 

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In 1908 Sieg and Siegling (1931) published their findings that Tocharian was an IE language. This 

discovery was accepted without any challenge. 

Although Tocharian is accepted as an IE language there is disturbing linguistic evidence that makes it 

difficult to properly place Tocharian in the IE family. Ringe (1995) noted that “the Tocharian languages do 

not closely resemble any other IE languages”. In other words Tocharian is a separate ‘branch’ of the IE 

family, on a par with Germanic, Greek, Indo‐Iranian, etc.” (p.439). 

There is considerable influence on Tocharian from other languages, including Sanskrit and Iranian, 

due to Buddhism, but it is not closely related to the Indo‐Iranian languages. Tocharian also shares many 

phonological, word‐formation and lexical correspondences with Balto‐Slavic languages. Most researchers 

maintain that Tocharian is closely related to the western IE languages, especially Greek (Adams, 1984, 

1995; Mallory, 1989; Van Windekens, 1976). 

In relation to Sanskrit and Greek, Tocharian has preserved medio‐passive voice and the presence of 

both subjunctive and optative mood. The most important evidence of Tocharian relationship with the IE 

family are the Greek and Tocharian cognates: Tocharian A natäk ‘lord’, nasi ‘lady’; Greek wanaki ‘King’, 

*wanakya ‘queen’. The Tochariaan lexicon has also been influenced by Tibetan, Chinese and Uighur 

(Blazek, 1988; Winters, 1991, 1998). 

The Greek culture was transplanted in Bactria by the army of Alexander the Great. It can be assumed 

that due to direct rule, the Greek language was well established in this region by the cultural matrix 

accompanying it. Possession of Greek culture and language played a major role in the upward mobility of 

ʺcolonial subjectsʺ in Bactria. 

Eteo‐Tocharian is a good example of the influence of Greeks in Central Asia. Eteo‐Tocharian was 

written in a modified Greek alphabet (Maricq 1958:398). This script is a manifestation of the Greek 

influence in Bactria, even after the Kushana subjugation of this area. 

This latter point is evident in the Grand Inscription of Kaniska (Maricq 1958). 

An intruding community like the Greeks in Central Asia did not have to outnumber the colonized 

people in Bactria to impact on the language of the original Bactrians. The mere fact that the new speech 

community, although ethnically different, was now recognized as socially superior to the subject peoples 

of Bactria, made it useful for the Bactrians to become bilingual so they would be able to function both 

within their own culture and the new culture introduced by the conquering Greeks. This hypothesis is 

congruent with Ehretʹs (1988, 569) view that people make cultural choices on the basis of what appears to 

be most advantageous to the lives they live. 

The Greeks made a conscious effort to affect the underpinnings of the native Bactrianʹs material world 

and their relations with their spirits or gods. For example, Greek influence is evident in the Gandharan 

Buddhist style sculptures. This art style illustrates Hellenistic influences in the modeling of the hair and 

facial features. 

The relationship between Greek and Indic languages results from the early contact of the speakers of 

these languages in Northwest India and beyond during a period in which the Greeks were a major power 

in Central Asia. 

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The Greeks also ruled Pakistan and India. The Greek rule of India is discussed in the following books: 

F.L. Holt, Thundering Zeus; W.W. Tarn, The Greeks of Bactria and India; A.K. Narain, The Indo‐Greeks; and 

H. Kulke & D. Rothermund, History of India. 

Many Pakistanis recognize Dravidian as the root language for many languages spoken in Pakistan 

(Rahman, 2004). They accept the fact that a Dravidian language was probably spoken by the people who 

formerly lived in the Indus Valley. 

The Greek language was probably incorporated into Sanskrit in Ghadahara (or Kandahar) which was a 

major settlement place for Greeks. Many of the rules for Sanskrit were codified by Panini, who was born 

in Salatura, in Ghandahara, which was located in Northwester Pakistan (Paniniʹs grammar contains 4000 

rules). This shows that when Panini wrote his grammar of Sanskrit, it was spoken by elites in the area. 

Greek was also popular when Panini wrote the Sanskrit grammar. The Greeks were called Yunani or 

Yavana. Thus we learn from Agrawala (1953) that the Yavanani lipi (edict) was well known in Gandahara, 

and even Panini mentions the Yavanāni in his grammar. The term Yauna meant Ionian (Woodcock, 1966). 

Panini mentions the word yavanāni (in 4.1.49). Yavanāni means ‘Greek script’. The presence of this 

term in Panini’s grammar indicates that Greeks were in Ghandahara when he wrote his grammar. When 

Alexander entered the HinduKush region in 327 B.C., Greek settlements were already in the area (Mairs, 

2008). By 180 BC, as the Mauryas fell into decline, the Greek Kings of Bactria took control of Western 

Punjab and Gandhara up to the Indus River. Under King Menander (d.130 B.C.) the Greeks had their 

capital at Taxila. The center of Greek culture in the area was Charsadda, near Peshawar (Woodcock, 1966). 

Many Greek terms were probably already incorporated in the Prakrits of Northern India‐Pakistan and 

Central Asia. Here the Greeks minted their coins with Kharoshthi, Brahmi and Greek inscriptions. 

Greek was used for commercial purposes and served as a patrician lingua franca of the Kabul valley 

and of Gandhara. During the rule of Pushyamitra many Greeks settled in India. Due to the long history of 

Greeks in India, Ashoka had some of his edicts written in Greek and Aramaic bilinguals (GmbH, 1984; 

Singh, 2008). In 44 A.D., Appolonius of Tyana, when he visited Taxila, found that merchants and kings 

learned Greek ʺas a matter of courseʺ (Rahman, 2004; Woodcock, 1966). Panini’s mention of yavanāni 

‘greek writing’ suggests that he may have had a knowledge of Greek when he composed his Sanskrit 

grammar. 

Given the popularity of Greek in the Ghandahara region it is not surprising that Sanskrit would show 

such a strong relationship to the Indic languages, since it had been spoken throughout the area as early as 

494 BC (Mairs, 2008). Moreover, Greek was spoken throughout many parts of Europe after the worldwide 

conquests of Alexander the Great and the popularity of Greek among the Romans. 

Commenting on the Greek rulers of India, Kulke and Rothermund (1998) said that ʺThey are referred 

to as Ìndo‐Greeksʹ, and there were about forty such kings and rulers who controlled large areas of 

northwestern India and Afghanistan […]. They appear as Yavanas in stray references in Indian literature, 

and there are few but important references in European sources. In these distant outposts, the 

representatives of the Hellenic policy survived the defeat of their Western compatriots at the hands of the 

Parthians for more than a centuryʺ (p.70). The greatest of the Indo‐Greek rulers was Menander, who is 

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mentioned in the famous Milindapanho text (Sherwin‐White & Kuhrt, 1993). The Shakas adopted many 

elements of Indo‐Greek culture which they perpetuated in India for over 100 years (Rahman, 2004). 

A major IE language of Central Asia was Tocharian. It would appear that Tocharian may be a trade 

language (Winters, 1998). The large corpus of non‐IE words in Tocharian discussed by Blazek (1988) and 

Winters (1991, 1998) is congruent with the hypothesis that IE elements in Tocharian, especially Greek (and 

Slavic) were loanwords into Tocharian after the Greek conquest of Bactria. This borrowing pattern is 

consistent with the spread of the Greek language into Bactria by a small politically dominant minority of 

Greek settlers into a far larger and previously long‐established non‐IE speaking majority population. 

The Greek‐Sanskrit relationship is probably due to the former presence of speakers of these languages 

in a Proto‐European homeland. It is impossible to argue for a genetic relationship between the Vedic and 

the Greek languages, given the fact that speakers of these languages formerly lived in intimate contact in 

Ghandahara. 

In conclusion, beginning with the Persians and especially after Alexander’s conquest of Asia due to the 

Greek influence in Bactria and India‐Pakistan, Indians and Bactrians had to acquire ʺGreek Cultureʺ to 

enhance their position and opportunity in North India and Bactria during Greek rule. 

In addition, we know that the Greek language was spoken by many Ghandarans and Bactrians. This is 

indicated by the Greek textual material from Ghanadara (Mairs, 2008). 

Greek rule placed prestige on status elements introduced into the region by the Greeks, especially the 

Greek language. Status acquired by Bactrians and Indian‐Pakistanis was thus centered around acquisition 

of Greek language and Greek culture. This is supported by the evidence that Indian elites used Greek in 

business and government (Rahman, 2004). This in turn added pressure onto the Bactrians to incorporate 

Greek terms into a lingua franca (i.e., Tocharian) (Winters, 1998). 

Given the fact that Greek administrators in Bactria and Northern India‐Pakistan refused to fully 

integrate Bactrians and Indians into the ruling elite, unless they were ʺwell versed” in Greek culture and 

language, led to subsequent generations of native Bactrians and Indian‐Pakistanis to progressively 

incorporate more Greek terms into their native language. This would explain why Tocharian has many 

features that relate to certain IE etymologies, and Paniniʹs Sanskrit grammar presents many terms that are 

associated with Greek, but illustrates little affinity to Indo‐Iranian languages which are geographically 

and temporally closer to Tocharian. Some researchers dispute the influence of the Greek language on 

Sanskrit because Paniniʹs grammar is supposed to have been written around 400 B.C. This date for the 

grammar might be too early, because Rahman (2004) and Agrawala (1953) maintains that Greek was 

spoken in Gandahara in Paniniʹs time — a fact supported by the mention of Greek writing (yavanāni ) in 

Panini’s grammar. 

The influence of colonial Greeks in Central Asia would explain why the most important evidence of an 

IE relationship with Sanskrit and Tocharian relations within the IE family are the Greek cognates (Mallory 

1989). The existence of a large Greek population in Ghandara leads to the conclusion that the IE theory 

can not be supported by the Sanskrit‐Greek relationship. 

The ʺelite dominance modelʺ hypothesis would have two basic consequences in relation to Tocharian 

linguistics. First, it would account for the correspondence in grammar (especially agglutination) and 

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vocabulary between Dravidian and Tocharian on the one hand, and Tocharian and Indo‐European on the 

other. Second, the settlement of the Sakas in Bactria after the Greeks would explain the great typological 

similarity between Tocharian and Balto‐Slavic. The evidence of Saka and Greek conquest of Bactria / 

Central Asia confirms Sherratt’s (1988) hypothesis that Tocharian may be a trade language, and offers a 

plausible solution to the ʺTocharian Problemʺ. 

References: 

Agrawala, V.S. (1953). India as known to Panini: A study of the cultural material in the 

Ashtadhyayi. Lucknow: University of Lucknow. 

Billions, R. 1995. Kings and Colonists: Aspects of Macedonian Imperialism. Leiden. 

Blazac, V. 1988. Tocharian linguistics during the last 25 years. Archiv Orientalni, 56:76‐81. 

Brenjes,B. 1983. On Proto‐Elamite Iran, Current Anthropology, 24(2):240‐243. 

Elfenbein, J. 1987. A periplus of the Brahui Problem. Studia Iranica 16: 215‐233. 

Emeneau, M. and T. Burrow. 1962. Dravidian Borrowing from Indo Aryan. Berkeley: 

University of California Press. 

Francefort, H‐P. 1987. La civilization de l’Indus, Indus Aux Rives de l’Qxus. Archaelogia, 

122:77‐79. 

GmbH, R.H. 1984. The Temenoε of Alexander the Great at Alexandra in Aracoia (Old 

Kandahar). Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik, p.145. 

Helms, S.W. 1982. “Excavations at the city and the famous fortress of Kandahar, the foremost 

place in all Asia”. Afghan Studies, 3/4: 1‐24. 

Holt, F.L. (1999). Thundering Zeus. Los Angeles: University of California Press. 

ISDL. 1983. Report on the Dravidian Languages. International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics 

12(1): 227. 

Kulke, H. & Rothermund, D. (1998). History of India. New York: Routledge. 

Mairs, R. 2008. The Settler community in Hellenistic Bactria and Arachoia. Migrations and 

Identities, 1(1):19‐43. 

Mallory, J.P. In Search of the Indo‐Europeans. London: Thames and Hudson. 

Marcantonio, A. 2010. Repudiating the linguistic evidence for the Aryan hypothesis. Retrieved 

8/28/2010 at: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/51826628/Marcantonio‐Salem‐Repudiating‐ 

linguistic‐evidence‐Aryan‐hypothesis‐_1_html 

Maricq, A. 1958. La Grande inscription de Kaniska et Lʹ eteo‐ Tokharien lʹancienne langue de la 

Bactriane. Journal Asiatique 246: 345‐439. 

Narain, A.K. (1957). The Indo‐Greeks. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 

Rahman, T. (2004). Peoples and Languages in Pre‐Islamic Indus Valley. Retrieved on: 4‐21‐04 

http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/subject/peoplesandlanguages.html 

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Ringe, D.A. 1995. Tocharian in Xinjiang: The Linguistic Evidence. The Journal of Indo‐ 

European Linguistics 23 (3/4):439‐444. 

Sagar, K.C. 1993. Foreign Influence on Ancient India. South Asia Books. 

Sherratt, Andrew and Susan. 1988. Archaeology of Indo‐European: An Alternative View. 

Antiquity 62: 584‐595. 

Sherwin‐White, S.M. and Kuht, A. 1993. From Samarkhand to Sardis: A new approach to 

Selucid Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press. 

Sieg, E., and W. Siegling. Tocharische Grammatik. Göttingen, 1931. 

Singh,U. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Longman. 

Tarn, W.W. (1984). The Greeks of Bastria and India . Chicago: Ares Press. 

Van Windekens, A.J. 1976. Le Tokharien confronté avec les Autres Langues Indo‐Européenes. 

Louvain. Vol. 1 

Winters, C. A. 1989. Review on Dr. Asko Parpolaʹs ʺThe Coming of the Aryansʺ. International 

Journal of Dravidian Linguistics 18 (2): 98‐127. 

Winters, C.A. 1990a. The Dravido‐Harappan colonization of Central Asia. Central Asiatic 

Journal, 34 (1‐2):120‐144. 

Winters, C.A. 1990b. The Dravidian language and the Harappan Script, Archiv Orientalni 

58:301‐309. 

Winters, C.A. 1991. Linguistic evidence for Dravidian influence on trade and animal 

domestication in Central and East Asia, International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics 20(2):91‐ 

101. 

Winters, C.A. 1998. Is Tocharian a Dravidian Trade Language? PILC Journal of Dravidic 

Studies 8(1):1‐12. 

Woodcock, G. (1966). The Greeks in India. London: Faber & Faber. 

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LANGUAGE TEACHING 

METHODOLOGIES 

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MOLNÁR, Zsolt & MOLNÁRNÉ CZEGLÉDI, Cecília 

The Creative Hungarian Language and Its Special Teaching Method 

Part 5. : Relators in the Structure of Sentences 1 

In the former parts of this series we generally reviewed the deeper parts of the Hungarian language; 

the features of phonemes, system of roots, creators, the word‐creation (derivation) process, word‐bushes, 

the main differentiating features of Hungarian language. Now we turn to a higher level and firmly 

describe how our language builds sentences; this is mainly the role of relators in this process. 

This part of Hungarian grammar is much more discovered and better known by the public than the 

earlier parts of this series. Therefore we do not want to present detailed analysis here – if you are 

interested please turn to the generally available Hungarian language/grammar books. Here we only 

would like to give an overview of the topic and highlight some new viewpoints, methods. These are: that 

the explanation of the origin of relators, emphasizing the main parts of sentence building and – maybe 

more closely to language teaching – the modeling of sentence structures, relation diagrams. This latter 

topic leads to the question of how the knowledge in sentences is structured and could be modeled in an 

efficient and effective way. 

Relators in the Hungarian language 

The Hungarian language, as an agglutinating language, puts relators at the end of the words: 

Root + Creator + Creator + Creator + Creator + ... + „Sign” + Relator 

Set of 

roots 

1 Authors´ homepage is: http://www.tisztamagyarnyelv.hu/ 

1. 

2. 3. 4. 


creators 

5. ... 


Signs” 


relators 

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Relators express the relations between words and connect them to each other. Their function is to 

express the relations of the words in the sentence. In general only one relator can be appended to the very 

end of the word. (Which was created by creators from the root.) The number of relators is about 24‐26. 

(Some researchers count more, especially those who consider personal suffixes as relators. This group is 

devided into two groups, the first take only the base personal suffixes as different, but the other group 

distinguishes the slightly different phonological forms of personal postfixes relators, too. With that the 

number could go up to 70‐80, but according to us this does not mean different personal suffixes; only the 

use of the same personal suffix in slightly different phonological form. The question of personal suffixes 

will be discussed later.) 

Basic relators generally express the following relation types: 

subject, 

place, 

time, 

ownership, 

part, 

way, 

result, 

instrument, 

purpose, 

etc. 

These relations are not expressed only by relators (small particals postfixed to the words) but with 

postpositives, too. These postpositives carry the same meaning in expressing the relations, but are put 

after the word. Some examples: 

Relation type Expressed 

by relators 

English Expressed 

by 

postpositives 

English 

Place házban in the house ház mellett beside the house 

házon on the house ház alatt below the house 

házhoz to the house ház köré around the house 

háznál at the house ház előtt in front of the house 

Time ebédkor during lunch ebéd óta since lunch 

futáskor during running futás előtt before running 

Purpose/Reason házért for the house ház végett for the house 

házért because of the house ház miatt because of the house 

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According to CzF – as we could see illustrated above – most of relators originate from words used very 

frequently to express relations but they are now suffixed to the word. Example: ‐ben (in something) 

originated from bel, bél (inner of something); ‐kor (during something) from kor (time period); ‐képp 

(according to) from kép (form, shape, figure of something); ‐ért (for something) from ér (reach 

something); ‐hoz (to something) from hoz (carry something), etc. This is the biggest part of relators. 

Some relators are correlated with features of the phoneme, e.g. –t (as expressing the subject of one 

activity) from feature of T as expressing activity creation. This is smallest part of relators. 

Personal suffixes could be regarded as other group of relators. In this consideration their task is to 

express the personal connection to the words. 

In other consideration personal suffixes could be taken as substitutes of persons (e.g. subject of the 

sentence), in this sense they are not real relators but personal pronouns (or originate from them). This 

latter statement is closer to our viewpoint. 

Relation diagrams 

The task of relators in a sentence could be expressed very plastically in relation diagrams. 

Word 1 

Relation 12 

Relation 21 

Word 3 

Relation 

32 

Relation 

23 

Word 2 

Relation 

24 

Relation 

42 

Word 4 

Relation25 

Relation 52 

Word 5 

Relation 56 

Relation 65 

Word 6 

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A real example: 

Botond 

nak 

a 

közeli 

üzlet 

lány megy 

tej 

Note: In the above example you could see the word ‘lánya’ where the suffix ‘a’ expresses the relation of 

property. This is considered as sign in the traditional grammatical categorization, but according to the 

new researches 2 it should be categorized into the group of relators. 

The relation diagrams show the structure of relations between words in the sentence; they express the 

relations between conceptions which build up the situation. 

Relation diagrams are very useful tools in language analysis and teaching. 

2 Mártonfi Attila: A magyar toldalékmorfémák rendszere. Doktori disszertáció, Eötvös Lóránd Tudományegyetem 2006. 

T. Somogyi Magda: Toldalékrendszerezésünk vitás kérdései. Tinta Könyvkiadó, 2000. Budapest 

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© Copyright Mikes International 2001‐2010 82 

be 

val 

kocsi 

ért


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Summary 

In this brief essay we discussed the relators especially focusing on their function in the Hungarian 

language. 

We have seen that there are the basic relators, which express basic relations and (according to some 

researchers) personal relators, which express relations to persons or this latter group could be considered 

as grammatical entities originated from personal pronouns. Basic relations could be expressed not only by 

suffixed basic relators, but with postpositives too. The function in both cases is the same. 

Relation diagrams are very useful tools in teaching; they show very plastically the relation structure of 

concepts / words 

References: 

Czuczor Gergely – Fogarasi János: A magyar nyelv szótára, (The Dictionary of the Hungarian 

Language), 1862. 

Mártonfi Attila: A magyar toldalékmorfémák rendszere. (The system of Hungarian postfix 

morphemes). Doktori disszertáció, Eötvös Lóránd Tudományegyetem 2006. 

Molnár Zsolt – Molnárné Czeglédi Cecília: A tiszta magyar nyelv kincseinek megőrzése és 

tanítása (Preserving and Teaching the Treasures of the Pure Hungarian Language), Püski 

Kiadó, 2009. 

T. Somogyi Magda: Toldalékrendszerezésünk vitás kérdései. (Debated questions of 

systematization of our postfixes), Tinta Könyvkiadó, 2000. Budapest. 

(To be continued) 

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ANCIENT WRITING SYSTEM 

RESEARCH 

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From a Kafkania Pebble to the Staff of Asclepios 

The small pebble, excavated near Kafkania/Kavkonia, only 5 Km‐s away from the ancient Olympia, 

enjoys enormous popularity. As it is usual with celebrities, this small pebble is surrounded with 

immense attention and many contradictory opinions and statements (gossips). Some people even doubt 

its authenticity, while others read miracle into it. Let us look into its secrets more closely. 

Both faces of the only 4cm‐s x 5cm‐s big, 1.5cm thick flat pebble are chiseled with inscriptions. One of the 

paradoxes, surrounding the pebble, is its Linear B inscription which predates the oldest such known 

inscription with two centuries, as its origin is put to the 17 th century B.C. 

The b. side of pebble is filled with a Minoan double axe, surrounded 

with “unusual” rays, three on both sides, six in all. The details stressed 

one by one may seem really strange, better to proceed sequentially and 

make everything fall in line. 

Until now, all descriptions of side a. are telling that the six signs are 

nestled in two rows, three signs in each of the rows: 

1. a‐so‐na 08‐12‐06 

2. qo‐ro‐ka 37‐02‐77 or ka‐ro‐qo 77‐02‐37 

Since the sign on the left edge, the seventh sign is not fit any of the lines, most researchers – elegantly! – 

brush away this sign. This regard I keep the argumentation of professor Thomas G. Palaima 1 

(QVOVSQVE TANDEM?) the most definitive: it is as meaningless to hold this sign a later inscription as 

is assuming that it was marred with a graffito before the inscription took place. Therefore this ra (*60) 

sign is part of the inscription. 

The solution to the paradox is simple, as always: there are not two but three rows of text. The scribe put 

the repeating signs in such a way that they can be included in two rows 

at the same time. Consequently the text has these three rows: 

1. a‐so‐na 

2. ka‐na ra 

3. ka‐ro‐qa 

The na *06 sign thou doesn’t reach the middle line but it definitely 

reaches further down than the other two. 

Based on the evidence of the Cretan Hieroglyphic and the Linear A 

writing systems, these signs are not syllables, they merely denote 

consonants. The first sign being an exception: a denotes the generic vowel, any vowel. Transcribing the 

text with the corresponding letters, we get the following consonantal frame: 

A/E/O/U‐S/Z‐N K‐N R K‐R‐K 

We can refill this frame with vowels to the following legitimate wording: 

1 http://www.utexas.edu/research/pasp/publications/pdf/kafkania.pdf 

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ASSZoNy KéNe aRa KéRöK 

Woman (I) should (have) fiancée (I) ask (for) 

“Asszony kéne, ara, kérek!” (Woman I should have, fiancée, I ask for one) a legitimate proposition … today. 

However this pebble is 3700 years old and was found in a hilltop sanctuary, amongst other pebbles 

devoid of inscriptions. Not just here, in other locations as well, the archeologists has found and 

discarded an uncounted number of similar pebbles, coming from far away lands, most of the times 

without checking. 

We have a little collection of painted goodluck pebbles of the Australian Aborigines, which were given to 

their fellow before an impending long journey, to bring good luck (to the stay in people!). It is worth 

mentioning that on these painted pebbles the point is not on the painted picture, but on the act of 

painting, which takes place in a fest (corrobory) as a community action. The painting/writing has 

meaning only in conjunction with the danced, played and told about things during the corrobory. The 

earth‐paint disappears quickly, but the experiences of the corrobory will stay engraved in the memory. 

This could be the case with the pebbles of Kafkania as well, the painted on writings disappeared from 

the rest of the pebbles, this one exceptionally was carved, yet even on this, the signs are rather damaged. 

All these pebbles did formulate whishes, expectations, therefore they were addressed to the person the 

fulfillment of the whishes were expected. We’ll find the addressee by putting the comma in the sentence 

to another place: 

Asszony, kéne ara, kérek! (Woman, I should have a fiancée, I ask for one!) 

Straight wording, without any evasion, feigned politesse; loutish or goopy would be its attribute today. 

On a small pebble there is no place or ground for unnecessary frills. If someone would find that na (*60) 

is not stretching sufficiently enough into the second row, than there is an even goopier version of the 

text: 

Asszony, kő’ ara, kérök! (Woman, I need a fiancée, I ask for one!) 

But who is the woman the text is addressed to? She is the ŐSaNYa (God‐mother, ancestress), the mother 

of the whole people, ÖSSZ‐aNYa (everybody’s mother), the Queen Mother (Nagy‐ASSZoNY) of 

Kafkania, of Olympia. 

On the b. side, the six lines, arranged like rays around the axe, the hieroglyph equivalent to the a (*08), 

simply means: 

a ‘hat’‐ban (a in‐between six [lines]) 

The experts are saying that, under the blades of the axe, there are two 

signs: qa and jo, not noticing that the handle of the axe reaches down 

between the two signs. The usually very short, next to no handle at all; 

here it is wedged for some length between the two signs. This way, the 

axe with the phonetic value of a is in (‐ban) six, in‐between (közé‐ben) 

the qa and jo signs, thus the brief description of the whole side is: 

a ‘hat’‐ban qa‐jo ‘közé’‐ben 

This, in the transcription used for the Hieroglyphics, looks as follows: 

AH_T‐B_N K_J K_Z_‐B_N 

This consonantal writing can be refilled with vowels to the following meaningful reading of the text: 

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ÁHíTó BűNe KéJ KöZBeN 

Áhító bűne: kéj közben. (The sin of the yearning: lust in the meantime.) 

Well yes, if a man badly desires a fiancée, he can fall into the sin of sexual pleasure. An explicit and 

sincere speech. The Queen Mother will forgive this sin for sure. 

The texts perfectly fit the carrier of the writing: wishing pebble (KíVánó KaVics), and the place: kite nest on 

stone (KöVi‐KáNYa fészek), a mountain‐top crest sanctuary, and from the goopy drafted request we did 

find out that the sanctuary belongs to the Queen Mather of Kafkania. Only 5 Km‐s from this sanctuary of 

the God‐mather is the sanctuary of Zeus, the supreme (male) deity of the Greeks. 

Talking about gods and religion, let us deal in greater detail with the ka sign, starting with its 

circumscription: a circle (kör) divided (osztva) into four sections. Let us now lift out the part which 

divides the circle: +. Yes, this is the circle divider: KöR‐oSZTó, which becomes KöRöSZT (CRoSS, CRiST) 

due to the typical Hungarian vowel harmony or KeReSZT in Germanized form. 

There are a lot of words derived this way: rekesztő, malaszt, haraszt, választó, etc. The Hungarian 

intelligentsia is a strange animal; it can nose about for similar words in all the languages of the known 

and unknown worlds but its own. Comparative linguistics is their Bible, sine qua non. 

I’m reading with amusement the blog of Zeke András 2 about the Kafkania 

Pebble. While writing his blog, Zeke must have pronounced several times the 

word A‐SO‐NA, but he did not hear the word ASSZoNYa, pronounced ‘assona 

(the n as in New York). He goes even further; he finds the word on two 

epitaphs in the cemetery of Amathus on Cyprus. He almost solves its meaning 

by comparing it with Etruscan word aisuna (divine). (Note that aisuna is 

phonetically more remote from A‐SO‐NA than ASSZoNYa.) As we could see 

earlier aisuna‐asona is more than divine, she is the God‐Mother herself. The 

epitaph from Amathus is not about the divine Fortuna, but about someone’s 

Woman. I can say this extempore, that the two tombs hide the great women, the 

princesses of Amathus. As a matter of fact, in 311 B. C. a graffiti 3 was scratched 

over the glorifying marble tablet commemorating the conquering of Amathus by the Greek Aristonos: 

Annyi métely eméssze imígyül illősen, Arisztonosz arató/ártó főnök/fenék, szűkös karikára tétessék, töke nyárs‐sütő 

alá kitépető.( Let you be digested by a lot of rot as it fits rightly, head/arse exploiter/malefic Aristanos, be put on a 

tight‐fitting ring, your balls to be torn out under a spit‐roaster.) 

These are only accidental similarities; the Finn‐Ugrian intelligentsia will belittle any such supposition. 

Nevertheless, let us look into another of Zeke’s blogs: Goddess Eileithyia and her snakes. Here is a word for 

word quote from the blog: “Eileithyia ‐ the goddess of childbirth and labour ‐ is perhaps the best known 

Greek goddess of certainly Minoan origin.” In the linguistic twisting and turning Eileithyia is connected 

with freedom instead of the childbirth and labour: “PIE stem *h1leudh‐ = ʹfreeʹ: the same stem that 

underlies Greek eleutheros = ʹfreeʹ, Latin liber = ʹfreeʹ, … ”, although LiBeR has the same word‐frame as 

LaBouR. The English LiTTeR has the same word‐frame as the Hungarian LéTRe/éLeTRe hoz = bringing to 

life and in both languages the root‐frame of the word is that of goddess Eileithyia. What a coincidence! 

EiLeiThyia is ELLeTő (obstetrician), the goddess helping at birth. (ÉLeT = life!) 

2 http://minoablog.blogspot.com/2010_06_01_archive.html 

3 http://osmagyar.kisbiro.hu/modules.php?name=topics&file=olvas&cikk=linearis‐4a3ea00acf85d&elozo=linearis‐ 

4a9bd40ac8e7f&koveto=edeserdely‐4a8e3f345d7d5 

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The ei > e is not a problem, Zeke himself comforts the doubters: “the lengthening of ‐e‐ poses no problem 

(remember: ‐ει‐ is not necessarily diphthongal!)”, the –ia ending is a Greek addenda. Curiously enough, 

both in English and in Hungarian the litter and ellik are not applied to women anymore. 

Here and now my intention wasn’t the pillorization of András Zeke, merely I would like to show that 

with some kind of a dreadfully effective training the Hungarian school‐leavers are capable of deriving 

the word hattyú (swan) from kotang, but cannot perceive the asszony in A‐SO‐NA, the ellető in eileithy 

[eletü], etc. It’s a real pity that this effective training is not used by our teachers for the elimination of the 

25% factual illiteracy instead of this useless, truthless, detrimental and anti‐national ethymologization. 

The Minoan literary corpus clearly demonstrates that there is not one Hungarian word of Finno‐Ugrian origin, on 

the contrary: there are a lot of Magyar words in the Finno‐Ugrian languages. 

Let us have a closer look at the statue of goddess Eileithyia for the sake of those who assume the before 

said as empty instigation. The goddess in both her hands holds out a snake. About 

the symbolic role of snakes in the different cultures one could stockpile enough 

material to fill a library. The keen reader could read about it in the mentioned 

Zeke’s blog as well, we shouldn’t avoid the subject either, so let us examine the 

statue more intimately: 

EiLeiThyia eLőTT KíGYó GYüN eLőReNYúʹToTT KaRoKBóL 

Before Eileithyia snake is coming from forward stretching arms 

It would be hard to dispute that the text in italics describes the exceptional and 

extraordinary on the statue by pursuing the essence very concisely. We would find 

probably similar – let us confess, inexpressive ‐ descriptions in many languages 

and places, and with such a sketch the topic is closed, but not for us. Since we 

apply to the above description the ancient Magyar vowel‐shifting, which alone can 

make the statue speak: 

ELLeTő eLLáT KiGYóGYú’Ni öLRe oNToTT KóRoKBóL 

Ellető ellát kigyógyulni ölre ontott kórokból. 

Ellető (obstetrician) provide cure on lap poured illnesses. 

Therefore Ellető provides for her patient, helps her recover from illnesses affecting the laps of women, 

namely from the illnesses of the lower part of the abdomen, coming with childbirth and labour. No one 

can expect a more explicit speech than this from a statue. Were the statue being only 

symbolics, than one would be able to read out of it a similarly figurative and all‐ 

important message, without knowing the language, isn’t it? 

So far nobody was able to do so. Consequently, the statue speaks in picture‐signs 

(képjel) not in symbols (jelkép) … and in Hungarian. 

And what the snake is looking for on the staff of Asclepios? As we can see Asclepios 

leans on this, always typically gnarly staff, this is done purposely, to name the staff a 

stick for aid (bot‐gyám). The snake (kígyó) joins (egyít) the stick, in a brief: 

KíGYó eGYíT BoT‐GYáMMaʹ 

(the) snake joins (the) stick for aid 

By changing the vowels, using the ancient Magyar vowel‐shifting we will get the 

following unmistakable portrayal of the staff’s holder: 

Ki GYóGYíTi BeTeGeM’ 

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Ki gyógyítja/kigyógyítja betegem’/betegségemet 

Who cures/reclaims from my illness 

Here the stick for aide could be even symbolic: the aide of the sick, but its essence is the talking picture‐ 

sign. The picture conveyed a worded message to those who had spoken the language of Asclepios, to be 

more precise: the language of his sculptor. The Greek didn’t understand the message of the talking 

picture‐sign, for them this statue is only meaningless symbol. Unfortunately, even his followers who still 

speak his language cannot read their masters message, and to whom he clearly speaks about his mother‐ 

tongue won’t even listen. 

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ETHNOGRAPHY 

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Tuwa‐Ren: 

The Emerging Ethnic Identity of the Altai‐Tuvans in Xinjiang 

ABSTRACT 

Tuvan settlements of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUA) are located in the northern part 

of the Altai Prefecture, Ili Kazakh Autonomous District. In this area, the Chinese government plans to 

create the world’s largest national park, with an investment of RNB 3 billion. This park is the expanded 

version of the present‐day Xinjiang Khanas Travel Spot, and with a rating of 5A, it is one of the finest 

national tourist attractions in China (PRC). In a recent tourism development in this region, the local 

Tuvans have begun to redefine their ethnic identity as “Tuvan” rather than as “Mongolian.” 

Introduction 

SPEAKERS of the Tuvan (or Tyvan) language (note 1) and the cognate Taiga‐group dialects/languages 

(note 2), both of which belong to the South Siberian Turkic languages, are distributed in the Russian 

Federation (RF) (comprising Republic of Tuva, Republic of Buryat, Irkutsk Oblast, and Krasnoyarsk Krai), 

the western and northern parts of Mongolia, the eastern region of Kazakhstan, and XUA. The total 

population of native Tuvan (and sister language(s)) speakers is more than 250,000 (note 3). This report 

focuses on the inhabitants of XUA and is based on the findings of my field trip to the region in August 

2007. 

Figure 1. Tuvan population around XUA and Kazakhstan (note 4) 

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Tuvans have attained worldwide fame for their rich musical heritage, including their famous vocalism 

called xöömey or throat‐singing (e.g., Aksyonov 1964:54–62; 171–187). However, only the forms of this 

music found in the Republic of Tuva has achieved renown, while foreign enthusiasm for it emerged 

mainly after Perestroika. The literature on and the recordings of the Tuvan music of XUA are still limited 

(note 5). 

Tuvan or Mongolian? 

TUVANS on both sides of the Altai Mountains (“Altai‐Tuvans” hereafter (note 6)) were once members 

of the Altai‐Uriankhai, a heterolinguistic people comprised mainly of Altai‐Uriankhai Mongolians and 

Altai‐Tuvans during the latter half of the Qing dynasty (the mid‐18th century to 1911) (note 7). During 

this period, the Altai‐Uriankhai aymak or province was subdivided into seven gožuuns or banners. The 

Altai‐Tuvans were in the majority in three of the seven banners (Fig. 1 and note 4). The Altai‐Uriankhai 

aymak was situated in present‐day western Mongolia, northern XUA, and eastern Kazakhstan. 

Linguistically, the dialect of the Tuvans of Altai‐Uriankhai is identical throughout the area and can be 

freely used to communicate with the Tuvans of the Republic of Tuva (note 2). 

According to the official Chinese definition, the Tuvans (Tuwa‐Ren图瓦人 in Chinese) are classified as 

being Mongolians (Menggu‐Zu 蒙古族), despite the linguistic differences between the two (note 8). 

Interestingly, this statement is basically accepted by the local Tuvans, at least ostensibly. Their accord may 

be explained by the historical facts stated above. Moreover, it seems quite natural that Tuvans sympathize 

with the Mongolians, as both are Tibetan Buddhists, whereas the Kazakhs are Muslims. Moreover, the 

Tuvans resemble the Mongolians with regard to habits, customs, and clothing. The local Tuvans identify 

themselves ethnically Dïba, Dïwa, Tïba, Dïba Uraanxay, and so on. Terms such as Kök Mončak, Mončak and 

Mončog, which the local Kazakhs and Mongolians use to address them, are also accepted (note 9). 

Language and social status of the Altai‐Tuvans 

THE first field study of the Tuvan language in XUA was carried out in the 1950s as a collaborative 

research conducted by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Central Institute for Nationalities (now the 

Minzu University of China), and other researchers (Wu 1999:5; Geng 2000:47). More concrete inquiries 

were undertaken and published by Song in 1982 and 1985. 

There are reports that the Kazakhs have gained predominance over the Altai‐Uriankhais, including the 

Altai‐Tuvans, both in western Mongolia (Kamimura 1996:12; Tschinag 1993; Enwall 2005:106–109) and 

XUA (Matsubara 1993a:8). The Kazakhs’ negative views of the Tuvans have been reported since the early 

20th century at least (Kamimura 1996:12; Kamimura 1997:84–85). These Kazakhs have been accorded 

precedence over the local Altai‐Uriankhais, and the latter have had to yield property to the former. It is 

conceivable that the Altai‐Tuvans faced the same situation. According to the local people, Kazakhs are 

newcomers to the Altai Prefecture. Matsubara believes that the rise in the numbers of Kazakhs in this 

region led to the annexation of the Altai Prefecture by the Ili Kazakh Autonomous District in 1954 

(Matsubara 1993a:9). 

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The ethnic subordination of the Altai‐Tuvans is also apparent in their linguistic situation. Most Altai‐ 

Tuvans are trilingual, speaking Mongolian and Kazakh along with their mother tongue, Tuvan (note 10). 

Thus far, no language school for Altai‐Tuvans has been established. Therefore, Tuvan is spoken only at 

home (Mongush 2002:40–41). Nevertheless, the language has been fairly well‐preserved, although it has 

undergone several changes in a multilingual context (Mawkanuli 2005:33–48). In contrast, local Kazakhs 

speak only the Kazakh language or are bilingual, speaking the Mongolian language as well—something 

akin to the Altai‐Uriankhai Mongolian’s monolingualism or the Mongolian‐Kazakh’s bilingualism. The 

Kazakhs and Mongolians seldom speak Tuvan. It appears common that a “minor” ethnicity has to speak 

a greater number of languages in order to survive, at least in this region (Matsubara 1993a:9). 

The Altai‐Tuvans are aware of the existence of the Republic of Tuva, where their mother tongue is 

used as the first language. They learn about it from various sources, such as the radio programs and the 

visitors who arrive from there (Mongush 2002:41), as well as from the Internet. I even met a young man 

who actually visited the Republic of Tuva. 

Tourism development and the ethnicity of local Tuvans 

THE northern part of XUA, which has Tuvan settlements, is situated around Lake Khanas (or Kanas, 

Ka‐na‐si喀纳斯, and so on) (Fig. 1 and note 4: toponym 7). This area is referred to as the Xinjiang Khanas 

Travel Spot or Khanas Nature Reserve (Wang et al. 2010), which is among the top 66 scenic places (a 

ranking of 5A) in the PRC, according to a China National Tourism Administration report of June 2007 

(China Hospitality News 2007a). Further, the Asia‐Pacific Tourism Organization designated this area as 

“China’s Top Scenic Spot” on July 31, 2006 (china.org.cn 2006). 

Between 2007 and 2010, the Chinese government plans to invest RNB 3 billion (ca. USD 430 million) on 

the infrastructure of the area (China Hospitality News 2007b). When the development activities are 

completed, this park will be about ten times as large it is at present, making it the world’s largest national 

park (Xinhua News Agency 2007). A new airport (Fig. 2) has been in service since August 2007, which 

provides considerably improved access to this remote area. 

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© Masahiko Todoriki


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Figure 2. Khanas Airport, which is yet to open (August 2007) 

In line with this development, local Tuvans rely on their music, which is believed to be as rich as the 

music of the Republic of Tuva, to promote tourism. Further, the “historical authenticity” of the ethnicity 

of Altai‐Tuvans has been repeatedly stressed in recent Chinese media reports (e.g., Zhong‐hua jin‐li wang‐ 

luo she‐qu). 

Figure 3. The advertisement in Khanas village 

says, “A living fossil of the history of Tuvan music. 

This is the authentic Tuvan culture.” (August 2007). 

As shown in this picture, šoor is one of the main 

instruments used in music performances by the 

Altai‐Tuvans. 

Figure 4. Solongo (born in 1952) plays šoor. 

Under such circumstances, the Altai‐Tuvans seek to foster their identity as Tuvans rather than as 

Mongolians. As matter of fact, the Altai‐Tuvans in Khanas, the center of tourism, strongly distinguish 

themselves as Tuvans, unlike their peers in the early 1990s (Matsubara 1993b:12) and those in the present 

Khom village (Fig. 1 and note 4: toponym 13), who regard themselves as Mongolians. This attitude is also 

obvious among the dense Tuvan population of Ak‐Khaba village (Fig. 1; note 4: toponym 5). 

Despite the strong ethnic identity of the Altai‐Tuvans, the music heard at Khanas was performed by 

young Tuvans on an end‐blown flute šoor (Fig. 4)—an instrument that disappeared from the Republic of 

Tuva almost half a century ago—played in the Altai‐Tuvan style in combination with the famous Altai‐ 

Uriankhai Mongolian song “Altain Magtaal” (a song praising the Altai mountains) (Kamimura 2000; 

Schubert 2007). No authentic Altai‐Tuvan songs were performed. According to the Tuvans, these local 

songs are not suitable for stage performances. Instead, they used karaoke, microphones, and loud speakers 

to entertain Chinese tourists. 

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Conclusion 

ALTAI‐TUVANS, who once belonged to Altai‐Uriankhai aymak, have reasons to regard themselves as 

both Tuvans and Mongolians. Since the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, their ethnic identification has been 

ambiguous; this ambiguity has been further aggravated by their social weakness vis‐à‐vis the local 

Kazakhs. However, the recent development of tourism has led the Altai‐Tuvans to appreciate their 

culture, especially their music. This appreciation is partly an indirect effect of the worldwide fame 

enjoyed by the folk music of the Republic of Tuva. Therefore, Altai‐Tuvans regard their ethnicity to be 

Tuvan and not Mongolian. 

Acknowledgements 

THIS study was partially supported by KAKEN (B) 19320094, and KAKEN (A) 18201051. 

NOTES 

1. This language is designated as Tïva dïl in the Republic of Tuva. For more details about the language 

of the Altai‐Tuvans, see Song (1982, 1985), Wu (1999), Sugahara (1999), Geng (2000) and Mawkanuli 

(2005). Also, for standard Tuvan in the Republic of Tuva, see Iskhakov & Pal’mbakh 1961 and Anderson 

& Harrison 2002. See also notes 2, 3, and 6. 

2. As part of his reexamination of Turkic languages, Schönig (1997) classified the Tuvan language as 

one of the Sayan Turkic languages, which are an offshoot of the South Siberian Turkic languages (Schönig 

1997:125). He divided the Sayan Turkic into the Tofa (Karagas) and the Tuvan languages. Zhukovskaya et 

al. (2002) provide greater detail and split the “Sayan sub‐group” (“Sayan Turkic” for Schönig) into two 

parts: (1) the Taiga‐group (Tofa, Soyot, Dukha/Tsaatan, Tozhu dialect) and (2) Steppe‐group (Republic 

Tuvan dialects, Altai‐Tuvan dialects, Tuha/Uigur‐Uriankhai) [Zhukovskaya et al. 2002:165–166; Ragagnin 

2009]. It can be assumed that the Soyot dialect/language is possibly a Tuvan language creolized by the 

speakers of an extinct Southern Samoyedic language, called Mator (Helimski 1997:65–67; Shoji 1988–2001); 

the former has also now completely died out, a fact confirmed by my findings during the field trip to 

Okinskii District of Buryat Republic in 2007. The local Soyot people now speak a dialect of Buryat 

Mongolian, the Soyot dialect (Rassadin 1996:45), which is conceivably a re‐creolized Soyot 

dialect/language of Sayan Turkic. The Soyots have been shifting their language to those of their neighbors 

under the influence of commercial trade; however, they have retained their ethnic identity. The veracity of 

this view is attested to by the Russian designation since 18th century of Tuvan as Soyon, Soyot, and so on, 

and as another ethnonym for Mator (Helimski 1997:66–67). The language environment of this kind of 

Soyot may identical to that of other Taiga‐group dialects/languages, such as Tofas and Duhas. See also 

notes 1, 3, and 6. 

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Figure 5. Distribution of the Sayan Turkic languages and dialects: the Taiga group of 

languages/dialects (presented in clear boxes) and Steppe group (presented in black boxes), and the 

Republic of Tuva (shown in gray). 

3. According the Russian census conducted in 2002, the population of Tuvan speakers is about 250,000 (Tuvan 

and Tozhu Tuvan) in the Republic of Tuva and about 400 (mainly speakers of the Tofa language) in the surrounding 

area of the republic (Peoples and Languages of Russian Federation Statistics). According to several recent 

reports, the Non-RF Tuvan population is anything from several thousand (Mongush 2002:17; Anderson & 

Harrison 2002:2; Enwall 2005:100) to 50,000 (Kamimura 1997:85) in Mongolia and several thousand in XUA 

(Wu 1999:1; Mongush 2002:22; Maukanuli 2005:1). The total Tuvan population is thus between 260 and 300 

thousand. See also notes 1, 2, and 6. 

4. Legends 

: International boundary (present‐day). 

: Boundary of the Altai Prefecture, XUA (present‐day). 

: Boundary of counties (present‐day) 

: The seven banners of Altai‐Uriankhai before 1907 (Hu & Yan 1863, North 3–6: West 6–7). 

: Tuvan population in XUA and Kazakhstan (present‐day). 

: The seven banners of Altai‐Uriankhai in 1907 (Zhong‐yang yan‐jiu‐yuan jin‐dai‐shi yan‐jiu‐suo et 

al. 1959: Fig. 2 A‐er‐tai ke‐bu‐duo jie tu 阿爾泰科布多界圖). 

: Tuvan banners. 

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: Altai‐Uriankhai Mongolian banners. 

: Administrative units where Tuvans locate (present‐day). 

: Administrative units where Tuvans do not locate (present‐day). 

: Khanas Airport (in service since August, 2007). 

① Chinese toponyms (pinyin) ② Mongolian toponyms ③ Tuvan toponyms ④ Kazakh toponyms 

⑥ Geographical features 

 

1. ① ‐‐ ② ‐‐ ③ Temir‐Xaba ④ ‐‐ ⑤ river 

2. ① ‐‐ ② ‐‐ ③ Narsïn‐Xaba ④ ‐‐ ⑤ river 

3. ① ‐‐ ② ‐‐ ③ Nariin‐Xaba ④ ‐‐ ⑤ river 

4. ① 阿克库勒湖 (A‐ke Ku‐le Hu) ② ‐‐ ③ Ak‐Köl ④ ‐‐ ⑤ lake 

5. ① 喀拉哈巴河 (Ka‐la Ha‐ba He) ② ‐‐ ③ Xara‐Xaba / Kara‐Kaba ④ ‐‐ ⑤ river 

6. ① 阿克哈巴南村 (A‐ke Ha‐ba Nan Cun) / 白哈巴村 (Bai Ha‐ba Cun) ② ‐‐ ③ Ak‐Xaba / Ak‐ 

Kaba ④ ‐‐ ⑤ small village 

7. ① 喀纳斯湖 (Ka‐na‐si Hu) ② Xanas‐Nuur ③ Xanas‐Köl / Xanəs‐Köl / Kanas‐Köl / Kanəs‐Köl 

④ ‐‐ ⑤ lake 

8. ① ‐‐ ② ‐‐ ③ ‐‐ ④ Terek ⑤ river 

9. ① ‐‐ ② ‐‐ ③ Kurtï‐Xaba / Kurtï‐Kaba ④ ‐‐ ⑤ river 

10. ① 铁热克提乡 (Tie‐re‐ke‐ti Xiang) ② ‐‐ ③ Terekti Awїdїk (Mawkanuli 2005:11) / Ulaasta (old 

name) ④ Terek ⑤ village 

11. ① 贾登峪 (Jia‐deng‐yu) ② ‐‐ ③ Čal‐Ög / Čal‐Oi ? ④ Čal‐Öi ⑤ small village 

12. ① 也买盖堤 (Ye‐mai‐gai‐di) ② ‐‐ ③ ‐‐ ④ Yemeget ⑤ small village 

13. ① 禾木喀纳斯蒙古族乡 (He‐mu Ka‐na‐si Meng‐gu‐zu Xiang) ② ‐‐ ③ Xom Gïsta (Mawkanuli 

2005:17) / Kom ③ ‐‐ ④ ‐‐ ⑤ village 

14. ① 吉克普林 (Ji‐ke‐pu‐lin) ② ‐‐ ③ Čikbileŋ ③ ‐‐ ④ ‐‐ ⑤ small village 

15. ① 阿克齐镇 (A‐ke‐qi Zhen) ② ‐‐ ③ ‐‐ ③ Söl‐Xaba / Söl‐Kaba ④ ‐‐ ⑤ small city 

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16. ① 布尔津镇 (Bu‐er‐jin Zhen) ② ‐‐ ③ Buwuršïn Awdan (Mawkanuli 2005:17, 21) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ 

small city 

17. ① 冲乎尔乡 (Chong‐hu‐er Xiang) ② ‐‐ ③ Šuŋkur Awїldїk (Mawkanuli 2005:20) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ 

village 

18. ① 额尔齐斯河 (E‐er‐qi‐si He) ② Erčis‐Gol / Eeviin‐Gol ③ Eevi‐Xem / Eevi‐Kem ④ Irtiš ⑤ 

river 

19. ① 阿拉哈克乡 (A‐la‐ha‐ke Xiang) ② ‐‐ ③ Alagak Awїdїk (Mawkanuli 2005:18) / Dört‐Sumun 

Mončok (Matsubara 1995:20, 23) / Dïwa Gožuun (Matsubara 1995:23) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ village 

20. ① 福海镇 (Fu‐hai Zhen) ② ‐‐ ③ ‐‐ ④ ‐‐ ⑤ small city 

21. ① 切木尔切克乡 (Qie‐mu‐er Qie‐ke Xiang) ② ‐‐ ③ ‐‐ ④ ‐‐ ⑤ village 

22. ① 阿苇滩镇 (A‐wei‐tan Zhen) ② ‐‐ ③ Aviten ? (or Awdan “county” (Mawkanuli 2005:230) ④ ‐‐ 

⑤ small city 

23. ① 阿勒泰市 (A‐le‐tai Shi: Altai‐City) / 承化寺 (Cheng‐hua Si: Chenghua Temple) (old name) ② ‐‐ 

③ Aldai Xala (Mawkanuli 2005:18) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ county‐level city 

24. ① 汗德尕特蒙古族乡 (Han‐de‐ga‐te Meng‐gu‐zu Xiang / 喇嘛召乡 (La‐ma‐zhao Xian) ② ‐‐ ③ 

Xandagaitї Awїdїk (Mawkanuli 2005:18) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ village 

25. ① 库额尔齐斯镇 (Ku‐e‐erqi‐si Zhen) ② ‐‐ ③ ‐‐ ④ ‐‐ ⑤ small city 

26. ① 铁买克乡 (Tie‐mai‐ke Xiang) ② ‐‐ ③ Temeki Awїdїk (Mawkanuli 2005:19) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ village 

27. ① 可可托海镇 (Ke‐ke Tuo‐hai Zhen) ② ‐‐ ③ Gök‐Togai Awdan (Mawkanuli 2005:19) / Kök‐ 

Dugai (Mongush 1997:5) ④ Kök‐Toγai ⑤ small city 

28. ① 吐尔洪乡 (Tu‐er‐hong Xiang) ② ‐‐ ③ Turgun Awїdїk (Mawkanuli 2005:19) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ small 

city 

29. ① 青河镇 (Qing‐he Zhen) ② Čingel ③ Šinŋgil Awdan (Mawkanuli 2005:21) ④ Činŋgil ⑤ 

small city 

30. ① ‐‐ ② ‐‐ ③ Xovd ④ Xomdu ④ ‐‐ ⑤ city (Mongolia) 

 

L: Uriankhai left‐wing banners 

R: Uriankhai right‐wing banners 

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L1 . ① 烏梁海左翼公圖旗 (Wu‐liang‐hai zhuo‐yi‐gong Tu Qi) ② Cagaan (Ak) Soyony Xošuu 

(Kamimura 2000:22) ③ Ak‐Soyan Gožuun (Mawkanuli 2005:4–5) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ banner 

L2. ① 烏梁海左翼公桑旗 (Wu‐liang‐hai zhuo‐yi‐gong Sang Qi) ② Xar (Ulaan) Soyony Xošuu 

(Kamimura 2000:22) ③ Kara‐Soyan Gožuun (Mawkanuli 2005:4–5) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ banner 

L3. ① 烏梁海左翼公噶旗 (Wu‐liang‐hai zhuo‐yi‐gong Ga Qi) ② Züün Ambany Xošuu (Kamimura 

2000:22) ③ Taŋdï Ooršak Gožuun (Mawkanuli 2005:4–5) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ banner 

L4. ① 烏梁海左翼副都統旗 (Wu‐liang‐hai zhuo‐yi Fu‐dou‐tong Qi) ② Meerengiin Xošuu (Kamimura 

2000:22) ③ Meereŋ Gožuun (Mawkanuli 2005:4–5) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ banner 

R1. ① 烏梁海右翼公瓦旗 (Wu‐liang‐hai you‐yi‐gong Wa Qi) ② Xöx Mončogiin (Šar Dagiin) Xošuu 

(Kamimura 2000:22) ③ Mončak Gožuun (Mawkanuli 2005:4–5) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ banner 

R2. ① 烏梁海右翼公棍旗 (Wu‐liang‐hai you‐yi‐gong Gun Qi) ② Dönxör Xošuu (Kamimura 2000:22) 

③ Saruul Gožuun (Mawkanuli 2005:4–5) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ banner 

R3. ① 烏梁海右翼貝子旗 (Wu‐liang‐hai you‐yi Bei‐zi Qi) ② Baruun Ambany Xošuu (Kamimura 

2000:22) ③ Beesi Gožuun (Mawkanuli 2005:4–5) / Dört‐Sumon (Mongush 2002:20–22) ④ ‐‐ ⑤ banner 

5. Those examples are applicable: several song lyrics (Mongush 2002:122–123; Mawkanuli 2005:183– 

202); a two‐stringed plucking chordophone topšoor/topšuur (došpuluur/ došpulduur/topšuluur in Republic 

Tuvan, došpulduur in Tuvan of western Mongolia) and an end‐blown flute šoor (Dao‐er‐jia‐la & Zhou‐ji 

1985); a two‐stringed bow instrument ilgil/ilgiil/ilkiil (in both XUA and western Mongolia) (Dao‐er‐jia‐la & 

Zhou‐ji 1990), which known as igil in the Republic of Tuva. Altai‐Tuvans and Altai‐Uriankhai Mongolians 

essentially share the same musical environment. In consequence, Dao‐er‐jia‐la & Zhou‐ji (1985 and 1990) 

treated Altai‐Tuvans and Altai‐Uriankhai Mongolians as “Oirat‐Mongolians,” and the statements on the 

books above mentioned are lumped the both all together. Video‐CDs of šoor performances are now 

available, but only at the local gift shops. The names of Altai‐Tuvan musical instrument in western 

Mongolia are based on my filed trip to the region conducted in May 2002. 

6. The name of Tuvans, once integrated in the Altai‐Uriankhai aymak, does not settle the question of a 

proper form of address. Here, I offer the name “Altai‐Tuvans” tentatively. The territory where the Altai‐ 

Tuvans settled ranged from the present‐day Kazakhstan (East Kazakhstan Province), Mongolia (Bayan‐ 

Ölgii, Khovd, and Uvs Provinces), and XUA (Altai Prefecture). This appellation was basically borrowed 

from Taube (2008:280–281) and Mawkanuli (2005:4), but embraces a wider collective, whose members 

speak a Tuvan of the Altai Mountains dialect (note 2). Mawkanuli also names them “Jungar Tuvan,” 

though this is narrower representation of the Chinese side (Mawkanuli 2005:1–2). Furthermore, the 

exonym of Jungar Tuvan may mislead readers to connect with them with the Dzungarian Basin, which 

few hundred kilometers south from their territory. “Tsengel‐Tuvan” (Taube 2008:266) and “Khovd 

Tuvan” (Taube 2008:280), on the other hand, are the counterparts in Mongolia. The present situation of 

the Altai Tuvans in Kazakhstan is not reported so far. See also notes 1, 2, 3, and 7. 

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7. After the conquest of the Dzungar Empire, the Qing dynasty reorganized Altai‐Uriankhai aymak or 

province under the Qing’s banner system in 1757 or sometime later (Todoriki 2008: 4–5; Todoriki 

2009:215–217; Todoriki 2010:264–273). There were two other “Uriankhai” aymaks: Tannu‐Uriankhai, 

roughly corresponding to the present‐day Republic of Tuva ((Todoriki 2008; 2009; 2010), and Altai‐Nuur 

Uriankhai (or Altan‐Nuur Uriankhai), roughly corresponding to the present‐day Republic of Altai, RF. 

8. Ren 人, literally “person, people,” is a rather conventional ethnic group compared to zu 族, which is 

an official ethnicity in China. 

9. Dïba, Dïwa, and so on, are identical to Tïva, the self‐designation of locals of the Tuva Republic. The 

ethnonym of tïva, which suggests (Southern‐) Samoyedic origins (Hajdú 1950:76–78, 98–100; Joki 1952:28– 

29), is considered identical to Dou‐bo 都波 (in Old Chinese To‐pua) in Bei‐shi Tie‐le yun 北史・鐵勒伝 (659 

AD) and Sui‐shu Tie‐le yun 隋書・鐵勒伝 (629–636 AD), to Dou‐bo都播 (in Old Chinese To‐puat) in Jiu Tang‐ 

shu Tie‐le yun 舊唐書・鐵勒伝 (945 AD) and Xin Tang‐shu Hui‐[gu/hu] yun 新唐書・回鶻伝 (1060 AD), and 

to Tuba 禿巴 in Yuan‐chao mi‐shi 元朝秘史 (13th–14th centuries), considering the locations and the 

neighboring ethnonyms of these terms. The Altai‐Tuvans in XUA widely accepted mončak as an exonym 

that originated from the Kazakh word monšaq or necklace (Krippes 1994:78), since they wore the kök 

monšaq or blue‐beaded necklace worn by Tibetan Buddhists (e.g., Matsubara 1993a:7). Although Monchak, 

Monchok, Monchog, and other similar words, are exonyms, one of the seven banners of Altai‐Uriankhai 

was called Mončak Gožuun (R1) (Fig. 1 and note 4) by the Tuvans themselves. In this regard, Enwall is 

critical of the Kazakh origin of mončak and offers a long discussion on its etymology (Enwall 2005:100– 

101). However, the earliest report on Kök‐Monchak by Potanin in the late 19th century states that “the 

Kirgiz (meaning Kazakh) called it “Kok‐munchak” (which means “blue bead” in the Kirgiz language)” 

(Potanin 1881:9). According to this report, the Kazakh origin of the exonym is quite firmly established. 

Additionally, Mončak Gožuun was also known as Dïwa Gožuun (Tuvan Banner), and the ethnonym 

Monchak has been partially assimilated through self‐designation by the local Tuvans (Matsubara 1995:20). 

Therefore, Enwall’s surmise could not be accepted. See also notes 1, 2, and 3. 

10. There are even tetra‐/pentalinguals with Chinese and sometimes Uyghur. 

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_____________________________________________________________________________________ 

Dao‐er‐jia‐la 道尔加拉 & Zhou‐ji周吉: Zhe‐bu‐xiu‐er he chu‐wu‐er qu‐xuan. 

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(2005). 

Geng, Shimin: Materials of the Tuvinian language in China. Acta Orientalia Academiae 

Scientiarum Hungaricae 53: 47‐63 (2000). 

Hajdú, Péter: Die Benennungen der Samojeden. Journal de la Société Finno‐ ougrienne 54: 1–112 

(1950). 

Helimski, Eugen: Die matorische Sprache – Wörterverzeichnis – Grundzüge der Grammatik – 

Sprachgeschichte, JATE Finnugor Tanszék, Szeged (1997). 

Hu, Lin‐yi胡林翼 & Yan, Shu‐lin嚴樹林: Huan‐chao zhong‐wai yi‐tong yu‐tu. 皇朝中外壹統輿圖. vol. 

1–32, [s.n.], [s.l.] (1863). 

Iskhakov, Fazyl Garifovich & Pal’mbakh, Aleksandr Adol’fovich: Grammatika tuvinskogo 

yazhyka. Izdatel’stvo Vostochnoi Literatury, Moscow (1961). 

Joki, Aulis Johannes: Die Lehnwörter des Sajansamojedischen. Suomalais‐Ugrilainen Seura, 

Helsinki (1952). 

Kamimura, Akira 上村明: 1930 nen ni okeru Arutai Orianhai no Shinkyō eno “shūdan‐tōbō” ni 

tsuite. 1930年におけるアルタイ・オリアンハイの新疆への「集団逃亡」について. (1996). 

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Kamimura, Akira 上村明: Tokusū Ajia no gengo jijō: Mongoru. 特集アジアの言語事情: 

モンゴル. Gekkan Gengo 26 (11): 82–85 (1997). 

Kamimura, Akira 上村明: (Shūsei‐ban) Kokumin‐geinou to shite no eiyū‐ 

jyojishi(修正版)国民芸能としての英雄叙事詩Performing heroic epics and nationalism in 

Mongolia. (2000). 

[2008, June 02]. 

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Mawkanuli, Talant. Jungar Tuvan Texts. Indiana University Bloomington Research Institute for 

Inner Asian Studies, Bloomington (2005). 

Matsubara, Masatake 松原正毅: Sōgen no kaze : Arutai no Tuwa zoku. 草原の風 : 

アルタイのトゥワ族. Gekkan Hyakka 372: 4–9 (1993a). 

Matsubara, Masatake 松原正毅: Sōgen no kaze : Arutai no Tuwa zoku 2. 草原の風 : 

アルタイのトゥワ族 2. Gekkan Hyakka 373: 10–15 (1993b). 

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Mongush, Marina Vasil’evna: Tuvintsy Mongolii i Kitaya. Nauka, Novosibirsk (2002). 

Peoples and Languages of Russian Federation Statistics: 

[2008, June 02]. 

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ispolnennago v” 1896–1877 godakh” po porucheniyu Imperatorskago Russkago 

geograficheskago obshchestva G.H. Potanym”. vol. 2, Tipografiya V. Bezobrazova i Kompanii, 

Saint Petersburg (1881). 

Ragagnin, Elisabetta: A rediscovered lowland Tofan variety in northern Mongolia, Turkic 

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Research and Information Center for Asian Studies, The Institute of Oriental Culture, 

University of Tokyo (2009). 

Todoriki, Masahiko: Tuba‐no kochizu‐ga imi suru mono―yūbokumin‐no sekai‐ninshiki. 

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中國近代史資料彙編:外蒙古:中俄關係史料:中華民國六年至八年, Zhong‐yang yan‐jiu‐yuan 

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Academia, Moscow (2002). 

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GEOSTRATEGY 

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Historical Development of the Azerbaijan Oil Industry and the Role 

of Azerbaijan in Todayʹs European Energy Security 

Azerbaijan is one of the birthplaces of the oil industry and one of the first countries where people 

learned how to produce oil and use it for medicinal and household needs. The earliest exploration of oil in 

the Apsheron Peninsula goes back approximately to the 7 th century BC. Beginning in the 5 th century BC, 

oil was lifted from wells in leather buckets. 1 The information about the oil production in the Apsheron 

Peninsula had found its reflection also in the manuscripts of the Arabic and Iranian authors such as Ibn 

Miskaveykh (10 th c.), Abu Dulaf (10 th c.), Yakut al‐Khamavi (13 th c.), Khamdullakh Gazvini (14 th c.) and 

others. 2 The early use of oil in Azerbaijan was similar to the use of oil in America and in the Middle East 

during ancient times — mainly used for home, construction, medicinal and military purposes. Dg. Dyuket 

illustrates the first use of oil in Baku as: 

ʺOne can observe a strange occurrence near the town ‐ striking quantity of acid refined oil rises 

here which is popular in the remote part of Persia; it serves for illumination of houses throughout 

the country. This acid refined oil is black and called óil´. It is transported throughout the 

country on mules and donkeys that can frequently be met in caravans of 400‐500 at the same 

time. Near the above mentioned Baku city there is also another kind of oil, of white and very 

valuable, and it is assumed that it is the same what we call petroleumʺ. 3 

Considering the ancient past of the emerging oil industry in Azerbaijan, this research paper aims at 

scrutinizing the historical development of the oil industry: from its very onset to the contemporary 

period. Hence I outline the structure of the paper according to the following periodization: from the 

middle of the 19 th century until the end of the Soviet Union; Azerbaijan after independence and the 

second oil boom – massive inflow of foreign investment (1991‐1994); contemporary international oil and 

gas deals/projects (1994 up until our days). 

After the independence, Azerbaijan put forward an independent energy policy, which has been a 

central factor in an uneasy competition among regional as well as global actors. Hereby the ever 

1 Farid Alakbarov, “Baku: City that Oil Built”, Azerbaijan International, Summer 2002 (10.2); 

(http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai102_folder/102_articles/102_overview_alakbarov.html 

September 2010. 

). Accessed on 10 

2 “Oil Industry of Azerbaijan”, Caspian Energy; (http://www.old.caspenergy.com/19/oilidustry_e.html ). Accessed on 10 


3 Ibid, “Oil Industry of Azerbaijan”. 

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increasing global significance of oil and gas has driven the very interests of international powers. Tapping 

to Azerbaijani energy resources has become particularly important for the European Union, questing for 

secure energy routes to overcome Russian monopoly. In this sense, the paper concentrates also on the 

EU‐Azerbaijan relationship in the energy field as well as on the analysis of the role of Azerbaijan in the 

energy security of Europe. 

Early history of oil in Azerbaijan 

The history of Azerbaijan and its capital Baku is linked with oil from ancient times. Even in the third 

millennium BC, people of this territory were aware of the value of oil. Charle van der Leeuw, in his book 

“Oil and Gas in the Causasus and Caspian: a history”, writes: 

“Oil and its uses were also known on the Western Caspian shore well before the coming of 

Alexander the Great, who managed to defeat the masse armies of the Persian emperor Darius III 

thanks to the governor of the then Persian province of present‐day eastern Azerbaijan”. 4 

Oil and fire have been a defining force in Azerbaijan for thousands of years and important symbols of 

Zoroastrianism, a “fire worshiping” 5 . If we look at the history of the Zoroastrian religion and Baku as one 

of the centres of this religion, we can easily understand the history of oil and its use in Azerbaijan. Natig 

Aliyev, in his article “The History of Oil in Azerbaijan”, in this sense, cogently puts: 

“The Absheron Peninsula was famous for its eternal fires ‐ the underground fire gases rising to 

the earth’s surface. Zoroaster established fire worshipping and Baku became one of the most 

sacred sanctuaries. People from throughout the world wished to visit and bow before the eternal 

flame. In the Baku region there were three cult hearts or “Temple of Fire” ‐ one in Surakhany, 

another at Pirallahy Island, and the third one at Shubanu Mountain”. 6 

Even though there were a lot of memories about the first use of oil in Baku in ancient times, the first 

reliable information of the extraction of oil for commercial exploitation dates back to the 7 th or 8 th century. 

4 Charle van der Leeuw, Oil and Gas in the Caucasus and Caspian: A History, (Great Britain, Curzon Press, 2000), p. 29. 

5 Note: Zoroastrianism is one of the worldʹs oldest monotheistic religions. Founded by the Prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) in ancient 

Iran approximately 3500 years ago, it has been one of the most powerful religions of the world for more than 1000 years. Between 600 BCE 

and 650 CE it was the official religion of ancient Persian Empire. Today it is one of the smallest religions of the world. According to the New 

York Times reports of 2006 estimated number of Zoroastrian believers is approximately 190,000 worldwide. Zoroastrians believe there is one 

God called Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord) and He created the world. Zoroastrians are not fire‐worshippers, it is wrong interpretation, but they 

believe that fire is pure and it represents Godʹs light or wisdom. The Zoroastrian book of Holy Scriptures is called The Avesta; 

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian/). Accessed on 10 September 2010. 

6 Natiq Aliyev, ”The History of Oil in Azerbaijan” Azerbaijan International, Summer 1994 (2.2); 

(http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/22_folder/22_articles/22_historyofoil.html). Accessed on 10 September 2010. 

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At that time, oil was extracted primarily by very primitive and natural ways. 7 According to historical 

data, in the 10 th century hand‐made oil wells were already being dug in Absheron Peninsula with an 

average depth of 10‐12 meters. Iranian Muslim philosopher Abul Hasan Ali Al‐Masuʹdi during his visit to 

Baku in 915, writes: 

“Vessels sail to Baka (Baku) and (there is) a spring of white naphta and other (kinds) and there is 

not in the world‐and Allah is the most knowing ‐ white naphta except in this spot, and it is (on) 

the shore of the kingdom of Sharvan (Shirvan), and in this naphta‐district (Nafata) there are 

chimneys (i.e., craters or vents) which are sources of fire which cease not to burn”. 8 

The well‐known Venetian traveler Marco Polo during his travel from Europe to the Far East, along the 

ancient Silk Route in 13 th century, also notes the use of oil in Baku. According to him, oil was considered 

as a remedy for skin diseases in men and cattle. He also mentioned that oil was used for burning and 

illuminating, and exported to the neighboring countries. He describes this in his memo: 

“Near the Georgian border there is a spring from which gushes a stream of oil, in such abundance 

that a hundred ships may load there at once. This oil is not good to eat; but it is good for burning 

and as a salve for men and camels affected with itch or scab. Men come from a long distance to 

fetch this oil, and in all the neighborhood no other oil is burnt but this”. 9 

According to the historical notes of the Azerbaijani geographer Abd ar‐Rashid Bakuvi during the 14 th 

and 15 th century approximately 200 camel bales of oil were exported from Baku every day. 10 

In his book about Persia, published in 1543, the Venetian traveller Giosafat Barbaro illustrates the oil 

production in Baku: 

7 Ibid, Natiq Aliyev. 

“Upon this side of the sea there is another city called Bachu (Baku), whereof the sea of Bachu 

taketh name, near unto which city there is a mountain that casteth forth black oil, stinking 

horrible, which they, nevertheless, use for furnishing of their light and for anointing of their 

camels twice a year. For if they were not anointed they would become scabby”. 11 

8 Bülent Gökay, “History of Oil Development in the Caspian Basin”, in Michael P. Croissant, Bülent Aras ed., Oil and Geopolitics 

in the Caspian Sea Region, (USA, Praeger Publishers, 1999), p. 4. 

9 Marco Polo & Ronald Latham, The Travels of Marco Polo, (London, Penguin Classics, 1958), p. 48. 

10 Ibid, Farid Alakbarov. 

11 Ibid, Bülent Gökay, “History of Oil Development in the Caspian Basin”. 

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Nevertheless, the first detailed description about the oil industry in Baku came from the memory of the 

Secretary of Swedish Embassy to Persia (Iran) Engelbert Kempfer in 1683. Referring to his memo, Farid 

Alakbarov notes in his article: 

“Baku: City that Oil Built” that, “the oil wells there were up to 27 meters deep, with walls 

covered in limestone or wood. During this period, Baku oil was already being exported to Russia 

and other countries in Eastern Europe.....Surakhani, a village alone not far from Baku, between 

2,700 kg to 3,000 kg of oil was extracted daily for export. This quantity filled 80 carriages 

carrying 8 oil bags each”. 12 

According to historical estimations, there were approximately 500 wells drilled in the Apsheron 

Peninsula at the beginning of the 17 th century. Azerbaijani historian Miryusif Mirbabayev writes that oil in 

many European and North American countries between the 15 th and 17 th century was extracted in a 

primitive way, “a tissue was lowered inside superficial wells and lakes, and then, it was squeezed to get 

oil to leak into vessels”, but at the same time the people of the Baku region already were aware of how to 

dig oil wells and extract oil using horse traction. The depth of the wells at that time, were around 20 

meters. 13 

In his memory a Turkish scientist and traveler, also gave information about the Baku oil in the second 

half of the 17 th century. According to him: 

“People extracting the oil are descending inside the wells: they extract oil day and night by 

accumulating it into cylinder‐shaped vessels made from goatskin. Oil is found in eight colors, but 

the best oil is yellow colored oil”. 

He writes that the extracted oil was transported to the neighboring countries, such as; Uzbekistan, 

Persia, Georgia and used for lighting and military purpose. 14 

At the eve of the 19 th century an English missionary to the region John Cartwright wrote down: 

“Concerning Bachu, it is a very ancient Hauentowne, very commodious for ships to harbor in, as 

also profitable to vent commodities, by reason that Ardouill, Tauris, Eres, Sumachia, and 

Derbent, lie not many days thence. Near unto this town, is a very strange and wonderful 

Fountain under ground, out of which there springeth and issueth a marvelous quantity of black 

oil, which serveth all parts of Persia to burne in their houses; and they visually carry it all over 

12 Ibid, Farid Alakbarov. 

13 Miryusif Mirbabayev, Concise History of Azerbaijani Oil, (Baku, 2010), p. 8. 

14 Ibid, Miryusif Mirbabayev, p. 9. 

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the country upon Kine and Asses, whereof you shall oftentimes meet three or four hundred in 

company”. 15 

However, despite these facts, the methods used for the extraction of oil were very primitive, mainly 

hand dug wells drilled in shallow depths during those times and the drilling of oil by industrial methods 

was witnessed from the second half of the 19 th century. 

Otkupchina lease system and drilling the first oil well by industrial methods in oil´s world history 

With the death of Nadir Shah in 1747, the historical Azerbaijani territory witnessed a period of feudal 

fragmentation and divided into small independent units, which were called khanates in Azerbaijani 

historiography and regulated by the Khan. As the result of this fragmentation, the oil property of the 

Baku region became a direct ownership of the Khan. This situation came to an end in 1806, with the 

occupation of the Baku Khanate by Tsarist Russia. As the result of Russian intervention all properties of 

the Khan were transferred to the Tzar. Following this, royal monopoly was created and the so‐called 

otkupchina lease system was applied to the oil industry by the Russian government, which means the 

monopolization of oil production by individuals. According to the otkupchina lease system, the Russian 

government granted the Apsheron oil wells to different lease out holders, who had no any intention than 

to extract as much oil as possible. This grant was given for certain time period, usually between 4‐8 years 

with a special contract under the direct control of the government. 16 According to Miryusif Mirbabayev: 

“This Contract gave guarantees to the lease‐out holder for almost everything: manpower for 

digging and repairing wells; dredging oil out of wells and its transportation to the city 

warehouses; as well as the right to dig and search new sources of oil. In his turn, the lease‐out 

holder had to pay large sums for the extraction of Baku oil in conformity with the concluded 

Contract”. 17 

The first lease out holder of Baku oil wells was the secretary of province, eighteen years old 

M.M. Tarumov, from the occupation of Baku in 1806 and the last one was I.M. Mirzoyev from 1860 until 

the end of otkupchina lease system in 1872. 18 

As the result of this system, in the oil industry in the first half of the 19 th century, there was no 

competition between the oil companies and every four year the producers were faced with the risk of 

15 James Lawson Chapman, “The Modern Great Game in Central Asia”, Thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the 

requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Geography, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT, Autumn 2006; p. 9. 

16 Richard Ryan Weber, “Power to the Petrol: How the Baku Oil Industry Made Labor Strikes and Mass Politics Possible in the 

Russian Empire (and beyond)”, Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts, Columbia 

University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences, May 2010; p. 9. 



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losing their entire investment, since there was no any guarantee that they wouldl be granted again with a 

contract by the Russian government. Consequently, investors were intended to get back their money in a 

short time period of time, hence they tried to extract as much as oil possible. 

“The only practical method to achieve this was to maximize short‐term profits, which entailed a 

variety of techniques and practices, such as drilling primarily for gushers and failing to properly 

isolate boreholes, that had detrimental effects on the longevity of individual wells”. 19 

Following this, the annual production of oil had not changed in the first half of the 19 th century and 

demand began to decrease. The estimated production was 250‐30 poods (4–5 thousand tons). The number 

of oil wells was 116 in 1813, then 125 in 1825, 120 in 1850, and only 218 in 1860. 20 

As I mentioned before, oil development and extraction of oil in Azerbaijan by industrial means began 

in the second half of the 19 th century when Baku was transformed into the biggest oil field of the Tsarist 

Empire. In July 1847, the first viceroy of the Caucasus, Prince Mikhail S. Vorontsov wrote to Vronchenko, 

the Russian State Secretary that: 

“I authorized new oil exploration in the Bibi‐Eibat section, Baku District, on the Caspian Sea 

coast, by means of earth drills, and used 1,000 rubles allocated by you for this purpose. In 

consequence, the director of the Baku and Shirvan mineral fields has reported that oil was found 

in a well drilled at Bibi‐Eibat”. 21 

In 1848, engineer Alekseev, eleven years prior to the striking of the first oil wells in United States on 

August 27, 1859 by ʺColonelʺ Edwin L. Drake near Titusville, Pennsylvania, drilled a 21 meter deep well 

using industrial equipment in Bibi‐Heybat oil field under the supervision of state advisor V.N. Semyonov. 

This event is considered the starting point of industrial oil extraction in Azerbaijan as well as in the whole 

world. 22 In December 1863, Javad Melikov built a first kerosene plant in the city of Baku and used cooling 

stations in the refining process for the first time in history. 23 

Later, however, no any serious step was taken in increasing the oil production and the development of 

industrial technology, because the Russian government had supported the otkupchina lease system in oil 

industry, which prevented mass exploration of the oil fields in Baku until 1872. Prior to this, the 

19 Ibid, Richard Ryan Weber, p. 12. 

20 “Baku Oil: Pre‐Industrial Period”, UsakPedia, (http://www.usakpedia.com/content/Baku_Oil:_Pre‐Industrial_Period). Accessed 

on 12 September. 

21 Bülent Gökay, “The Background: History and Poitical Change”, in Bülent Gökay ed., The Politics of Caspian Oil, (New York, 

Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), p. 4. 

22 Ibid, Bülent Gökay, “The Background: History and Poitical Change”, p. 4. 

23 Robert W. Tolf, The Russian Rockefellers: The Saga of the Nobel Family and the Russian Oil Industry, (U.S Hoover Institution 

Press, February 1982), p. 44. 

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opponents of the otkupchina lease system, mainly businessmen and technical experts, such as 

V.A. Kokorev and the well‐known scholar in chemistry Dimitri Mendeleev, insisted on the abolishment of 

this system. According to them, the free enterprise in oil production was the only adequate way for the 

development of the petroleum industry. The year 1872 was considered the year of dramatic changes in oil 

development technology and abolishment of otkupchina lease system, which let the local entrepreneurs 

and foreign investors to extract oil in the Baku region. With the end of the monopoly system the oil fields 

of Baku were sold to private individuals under auction. 24 

The first oil boom in Azerbaijan 

With the abolishment of the otkupchina lease system in 1872, Baku was transformed into a huge 

industrial center of Russia and gained a reputation as the “Oil Capital of the World” with the investment 

of foreign oil companies and local oil barons. As mentioned earlier, the abolishment of the lease system, 

the oil industry was declared free and oil fields were given to individuals by auctions, for which they paid 

only once. That year marked the beginning of oil drilling on a massive scale and increase of industrial 

production in the Russian oil sector. The new owners of oil fields immediately applied American 

techniques and methods to the drilling process of oil extraction, which led to the development of oil 

industry at great rate. The crude oil of Baku, which was successfully processed in domestic refineries, 

began to compete on the world market with the illuminating and lubricating products that were exported 

from the United States. 25 

Starting from 1872, the last three decades of the 19 th century witnessed an increase of the output of the 

oil industry in Azerbaijan of more than 170 times. In 1897, production was equal to the oil production in 

the United States; a year later it overtook that of the United States. 26 At the end of the 19 th century, 

fundamental changes had happened in the Azerbaijani oil industry and Azerbaijan became the largest oil 

producing country in the world. At the turn of the century, beginning from 1898 up to 1902, more than 

50% of the entire worldʹs oil production, and 95% of Russian oil was produced in Baku. 27 Comparing the 

development of the Azerbaijani oil production after 1872 until 1902 with the oil production in United 

States Richard Ryan Weber mentions: 

“In 1873, the United States oil industry produced 7 million barrels of crude oil from over 1,000 

wells within the 9 square mile area of Pennsylvania’s Oil Creek valley. That same year, the Baku 

oil industry produced less than 400,000 barrels of crude, and featured only a handful of drilled 

wells scattered across 10 square miles on the shores of the Caspian Sea. Three decades later, in 

24 John P. McKay, “Baku Oil and Transcaucasian Pipelines, 1883‐1891: A Study in Tsarist Economic Policy”, Slavic Review, Vol. 

43, No. 4, Winter 1984, pp. 606‐607. 

25 Ibid, John P. McKay. 

26 Garskova I & Akhanchi P, “Discrimination in the Labour Market in the Baku Oil Industry (Late Nineteenth to Early Twentieth 

Century)”; (http://www.hist.msu.ru/Labour/Article/Moscow_congress.htm). Accessed on 12 September 2010. 

27 Bulent Gokay, “Caspian Uncertainties: Regional Rivalries and Pipelines”, Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 3, 

Num. 1, March‐May 1998. 

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1901, the US industry had increased its output almost tenfold to 69 million barrels of annual 

production....same year, Baku produced an astonishing 85 million barrels of crude oil from 1,840 

active wells, and enlarged its area as well....From 1898 until 1902, the Apsheron Peninsula in the 

Russian province of Transcaucasia, on which Baku was situated, produced the majority of the 

world’s petroleum products”. 28 

However, beginning from the first years of the 20 th century the Azerbaijan oil industry suffered from 

political turbulence that spread all over Russia, culminating with the Russian revolution of 1905. The 

disastrous war between Russia and Japan in 1904‐05, 29 ethnic conflict throughout Caucasus, increase of 

world oil production 30 , and later in the second decade of the 20 th century, with the outbreak of World 

War I and revolutionary change in the Russian government in 1917 were those factors that led to the 

decline of the oil production of Azerbaijan. 31 Concerning the Russo‐Japanese war and the 1905 strike 

Manfred Weissenbacher writes in his book, 

“The economic crisis during this conflict further increased the tensions between two social groups 

working in the Azerbaijani oil industry: on the one hand, Muslim Azeris and Persians, and on the other 

hand, their Armenian employers....When strikes and riots erupted all over Russia in 1905....oil fields were 

set on fire, and over half the oil installations were destroyed”. 32 

The international oil crisis between 1901 and 1903 reduced the demand of oil. The number of refineries 

decreased from 91 to 86 and only 57 of them remained functional. The damage to the oil industry of Baku 

resulting from the fires of the 1905 strike is estimated at 19,500,000 rubles. 33 Hence, Russia did no longer 

take part in the increase of the worldwide production. The occupation of Azerbaijan by the Soviet Empire 

in 1920 and its nationalization policy brought an end to most foreign investors and the oil barons were 

forced to leave the country. 34 

28 Ibid, Richard Ryan Weber, p.1. 

29 “Oil Barons of Baku, 1901‐1905”, Far Outliers, 4 August 2006; (http://faroutliers.wordpress.com/2006/08/04/oil‐barons‐of‐baku‐ 

1901‐1905/). Accessed on 12 September 2010. 

30 “Attitudes of Major Soviet Nationalities”, Center for International Studiesʹ Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Vol. 3, June 1973. 

31 Nazim Rza Israfiloglu, Neft Qlobal Münaqişələr mənbəyi (Oil as a Source of Global Conflicts), (Bakı, Şərq‐Qərb, 2009), p. 102. 

32 Manfred Weissenbacher, Sources of Power: How Energy Forges Human History, (U.S, Greenwood Publsihing Group, 2009), p. 370. 

33 Firouzed Mostashari, “Development of Caspian oil in Historical Perspective”, in Hooshang Amirahmadi ed., The Caspian 

Region at a Crossroad: Challenges of a New Frontier of Energy and Development, (U.S, Palgrave Macmillan, 10 June 2000); pp. 98‐99. 

34 Khoshbakht Yusifzade, “The Development of the Oil and Gas Industry in Azerbaijan”, Azerbaijan International, Summer 1996 

(4.2); (http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/42_folder/42_articles/42_socarkhoshbakht.html ). Accessed on 15 September 

2010. 

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Foreign companies and local oil barons 

As mentioned earlier, during the last three decades of the 19 th century, the Russian oil industry began 

to attract considerably interest from foreign companies and local investors and Baku became the 

energy‐industrial capital of the world, thanks to the abolishment of the otkupchina lease system. The flow 

of foreign capital to Azerbaijan began with the arrival of the Nobel brothers, which was followed by the 

Rothschild investment in the Baku oil industry. Except them, the finance of the native bourgeoisie also 

played a crucial role in the oil fortunes of Azerbaijan. 

Branobel (Nobel Brothers Oil Company) or Russian “Rockefeller”: While talking about Azerbaijani oil 

in the 19 th century, it is impossible not to draw the attention to the investment of the Nobel brothers, 

which was considered a revolutionary beginning of the Russian oil industry. The foundation of the 

Branobel oil company took place after the visit of Robert Nobel to Baku in 1873. He was the eldest son of 

Immanuel Nobel, the Swedish inventor, who moved to Russia in 1837 and created an industrial company 

for underwater mines. After the death of Immanuel Nobel, his second sun, Ludwig Nobel was running 

the company. The company signed a huge contract with the Russian government for manufacturing rifles. 

For the provisioning of wood for rifle stock with domestic supply Ludwig Nobel sent his brother Robert 

to the Caucasus in order to search for Russian walnut. His arrival to Baku in 1873 coincided with the 

abolishment of the lease system and the period of oil development in the Baku oil sector. Daniel Yergin 

describes that period as follows: 

“During that period the recent oil development had begun to bring great change to Baku; and 

Robert, immediately on his arrival in Baku, was caught up in the favor. Without consulting his 

brother — after all, he was the eldest and, therefore, held certain prerogatives — Robert took the 

twenty‐five thousand rubles that Ludwig had entrusted to him for buying wood — the “walnut 

money” — and instead bought a small refinery”. 35 

This event was the first step by which Nobel investment penetrated the oil industry of Azerbaijan. The 

Branobel oil company was created on May 25, 1879. The founders of the company were the three sons of 

Immanuel Nobel: Ludwig, Robert, and Alfred. The total capital asset of the company was three million 

rubles. Prior to the 1890s the Branobel company was producing 17.7 % of Russian and 8.6% of world oil 

output, which played a significant role in the Russian oil industry for being the world´s first country in 

the oil production at the turn of the century, between 1898 and 1902. 36 The flaw of the Nobel investment to 

Baku was considered a revolutionary change in the Russian oil industry. They introduced technological 

revolution in oil extraction, refinement, and transportation; they developed the first pipelines between oil 

35 Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, & Power, (U.S, Free Press, 1 January 1993), p. 58. 

36 Lyubov Zheltova, “The Tsaritsyn Heritage of the Nobel Brothers”, OIL OF RUSSIA, Num. 4, 2007; 

(http://www.oilru.com/or/33/643/). Accessed on 15 september 2010. 

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fields and refineries and the first steam‐powered tankers for oil transportation. 37 In this regard, the 

famous Russian scholar Dimitri Mendeleev estimated the existence of the Branobel company in the oil 

industry of Russia as, “the Branobel Company, which began its large‐scale activity only recently, has 

today expanded it to proportions unparalleled in our industry”. 38 

For reducing the transportation cost the Branobel Company built a first oil tanker in the world oil 

history. The tanker called Zoroaster bearing the name of the ancient prophet of Zoroastrainism in the 

region and was built in Sweden at the Motall Shipbuilding Factory in 1877 following the design of 

Ludwig Nobel. 39 With the steel body, the tanker was 184 feet long, 27 feet wide, and 9 feet immersion. The 

capacity of it was 15,000 poods of kerosine. 40 After Zoroaster Ludwig Nobel ordered more tankers of the 

same design, which were called Buddha and Nordenskjöld. Following the success of the first tankers, the 

Branobel Company built an entire fleet of tankers in the Caspian Sea, which turned Baku into one of the 

world´s most busy port cities. According to Robert W. Tolf: 

“In November 1880 Ludwig ordered a new type of tanker which utilized the shell — the skin of 

the vessel itself — as the wall of the bulk cargo hold. The hold of kerosene completely filled the 

storage area from side to side and clear up to the deck....the ship was christened Moses and within 

a year of its launching Ludwig ordered seven more vessels of the same design for delivery in 

seven to eight month. They were named Mohammed, Tatarin, Bramah, Spinoza, Socrates, 

Darwin, Koran, Talmut, and Calmuck...fitting tribute to the richness of Caucasian history....”. 41 

In 1878 the Branobel Company built a pipeline connecting the Balakhani oil fields with the oil refinery 

in Baku, which reduced the expense of transportation by five times and paid for itself within a single year. 

It was 12 km long with pipes 75 mm in diameter. By the end of 1898 there were 230 km of pipes with an 

annual throughput of one million tons of oil. 42 

Another event that the Branobel Company made was the transportation of Baku oil to Russia. Before 

the foundation of the Branobel Company, despite the vast energy resources of the Russian Empire at the 

end of the 19 th century, it was difficult to transport it to the regions of the empire due to lack of 

infrastructure. For example, until 1880 Tbilisi was just 340 miles West of Baku, but relied on kerosene 

imports from the US. 43 Before 1874, the kerosine and crude oil of Baku were transported to Russia mainly 

37 Douglas Frantz, “Baku Journal; How the Nobels Made a Prize of Baku”, The New York Times, 3 February 2001; 

(http://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/03/world/baku‐journal‐how‐the‐nobels‐made‐a‐prize‐of‐baku.html). 


38 Ibid, Lyubov Zheltova. 

Accessed on 15 

39 Natig Aliyev, “The History of Oil in Azerbaijan”, Azerbaijan International, Summer 1994 (2.2); 

(http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/22_folder/22_articles/22_historyofoil.html). Accessed on 15 September 2010. 


41 Ibid, Robert W. Tolf, pp. 55‐56. 

42 Nasib Nassibli, “The Independent Azerbaijanʹs Oil Policy”, Lecture at the University of California at Berkeley, 15 April 1998; 

(http://www.zerbaijan.com/azeri/nasibzade1.html). Accessed on 15 September 2010. 

43 Ibid, Richard Ryan Weber, p. 51. 

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by cart in wooden barrels holding 25 poods, which was more expensive than transporting it from the 

United States. The barrels cost from 10 to 12 rubles and the leakage was great. 44 For that reason Ludwig 

offered the railroad tank cars for the transportation of the Baku oil to Petersburg. These cars were put on 

the Gryaze‐Tsaritsyn railroad and by 1881 Baku oil was delivered to Petersburg by train for the first 

time. 45 The construction of the Transcaucasus railroad in 1883 between Baku and Batumi was another 

effective access for the transportation of the Baku oil to the domestic and world market. 

It is interesting that the Nobel Prize, the most prestigious award in the world, is related to the oil fields 

in Baku. The Prize was established in 1901 after the death of Alfred Nobel, via the execution of his will. 

The wealth of Alfred Nobel was valued 31 million Swedish crowns coming from his 12 percent share of 

the Nobel Brothers Petroleum Company and his earnings from the dynamite invention. 46 But despite its 

long history and deep heritage in Baku the Branobel Company came to an end after World War I. The 

Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 forced the foreign companies to shut down and their properties were 

confiscated. Following this, the Nobel family began to flee to Stockholm, after loosing their Russian assets 

to the Bolsheviks. After the occupation of Baku by the Soviet Empire, half of the Branobel Oil Company´s 

shares were sold to Standard Oil of New Jersey. 47 

The Caspian‐Black Sea Oil Company or BNITO: The Rothschild family was one of the prominent 

foreign investors in the Baku oil industry after the abolishment of the otkupchina lease system. The 

penetration of Rothschild investment was due to financing the construction of the Transcaucasian railroad 

in 1879 in order to transport oil from Baku to the Black Sea port of Batum in Georgia and later to the 

world market. 48 As stated above, due to the lack of infrastructure, the transportation of the Baku oil to the 

world market was extremely difficult. In this sense, building the Transcaucasus railroad was in the 

interest of the Russian government and added another dimension to the oil industry of Russia. Firouzed 

Mostashari comments this as follows: 

“The Russian administrations of the Caucasus were among the promoter of the railways across 

the region. The Grant Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich, viceroy of the Caucasus (1863‐1881), saw 

railroads as a means of solidifying Russian control over the Caucasus....The region drawn more 

to its Persian and Turkish neighbors than to Russia, and in the event of a war, like Crimean War, 

the absence of railroads to provide troop transportation would have proven disastrous for Russia. 

44 Mira Wilkins, European foreign investments as seen by the U.S. Department of Commerce, (U.S, Arno Press, 1977), p. 25. 


46 Fuad Akhundov, “Legacy of the Oil Barons: Part II, The ʺGreeningʺ of Baku by the Nobel Brothers”, Azerbaijan International, 

Autumn 1994 (2.3); (http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/23_folder/23_articles/23_oilbarons.html). Accessed on 15 

september 2010. 

47 Brita Asbrink, “The Nobels in Baku: Swedesʹ Role in Bakuʹs First Oil Boom”, Azerbaijan International, Summer 2002 (10.2); 

(http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai102_folder/102_articles/102_nobels_asbrink.html). Accessed on 15 September 

2010. 

48 “Georgia’s Oil and Gas Potential: Georgia as a Traditional Transit Country for Azeri Energy Resources”, Report prepared by 

Transparency International Georgia, June 2008; p. 6. 

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So, Nikolaevich argued, connecting the region to Russia via rail was not only in the interest of 

the Caucasus economy, but also served Russiaʹs strategic interests”. 49 

In this regard, on June 1878, the plan was made to connect the oil fields of Baku to the Transcaucasian 

Railroad. The construction was completed in 1883 and the railroad was put in service in the same year. 

This event ended the Branobel transportation monopoly and facilitated the access of the Baku oil to the 

world market. 50 

During the 1880s, the Rothschilds made large‐scale investments in production assets and refineries in 

the Baku oil industry. In 1886, the Rothschilds established the Caspian‐Black Sea Oil Company or BNITO. 

By the end of 1890s, the Company was controlling 42% of the Baku oil export. 51 Lately the company 

signed an agreement with the British entrepreneurs Markus Samuel, an Englishman of Jewish origin who 

later founded Shell, in order to export the Baku oil from Batumi to British and Dutch East Indies through 

the Suez Canal. Beginning from the 1880s, due to the increase of Russian oil export to the European 

market, Rockefeller, the head of Standard Oil Company, began to act aggressively in order to diminish the 

role of Russian oil. He began a campaign of price reduction, a traditional way that Standard Oil used in 

the United States to force its competitors out of business. The signing of an agreement with Marcus 

Samuel for selling Baku oil in the Far East, where Standard’s dominance was also overwhelming, was a 

counter‐attack made by the Rothschild family. The idea of Samuel was to build an oil tanker with 

sophisticated engineering and to get an allowance for passing it through the Suez Canal. Traditionally the 

trade vessels from Europe to Asia were sailing around the Cape of Good Hope. Passing through the Suez 

Canal would shorten transport routes and put them ahead of Standard Oil. In the end he was successful 

in realizing his idea and in 1892 the first oil tanker, built according to Samuel´s design, sailed from Batum 

to the Far East. 52 According to a report prepared by Transparency International Georgia: 

“In spite of the limitations on navigation existing in the Suez Canal, with the support of his 

friends at the British Court, he gained the privilege to transport the oil by tankers through this 

canal and ordered the first double‐hulled ocean tanker. In the Batumi port, the first such tanker 

appeared in 1892. It was called Murex. Until that time, only the oil of the American oil magnate 

Rockefeller was being sold in Southeast Asia”. 53 

Following this, Marcus Samuel founded the Shell Oil Company on October 18, 1897 in Baku. The 

Company owned 30 ocean‐going ships and more than 340 oil terminals that were situated between Baku 

49 Ibid, Firouzed Mostashari, p. 95. 


51 “History of Development of Oil Industry”, Azerbaijan.Az; 

(http://www.azerbaijan.az/_Economy/_OilStrategy/oilStrategy_02_e.html ). Accessed on 15 September 2010. 

52 Leonardo Maugeri, The Age of Oil: The Mythology, History, and Future of the World’s Most Controversial Resource, (U.S, PRAEGER, 

2006), p. 12. 

53 Ibid, Transparency International Georgia. 

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and Shanghai. Furthermore, prior to the 20 th century more than 11% of the Baku oil fieldʹs management 

were controlled by British producers. In 1907, Shell and Royal Dutch companies were merged into the 

international trust Royal Dutch Shell under the leadership of Henry Deterding in order to compete with 

the US competitors. The output of Royal Dutch Shell up to 1914 from the Baku oil fields was 57 million 

pounds. 54 Transportation of the Baku oil to the Far East was one of the most important reasons that 

increased the Russian position in the oil export to the world market. In 1900, the oil production 

worldwide had reached nearly 430,000 barrels per day (bpd). Russia was producing more than 50%, 

around 200,000 bpd, with the United States delivering less than Russia, around 165,000 bpd. However, as 

aforementioned after few years due to political turmoil in Russia the oil production decreased there and 

the United States had dramatically jumped ahead, reaching 370,000 bpd, more than twice the Caucasian 

production. 55 

Nevertheless, the construction of the Transcaucasus railroad was not sufficient for the transportation of 

the Baku oil to the world market. For this reason, an American businessman in Russia, Herbert Twedle, 

together with his Russian business partner Lieutenant Khanykov put forward an offer to the Russian 

ministry of finance for the construction of a pipeline that would connect Baku with the Black Sea port 

Batum. The minister of state affairs M.N. Ostrovskii wrote to the minister of finance in January 1884, that 

the Transcaucasian railroad was not enough for the transportation of the Baku oil. Moreover, one of the 

main reasons of the current crisis in the oil sector was due to the lack of cheap transportation 

infrastructure for the transportation of oil to foreign markets and this factor did not allow the Russian 

producer to compete with US oil companies in the world markets. Three years later, in April 1887, the 

committee of ministers of the Russian government approved the project for the construction of 

Trans‐Caucasian pipeline. In May 1887, a member of the Russian Physics‐Chemistry Society I.P. Ilimov 

was granted the construction of the pipeline. Nevertheless, because of bureaucratic difficulties the 

construction of the pipeline was postponed until the first decade of the 20 th century. 56 

The construction of the largest pipeline in the world of that period, with a length of 560 miles, was 

completed from Baku to Batumi on the Black Sea Coast in 1905. The construction cost amounted to 

$17,000,000. It had an 8‐inch pipe and 19 pumping stations. While crossing on the Suram Mountains it 

reached 2,480 feet hight above the level of the Black Sea. The pipeline capacity was estimated around 

60,000,000 poods of oil per year, but the maximum amount of oil pumped through it was 27,700,000 

poods in 1908. 57 

In general, until 1917 the total amount of foreign investment in the Baku oil industry was estimated at 

111 million rubles. 60% of the oil production and 75% of the trade in oil product in Russia was managed 

by foreign companies. According to historical data, until 1920 foreign businessmen from Great Britain, 

France, USA, Sweden, and Germany owned approximately 70% of the Baku oil industry. However, as 

54 Miryusif Mirbabayev, “Baku Baron Days: Foreign Investment in Azerbaijanʹs Oil”, Azerbaijan International, Summer 2004 

(12.2). (http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai122_folder/122_articles/122_foreign_investment.html). Accessed on 15 


55 Ibid, Leonardo Maugeri, p. 13. 


57 Ibid, Mira Wilkins, p. 28. 

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mentioned above the Russian revolution of 1917 at the end of World War I stopped any further flow of 

foreign investment into the oil capital of the world. In March 1918 the Bolsheviks established their power 

in Baku and two month later, on the 2 nd of June they declared the Russian oil industry as a property of the 

people. After the occupation of Baku by the Red Army, on May 24 th May 1924, the Revolutionary 

Committee of Azerbaijan decreed the nationalization of the oil industry in Azerbaijan. According to that 

decree all oil enterprises related to production, refining, and trade were declared as a state property. 58 

Haji Zeynalabdin Taghiyev: (1823‐1924) Taghiyev was one of the wealthiest oil barons and prominent 

oil producers in Baku. His firm was producing 1900 bopd in 1887 and occupied the 4 th place in the 

refining business. A son of a shoemaker, Taghiyev was born in a poor family in the Old Town of Baku 

and worked as mason from his early age to support his family. During the first oil boom in Baku after the 

abolishment of the otkupchina lease system in 1872, Taghiyev purchased a piece of land with his two 

partners in the Bibi‐Heybat region of Baku and began drilling in 1873, but they were unsuccessful. Hence, 

his friend gave up and sold his shar to him, but he continued drilling until 1877 when the oil gush 

happened on his property and instantly made him an oil baron and millionaire. 59 Later Taghiyev sold his 

oil fields to the British entrepreneurs for 5 million rubles, where they generated more than 7.5 million 

rubles in two years. It should be mentioned that he quit his oil businesses in order to diversify in other 

industries of the Azerbaijani economy, such as textile, civil engineering, shipyard and fishery. In 1880, he 

founded a shipping company after purchasing the “Kaspi” shipping society for 1,136,000 rubles. 60 

He remains in the memories of Azerbaijanis as not only a local oil baron, but also a national industrial 

magnate and philanthropist who spent most of his money on charity projects, mainly in the field of 

education. He sent many talented Azerbaijani youths to the different parts of the world for getting 

education; he also invested in the construction of various schools. After becoming oil baron, the first thing 

that he made was the construction of the road to the oil field of Bibi‐Heybat and later extended that road 

up to the “Bibi‐Hyebat” mosque, one of the historical and sacred places in Azerbaijan. In 1883, Taghiyev 

financed the construction of the First Drama Theater in Baku. Taghiyev was also founder of the first 

Azerbaijani girls´ school where the education language was Azerbaijani. He asked permission from Tzar 

Alexander III for the construction of a school for the Muslim girls, but his request was rejected. After 

Alexander III, when Nicolas II came to power in Russia, Taghiyev sent an expensive present to his wife 

Alexandra Fyodorovna and asked her for helping him for the acceptance of the school project. Later the 

school was named after Alexandra Fyodorovna, as the Russian Muslim Alexandrian Female Boarding 

School. Currently that building is the house of the National Institute of Manuscripts and situated at the 

Istiqlaliyyat (Independence) District, outside of Old Town. It is an interesting fact that Taghiyev ordered 

an Arabic font from Leipzig, Germany for the translation of the Koran, the Holy book of Islam and despite 

all difficulties posed by the clergy he financed the translation of the Koran. They insisted that it was a 

Holy book and no one had the right to translate it. Next to the translation of the Koran, considering 

58 Ibid, Miryusif Mirbabayev, “Baku Baron Days: Foreign Investment in Azerbaijanʹs Oil”. 

59 Manaf Suleymanov, “Stories of Taghiyev: Bakuʹs Most Renowned Oil Baron”, Azerbaijan International, Summer 2002 (10.2); 

(http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai102_folder/102_articles/102_taghiyev_residence.html). Accessed on 15 September 

2010. 


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mosques as centers of enlightenment, science, tradition, and moral upbringing, Taghiyev also invested in 

the building of several mosques in Azerbaijan, as well as other parts of Russia. The mosque in Petersburg 

for Tatars is still functioning. He also gave financial support to the construction of several churches for 

Russians, Georgians, and Armenians. 61 

When Baku was occupied by the Red Army, unlike other entrepreneurs, Taghiyev rejected to leave the 

country. All his properties, including his residence, were confiscated by the Bolsheviks and he lived until 

the end of his life in his summer home in the suburb of Baku, in Mardakan and died in 1924. 62 

Agha Musa Naghiyev: (1849‐1919) One of the most famous oil millionaires among local Azerbaijanis 

was Agha Musa Naghiyev. The oil company owned by Naghiyev, which was established in 1887, was one 

of the largest Baku oil producers. From 1904 up to 1910, his oil company ranked as the 6 th or 7 th oil 

company in Russia. 63 Like Taghiyev, he was also born into a poor peasant family but became the richest 

oil baron after the industrial boom in Baku. He was well known as a stingy person among the oil 

millionaires, but despite his greediness, the 19 th century architecture of Baku became more adorned by the 

investment of Naghiyev. He financed the construction of the Muslim Charity Society in the one of the 

most beautiful places of Baku. In 1912, he financed the construction of the largest hospital of the city, 

which is still functioning today. The design of the hospital was in the shape of the first letter of his name 

“H” (Cyrillic “N”) and was named after him. He also gave financial support to the building of the largest 

male technical school of the city, called Real School in that time. Today that building serves as the 

Azerbaijan State Economic Institute. 64 

One of the most gorgeous and impressive constructions made by him was the “Ismailliye” Palace, built 

to honor his son. It was made in Venetian Gothic style and is reminiscent of the Palazzo Contarini in 

Venice. Today that building serves as the Primary Office of Azerbaijanʹs Academy of Sciences and is 

located in the Istiqllaiyyat district next to the aforementioned “Girls School”, constructed with the 

investment of Taghiyev. 65 

Shamsi Asadullayev: (1841‐1913) Another local oil baron of Azerbaijan, Shamsi Asadullayev, was also 

born in a poor family of porters who became one of the oil millionaires during the first oil boom in Baku. 

During his youth, he collected harvest in the Surakhani village of Baku and transported it to Tbilisi, to the 

current capital city of Georgia. Following the abolishment of the otkupchina lease system, he bought a 

small oil field, which made him one of the leading industrialists and oil barons. His oil firm, called 

61 Ibid, Manaf Suleymanov. 

62 “The Taghiyev Museum: A Glimpse of the Opulence of an Oil Baron”, Azerbaijan International, Summer 2000 (8.2); 

(http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/82_folder/82_articles/82_taghiyev_museum.html). Accessed on 17 September 2010. 

63 Ibid, Miryusif Mirbabayev, “Baku Baron Days: Foreign Investment in Azerbaijanʹs Oil”. 

64 Fuad Akhundov, “Legacy of the Oil Barons ‐ Part I”, Azerbaijan International, Summer 1994 (2.2); 

(http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/22_folder/22_articles/22_oilbarons.html). Accessed on 17 September 2010. 

65 Jon L. Rau, “Environmental and Urban Geology of Selected Cities in Central, South‐West and South Asia: Baku, Almaty, 

Samarkand, Tashkent, Tehran, Ankara, Istanbul, Calcutta, Hyderabad‐Secunderabad, Mumbai”‐Part II, Atlas of Urban Geology, 

Vol. 14, p. 26. 

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“SH. Asadullayev”, was producing 60% of the oil and was one of the 12 leading oil producing firms in 

Baku. He established his own oil‐fleet for oil transportation. As a member of the City Duma of Baku, like 

other oil barons, Asadullayev was also involved in philanthropic activities and made lots of donations to 

the city and to charitable societies. He died in 1913. 66 

Murtuza Mukhtarov: (1865‐1920) Azerbaijani oil industrialist and millionaire Murtuza Mukhtarov was 

also born in a poor family in the Amirajan village of Baku. Following the path of other Baku oil barons, 

Mukhtarov managed to be one of the most prominent drilling experts in Baku due to his ability and 

experience. The company that he owned was specialized in manufacturing machinery for oil derricks and 

well drilling. One of his specialities among other oil barons of Baku was that he was the author of various 

patents of drilling equipment. As a philanthropist, he financed the construction of one of the most 

gorgeous and magnificent buildings in the heart of Baku, which is now the Wedding Palace of the city. 

The residence that he ordered to be built in 1911‐1912 for his wife Liza Mukhtarova by the Polish architect 

Joseph Ploshko was one of the most fabulous buildings and celebrated examples of the Baku Pseude 

Gothic architecture. He also gave financial support to the construction of several schools and mosques in 

Baku and its villages. In April 1920, he committed suicide while defending his own residence from the 

soldiers of the Red Army. 67 

In general, the first oil boom in Azerbaijan following the abolishment of the lease system in 1972 

influenced the architectural view of Baku. The oil millionaires were competing between each other for the 

construction of beautiful buildings and residences different to each other in design, which led to the 

transformation of Baku into one of the most marvelous and beautiful cities in the world. Nevertheless, as 

mentioned before, after the intervention of the Red Army in Baku in April 1920, all properties belonging 

to local oil barons and millionaires were confiscated and nationalized by the Bolshevik Government and 

the life of them ended mostly tragically. 

Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (1918‐1920) and the interests of Great Powers in Azerbaijani oil 

After the Russian Revolution of 1917 the political situation changed in Azerbaijan. Baku apparently 

began to attract the interests of the great powers and fell into a power vacuum because of its vast energy 

resources and geopolitical situation. The desire to control the Baku oil industry caused intense rivalries 

among Russian, Turkish, German, and British forces. After the revolution, Russia regarded the Baku oil as 

a vital issue for the Bolshevik regime; hence it established Soviet Rule at the beginning of 1918 in Baku, 

nationalized the oil industry and kept the oil flowing to Soviet Russia. During that period, 165 

independent oil companies were nationalized in Azerbaijan 68 and more than 1.3 million oil and oil 

66 Official information from Administrative Department of the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, PRESIDENTIAL 

LIBRARY, p. 114; (www.elibrary.az/docs/azerbaijan/eng/gl6.pdf). Accessed on 17 September 2010. 

67 Ibid, PRESIDENTIAL LIBRARY, p. 115. 

68 Sabit Bagirov, “Azerbaijani Oil: Glimpses of a Long History”, Perceptions, Vol. 1, No. 2, June‐August 1996, p. 34. 

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products were transported to Bolshevik Russia. 69 Due to nationalization and political changes there was a 

rapid reduction in oil production. Nevertheless, after the declaration of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic 

on 28 May 1918 the situation totally changed. On September 18, the joint military force of Azerbaijan and 

Ottoman Turkey seized Baku and the rule of the Bolsheviks ended. 70 The newly formed government of 

the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) took a decision of denationalizing the oil industry and 

returning all oil fields and enterprises to the owners. 71 During its two years independence the ADR tried 

to follow an independent policy in the oil industry and made several steps for establishing a relationship 

with western companies. After the stabilization of the political situation the oil industry witnessed some 

growth and began to draw the attention of big companies. For instance, at the beginning of 1919 the 

Standard Oil of New Jersey signed an oil contract with the newly created Azerbaijani government in 

order to buy undeveloped oil field in Baku at the cost of $320,000 and also half of Nobel interests. One 

year later, in March 1920, Standard Oil concluded a contract with four Baku companies for purchasing 

64,000 tons of kerosine. When Azerbaijani independence came to an end due to the Soviet intervention 

these contracts became obsolete. 72 

After the Russian revolution of 1917, Caucasus emerged as a strategically vital point for the interests of 

Great Britain in Persia, Afghanistan, and most importantly in India. The treaty of Brest‐Litovsk, signed on 

3 March 1918 provided a legal basis for the direct intervention of Ottoman Turkey into Caucasus. 

According to the treaty three strategic regions of the Russian Empire, namely Ardahan, Kars, and Batum, 

were merged to the Ottoman Empire. According to article IV of the Brest‐Litovsk Treaty the Ottoman 

Empire got a right to provide military support to Azerbaijan in case of necessity in order to preserve 

domestic stability and national security. Following the article the Ottoman troops together with the newly 

established Azerbaijani army moved toward Baku in order to liberate Baku from the control of Russian 

Bolsheviks and Armenians, who were controlling the region since the tragic events of March 1918 of 

Baku. These events increased the concern of Britain of losing the valuable resources and strategic 

positions of Caucasus to the Turkish‐Germany allayment. Britain considered that once Turks established 

their control in Baku, it would be easy for them to penetrate into Persia and Central Asia. Due to these 

fears, the head of the British forces in Persia, Major‐General Lionel C. Dunsterville asked General 

Marshall, General Officer Commanding‐in‐Chief of the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force in Bagdad on 

22 May to gather all available troops for the protection of Baku against Ottoman Forces. 73 In May 1918, the 

British forces successfully captured Baku temporarily. But it was difficult to stand against the Ottoman 

69 Vasif Qafarov, “Ekim 1917 Devriminden Sonra Bolşevik Rusya’nın Azerbaycan Siyaseti ve Bakü Sorunu (Russian Policy on 

Azerbaijan and the Question of Baku after the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917)”, Gazi Akademik Bakış (Journal of Gazi Academic 

View), Vol. 2. No. 3, Winter 2008, p. 149. 

70 Bulent Gokay, “The battle for Baku (May‐September 1918): a peculiar episode in the history of the Caucasus”, Middle Eastern 

Studies 34, 1998, p. 42. 

71 Ibid, Sabit Bagirov, “Azerbaijani Oil: Glimpses of a Long History”, p. 35. 

72 Philip S. Gillette, “American Capital in the Contest for Soviet Oil, 1920‐23”, Soviet Studies, Vol. 24, No. 4 April 1973, p. 480. 

73 Ibid, Bulent Gokay, “The battle for Baku (May‐September 1918): a peculiar episode in the history of the Caucasus”, p. 24. 

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troops with limited military forces. The joint Ottoman‐Azerbaijani forces penetrated Baku and captured it 

in September 1918. 74 

But later, with the signing the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, the Ottoman forces were 

withdrawn from Transcaucasia and the British Empire seized the chance to control both Baku and Batum 

and all the railroads that were under the control of Ottoman forces, which was considered by General 

Curzon as an essential line of advance towards India. This event meant the end of Turkish, indirectly 

Germany interests in the region. The supporters of British military force presence in Transcaucasia were 

in favor of creating three independent states in the region: Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. 75 After 

getting control of the Baku oil industry, the British Empire immediately ordered the repairing of the oil 

pumping stations and railroads, which were essential for the transportation of oil. The Foreign Secretary 

of Britain A.J. Balfour and the Secretary of State for India Edwin Montagu were against the policy of 

Curzon to defend the independence of three Transcaucasian countries because that region is important for 

the defense of India and argued why Britain would have the responsibility to establish the independent 

Transcaucasian Republics. According to General Curzon the Transcaucasian Republics were against the 

policy of bolshevik Russia in the region and supporting the nationalistic aspiration of these countries 

Britain gave an opportunity to it to make Batum a free port on the Black Sea and control of the Baku oil 

Industry. 

“I should say we are not going to send all our money and men in civilizing a few people who do 

not want to be civilized. We will protect Batum, Baku, the railway between them, and the 

pipeline”, Curzon said. 

As a result, on 16 December 1918, the Eastern Committee of Great Britain agreed to the creation of 

independent states in Transcaucasia. Beginning of 1920, three month before the Soviet penetration into the 

region, three countries de facto recognized by the Allied Supreme Council. 76 By April 28, 1920 Baku was 

occupied by the Soviet Red Army, which was estimated by Lenin as follows: 

“We all know that our industries stood idle because of lack of fuel. However, today, the proletariat 

of Baku has toppled the Azerbaijani government and is in charge of running the government. 

This means that now we own a basic economy that is capable of supporting our industries”. 77 

74 Donald Ewalt, “The Fight for Oil: Britain in Persia, 1919”, History Today, Vol. 31, Issue. 

9;(http://www.historytoday.com/donald‐ewalt/fight‐oil‐britain‐persia‐1919). Accessed on 17 September 2010. 

75 Sean Kelly, “Britannia has ruled here”: Transcaucasia and Considerations of Imperial Defense in Lord Curzonʹs Search for the 

Near Eastern Settlement, 1918‐1923”, Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Mater of Arts 

in the Department of History, Simon Fraser University, October 2003; p. 45. 

76 Ibid, Donald Ewalt. 

77 Ibid, James Lawson Chapman, p. 14. 

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Azerbaijan oil industry during the Soviet Union 

In April 1920, when the Red Army captured Baku, the Soviet government realized the significance of 

Azerbaijani energy resources for the young Bolshevik Russia, which did not have strong economic basis 

and financial resources. In this regard, Soviet Russia began to take significant efforts to revitalizate the oil 

extraction and directed the entire oil industry of Baku towards the purpose of the Soviet Union. At the 

beginning of 1920 the Soviet government accepted the New Economic Policy (NEP), which was essential 

for the revitalization of the Soviet economy and retreated from the centralized economic policy of the 

previous era. According to the NEP the Soviet government gave permission to limited free trade. In any 

case the Soviet leadership had no other choice. The idea behind the NEP was to recover the economy that 

was totally devastated as the result of World War I and the Civil War in Russia. According to Philip S. 

Gillette, granting foreign companies concessions for the exploitation of the Soviet fields had two kinds of 

appeal for the Bolshevik Russia: 

As an instrument of the Soviet diplomacy by which greedy capitalist governments could be bribed to 

desist from hostile measures or set themquarreling among themselves over rights to exploit some piece of 

Russian territory. 

As an aid to economic development, supplying the war‐ravaged industries of Russia with needed 

capital and technology that could make the Marxian dream of a modern state a reality. 78 

One of the controversial issues of NEP was that, it granted the foreign capitalist concessions for 

exploiting natural resources on Russian territory in return for payment of taxes and a portion of the profit. 

On 1 February 1921, a resolution was introduced by Lenin to the Council of Commissars for approving 

the principle that would grant oil concessions in Grozny and Baku oil fields. J.V. Stalin and M.I. Tomsku 

opposed the resolution and insisted that workers would never support this policy and the existence of 

foreign companies would raise the workers against the Soviet Union. But despite all opposition Lenin 

secured the passage of the resolution. 79 According to Robert Mabro — “Lenin justified the NEP on the 

grounds that the economy needed ‘imperialist’ technology to recover”. 80 During that period, the principal 

American companies, such as Standard Oil of New Jersey and Standard Oil of New York, signed an 

agreement for the operation in Soviet Union. On 20 September 1922, the Barnsdall company signed two 

contracts with the Soviet government for providing the equipment and pumping of oil wells and 

developing the undeveloped oil fields. 81 

However, the situation changed after J.V. Stalin came to power. As mentioned earlier, with the 

decision of the Azerbaijani Revolutionary Committee state control was established over the oil industry in 

1924. Replacing Leninʹs New Economic Policy, Stalin launched the Five Year Economic Plan in 1927 by 

which the state assumed full responsibility for central planning over all aspects of the economy, including 

the oil industry. Following the first and the second Five Year Plan the production of oil grew 

78 Ibid, Philip S. Gillette, p. 479. 


80 Robert Marbo, “Oil Nationalism, the Oil Industry and Energy Security Concerns”, International Economy & Trade ‐ ARI 

114/2007, 25 October 2007; p. 2. 


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substantially. A large part of the oil products was provided by the Baku oil industry. 82 In 1941 the level of 

oil output reached 23,482,000 tons. By 1940, Azerbaijan was producing 71.5 % of the total Soviet oil 

output. According to Sabit Bagirov, from the beginning of 1920s up to the first years of World War II 

Azerbaijan remained a center of oil technology and science in the world, where vast deposits of 

hydrocarbon were discovered. The construction of the 834 km Baku‐Batum pipeline with the 250 mm 

diameter and 13 pumping stations was finished in 1925. In 1927 the immense project of filling up 

Bibi‐Heybat, where the first industrial drilling happened in 1848, was done. In 1928 the peak of 1901 oil 

production was surpassed. Azerbaijani oil played a significant role in the victory of the Soviet Union over 

Nazi Germany. Baku was providing 63.2% of the oil output of the Union between 1941 and 1945. 83 

Following the technological innovation in the oil industry in Baku, Yusif Mammadaliyev, an Azerbaijani 

scientist, invented high octane components for the aircraft gasoline in 1942. 84 He was granted the Stalin 

award for his innovation and later nominated for the Nobel Prize, but the Soviet Union declared that the 

Nobel Prize is an award of capitalism and did not let him to get it. 

During World War II, the oil resources of Baku were also among the Germans´ top priorities. Hitler set 

a plan for capturing Bakuʹs oil fields in order to fuel his war machines. During the first years of the war 

94% of Germany´s oil needs was provided by Rumania. But it was not sufficient tp decrease the nation´s 

dependency on imported crude oil. 85 In this sense, capturing Baku was one of the top priorities of 

Germany as part of its strategy for world domination. Mark Jacobson in his article “Big Oil Comes Back 

To Baku” illustrates the willingness of Hitler to seize Baku as follows: 

“Not everyone had forgotten the former oil capital, however, as documented in a grainy wartime 

home movie shot at a birthday party for Adolf Hitler. The Führerʹs cake is adorned by a map of 

the Caspian Sea, with the letters B‐A‐K‐U spelled out in chocolate cream. Hitler eats a piece and 

then avidly licks his fingers. “Unless we get Baku oil, the war is lost”, he would declare”. 86 

But despite a great effort made by the German machinery, it was not successful to bring the vast oil 

region of the Caucasus under the control of Nazi Germany, which was one of the main reasons of Hitler´s 

failure in World War II. 

In 1948, Azerbaijan made another innovation in the history of oil. The Neft Dashlari (Oil Rock) oil field 

was discovered in the Caspian Sea, 40 km from the cost of the Apsheron Peninsula. It marked the 

82 Ibid, Bülent Gökay, “Caspian Uncertainties: Regional Rivalries and Pipelines”. 


84 Miryusif Mirbabayev, “Azerbaijanʹs Oil History: Brief Oil Chronology since 1920 Part 2”, Azerbaijan International, Summer 

2003 (11.2); (http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai112_folder/112_articles/112_chronology.html). Accessed on 17 


85 Joel Hayward “Hitlerʹs Quest for Oil: The Impact of Economic Considerations on Military Strategy, 1941‐42”, The Journal of 

Strategic Studies, Vol. 18, No. 4, December 1995, p. 99. 

86 Mark Jacobson, “Big Oil Comes Back To Baku”, bnet, March 1999; 

(http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1134/is_2_108/ai_54032989/?tag=content;col1). Accessed on 17 September 2010. 

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beginning of offshore extraction of oil and was considered the “eighth wonder of the world”. 87 For the 

first time in the history of oil, an offshore oil field was constructed on trestles on the open sea. 

Considering Oil Rock Betty Blair points out: 

“…who could imagine that Oil Rocks with its dozens of kilometers of roadway built up on 

trestles and piers in the Caspian, off the coast of Azerbaijan, would give birth, not only to the 

worldʹs first successful offshore venture in oil drilling [1949], but also to an art movement 

countering the calculated artificiality and lies of Stalinʹs regime”. 88 

From its start, the Oil Rocks fields have produced more than 170 million tons of oil and 15 billion m 3 of 

associated natural gas. According to current estimation the volume of recoverable reserves is as high as 30 

million tons. 89 But despite all these innovations, since 1950 the oil production of Baku has dropped. Many 

oil wells were shut dawn by the Soviet Union that was concerned that they would fall into the hands of 

German troops during World War II. Later, with the discovery of huge hydrocarbon resources first in the 

Volga‐Ural region and then in Western Siberia led the Soviet Union to move its production away from 

Azerbaijan. As a result, Azerbaijan´s part of Soviet oil output dropped from 39.1% in 1950 to 12.0% in 

1960 to 5.7% in 1970 and 2.4% in the 1980s. 90 Since 1980, with the discovery of 700 million tons of oil and 

200 billion cubic meters of gas in four new offshore fields; Gunashli (1979), Chirag (1985), Azeri (1988), 

and Kapaz (1989) 91 and later Gorbachevʹs perestroika policy resulted in the flow of foreign capital and the 

second oil boom in Azerbaijan after gaining its independence in 1991. 

Energy policy of the independent Azerbaijan and its role in todayʹs energy security of Europe 

Energy security has been a cornerstone of the power politics of the 21 st century. It has been defined by 

International Energy Agency as an adequate, affordable, and reliable supplies of energy. 92 World leading 

countries are aware that without guaranteeing their energy supplies it is hard to preserve their position as 

an affective player in global politics. The European Union (EU) pays a lot of attention to its energy policy 

in order to access reliable energy resources, which is considered a backbone of the EUʹs economic and 

political performance. This part of our paper will focus on the Azerbaijani role in the energy security of 

the EU, while analyzing the oil contracts signed between the Azerbaijani government and Western 

87 “AZERBAIJAN ‐ Socar & Production Background”, ALLBusiness, 7 July 2008; (http://www.allbusiness.com/trade‐ 

development/international‐trade‐exports‐imports‐by/11417873‐1.html). Accessed on 18 September 2010. 

88 Betty Blair, “Oil Rocks in the Caspian: Birthplace to a New Trend in Soviet Art”, Azerbaijan International, Summer 2006 (14.2); 

(http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai142_folder/142_articles/142_salahov_oil_rocks.html). 18 September 2010. 

89 Vladimir Igorev, “A Man Made Island of Oil Treasures”, OIL OF RUSSIA, No. 3, 2010; (http://www.oilru.com/or/44/925/). 18 



91 Ibid, Khoshbakht Yusifzade. 

92 International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2007. 

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countries and projects that play an important role in transporting vast energy resources of the Caspian 

Basin to the European market while bypassing Russia. 

As the largest energy importer in the world, the EU imports 82 percent of its oil and 57 percent of its 

gas, 93 which are mainly provided by Russia, one of the biggest energy suppliers, and Middle Eastern 

countries. The statistics of 2007 indicate that the EU imports 30 percent of its oil and more than half of its 

natural gas demands from Russia, while most of the Eastern European countries are totally dependent on 

Russian natural gas supply. 94 According to the estimate of the European Commission, by 2030 the amount 

of European energy demand will be high in comparison with the current statistics and its traditional 

suppliers, Russia and Middle Eastern countries will supply great amounts of that energy demand. 

“By 2030, because of growing energy demand and declining domestic production, Europe will 

rely on imports for two‐thirds of its energy needs. Dependence on imported oil will remain 

extremely high, reaching 94 percent in 2030. Dependence on imported gas will rise to 84 percent 

in 2030, and imports of solid fuels are projected to reach 59 percent in 2030”. 95 

Europe realized that increasing dependency from Russian energy resources can cause serious 

challenges in terms of energy security and may lead to geopolitical turbulence. Beginning from 2006, the 

gas crises between Ukraine and Russia (January 2006), the Georgian conflict of 2008, later cut‐offs of gas 

supply by Russia to Poland and the Czech Republic in preventing the agreement between these countries 

and the US to settle anti‐missile basis in Eastern Europe, and finally the gas crises of Ukraine and 

Belorussia, respectively in 2009 and 2010, alarmed the European Union that Russia can use the energy 

factor as a political tool whenever it needs. 96 On the other hand, turning to the Middle East, political 

instability and the existence of OPEC in this region does not give a guarantee to the EU in the term of 

energy security either. 

Therefore, following the energy demand increase, the EU is trying to find alternative energy sources 

and transportation routes in order to decrease its dependency from Russian and Middle Eastern energy 

monopoly and diversify its supply sources. Concerning the EU energy dependency Melissa Lu pleads 

that “the EU must have a comprehensive plan that includes a diversification of its sources, better relations 

with other source states, and the strict gas market that will restrict and prevent any Gazprom monopoly 

on the internal gas market”. 97 In this sense, Azerbaijan plays an important role in the energy security of 

the Europe Union not only as an alternative energy source for diversifying its import, but also as a 

93 Catalina Lupu, “Russia and EU at crossroads: The role of the Black Sea region in the European Energy security”, Trieste, 2009, 

p. 9. 

94 Zeyno Baran, “EU Energy Security: Time to End Russian Leverage”, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 30, Num. 4, Autumn 2007, 

p. 132. 

95 Ibid, Catalina Lupu, p. 10. 

96 S. Kolundzig, “Eurasia, Energy Cooperation or Conflict? 3rd Part: Competiti (Impositi) on Of Projects for Oil and Gas Supply 

in the Light of Geopolitics”, NAFTA, Vol. 60, 2009, p. 322. 

97 Melissa Lu, “EU Energy Security: Challenges in Creating a Common Energy Policy”, Paper presented at 8th Annual 

Claremont‐UC Undergraduate Research Conference on The European Union, University of Washington, 8‐9 April 2010, p. 1. 

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significant gate to the immense energy resources of the Caspian Basin, which possesses high amounts of 

proven and possible energy resources, estimated between 10 and 32 billion barrels of proven and 233 

billion barrels of possible oil resources. 98 Proven gas reserves are estimated to 243‐248 trillion cubic feet, 

with the 293 tcf possible gas reserves. 99 

The main oil product of Azerbaijan, as the second largest oil producer of the Caspian Basin after 

Kazakhstan, comes from the three off‐shore fields of Azeri‐Chirag‐Guneshli. According to the State 

Statistics Committee of Azerbaijan, oil production has increased by 13.5% year‐on‐year in the first 11 

months of 2009. Most of this output was provided by higher production levels from the Azeri‐Chirag‐ 

Guneshli (ACG) field, which provided 83.3% of Azerbaijanʹs oil output over the mentioned period. Gas 

production recorded a more modest increase of 2.3% to just over 21 bn cubic meters (bcm). Over 40% of 

this production (9.1bcm) was provided by the Shah Deniz field and its associated gas from the ACG 

field. 100 

The collapse of the Soviet Union opened a new era in the history of the Azerbaijan oil industry. As we 

mentioned before, beginning from the mid 1980s, after the perestroyka policy of Gorbachev, the economic 

situation in the entire empire began to change. This created a favorable condition for the foreign oil 

companies to direct their investment for the extraction of the vast energy resources of Azerbaijan. By 

January 1991, the Azerbaijani government announced a decree that gave a tender for the exploration of 

the huge energy resources in the fields (Azeri, Chirag, and Guneshli) that were discovered in the last 

decade of the Soviet Union. British Petroleum, together with Statoil, Amoco, and Unocal participated at 

this tender and Amoco won the tender. Following the decision the Azerbaijani Amoco created a 

consortium, with the participation of Unocal, BP/Statoil, McDermott, and Ramco, for the exploitation of 

the Azeri oil field. In May 1992, Azerbaijan witnessed political changes in government and the leader of 

the Popular Front, Abulfez Elchibey, came to power. The government under Elchibeyʹs presidency began 

negotiations and he succeeded in attracting foreign firms and tried to involve more companies for the 

exploitation of the Azerbaijan oil and gas resources. 101 

The new government of Azerbaijan signed an agreement together with BP and Statoil on the Chirag 

field and Shah Deniz on 7 September 1992. This was followed by the signing of another draft contract 

with Pennzoil and Ramco on 1 October. In October 1992, SOCAR (State Oil Company of Azerbaijan 

Republic) made a decision for the establishment of a general infrastructure that would connect the 

aforementioned energy fields. As a result, in November five memorandums were signed with foreign 

companies “on the establishment of a general supply base, a common network of underwater pipelines 

and terminals, a common fleet and a common export pipeline”. After a long negotiation process the 

foreign oil companies were prepared to sign an agreement with the Azerbaijani government in June 1993, 

which would grant SOCAR 30 % share of the project. Nevertheless, in June 1993, the political power 

98 M K Bhadrakumar, “Catalysts of conflict in Central Asia”, Asia Times, 2 June 2005; 

(http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Central_Asia/GF02Ag01.html). Accessed on 18 September 2010. 

99 Mikhail A. Molchanov & Yuri Yevdokimov, “Regime Building as a Prime Mover of Technological Progress: The Energy Sector 

in the Central Asia‐Caspian Region”, Perspectives on Global Development and Technology, Vol. 3, Num. 4, p. 418. 

100 “Azeri‐Chirag‐Guneshli Field Production Up 17%”, BUSINESS MONITOR INTERNATIONAL, 17 December 2009; 

(http://store.businessmonitor.com/article/313934). Accessed on 18 September 2010. 

101 Ibid, Nasib Nassibli. 

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situation in Azerbaijan changed. Haydar Aliyev, the leader of the new Azerbaijani government 

suspended all negotiations. 102 The negotiation with the western companies began again in 1994, which 

resulted in the signing of the “Deal of the Century” on 20 September 1994. 

Deal of the Century: Also called the “Contract of the Century”, was signed on 20 September 1994 

between the Azerbaijani government and the Western oil consortium for the exploration of three joint 

offshore fields: Azeri‐Chirag‐Guneshli, worth approximately $8 billion. The estimated reserves of these 

three offshore fields were estimated at 4 billion barrels of oil. Three month later, in December 1994, the 

consortium established AIOC (Azerbaijan International Operating Company) in order to observe the 

daily operation of the project. The members of AIOC consisted of the representatives of the Azerbaijani 

government and of every company. The head of BP in Azerbaijan, Terry Adams, was elected the Head of 

the AIOC Board. The Azerbaijani government and the State Oil Company had 50% representation on the 

Board of AIOC Directors. 103 

Russia, immediately after the signing of the “Deal of the Century” between the government of 

Azerbaijan and the Western consortium, questioned the legitimacy of the contract declaring that it cannot 

be enforced. The idea behind the Russian threat was that the Deal was a unilateral agreement that was 

signed between two sides only: the Azerbaijani government and the foreign oil companies, and violates 

the legal status of the Caspian Sea. But the main issue was that Russian interests were ignored while 

signing the Deal, the Russian energy company Lukoil was not participating in the consortium and was 

not given any share. Therefore in order to neutralize the Russian position regarding the contract the 

Consortium decided to give share in the Agreement and SOCAR, the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan, 

granted its 10% shares to Lukoil. 104 

According to the “Deal of the Century” over the next 30 years 500 million metric ton of crude oil will 

be produced. 80 % of the shares of the Deal were given to the government of Azerbaijan and 20 % to the 

representatives of the consortium. The 20 % shares of the consortium were divided among its members as 

follows: SOCAR 20 %, BP 17.1267 %, Amoco 17.01 %, Lukoil 10 %, Penzoil 9.8175 %, UNOCOL 9.52 %, 

Statoil 8.5633 %, McDermott 2.45 %, Remco 2.08 %, TRAO (Turkish Petroleum) 1.75 %, Delta‐Nimir 

1.68 %. Later, in April 1995, TPAO was given 5 % more shares in the consortium. Exxon was also 

provided with 5 % share of SOCARʹs share. Hence, the share of SOCAR was reduced from 20 % to 10 % of 

the project. 105 According to BP statistics, the final version of the parties to the Azeri‐Chirag‐Gunashli 

(ACG) Production Sharing Agreement are: BP (operator ‐ 34.1 %), Chevron (10.3 %), SOCAR (10 %), 

INPEX (10.,0 %), Statoil (8,6 %), ExxonMobil (8 %), TPAO (6.8 %), Devon (5.6 %), Itochu (3.9 %), Amerada 

Hess (2.7 %). 106 

102 Sabit Bagirov, Azerbaijani Oil: Revenues, Expenses and Risks (view from 2007), (Baku, Yeni Nesil, 2008), pp. 21‐22. 

103 Emmanuel Karagiannis, Energy and security in the Caucasus, (London, RoutledgeCurzon, 28 March 2002), p. 19. 

104 Nasser Sagheb & Masoud Javadi, “Azerbaijanʹs “Contract of the Century”: Finally Signed with Western Oil Consortium”, 

Azerbaijan International, winter 1994; (http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/24_folder/24_articles/24_aioc.html). Accessed 

on 18 September 2010. 

105 Ibid, Emmanuel Karagiannis, p. 19. 

106 “Phase 3 Drilling Modules And Living Quarters Arrive In Baku”, BP Caspian, 21 June 2006; 

(http://www.bp.com/genericarticle.do?categoryId=9006615&contentId=7020647). Accessed on 18 September 2010. 

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Early Oil: Signing the “Deal” for securing access to the Azerbaijani oil fields was the first issue that the 

international consortium has done. The challenge was of how to transport the Azerbaijani oil to the world 

market. According to the President of AIOC, Terry Adams, “the unlocking of the Caspian is entirely 

dependent on the pipeline issue. Without a regional pipeline to the West, these resources will not be 

developed quickly. But if an early pipeline can link to the West, the investment and pace of development 

will accelerate”. 107 There were two options for the transportation of the initial production of offshore fields 

of ACG, which was called “early oil” by partners, to the world market; via the Baku‐Novorossiysk 

pipeline, which passes through Russia and Baku‐Supsa through Georgia. 108 

The contract for the transportation of “early oil” from Azerbaijan through Russia to the Black Sea port 

of Novorossiysk was signed in Moscow on 18 February 1996 between three parties; AIOC, SOCAR, and 

Transneft. The pipeline extends 1330 km with 720 mm in diameter. The construction of the Novorossiysk 

pipeline ended in 1997. Establishment of an alternative route to the Baku‐Novorossiysk pipeline was one 

of the top priorities of the Azerbaijani oil strategists. Therefore in the same year, on 8 March 1996, the 

Azerbaijani government agreed with the President of Georgia on the construction of the Baku‐Supsa 

pipeline. The trilateral agreement was signed between SOCAR, AIOC, and the Georgian government for 

the transportation of the Azeri oil from the Chirag and Guneshli fields to the Black Sea first, then to the 

European market. The first batch of oil was transported by the Baku‐Supsa pipeline on 17 April, 1999. The 

Baku‐Supsa pipeline extends 837 km to the Supsa, Black Sea port, with 530 mm in diameter. Between 1999 

and 2005 both pipelines transported 48.7 million tons of oil to the western market. 109 Transportation of the 

“early oil” by two pipelines was entirely for political and security reasons and did not make any sense 

economically to use two pipelines for oil that would amount only 5 million tons per year. “The most 

important reason for a dual‐pipeline solution was a simple one: once oil starts flowing from the Caspian 

towards its final destination in the West, it is unthinkable to have disruptions in the supply line. Since the 

security of this major economic investment was the number one concern, the foreign oil companies 

decided that two less‐than‐ideal routes were better than one less‐than‐ideal route”. 110 

Nevertheless, transporting Azerbaijani oil via Novorossiysk was not beneficial for Azerbaijan, because 

while passing through this pipeline the Azerbaijani oil brand called “Azer light” was mixed with the 

Russian low quality oil “Ural light”, which resulted in decreasing the quality of the Azerbaijani oil and 

losing in price in the western market. Additionally, the Baku‐Novorossiysk pipeline was passing through 

the war‐torned region of Russia, Chechnya, which was not secured. Another facet was that next to the 

estimated increase of the Azerbaijani oil production, plus the possible Kazakhstan oil in the future, the 

capacity of both pipelines was not sufficient. The Baku‐Novorossiysk pipeline was able to transport a 

maximum of 5 million tons of oil annually, while the capacity of Baku‐Supsa was 5.5‐6 million tons per 



109 “Transport Routes of Azerbaijani Oil (Baku‐Novorossiysk, Baku‐Supsa)” Azerbaijani Az, 

(http://www.azerbaijan.az/_Economy/_OilStrategy/oilStrategy_05_e.html). Accessed on 20 September 2010. 


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year. With this in mind, the idea of constructing the BTC (Baku‐Tbilisi‐Ceyhan) pipeline was a reality, 

which could be an alternative to Baku‐Novorossiysk and Baku‐Supsa. 111 

BTC Pipeline: The BTC Pipeline, which enjoyed the active support of the U.S. and European 

governments, is considered the perfect alternative for Azerbaijan and its partners in term of bypassing 

Russia and transporting their newly drilled oil of the ACG fields instead through Georgia and Turkey to 

the port of Ceyhan in the eastern Mediterranean. It was the longest pipeline in the world after Druzhba of 

Russia with 1,768 km and 1 million barrel capacity per day. The construction cost of the pipeline was 

4 billion US dollars. The pipeline was considered as one of the most significant legs of the East‐West 

corridor, which eliminated the need for nearly 350 cargo tankers that were passing via the Bosporus 

Straight and provided Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey with a greater geopolitical space in order to 

maneuver in terms of energy policy. 112 The BTC Co Shareholders currently are: BP (30.1 %), SOCAR 

(25 %), Chevron (8.9 %), Statoil (8.71 %), TPAO (6.53 %), Itochu (3.4 %), Amerada Hess (2.36 %), ENI (5 %), 

ConocoPhilliрs (2.5 %), Inрex (2.5 %), Total (5 %). 113 The first stage of the BTC oil export pipeline was 

officially inaugurated at the Sangachal terminal of Baku on May 25, 2005, by the presidents of Azerbaijan, 

Georgia and Turkey. 114 

Next to transporting Azerbaijani oil, the capacity of the BTC pipeline also provides the opportunity for 

transporting Kazakhstan oil to the European market bypassing Russia. It is largest oil producer and 

exporter of the Caspian Basin with a great potential of proven and potential resources. By 2007, it 

produced nearly 67 million tons of oil. According to estimates, by 2015 the production will reach 130 

million tons while exporting 110 million tons. However, the existing transportation infrastructure is not 

sufficient and restricts the export capacity of the country. Due to this reason, Kazakhstan intensified its 

efforts to increase the volume of its oil transportation through the BTC pipeline, which will break the 

Russian oil monopoly over oil transportation from Kazakhstan. 115 

Therefore, Kazakhstan officially joined to BTC in the summer of 2006. The construction of the 

Trans-Caspian oil pipeline was planned under the Caspian Sea in order to transfer large amounts of 

oil of the Kashagan offshore, the main oil field of Kazakhstan, to the European markets via the BTC 

Pipeline. The pipeline was planned to run from the port of Aktau to Baku in Azerbaijan that will be 

connected to the BTC pipeline. The Russian government opposes the construction of the Trans‐Caspian 

pipeline declaring that it is a threat to the environment of the Caspian Sea. In reality Russia does not want 

to lose its monopoly over the East‐West transportation route. If this pipeline becomes reality it will not 

111 Rovshan Ibrahimov, “Azerbaijan: Happiness is the Availability of Export Corridors”, USAK, 30 October 2008; 

(http://www.usak.org.tr/EN/makale.asp?id=552). Accessed on 20 September 2010. 

112 Ksenia Broisocheva, “Analysis of the Oil‐ and Gas‐Pipeline‐Links between EU and Russia”, CERE, November, 2007, p. 10. 

113 Rufat Abbasov, “BTC pipeline exports 11.9 mln tons of oil in 2010”, News.Az, 12 May 2010; 

(http://www.news.az/articles/15256). Accessed on 20 September 2010. 

114 Tamam Bayatly, “BP Current Developments: BTC Pipeline Filling Up”, The Journal of Azerbaijan International, Autumn 2005; 

(http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai133_folder/133_articles/133_bp_developments.html). Accessed on 20 September 

2010. 

115 Aleksandra Jarosiewiez, “Oil transport through the Caucasus is a top priority issue in Kazakh oil export policy”, CENTER 

FOR EASTER STUDIES, Issue. 6, 23 June 2008, pp. 1‐2. 

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Russia will loose some of its control over the routes, and in the same time it will increase the importance 

of Azerbaijan as a transit country. 116 

South Caucasus Gas Pipeline (BTE): Azerbaijan, a predominant oil exporter, also possesses huge gas 

resources, which is strategically as significant as oil. As mentioned above, proven gas reserves of 

Azerbaijan are estimated at 243‐248 trillion cubic feet, with the 293 tcf possible gas reserves, which 

provide it with the opportunity to push its role as a significant strategic actor in the energy security of 

Europe. 

The year 2007 marked a crucial turning point in the energy history of Azerbaijan. After the years of 

dependence on Russia, Azerbaijan emerged as a net exporter of natural gas with the startup of the Shah 

Deniz natural gas field. A production share agreement between the Azerbaijani government and seven oil 

companies for the extraction and exportation of the first phase of Shah Deniz gas field was signed in June 

1996, and ten years later, in December 2006, the field came on stream. According to BP, gas in the Shah 

Deniz field is initially estimated at 33 tcf and by 2009 the production of the field was acombined total of 

137 mmboe gas and condensate. 117 The participants of the production sharing agreement of Shah Deniz 

offshore are BP (operator – 25.5 %), Statoil (25.5 %), SOCAR (10 %), LUKOIL (10 %), NICO (10 %), Total 

(10 %) and TPAO (9 %). 118 

The production of the first phase of the Shah Deniz gas field is initially transported to the Shangachal 

terminal of Baku, one of the worldʹs largest integrated oil and gas processing terminals. Later the gas is 

piped to the world market via the South Caucasus pipeline, also called Baku‐Tbilisi‐Erzurum pipeline, to 

Erzurum through Georgia. With the 692 km length the pipeline is capable of transporting 20 billion cubic 

meters gas (bcm) annually. 119 The construction of the pipeline was completed in 2006. The investors of the 

South Caucasus Pipeline Company are: BP (Technical Operator – 25,5 %), Statoil (Commercial Operator 

25,5 %), Azerbaijan SCP Ltd. (10 %), LUKoil (10 %), NICO (10 %), Total (10 %), and TPAO (9 %). The 

Ministry of Industry and Energy of the Azerbaijan Republic is a non‐funding shareholder. 120 In the first 

phase, the plan was that the pipeline would supply gas only to the Georgian and Turkish markets, but 

later this route was extended toward Greece and Italy as well. The construction of the pipeline gave a 

chance to Europe to diversify its gas routes and to build the East‐West energy corridor while bypassing 

Russia. It is considered the first project that broke the Gazprom monopolized gas system. Additionally, 

the pipeline was a good opportunity for transporting the vast gas resources of Central Asia, mainly 

Turkmenistan, through the Caspian Sea to Azerbaijan. Then by the South Caucasus Pipeline to Turkey 

and later with the proposed Nabucco Gas Pipeline to the European market. 

116 “First Signature for Baku‐Tbilsi‐Ceyhan Oil Pipeline”, TODAY.AZ, 13 April 2007; 

(http://www.today.az/news/business/39349.html). Accessed on 20 September 2010. 

117 “Shah Deniz and the South Caucasus Pipeline (SCP)”, Statoil, 30 August 2007, 

(http://www.statoil.com/en/About/Worldwide/Azerbaijan/Pages/ShahDeniz.aspx). Accessed on 20 September 2010. 

118 Rufat Abbasov, “South Caucasus pipeline exports 1.3 bn cubic meters of gas”, News.Az, 17 April 2010; 


119 “SCP Commissioning Commences”, Press release, 01 June 2006; 

(http://www.bp.com/genericarticle.do?categoryId=9006615&contentId=7018471). Accessed on 21 September 2010. 

120 “Production Begins at Shah Deniz gas condensate field in the Caspian Sea”, Press release, 15 December 2006, 

(http://www.bp.com/genericarticle.do?categoryId=9006615&contentId=7026800). Accessed on 21 September. 

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Nabucco Pipeline: As mentioned before, in January 2009 the energy crisis between Russia and Ukraine 

resulted in the interruption of the natural gas supply to some European countries in the middle of winter. 

This event led the European countries to think about alternative energy sources and also alternative 

energy routes to transport those energy resources to the European market. In this sense, the necessity for 

the establishment of the Nabucco pipeline became part of the agenda of the European countries, which 

will transport the Caspian Basin and perhaps Middle Eastern gas resources to Europe bypassing Russia. 

The first idea for constructing the Nabucco pipeline came up in 2000 and in 2003 this proposal was 

supported by the European Parliament and Council. Then it became one of the top European priorities 

following the gas crisis of 2006 between Russia and Ukraine. 121 As a significant European energy 

infrastructure concept the idea behind the proposed Nabucco project is to strengthen European energy 

security by diversifying existing supply routes. If the project will be realized it will cost $6 billion, it will 

be 3,300 km long and 25‐30 billion m 3 transportation capacity. It will be constructed as the continuation of 

the South Caucasus Pipeline and as mentioned before it will transport Turkmenistani and Kazakhstani 

gas to Azerbaijan via the proposed Trans‐Caspian Gas Pipeline, then by the BTC pipeline to Turkey. The 

western part of the Nabucco pipeline will pass through Turkey, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary, and 

Austria. 122 The shareholders of the Nabucco consortium are Austriaʹs ÖMV, Hungaryʹs MOL, Turkeyʹs 

BOTAŞ, Bulgariaʹs Bulgargaz, Romaniaʹs Transgaz, and Germany`s RWE. 123 

The contract for the realization of the Nabucco pipeline was signed in May 2010 by the Turkish 

Minister of Energy and Natural Resources Taner Yıldız, and the Azerbaijani Industry and Energy 

Minister Natig Aliyev. In the same week the Turkish parliament ratified the agreement to construct the 

Nabucco Gas Pipeline, which would deliver 20–30 bcm of Caspian gas to Europe per year. Construction 

of gas pipeline was planned to begin in 2011 and the first supply of gas is expected in 2014. 124 

Even though the agreement for the construction of the Nabucco pipeline was ratified by the Turkish 

parliament, the realization and viability of the pipeline has been questioned by various authors and 

analysts due to several backstage problems of the project and unless these problems are not resolved the 

construction of the Nabucco pipeline seems utt of reality. 

One of the outstanding problems in the realization of the Nabucco project is the unstable energy policy 

of Turkmenistan. It is obvious that without Turkmenistani gas it is nonsense to talk about the Nabucco 

pipeline. For years, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the gas of Turkmenistan was transported to the 

European market via Russia, which gave Russia the opportunity to get the gas of Turkmenistan for a very 

cheap price. For that reason, beginning from 2006, Turkmenistan began an active policy in its energy 

sector in order to diversify its supply routes. In this regard, the Nabucco proposal was welcomed by the 

121 Maureen S. Crandall, “Who is Bypassing Whom? Russian, European and Caspian Gas and Oil”, Paper presented at “32nd 

IAEE International Conference”, San Francisco, California, 21‐24 June 2009, p. 10. 

122 Igor Tomberg, “Energy Poilcy and Energy Projects in Central Eurasia”, Central Asia and The Caucasus; Journal of Social and 

Political Studies, Vol.6, Num. 48, Sweden 2007, p. 49. 

123 Rashid Ziyadli, “Transportation of Energy Resources (Oil & Gas) From Caspian Region to Euro‐Mediterranean Countries, 

Current Situation and Plans For”, Paper presented at “The Euro‐Mediterranean Student Research Multi‐conference”, 9 June 

2009. 

124 “Nabucco Pipeline forges ahead”, Pipelines International, 8 June 2010; 

(http://pipelinesinternational.com/news/nabucco_and_south_stream_forge_ahead/041261/). Accessed on 22 September 2010. 

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new Turkmenistan government headed by President Berdymuhamedov. 125 But Russia launched a new 

political attack in order to prevent Turkmenistan joining the Nabucco project. Russia understands that if 

Turkmenistan agrees to transport its gas via Russia, the Nabucco pipeline will simply have nothing to be 

filled with. Thereforeç without Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan alone will not be able to provide gas for 

Nabucco. For that reason, Russia proposed a European market gas price for the gas of Turkmenistan. This 

process was finalized with the signing of a new energy agreement between Russia and Turkmenistan in 

2007. But stopping the flow of Turkmenistan gas through Russia in 2009 by the Russian government led 

to big losses for the Turkmenistan government and changed the condition in favor of the Nabucco 

pipeline that would be a strategic project diversifying the transportation routes. Such blackmail by Russia 

has convinced Turkmenistan to pursue an open policy of finding alternative transportation routes to the 

Gazprom gas system. 126 However, this was not sufficient because the current gas capacity of 

Turkmenistan is 60 bcm and almost 50 bcm of this amount is supposed to be transported through 

Russia. 127 Next to this, Turkmenistan also signed energy contracts with China and Iran concerning the 

transportation of Turkmenistan gas to these countries, which raised a big anxiety in Europe whether 

Turkmenistan will be able to fulfill all of these agreements. 

Another problem in the realization of the Nabucco project is the lack of political support from the 

European Union. The realization of the Nabucco project needs political support from European countries. 

In this regard, the well‐known scholar Svante E. Cornell writes: 

“The EU and its member states can do several things for energy development in the region, and 

by extension for itself. The first would be to strongly support the Nabucco project, understanding 

that this commercial project is dependent on political support and cannot be left to market forces 

alone; since all its competitors are politically supported and not market‐oriented, and energy 

issues are by nature political”. 128 

But instead of giving full support to the realization of Nabucco the EU members flocked to make 

bilateral agreements with Gazprom in order to ensure their secure gas supply. Due to the unwillingness 

of the European countries in the construction of the Nabucco pipeline, Azerbaijan began to alternate its 

energy market. Russia used this opportunity as a remedy for the realization of its monopolized energy 

corridor and stressed its interest for buying Azerbaijani gas at a European price. This culminated in 

125 Rovshan Ibrahimov, “Nabucco Pipeline: Increased Actuality, but Inertia in Realization (I)”, The Journal Of Turkish Weekly, 17 

February 2009; (http://www.turkishweekly.net/columnist/3101/nabucco‐pipeline‐increased‐actuality‐but‐inertia‐in‐realization‐i‐ 

.html ). Accessed on 22 September. 

126 Vladimir Socor, “Russia resumes gas imports from Turkmenistan”, Asia Times, 6 January 2010; 

(http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Central_Asia/LA06Ag02.html ). Accessed on 22 September. 

127 Rovshan Ibrahimov, “Trans‐Afghan Pipeline:Will Ambitions Convert into the Reality”, The Journal of Turkish Weekly, 15 May 

2008; (http://www.turkishweekly.net/columnist/2903/trans‐afghan‐pipeline‐will‐ambitions‐convert‐into‐the‐reality.html ). 

Accessed on 23 September. 

128 Svante E. Cornell. “Trans‐Caspian Pipelines and Europe’s Energy Security”, in Svante E. Cornell & Niklas Nilsson ed., 

Europe’s Energy Security: Gazprom’s Dominance and Caspian Supply Alternatives, (Central Asia – Caucasus Institute & Silk Road 

Studies Program, 2008), p. 152. 

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signing an agreement on 29 June 2009 between Azerbaijan and Russia for delivering Azerbaijani gas to 

Russia; the signing took place during the first visit of the Russian president Dmitry Medvedev to 

Azerbaijan. The sides agreed for the transportation of 500 million cubic meters of gas to Russia starting 

from January 1, 2010. The initial volumes of gas transportation was small, but such an agreement with 

Azerbaijan, a backbone of Nabucco project, was the curtail step by the Russian government in preserving 

its monopol position over the transportation of the Caspian Basin gas resources to western markets. It was 

obvious that without Azerbaijan, talking about the construction of the Nabucco pipeline is not logical. 

This agreement was considered by scholars as a clear message by Azerbaijan to the Western countries. 129 

Even going further, on 3 September 2010, Azerbaijan renewed its gas agreement with Russia´s Gazprom, 

which will double the amount of Russian gas purchases, from 1 billion cubic meters in 2010 to 2 billion 

cubic meters in 2011. The deal also provides for an even greater level of imports in 2012 and beyond. 130 

All of these abovementioned factors posit an open question for the realization of the Nabucco project 

and stress the importance of European political support for the construction of the pipeline. Because, as 

mentioned before, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan are the primary suppliers of the Nabucco pipeline and if 

the gas resources of these countries go to Russia there is no need to talk about the realization of it. 

Conclusion 

Azerbaijan, a significant oil and gas producer as well as a crucial transit country from the Caspian 

Basin and Central Asia to Europe, has been one of the birthplaces of the oil industry. In the global history 

of oil the first oil well operated by industrial drilling processes was opened in Azerbaijan in 1848. The 

modern development of the oil industry in Azerbaijan dates back to the 1870s, when it was a colony of 

Tsarist Russia. Beginning from those years, after the abolishment of the otkupchina lease system, the first 

oil boom happened in the Azerbaijani oil industry, resulting in the flow of foreign investment to 

Azerbaijan. Consequently, Azerbaijan became a leading country as a world oil producer. At the turn of 

the century, it held the first place in oil production and export. But beginning from the first years of the 

20 th century, the production decreased due to political turbulence, within the country, as well as at 

international level: the 1905 revolution of Russia, outbreak of World War I, and the Bolshevik Revolution 

of 1917. Azerbaijan was occupied by the Red Army in April 1920, the oil industry was nationalized and 

state control was established over the production and exportation of oil. During World War II, 

Azerbaijani oil played a significant role in the victory over Hitlerʹs Germany, producing more than half of 

the world oil output and around 90 percent of Russian oil output. Later the discoveries of oil fields in 

other parts of Soviet Russia, Volga‐Ural and Siberia, led to the decreasing of production of oil in 

Azerbaijan until 1980. With the Gorbachev perestroika policy, which freed the economy and gave a 

chance to western companies to explore oil on Russian soil, as well as discovering the vast energy 

resources of the Azeri‐Chirag‐Guneshli offshore field led to the flow of foreign investment to the 

129 Vladimir Socor, “Azerbaijan‐Russia Gas Agreement: a Wakeup Call to Brussels and Washington”, Eurasia Daily Monitor , Vol. 

6, Issue.127, 2 July 2009; (http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=35216 ). Accessed on 17 

October 2010. 

130 Shahin Abbasov, “Medvedev Visit to Baku Produces Gas Export Agreement”, EURASIANET.org, 3 September 2010; 

(http://www.eurasianet.org/node/61857), Accessed on 17 October. 

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_____________________________________________________________________________________ 

Azerbaijan oil industry. This event is considered the second oil boom in the oil history of Azerbaijan, 

which resulted in signing the “Deal of the Century” by the Azerbaijani government and a Western oil 

consortium in 1994 after a long periof of negotiations. In 2005, the BTC project became reality 

transportating Azerbaijani oil to western markets. Parallel to the oil exports, Azerbaijan also emerged as a 

net gas exporter in 2007 as the South Caucasus Pipeline became reality. The development and 

construction of such mega projects were beneficial both for Europe and for energy producing countries. 

As a result of these projects and contracts the Caspian Basin developed alternative routes to the European 

markets bypassing the monopol position of the Russian energy transport system and gave an opportunity 

to the European Union to diversify its energy suppliers and decrease its dependence from Russian and 

Middle Eastern energy, which has been always politically vulnerable. Next to these, Azerbaijan also 

played an important role in transferring Central Asian energy to western markets and the proposed 

Trans‐Caspian oil and gas pipeline and the Nabucco project will increase its role further. 

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Abstract 


Post‐Cold War World Order and Ideal Human Unity: 

A Perspective from Sri Aurobindo’s Philosophy 

This paper analyzes the emerging world order from the perspective of Sri Aurobindo’s philosophy, 

while arguing that the concept of ideal human unity as developed by the Indian philosopher provides 

the parameter to scrutinize the current working of inter‐state relations and also the ways how the 

nation‐states can play a dynamic role towards a world order based on peace and harmony. The cardinal 

argument on which the whole theory of ideal human unity is based is that at the current working the 

nation‐state system has not been mature enough to evolve an egalitarian system in which the realistic 

paradigm of nation‐state relations can be transcended, rather it has perpetuated the state‐centric 

international system mostly governed by national egos and prejudices. Sri Aurobindo argues unless a 

universal ethic based on supreme social trinity‐ liberty, equality and fraternity is evolved, the 

domination of one nation‐state or nation‐states over others will continue in one way or other. For this 

evolution of ideal human unity Sri Aurobindo envisages a greater role for India. 

Sri Aurobindo (1872‐1950), the Indian philosopher and thinker, who contributed to a range of 

disciplines including philosophy, psychology and literature played a major role in the Indian freedom 

struggle in the 20 th century and shaped the Indian thinking during and aftermath of the freedom struggle. 

This paper draws heavily from his reflections on nation‐state system and the world order, which have 

immense significance for the post‐cold war world. Sri Aurobindo strongly argues that international peace 

and stability can not be achieved by mere mechanical coming together of the states but by psychological 

understanding and feeling the urge from within of the necessity of a world union. He argues that this 

feeling is inherent in the consciousness of every nation but to identify with this consciousness; nations 

must transcend the confinements of narrow national ‘ego’ which leads to either aggressive nationalism or 

expansive imperialism found in varied forms in the conduct of nations. The religion of humanity which in 

its centre cherishes the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity, which nations in their policies at 

home implement or endeavour to implement, need to be widened to the international sphere and only 

then complicated issues can be resolved in a non‐zero sum framework. While elaborating the main 

arguments, the paper will follow this course. First, it will focus on Sri Aurobindo’s categorization of the 

concepts of state and nation and their inherent dynamics. The second section of the paper will focus on 

his concept of ideal human unity. The third section highlights the weakness of international bodies both 

in their conception and working. The fourth section brings India into picture and prospects of its 

contribution towards the realization of ideal human unity. 

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State and Nation and the World Order 

Sri Aurobindo makes a distinction between the concepts of state and nation – the state represents the 

transition of society from the infrarational organic stage to the rational stage and it attempts to bring 

about an organic unity of the aggregate people’s political, social and economic life through centralized 

administration. The need for compactness, single‐mindedness and uniformity to promote security and 

strengthen national defence is sought to be fulfilled by the state‐idea. According to him, “The state has 

been most successful and efficient means of unification and has been best able to meet the various needs 

which the progressive aggregate life of societies has created for itself and is still creating.” (Sri Aurobindo 

1962, p. 618) The state is only an outward form, a convenient machinery to enforce unity and uniformity, 

while the nation idea implies the living unity of the aspirations and powers of its peoples. A common 

race‐origin, a common language, a common culture and geographical unity may be its elements but it is 

basically a psychological unit with a distinct personality or ‘soul’ of its own. The evolution of the state 

follow this order: man by nature seeks the association of his fellow beings, and this seeking of association 

of individuals begins within the family followed by the tribe, then the clan, the community and 

subsequently the nation. But the progression does not end at the nation idea because there is a drive in 

Nature towards larger agglomerations and this drive can lead to the final establishment of the largest of 

all and the ultimate union of the world’s people. (Sri Aurobindo 1962, p. 797) 

Though the concept of nationalism emerged in the 18 th century Europe, it emerged not as a concept 

embodying evolutionary consciousness but proceeded from some kind of expediency, mainly 

geographical and historical. In the beginning, it surfaced as a secondary or even tertiary necessity which 

resulted not from anything inherent in the vital nature of human society but from circumstances. (Sri 

Aurobindo 1962, p. 743) It lacked the idea of larger human unity in its core. Though Sri Aurobindo did 

not reject the role of external factors, i.e. geography, language, and common objectives, or the internal 

factors like common sentiment and culture in the emergence of the nation‐state idea, he applied a more 

nuanced approach. He argues, “nationalism is not a mere political programme; nationalism is a religion 

… If you are going to be a nationalist, if you are giving assent to this religion of nationalism, you must do 

it in the religion spirit.” On the surface this approach may give a sense for the advocacy of crude 

revivalism, but a deeper analysis does not hold this viewpoint true. Karan Singh argues, “Sri Aurobindo’s 

nationalism never descended into chauvinism or obscurantist revivalism. He always placed it in a 

broader, international context.” (Singh 1972, p. 55) In his Open Letter to Countrymen, written in 1909 – Sri 

Aurobindo emphasized, “our ideal of patriotism proceeds on the basis of love and brotherhood and it 

looks beyond the unity of the nations and envisages the ultimate unity of mankind. But it is a unity of 

brothers, equals and freemen that we seek…” But, the evolutionary principle which Sri Aurobindo 

emphasized in his analysis of nationalism does not find place in the works of other scholars on 

nationalism. E. J. Hobsbawm (quoting Stalin) writes, “a nation is a historically evolved, stable community 

of language, territory, economic life and psychological make‐up manifested in a community of culture.” 

(Hobsbawm 1993, p. 5) Benedict Anderson emphasizes on the psychological aspect and writes, “it (nation) 

is an imagined political community‐ and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign.” (Anderson 

1991, p. 6) Among other differences, Anderson’s nationalism does not take into account the evolutionary 

and ideal nature that forms an integral part of Sri Aurobindo’s nationalism. 

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The psychological feeling of being in nation brings unity among people of different shades of opinion 

as it makes the principle of unity in diversity possible. It has the following utilities: first, it brings the 

sense of unison among people; second, it helps in developing a collective consciousness leading to 

collective goals in national affairs; and third, it transcending national divides bears the seed of a larger 

formation, towards a greater unity of human beings. Nationalism is evolutionary in nature and its 

evolution towards a higher form of synthesis of mankind is mandated in its very nature. There is always 

an urge in nation idea even in a way to ‘destroy it’ in the larger synthesis of mankind. In the growth of 

human civilization nationalism is an intermediary stage towards higher forms of union, transcending 

narrow national boundaries because the nation idea finds its consummation in the development of ideal 

human unity. But, the nation idea must be developed to its full before any possibility of formation of 

world union arises. In The ideal of Human Unity Sri Aurobindo explicates the possibility of emergence of 

world union. For him, the exact name does not matter, whether it is called world union or federation of 

states, what matters is the highest possible achievement of human civilization in which different nations 

and different cultures live in peace and harmony, as in one family. The characteristic feature of Sri 

Aurobindo’s concept of nationalism is the development of a crucial tool to explicate the instability in the 

world order and the crises that afflict it by making a distinction between ‘national ego’ and ‘nation‐soul’. 

While national ego, i.e. a vague sense of group subjectivity is reflected in national idiosyncrasies, habits, 

prejudices and marked mental tendencies, nation‐soul embodies a deeper awareness of group 

subjectivity. (Mohanty 1993, p. 142) While national ego is a barrier towards larger unity of mankind, 

nation‐soul has in itself a tendency towards larger agglomerations of mankind. Wherever there is 

domination of national ego, there is a tendency on part of national leaders to profess supremacy of their 

nation and to proclaim their right to expand into other territories, thus leading to imperialism. Whether it 

is British or French or German imperialism, an inherent urge was prominent on part of those nations to 

assert supremacy and domination over other nations and cultures. This tendency of national ego and 

domination persists even now as the recent developments in the international politics indicate. These 

developments are dealt in detail in the later chapters. 

For Sri Aurobindo nation‐state system is not the culmination of the formations of human civilization, 

rather it is an intermediary phase for the ultimate ideal human unity. Nationalism is neither aggressive 

nor imperialistic rather it is a significant phase towards the evolution of ideal human unity. While Sri 

Aurobindo argued for moderation of aggressive nationalism towards evolution of larger human unity in 

the wake of the First World War, almost same line of argument was followed by two worth mentioning 

scholars on the eve of the Second World War. Clarence Streit’s Union Now and W. B. Curry’s The Case for 

Federal Union were full of insightful arguments with roadmaps for moderation of the concept of 

aggressive nationalism, especially practiced in Germany under the leadership of Hitler. Curry appealed 

nations to come out of their narrow grooves to make the idea of federal union possible. For the survival of 

the civilization, Curry argued, “the groups which we call nations should become like other groups, less 

fierce, less exclusive, less aggressive, less dominating, admitting allegiance to, and submitting to some 

measure of control by the community consisting of mankind as a whole.” (Curry 1939, p. 65) 

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Ideal Human Unity 

Nationalism in its true spirit leads to internationalism as it cannot provide the anchor for the final 

solution to the problems emerging out of the nation‐state mechanism. When nation‐states do not mature 

and transform themselves to a larger possible human unity, they become subject to evils of aggressive and 

imperialist impulses. Only when the spirit of nationalism is developed to its full, it graduates to the 

higher goal of human unity. The nature which embodies the world is basically a ‘pluriverse’ not a 

universe, which contains in its core an inherent urge towards multiple poles of interaction which 

negotiates and reconciles diverse forms of expression as is the case with the nation‐idea embodying 

plurality and diversity. 

Attempts were made in the past to establish some kind of world order, howsoever limited in scale, but 

these failed mainly because these were not based on intrinsic values of the ideal human unity but purely 

on mechanical and superficial means. Empires like the Roman and the Persian adopted absolutist and 

monarchical means to bring some kind of unity and order among divergent units but those attempts 

failed because they were not addressed to the basic values of humanity in its genuine form. Sri Aurobindo 

developed the idea of religion of humanity to make his scheme of ideal human unity a feasible initiative. 

The underlying basis of this religion is not any kind of dogma or exclusivist tenets or ideas, rather three 

supreme values‐ liberty, equality and fraternity. This supreme social trinity or ‘three godheads of soul,’ as 

he names it, can provide a stable basis for a new world order based on peace and harmony. But, these 

three supreme values cannot develop and transform the world until the nation states rise to the occasion 

and cultivate them in habit, thinking and ways of life. In fact none of these values has really been realized 

in true spirit in spite of all the progress that has been achieved by the human society. Sri Aurobindo 

writes: “The liberty that has been so loudly proclaimed as an essential of modern progress is an outward 

and mechanical and unreal liberty. The equality that has been so much sought after and battled for is 

equally an outward and mechanical and will turn out to be an unreal equality. Fraternity is not even 

claimed to be a practicable principle of the ordering of life and what is put forward as its substitute is the 

outward and mechanical principle of equal association or at best a comradeship of labour.” (Sri 

Aurobindo 1962, pp. 762‐763) Liberty, equality and fraternity are largely in conflict with each other, unless 

transformed and reconciled in a balanced framework. Liberty on its own emphasizes on human freedom, 

some kind of laissez faire, thus neglecting the principle of equality. Similarly, the principle of equality on 

its own contradicts the principle of liberty as it emphasizes on parity ‐ at the cost of individual freedom, 

hence the never‐ending debate in political theory concerning the principles of liberty and equality. Sri 

Aurobindo argues these two apparently contradictory principles can be reconciled with the higher 

principle of fraternity. But this reconciliation appears unworkable in the present scheme of things which 

put emphasis on mere perfunctory order because fraternity as it is implied in its present working means 

mere formal coming of nations together or just some kind of formal unity without change in character and 

motives. 

The religion of humanity is the true embodiment of the three supreme values in proper harmony. 

Liberty in its true sense is not exclusive. Freedom not only implies ‘freedom to’ but also ‘freedom from’. 

Similarly, equality in its true sense not only implies equitable rights but also equitable duties. This 

harmonious working of the principles of liberty and equality is possible only when the spirit of 

brotherhood encompasses all the human minds including the minds that govern the nation states. Only 

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then the ideal for human unity will emerge not as a distant possibility but as an imperative for the 

mankind because, as Sri Aurobindo argues, with the passing of time nations have come closer to each 

other. The major contributions made by ‘science, commerce and rapid communication’ (Sri Aurobindo 

1962, p. 617) in this regard cannot be ignored. His allusion in the early decades of the 20 th Century to these 

three important vehicles of globalization brings forth the seminar character of this approach of ideal 

human unity and its relevance in the 21 st century. As the achievements of commerce, science and 

technology transcend national boundaries, similarly the religion of humanity transcends all narrow 

national mentalities and all those forces that confine national mentality to rigidities. 

The basic underlying motive behind the ideal of human unity is not the establishment of any particular 

kind of formation like world state or world federation or confederation. The objective is the achievement 

of the highest possible world unity among nations and their peoples. It may take the shape of a world 

state or federation or confederation, that is not more important but what is more important is that the 

nations must come out of the confinements of the collective ego to participate in the widest possible 

human unity. Hence, the world union will neither be rigid nor dogmatic nor subject to dictates of a 

particular nation or group of nations. It will not succumb to hegemonic ambitions of any particular nation 

because a true world union will be based on the ‘principle of equality in which considerations of size and 

strength will not enter.’ It will give equal respect to diverse cultures and patterns of life. It will, in the 

language of Crossing the Divide: Dialogue Among Civilizations, (Giandomenico and et al 2001) recognize the 

principles of equality and distinction, not domination and disintegration. It will not allow big, powerful 

nations to usurp the rights of other nations in violation of the basic principles of the world body. This 

world order will be akin to a rich tapestry in which different shades of colour are beautifully placed in 

their own places or like an ornament in which different precious stones are placed in their requisite order. 

Crossing the Divide written under the auspices of the UN and forwarded by then UN Secretary General, 

Kofi Annan challenges the theories of ‘Clash of Civilizations’ and ‘End of History’ and posits hope on the 

UN for the resolution of the global problems. It envisages the emergence of the UN as a kind of ‘global 

social contract,’ which recognizes the principle of equality and distinction among the nations and rejects 

the old paradigm of international relations and advocates for a new paradigm governing the relations 

between nations on the following bases: equal footing, reassessment of ‘enemy’, dispersion of power, 

stake holding, individual responsibility, and Issue‐driven alignments. (Giandomenico and et al 2001, pp. 

109‐152) 

International Bodies 

Did the League of Nations and the UN live up to the expectations with which they were established? 

Did they make in any sense the world better for the progress of nations and for the humanity at large? 

Both these mechanisms were not free from defects in their origin and conception. Sri Aurobindo writes, 

“the League (the League of Nations, established after the end of the First World War) was eventually 

formed with America outside it as an instrument of European diplomacy, which was a bad omen for its 

future.” (Sri Aurobindo 1962, p. 710) He warned about the danger of assigning ‘preponderant place to the 

five great powers in the Security Council’ of the UN, thus ensuring a ‘strong surviving element of 

oligarchy’ in the international body. (Sri Aurobindo 1962, p. 782) He further warned that its defects might 

lead to pessimism and doubt regarding its final success. The League of Nations failed because it was not 

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truly representative of the nations and the member nations frequently violated its principles. Many 

members of the League gave the impression that they joined the League not for universal peace and 

harmony but the fulfillment of their narrow interests. This was reflected in frequent violation of the 

League principles and in agreements like Kellog‐Briand Pact and Nine‐ Power treaty and many others. 

The key player in the formation of the League, the US did not join it because of opposition from its Senate. 

The humiliation of Germany at the Versailles treaty in 1919 opened up the possibilities of the rise of 

aggressive nationalism. Instead of resolving the problem it gave vent to the suppressed anger and 

frustration on part of Germany to come out in open two decades later. These developments finally led to 

the Second World War, shattering the hopes for the building of a new world order. 

In the emerging post‐cold war scenario the UN could have provided avenues for divergent nations to 

display their diversities in a harmonious way under one roof, where the differences among them could be 

resolved under the framework of international law applicable equally to all nations. But the sanctioning of 

veto power to the five permanent members of the UN Security Council marred the prospects of the rise of 

an egalitarian world structure. As the past records show, this veto power has been exercised arbitrarily by 

the big powers for the fulfillment of their interests. Ostrom J. Moller, an advocate of world governance, 

argued “The five victorious nations decided that they should govern the world. Is that the best solution? 

Whether the world should be governed by the Security Council is itself an interesting question, but if so 

should it then be these five nations who should do it?” (Moller 2000, p. 173) Moller also pointed that a 

new international system cannot be built upon sovereign nation‐states as participant but has to be built on 

the transfer of sovereignty from the nation‐state to international institutions. He does not reject nation‐ 

states as participants in international mechanism but they have to partially transfer their sovereignty. 

(Moller 2000, p. 146) For this to happen some kind of ‘creative destruction’ on part of the nation‐states 

need to take place. 

The UN, which emerged as a ‘global social contract’, appeared to be more representative in 

comparison to its predecessor the League of Nations. The General Assembly, comprise almost all nations 

of the world (at present the number of the members is 192; in 1945, the year it was established, the 

number was 51). The Assembly has been working on the principle of one nation, one vote, thus giving 

equal voice to all nations, big or small, powerful or marginal. Through its various bodies like UNESCO, 

UNICEF and WHO the UN has done a commendable work in adopting and organizing welfare activities 

throughout the world. This supreme international body was expected to provide the ground for the 

emergence of the ideal human unity but as its functions later showed the powerful nations in the Security 

Council used their special powers arbitrarily. The defects in the working of the UN and in its structure 

can be summarized in the following points. First, the system built up more than fifty years ago has not 

developed suitable mechanisms to adapt itself to the changing circumstances. The menace of terrorism, 

the challenges emerging out of market economy and globalization, the accentuating north‐south divide, 

the problems related to human rights and democracy have not been tackled by the world body 

appropriately. Though the theories of Clash of Civilization and End of History have been challenged by 

the proponents of the UN system, no grand alternative or any kind of mechanism to address these 

emerging problems have been devised. Second, the decision‐making power has been concentrated in few 

powerful centres. The Permanent‐5 countries by the means of veto power have weakened the real motive 

behind the establishment of the UN. Third, the UN lacks the effective means to enforce its rules and 

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regulations. It lacks adequate financial means to implement its plans and programmes. (Novosseloff 2000, 

pp. 945‐963) What Curry said about seventy years ago seemed to be true now: “There still remains the 

idea that nationalism somehow is defensible in terms of freedom and must there be resisted. This 

obsession is very deeply rooted”. (Curry 1939, p. 77) Fourth, in many cases the effectiveness of the UN has 

been challenged or dominated by other international bodies like International Monetary Fund and World 

Bank, controlled by the developed nations. 

The weakness of the UN machinery as mentioned above does not nullify its validity. Further 

improvements can be made on this system by gradual reforms. In this context two simultaneous 

developments need to be undertaken. First, nations must shun narrow considerations and participate in 

the international process towards peace and development in an egalitarian framework. The organizations 

like European Union, Association of South‐East Asian Nations, Asia‐Pacific Economic Cooperation, G‐8 

and G‐20 have already shown the ways to success, when working in unison. This collective spirit should 

be imparted in the working of the UN. Various non‐governmental organizations such as World 

Constitution and Parliament Association, World Citizens’ Assembly, World Association of World 

Federalists, International Registry of World Citizens and many others have launched movements to bring 

a just and harmonious union among the nations. (Basu 1999) Second, the structure of the UN and its 

decision‐making process needs reforms. Measures like the enlargement of the membership of the Security 

Council, providing financial autonomy, and giving wider recognition to the leadership of the Secretary 

General can be undertaken to this effect. 

There have been attempts to impart greater visibility and dynamism to multilateral organizations like 

the G‐20 towards bringing regional centres of economic power in playing an important role in global 

economic management. The rising clout of the G‐20 and coming together of developed and developing 

countries shows a clear inclination on part of crucial players in international politics to promote the path 

of multilateralism to manage global economic crisis. Since 1999 the grouping has played an effective role 

to set common principles for sound economic management, broaden the Washington consensus on 

economic development, devise strong measures to curb terror finance. It has also adopted the Accord for 

Sustained Growth outlining policies to promote monetary and financial stability, enhance domestic and 

international competition, and empower people to participate successfully in markets. The G‐20 may 

appear small but the grouping represents about 90 per cent of the world’s economic output with 67 per 

cent of world population and its success in meeting global crisis show that this body with diverse 

countries with diverse levels of growth and societal make up have struck a right balance between 

legitimacy and effectiveness and met the challenge better than any similar effort. (Martin 2005, pp. 2‐6) 

The Canadian leader Paul Martin, who chaired the first G‐20 meeting, argued that the G‐20 model which 

is primarily a multilateral economic instrument in international politics can be replicated in the form L‐20 

(Leaders‐20) to meet the global challenges. The lessons drawn from working of the G‐20, i.e. crucial 

decisions are taken at political level, commonality despite differences and focus on larger issues of 

stability and predictability can be further extended in creating another organization L‐20 which can focus 

on political issues confronting nations of the world. The globalized world where borders seldom work as 

barriers in the spread of ideas, commerce or devious forces terrorism or diseases or weapons of mass 

destruction or environmental concerns justify the creation of an L‐20. 

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The complex international relations of the 21 st century appear to be fraught with same old problems as 

in past towards creating a multilateral body to solve the global crises. For instance, in case of the proposed 

L‐20 who will be the members? Who will set the agenda for the body to deliberate upon? Whether the 

body will meet the issues of common concern such as terrorism (which is much contested), or 

environmental degradation (too much divergence as the Copenhagen summit of 2009 shows), or 

pandemics (politics about vaccines, etc.) with effective mechanism to enforce its decisions, or it will just 

impart guidelines leaving to nation‐states to follow at their will? The post‐cold war (still it is cold war 

with the prefix post) so far lacks the needed momentum to evolve a global egalitarian architecture. 

Attempts or ideas such as L‐20 will be fraught with the similar problems as that of the UN. The structural 

and conceptual reform of the UN including inclusion of new permanent members such as the rising 

nations of India, Brazil and South Africa in the Security Council has been marred by disagreements. The 

reluctance on part of some of the big powers to come out of their national egos and accommodate the 

rising aspirations in the council has delayed the reform process. The same kind of ‘confinement’ and 

‘exclusion’ mentality will likely continue for the near future, thus obstructing any attempt towards ideal 

human unity. 

Unless the UN is transformed into a genuine representative of divergent nations, it will not be to cater 

the divergent aspirations of nation states in a global framework in a harmonious blending. The concern 

expressed by Sri Aurobindo regarding the future of the UN has also been echoed by the noted scientist 

Albert Einstein, “The United Nations is an extremely important and useful institution provided the 

peoples and governments of the world realize that it is merely a transitional system towards the final 

goal, which is the establishment of supranational authority vested with sufficient legislative and executive 

powers to keep the peace.” (Basu 1999, p. 1) Similarly, Emery Reves in his The Anatomy of Peace writes, 

“World government is not an ‘ultimate goal’ but an immediate necessity. It has been overdue since 1914”. 

(Basu 1999, p. 4) Likewise, the Parliament of World Religions in 1993 advocated for the adoption of the 

Golden Rule (Giandomenico and et al 2001, p. 74) by the nations for the evolution of a world union. 

Golden Rule has both positive and negative dimensions: in its positive dimension it embodies the 

principle: do unto others what you would want others to do unto you; and in its negative dimension it 

embodies the principle: do not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto you. If nations 

could adopt this rule shared by all great religious traditions the authors of the Crossing the Divide argue, it 

will help in the evolution of a global ethic to be equally observed and respected by different nations 

towards emergence of a multipolar world without compromising national interests rather elevating them 

to a higher pedestal in which peace, harmony and development will be core principles. 

India’s Emergence 

The element of force as effective means for the establishment of an ideal world union is ruled out in the 

scheme of ideal human unity. History makes it evidently clear that force may bring some kind of formal 

world unity but it will not last long unless the mechanism of force gives way to the means of harmony 

and order. Curry stipulated the following conditions for the emergence of a genuine world federation: 

independent control of foreign policy, common armed force, common economic policy, common control 

of communications, international control of currency, and effective world public opinion. Streit 

emphasized on the following points: union citizenship, union defence force, union customs‐free economy, 

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union money, and union postal and communications system. (Curry 1939, pp. 107‐114 and 147) Though 

Sri Aurobindo analyzed the possibility of administrative unity, common economic policy, common 

military force, he did not give any specific guidelines regarding the future structure of the world body. 

What he emphasized most was the cultivation of the religion of humanity among the nations. The 

emergence of world unity for Sri Aurobindo is the manifestation of a higher consciousness in the world. 

The march from the state to the higher, world state can be explained as a movement of nature from 

infrarational to rational and then to suprarational forms of consciousness. Sri Aurobindo’s ideal of human 

unity provides the rationale for the nation states to come out of the hegemonic ambitions and related 

foreign policy postures pursued by them as clearly reflected in turmoil of the past decade. Sidney Kartus 

observes: “The Western world knows far more of Marx’s call to the working men to unite than it does of 

Sri Aurobindo’s message to the humanity to unite. Yet it is a message such as that of Sri Aurobindo with 

which humanity must become familiar and which it must need in order attain human unity.” (Kartus 

1960, p. 314) 

An integral part of Sri Aurobindo’s concept of nationalism was spiritualism. He advocated spiritual 

nationalism during the Indian freedom struggle. In his editorials in Bande Mataram, he demanded for 

complete independence from the British domination against the moderate demand for dominion status 

as, he argued, swaraj (self‐rule) of India was not a factor sole to India herself but was an imperative for the 

larger cause of humanity. He, thus, demanded complete independence for India and for the achievement 

of that purpose advocated for spiritual nationalism, having four‐fold dimensions: swadeshi (self‐reliance), 

swaraj, boycott and national education. Such an approach, he argued, will arouse national consciousness 

for India’s freedom so that India with her non‐antagonistic posture can play an important role towards 

ideal human unity. In his message on the eve of first Independence Day on 15 August 1947, he outlined 

five dreams about India and humanity. While the third dream was about the formation of a world union, 

the fourth one emphasized India’s spiritual role in promoting the ideal of human unity. India with its rich 

cultural heritage and pluralistic character could play a vital role towards bringing nations together for the 

larger objective of ideal human unity. 

Once the principle of ideal human unity is embedded in the approaches of nations in their mutual 

conducts, though a difficult proposition in the current state of affairs keeping in view the post‐cold war 

developments, then the world order free from aggressive tendencies will be stable and the question of 

force as a foreign policy tool will become largely obsolete. Whether it is ‘peaceful rise of Chine’ or ‘rise of 

Asian powers’ or ‘decline of the West’ these developments will not be viewed in the ambit of zero sum 

game in international politics as they will emerge as facts to contend with in evolving international 

politics. The power alignments meant to contain one power or the other will be viewed differently from 

the evolutionary perspective towards ideal human unity. India’s relations vis‐à‐vis other powers 

particularly China with which India enjoys an asymmetric relationship can be analyzed in this context. 

India‐China relations can be described by the biological aphorism as malnutrition of political relations 

and surfeit of economic relations. China is India’s second largest trade partner though they display 

disagreements on various issues including border, terrorism, principles governing bilateral and 

multilateral relationship. Lee Kuan Yew in an article analyzed how in March 2005 the US Secretary of 

State Condoleezza Rice in New Delhi lured Indian leadership to cooperate with the US to contain China 

and in return “America will help India become a world power,” and posed the question with a sense of 

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disagreement “Will India line up with the U.S. against its powerful neighbor, China, as Japan has? India 

has a deep sense of its separate destiny.” (Yew 2005) India’s foreign policy in its core has the principle of 

accommodation and appreciation, clearly reflected in the statement by Indian Prime Minister Manmohan 

Singh, “The world is large enough to accommodate the growth and ambitions of both our countries (India 

and China). I do not look upon our relations with the US as meant to rival China. I look forward to 

enhanced cooperation with China.” (Yew 2005) 

In the coming decades the world’s economic centre of gravity will move from the Atlantic to the Pacific 

and Indian oceans with the rise of India and China, but it does not predicate that the world will then be 

free from disorder, instability and violence unless a framework is evolved to contain the aggressive 

nationalist spirit that still looms large in the policies of nation‐states. This further reinforces the ideal of 

human unity which is predicated on the premise that nation‐states must come out of their aggressive 

mindset to make the unity feasible. India in the post‐cold war situation has aspired to multi‐task its 

foreign policy by simultaneously engaging diverse powers both perceived friends and enemies. India 

since independence has made rapid strides in development. The Nuclear Suppliers’ Group’s waiver on 

the recent Indo‐US nuclear deal reflects India’s acceptability as a responsible rising power. The 

philosophical as well historical background of India’s foreign policy, with having roots as early as 6 th 

Century BC, has in core promotion of peace and condemnation of violence. This is well reflected in the 

teachings and philosophy of spiritual and political leaders including Mahatma Gandhi and Sri 

Aurobindo. This tradition was espoused and practised by the father of the Indian nation Mahatma 

Gandhi, whose influence on the making of India’s foreign policy is indisputable as the first Prime Minister 

of India, Jawaharlal Nehru was his ardent follower. In fact the principles of non‐alignment, peaceful 

coexistence have in their core the Gandhian approach, which held in a very literal sense that human 

beings were the nation and that the behaviour of every individual ultimately moulded the fate of his 

country. The rapid strides in the Indian development and increasing circle of its foreign policy have 

maintained synchrony with this traditional core of India’s foreign policy. India has broken out of the 

‘claustrophobic confines of South Asia’ (Gupta 1997, p. 309) and looked forward to extend its 

neighbourhood across the Pacific and the Atlantic. The principle of accommodation and non‐antagonistic 

postures embedded in foreign policy approach of India provide it a higher pitch to play a crucial role in 

crafting a framework in which nation‐states can collaborate towards a world of harmony and order 

without a single centre of domination but with multiple centres of interaction and cooperation. 

Conclusion 

Any evolving world order, as Sri Aurobindo rightly argues, must in its core have an eclectic approach 

governing interstate relations and confronting challenges emerging out of the complex web of these 

relations, while according nations big or small, developed or developing equal voice in the global decision 

making process. The global problems such as climate change or terrorism or epidemics like swine flu 

preclude prospects of getting resolved with wherewithal of a particular state or a particular group of 

states. Hence, the emphasis that states must discard narrow confinements of rigid thinking and think 

global assumes increasing significance in the post‐cold war world. The world has become truly global 

with new means of communication and myriad interactions among the people of the globe guiding 

towards a framework of ideal human unity transcending national peculiarities and in its place evolving a 

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global ethic. The two factors, i.e. global imperative towards unity among nations and national assertion at 

the cost of international norms can not run parallel or work simultaneously as they embody contrary 

forces. They need to be reconciled or transcended in a wider framework of ideal human unity. In this 

direction, India with its peaceful rise and not‐antagonistic postures can play an effective role towards 

building new architecture of inter‐state relations shun of national proclivities but grounded on the 

principle of ideal human unity. 

References 

Anderson, Benedict, 1991 Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, 

London: Verso. 

Basu, Samar, 1999 The UNO, the World Government and the Ideal of World Union, Pondicherry: Sri 

Aurobindo Ashram. 

Curry, W. B., 1939 The Case for Federal Union, Middlesex: Penguin Book Ltd. 

Giandomenico, Picco and et al, 2001 Crossing the Divide: Dialogue Among Civilizations, New Jersey: Sheton 

Hall University. 

Gupta, Bhabani Sen, 1997 “India in the Twenty‐first Century,” International Affairs, 73 (2). 

Hobsbawm, E. J., 1993 Nations and Nationalism Since 1870: Programme, Myth, Reality, Cambridge: 

Cambridge University Press. 

Kartus, Sidney, 1960 “World Unity”, in H. Chaudhuri and F. Speigelberg, ed., The Integral Philosophy of Sri 

Aurobindo, London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. 

Martin, Paul, 2005 “A Global Answer to Global Problems: The Case for a New Leaders’ Forum,” Foreign 

Affairs, 84 (3), May‐June. 

Mohanty, J. N., 1993 Essays on Indian Philosophy, Traditional and Modern, Delhi: Oxford University Press. 

Moller, Ostrom J., 2000 The End of Internationalism or World Governance?, Westport: Praeger. 

Novosseloff, Alexandra, 2001 “Revitalizing of the United Nations: Anticipation and Prevention as 

Primary Goals,” Strategic Analysis, 25 (8), November. 

Singh, Karan, 1972 “Towards an Assessment of Sri Aurobindo as a Political Thinker”, in Kishore Gandhi, 

ed., Contemporary Relevance of Sri Aurobindo, Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram. 

Singh, Karan, 1991 Prophet of Indian Nationalism, Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 

Sri Aurobindo, 1962 The Human Cycle, The Ideal of Human Unity and The War and Self‐ determination, 

Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram. 

Yew, Lee Kuan, 2005 “A Rising Asia,” Forbes Magazine, 25 July, 

http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2005/0725/039.html 

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LITERATURE & ARTS 

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Zeki Demirkubuz ve “Kader” 

Yeni dönem Türk sinemasının Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Semih Kaplanoğlu, Derviş Zaim, Reha Erdem ile 

birlikte önemli yönetmenlerinden birisi Zeki Demirkubuz. Bu yorum, bu dönemle ilgili akademik 

çalışmalar yapan insanların da katıldığı bir görüş. Kuşağının ve takip eden sinemacıların arasında da, 

‘kişisel sinema’ diye adlandırabileceğimiz bir tarzda öne çıkan, “auteur” diyebilecegimiz bir yönetmen 

aynı zamanda. 

Son filmi “Kıskanmak” dışında bütün filmlerinin öyküsünü ve senaryosunu yazan, hatta bir kısmının 

görüntü yönetmenliğini ve kurgusunu da bizzat üstlenen bir yönetmen ve çok kendine ait bir tarzı olan 

bir sinemacı Zeki Demirkubuz. (“Kıskanmak” filmini Nahid Sırrı Örik’in romanından kendisi 

uyarlamıştır.) Hem anlattığı öyküler, hem tüm filmlerinde takip ettiği ortak izlek açısından, hem 

karakterlerinin filmlerden öne çıkacak referanslarla takip edebileceğimiz ortak yanları açısından üzerinde 

düşünmeye ve incelemeye değer bir yönetmendir Zeki Demirkubuz. Demirkubuz’un sinemasındaki 

bütünlük hakkında, iddialı olmakla birlikte şöyle söylenebilir: Zeki Demirkubuz’un bütün filmlerini belki 

tek bir filmin(in) farklı ‘episode’ları gibi seyretmek mümkündür. Nitekim yazının devamında “Kader” 

hakkında konuşurken de zaten öteki filmlerine sık sık referans veriyor olacağız. O yüzden Zeki 

Demirkubuz’un bir filmi hakkında derinlikli bir tahlil yapabilmek için mümkünse bütün filmlerini 

seyretmek gerektiğini düşünüyorum. 

Benim kişisel favorilerim “Masumiyet” ve bu yazının konusunu oluşturan “Kader” filmleri. Zaten iki 

filmin çok yakın bir ilişkisi var. “Kader” aslında daha sonra çekilen bir film olmasına rağmen, 

“Masumiyet”teki Bekir karakterinin bir monologundan yola çıkarak, orada anlatılan hikayenin uzun 

haliyle filmleştirilmiş bir versiyonudur. Ama “Kader”in ve “Masumiyet”in yanında öteki filmleriyle de 

değerlendirildiğinde Zeki Demirkubuz, hem temaları açısından, hem genel olarak kafa yorduğu 

meseleler açısından, hem “insanı anlamak” diye özetleyebileceğimiz bir “üst başlıkta” toplayabileceğimiz 

hikayeleri açısından ortak bir izleği takip eden bir sinemacıdır. Biz bu yazıda 2006 tarihinde çektiği ve 

senaryosunu da yazdığı “Kader” filmiyle birlikte Demirkubuz sinemasının bazı yönlerini inceleyeceğiz. 

“Kader”in ana karakterleri 3 kişidir. Bütün öykü, birbirlerini hapsedecek bir sevginin esiri olmuş, 

birbirlerini tutkuyla, saplantıyla seven 3 kişinin Türkiye’nin farklı şehirlerindeki hikayesidir. Ve bu öykü, 

bu 3 karakterin, birbirleriyle neredeyse bir tür zorunlulukla ilerleyen ilişkisi üzerinden anlatılır. 

Öykünün merkezinde Bekir isminde bir karakter vardır. Onun büyük bir aşkla, hatta saplantılı bir 

tutkuyla sevdiği “Uğur” isminde bir kadın ve Uğur’un da Bekir’in kendisine duyduğu aşka benzer bir 

saplantıyla sevdiği “Zagor” isimli 3. karakter öykünün ana eksenini oluşturan karakterlerdir. Bekir’le 

Uğur’un filmin hemen başında tanışmasından sonra Zagor bir cinayete karışır ve ortadan kaybolur. 

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‐I‐


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Uğur’da Zagor’la birlikte ortadan kaybolduktan bir süre sonra, Zagor 2 polisi öldürdüğü başka bir 

cinayetin ardından tutuklanır ve sonra “Masumiyet”e de kaynaklık eden asıl hikaye başlar. Bütün film 

boyunca Zagor gittiği her cezaevinde suça karıştığı için Türkiye’nin farklı şehirlerindeki cezaevlerine 

gönderilir. Uğur’da onun peşinden, Zagor’un gönderildiği her şehire uğrunda pek çok sıkıntılar çekerek 

gider. Bekir’de Uğur’a duyduğu saplantılı aşk dolayısıyla Uğur’u takip eder. 

Oscar Wilde’ın Reading Zindanı Baladı’nda “Herkes sevdiğini öldürür” biçiminde bir ifade vardır. Bu 

filmde de hem karakterlerin akli olanın dışında bir tutkuyla, neredeyse kendilerini kontrol edemeyecek 

bir saplantıyla takip ettikleri birisi vardır. Hem de aslında onlar için belki ailelerinin, belki toplumun 

belirlediği, aslında başka bir hapislik duygusu oluşturan bir hayat hikayesi vardır. Ve sevdiğini takip 

eden, onu sevgisiyle hapseden, bir anlamda kendisini de yokoluşa götüren bu sevgiyle sevdiğini öldüren 

kahramanlar vardır. 

Bunun sıklıkla işlenen bir tema olduğunu söylemek çok iddialı bir ifade olabilir ama Türk sineması 

açısından şu söylenebilir: Başka türlü bakışlar ya da anlatımlarla zaman zaman işlenen bir temadır 

‘sevgisiyle hapsetmek’ kavramı. Mesela Zeki Demirkubuz’un filmlerinde anlattığı hikayenin çok kabaca 

benzerlerini başka pek çok filmde görebiliriz. Bunların büyük bir kısmı ‘melodram’ diye 

adlandırabileceğimiz türe ait filmlerdir ama oradaki işleniş ve yorum Zeki Demirkubuz’un bakış 

açısından çok farklıdır. Öte yandan bu zaman zaman sanat sinemasının da işlediği temalardan birisi olur. 

Sanat sinemasının bazen insanın kendisini yokoluşa götüren birşeye, herhangi birşeye, ki bu bir aşk 

olabilir, bir nesneye duyulan arzu olabilir, işlediği temalardan birisidir. Mesela Luis Bunuel de bununla 

ilgili bir film yapmıştır. 80’lerde video furyasının çok yoğun olduğu dönemlerde arabesk diye 

adlandırabileceğimiz filmlerde de sıklıkla işlenen bir temadır. Ama sinemadan öte, “birini sevgi(si)yle 

tutsak etmek” bizim hayatta karşılaştığımız birşeydir. 

“Kader”, Bekir’in babasının onun için açtığı mobilya dükkanında uyuduğu bir sahneyle açılır. Uğur 

halı bakmak için dükkana gelir, Bekir’i uykusundan uyandırır. Bu tanışıklık gerçekleştikten birkaç gün 

sonra da Uğur Bekir’i tekrar ziyaret eder ve Bekir ona aşkını itiraf eder. 

Bekir o ana kadar, yani Uğur’a ona duyduğu aşkı bir tür mahcubiyetle söylediği ana kadar aslında bir 

tür ‘cennet’ içinde yaşamaktadır. Çünkü yaşadığı mahalledeki arkadaşları, akranları ya da daha genel bir 

ifadeyle söylemek gerekirse Türkiye’de onun konumundaki pek çok insandan avantajlı olarak bir işe 

sahiptir. İyi bir ailesi vardır, ona gözkulak olan bir babası vardır. Nitekim filmin ilerleyen bölümlerinde 

babası Bekir’in bütün serseriliklerine rağmen onu derleyip toparlamaya, ailesine sahip çıkmaya devam 

eder. O yüzden Uğur’un geldiği ana kadar bir tür ‘cennet’ içerisinde yaşamaktadır Bekir ve o ana kadar 

gayet masumdur. Bu masumiyet dolayısıyla da Uğur’a onu çok sevdiğini söylediği sahnede bir boynu 

büküklükle, adeta yaptığından utanır bir ifadeyle ‘ilan‐ı aşk’ eder. Fakat bu aşkın ilanı an’ı, onun 

hayatında bir dönüm noktasıdır, daha doğrusu dönüm noktası haline gelecektir. 

O ana kadar kendi cenneti içinde yaşayan masum bir karakterdir Bekir. Aslında filmin öyküsüne daha 

bütünlüklü biçimde baktığımızda Adem‐Havva öyküsüyle bir benzerlik kurmak mümkün olabilir. Orada 

da, bilindiği gibi cennette yaşarken yasak elma meselesi dolayısıyla ikisi birden, ‘şeytanın baştan 

çıkartması‘ dolayısıyla cennetten kovulurlar. Ana izleğiyle ‘Kader’i belki bu bağlamda pek çok dinsel ve 

mitolojik metinde de gördüğümüz arketiplerle ilişkilendirmek mümkün. Bekir’de o ana kadar yani 

kadının hayatına girdiği ana kadar ailesinin, babasının onun için yarattığı cennette yaşayan bir insandır. 

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Zeki Demirkubuz’un, filmi Bekir’in uyuduğu bir sahneyle açması da bu dünyanın dertlerinden uzak 

olma açısından bu bağlamda yorumlanabilir. Dolayısıyla aslında Bekir’in hayatının kalanını bu güven ve 

rahatlık içinde sürdürmesi için herşey hazırdır. Ta ki Uğur’un hayatına girdigi ana kadar. O andan sonra 

Uğur, onu bilerek ya da bilmeyerek baştan çıkaracak ve Bekir’i ‘Masumiyet’ filminde intihar etmesiyle 

noktalanan maceranın içine çekecektir. 

Zeki Demirkubuz “Kader” dahil bütün filmlerinde karakterlerinin mahremiyetiyle arasına bir mesafe 

koyar. 

Zeki Demirkubuz’un bunu özellikle yaptığını söyleyebiliriz. Çünkü, Bekir’in kaderini yani onu 

yokoluşa götürecek kaderini ‘femme fatal’ diye adlandırabileceğimiz ve edebiyatta, sinemada çok sık 

örneğini gördüğümüz bir karaktere yüklemek istememiş olabilir. Çünkü Uğur’un peşinden gitmek 

öncelikle Bekir’in kişisel seçimi ve bilinçli tercihidir. Dolayısıyla Uğur Onu ayartmak, baştan çıkartmak 

için herhangi birşey yapmamıştır. Öte yandan insanın ‘yoldan çıkması’ diye tabir edebilecegimiz bir 

tercihe yönelmesinin ya da onun sonunu yokoluşa, ölüme götürecek her türlü kötü yolu takip etmesinin 

sebebi illaki bir kadın ya da başka birşey olmak zorunda değildir diye düşünüyorum. İnsan bazı şeyleri 

tamamen sebepsiz de yapabilir. Ki biz bunu pek çok Zeki Demirkubuz filminde de görürüz. Nitekim 

“Kader” filminde bu görüşü destekleyen sahneler vardır. Finalde Bekir ve Uğur’un birlikte esrar içtikleri 

sahne örneğin. O sahnede her ikisinin de hayatıyla ilgili bu yazıda değindiğimiz ‘teslimiyet’ meselesiyle 

ilgil olarak ‘içlerini döktükleri’ bir bölüm vardır. O sahnede bütün bu yaşananların kökeninde esrar, seks 

ya da aşktan öte bir şey olduğu ya da aslında tam tersi, açıklanabilir hiçbir şey olmadığı anlaşılır. Zaten 

film boyunca Bekir’le Uğur arasında bir cinsellik yoktur. Bekir’in buna yeltendiği ama Uğur’un şiddetli 

tepkisi üzerine hemen vazgeçtiği bir tek an vardır. Nitekim “Kader”de anlatılan hikayenin devamı olan 

“Masumiyet”te bu noktayla ilgili çok önemli ve sinema tarihine geçtiğini söyleyebileceğimiz bir kavga 

sahnesi vardır. Bekir’le Uğur’un birlikte olma meselesinden dolayı otelde yaşadıkları kavga sahnesinden 

sonra zaten Bekir belki de aralarındaki aşk ilişkisinin masumiyetini yitirdiğini düşündüğü için intihar 

eder. Çünkü Uğur’la birlikte olmak ister ve bunu çok kaba bir biçimde dile getirir. 

Filmin “karakterlerin davranışlarındaki sebepsizlik” açısından önemli sahnelerinden bir başkası 

Bekir’in, Uğur’la İzmir’de konuştuğu sahnedir. Bu sahne Bekir açısından önemlidir çünkü Uğur’a 

davranışlarının nedenini sorduğu sahnedir. Nitekim ‘bu yaptığın kötülük, hayatın boyunca böyle devam 

mı edeceksin? Gel İstanbul’ a dönelim, evleniriz istersen, normal insanlar gibi yaşarız’ dediği sahnedir bu. 

Dolayısıyla bir taraftan kendisine çok benzer bir macera yaşayan Uğur’u yargıladığı ve neden böyle 

yaptığını anlayamadığı, bir taraftan da ikisi içinde kötü olacak sonu gördüğü için oradan kurtulmaya 

çalıştığı bir an diyebiliriz. Bu sahnenin kırılma noktası olması açısından şunu söyleyebiliriz: Bu nokta 

Uğur’un Bekir’i şiddetle reddettiği ve ‘sen dön, ben seninle böyle bir hayatı kabul etmem’ dediği yerdir. 

Dolayısıyla filmin sonu için artık neredeyse hem Bekir açısından hem Uğur açısından kaderlerinin 

bundan sonra nasıl devam edeceklerinin ipuçlarını gördüğümüz yerdir bu sahne. Bekir açısından bir 

dönüşüm sözkonusudur. Çünkü Bekir’in belki de önceki hayatına dönmek için, yani Uğur’u da alıp 

kendisinin tabiriyle ‘normal insanlar gibi yaşamak için’ son çabalarını gösterdiği yerdir burası. 

Dolayısıyla bunu da kabul ettiremeyince bütün film için kullanabileceğimiz o ‘teslimiyet’ duygusunun 

başgösterdiği nokta haline gelir bu sahne. 

Kendilerini bir felakete götürecek hayatın içinde olan, dahası kurtulmak bir yana bunu isteyen 

karakterlerin, yukarıda anlattığımız bu ‘sebepsizlik’ dışında nasıl bir motivasyonları olabilir öyleyse? 

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Uğur’la Bekir arasında bir sevgi ilişkisi olduğu aşikar. Bunu ‘aşk’ olarak adlandırmak daha doğru. Ama 

bir tür ‘saplantı’ olarak adlandırmak da mümkün. Nitekim pek çok aşk kolaylıkla bir saplantıya 

dönüşebilir. Bu kadar kesin çizgilerle tarif etmek belki fazla iddialı olur. Ama bir bakıma Bekir açısından 

bile bu duygunun net bir tarifi yoktur. (Hem film için hem genel olarak hayattaki karşılıkları açısından ne 

kadar açıklanabilir bir duygu olduğu da tartışılır.) Çünkü bu sahnedeki konuşmada ‘ama bu kötülük’ 

ifadesini kullanır Bekir. Uğur’un yaşadığı ve kendisine de yaşattığı şey için Uğur’un cevabı bir açıdan çok 

basittir: ‘O zaman kötülük istiyorum’ der ve biz filmin seyircisi olarak tanık olduğumuz bütün bu öykü 

için ‘Bu çocuk bunu neden yapıyor? Aşk için mi, başka bir sebebi mi var?’ diye sorguladığımızda da 

bulacağımız cevap aslında çok belirgin olmayacaktır. Bunu da Zeki Demirkubuz’un pek çok filminde 

kullandığı ‘nedensizlikle’ açıklamak mümkün. 

Hayatta da bunun karşılığını sıklıkla bulmak mümkün aslında. Yani adına aşk dediğimiz, sevgi 

dediğimiz ya da istek dediğimiz başka birçok şeyi biz kendi rasyonel aklımızla yine kendi 

deneyimlerimizden, kendi hayatımızdaki karşılıklarından yola çıkarak tarif edebiliriz. Ama bizim 

tariflerimizin başka birisi için hiçbir anlamı olmayabilir. Buradaki nedensizlik duygusunun da böyle bir 

açıklaması var. Yani “bunu neden yapıyor?” sorusunun açık, net ve bizim rasyonel aklımıza uymayan bir 

cevabı olmasının da kökeninde bu var denilebilir. Nietchze’nin bir sözü vardır; ‘insanın akli bir varlık 

olduğu kadar, akıl dışı bir varlık olduğunu kabul etmemiz gerekir.’ Nitekim bunun örneklerini 

edebiyatta da görmek mümkündür. Dostoyevski’nin “Yeraltından Notlar” romanı buna başarılı bir örnek 

olarak gösterilebilir. Romanın kahramanı tanıdıklarının ve eski arkadaşlarının çeşitli vesilelerle onu 

aşağılamasına müsaade eder, hatta kendisini özellikle aşağılatacağı durumlar içine sokar. Romanı 

okuduğumuz süre boyunca bunu neden yaptığını anlayamayız. Bizim değer yargılarımız, bizim aklımız 

açısından kabul edilebilir birşey değildir bu. Ama O neredeyse bir aşkla, büyük bir tutkuyla defalarca 

aynı şeyi yapar. 

Peki bir insan ya da bir film karakteri neden aklıyla açıklayamadığı bir saplantının esiri olur? 

Kuşkusuz, bu derin psikolojik tahliller ve teknik bilgiyle açıklanması gereken bir soru. Ama konunun 

sinemadaki işlenişine bakarak ana hatlarıyla şunları söylemek mümkün: Öncelikle karakterin 

saplantısının bir nesneyle, o saplantının, arzunun objesi olacak bir nesneyle ilişkilendirilmesi gerekir. Bu 

bazen bir insan, çoğunlukla bir kadın olur. Para ya da mücevher, altın, hazine vb değerli bir meta olabilir. 

Ama sonuçta bütün o arzuyu besleyecek ve karakterin değer yargılarını hatta bazen akli kontrolünü 

dışarda bırakacak birşey olmalıdır. O yüzden “saplantılı bir karakter” için öncelikle o arzunun objesi diye 

adlandırabileceğimiz bir nesne olması gerekir. 

(Devam edecek.) 

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EKUKLU, Bülent : Zeki Demirkubuz 

‐I‐ 

Zeki Demirkubuz is undoubtedly one of the most important figures in the new era of the Turkish 

cinema, next to Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Semih Kaplanoğlu, Derviş Zaim and Reha Erdem. 

Demirkubuz is unequalled in his demand for independence. He is a director who also merits the title 

of ‘auteur’. Except for his last film (‘Jealous’), he wrote the stories and screenplays, directed and edited all 

his movies himself. Therefore, his film making approach can be called a ‘personal cinema’. 

In his films and in the individual characters portrayed in them, there are some common elements 

which together allow us to draw a trajectory. This trajectory, truly worth of deep analysis, unfolds 

gradually as we watch each of his movies. Demirkubuz himself summarized it as “trying to understand 

human being”. 

In present paper we focus on the main message of the film ‘Destiny’ (2006) and discuss some aspects of 

Demirkubuz’s oeuvre. 

‘Destiny’ is a story of three people who love each other passionately and desperately. The only way to 

escape from the prison of this obsessive love is death; they in fact kill each other. There is a phrase in ‘The 

Ballad of Reading Gaol’ from Oscar Wilde which describes a similar situation: “For each man kills the thing he 

loves”. 

At the one hand, the ‘love trap’ concept is quite often employed in the Turkish cinema. It was one of 

the favorite themes of the video films of the 80s (see the movie genre ‘arabesque’). On the other hand, it is 

an eternal theme that pops up in art cinema from time to time. Naturally, it is not restricted to the cinema, 

as obsessive desires might imprison people in reality, too. 

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A propos d’une exposition: 

Hans Bellmer — Louise Bourgeois Double Sexus 1 

If one enters the exhibition “Hans Bellmer – Louise Bourgeois Double Sexus” from the back (as I did, by 

accident, when I got lost in the labyrinths of corridors after having a rewarming cup in the cafeteria) one 

might in an instant find oneself in a different world. Far and near, familiar and strange is the world of our 

own body. This — often ignored — part of our existence appears as a fantastical object in this exhibition. 

Between hanging phalli and standing breasts, twisted bodies and impossible postures, may we experience 

the body as a battlefield of sexual desire, lust and violence. 

As I walked into the spacious hall, my eye was caught by a huge metal cage. 

L. Bourgeois: Cell XXVI (2003) 

1 The exhibition embracing over 70 sculptural, graphic and photographic works from the two artists is to be seen between 

September 11, 2010 and January 16, 2011, in the Gemeentemuseum in The Hague. 

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Enclosed there hung a humanoid figure in front of a distorting mirror. His upper body was twisted in 

a spindle‐like form. Next to him there were two transparent, delicate clothes: underwear pieces. Locked 

away or protected from the exterior, in his self‐constructed cell, lives man watching at the outside world 

only through the distorting mirror. His connection to and his intimacy with other existences is hampered 

by a barrier. 

There is another story that this figure is telling me. This story is about man being irrevocably and 

unalterably bound to his earthliness. The twisted spindle form evokes an image of the gut. Tightly 

fastened in his material body, man is lost and sad. He travels through time as if passively floating in 

seawater, accompanied by transparent jellyfishes. He is gripping in his vulnerability; he looks as someone 

that ought to be helped. 

This sculptural installation entitled Cell XXVI (2003) 2 is one of several similar works by Louise 

Bourgeois. 

The work of Louise Bourgeois (1911‐2010) is rooted in the French Surrealist Movement, an extremely 

influential cultural movement in Paris between the two world wars, which fed upon Sigmund Freud’s 

studies on sexuality and the subconscious. Members of the surrealist movement aimed to move beyond 

empirical reality and into the realm of the wondrous, in the hope of attaining a more appropriate vision 

about man and his world(s). 

However, those who know surrealism from the whimsical worlds of Magritte or Dali might get 

surprised by the violent character of the artworks exhibited in the Gemeentemuseum. Sexual violence was 

in fact an ongoing theme for artists of the surrealist movement. They wanted to harness the libido for the 

benefit of their work. (Marquis de Sade was regarded by them as a revolutionary moralist and poet.) 

Women were often portrayed as fragmented and violated, and at the same time, womenʹs sexuality was 

often regarded as threatening to men. 

Surrealist artists were not interested in the Mysterium coniunctionis 3 , the harmonious unification of 

the opposites. The time had not yet come for it. A new idea of the woman was just about to emerge. 

Unknown, dark and strong appeared the woman, who — contrarily to her subjected position — was felt 

dangerous and threatening to devour man and his (!) intelligence. In Surrealist artworks what appears in 

place of a hermaphrodite is in fact an “androgynous doubling”. 

2 Cell XXVI was recently acquired by the Gemeentemuseum of The Hague. 

3 The term “mysterium coniunctionis” is suggested by C.G. Jung as a designation for the unification of opposing polarities: 

conscious and unconscious, reason and instinct, spiritual and material, masculine and feminine. 

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L. Bourgeois: Janus Fleuri (1968) 

The hanging artwork Janus Fleuri (1968) shows a doubled phallus with a center part reminiscent of an 

open vulva. The broken surface in the middle contrasts with the smooth, polished surfaces of the sides. 

According to the author, this object expresses passivity, but also resistance and duration for which she 

called it one of her self‐portraits. “Janus is a reference to the kind of polarity we represent…The polarity I 

experience is a drive towards extreme violence and revolt…and a retiring,” wrote the artist. 

Portrait of Louise Bourgeois by Robert 

Mapplethorpe (1982) 

The sculpture Fillette (1968) in front of the 

artist’s photograph at the exhibition 

“Double Sexus” 

In the famous portrait of Bourgeois by Robert Mapplethorpe (1982) Bourgeois holds her sculpture 

named Fillette under her arm. Fillette (1968) is a latex and plaster sculpture of a huge phallus with some 

details of a vulva. Contrarily to its size, and the ideas we commonly associate with the might of the 

phallus, it looks rather comic and diminishing. (Its curious title Fillette is a French word literally meaning 

‘little girl’.) Bourgeoisʹs mischievous smile on the photograph and the manner in which she carries the 

aggressively looking object under her arm, as a baguette, describe a person of playful geniality. She 

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interpreted the act as: “It gave me a sense of security. I’ve always felt that my sculpture was more “me” 

than my physical presence.” 

Bourgeois’ oeuvre cannot be simply categorized as “surrealist”. It has a deeply personal character, 

through which it has reached timeless, eternal realities. (Contrarily to Hans Bellmer, whose work — 

however sharp and suggestive — remained bound to surrealist ideas.) 

As I was looking at Cell XXVI, it called upon a new reality in me. It lifted me above my own 

earthliness. It was an artwork that talked to me, which — with the worlds of Martin Heidegger — 

‘opened up a world’ in me. Heidegger sees the great work of art as something that takes us out of the 

ordinary. More than this, he states that the work of art connects us to that ‘world’ in such a meaningful 

way that it allows us to be part of the truth. Bourgeois’ artworks own this world‐opening power, 

whatever frightful and violent they may seem at first. 

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TRAVELOGUE 

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The Hidden Europe: What Eastern Europeans Can Teach Us 

Introduction: Stepping into the Hidden Europe 

“This would be a pretty lousy way to die,” I thought. 

I was locked in an outhouse with no way out. Outhouses sometimes have two latches—one on the 

outside and one on the inside. The outside latch keeps the door shut to prevent rodents and other 

creatures who like hanging out in crap from coming in. Somehow that outside latch accidentally closed, 

thereby locking me in this smelly toilet. I was wearing just a thin rain jacket and the temperatures were 

rapidly dropping. 

“This stinks,” I mumbled. It was midnight, I was above the Arctic Circle, and the temperatures at night 

would be just above freezing. There was no one around for kilometers. If I didn’t get out, I could freeze to 

death in this tiny, smelly, fly‐infested shithole. 

My mom would kill me if I died so disgracefully. She would observe that when Elvis died next to a 

toilet, he was in Graceland. I, on the other hand, was in Finland, not far from Santa Claus. This Nordic 

country was my warm up before setting out to visit all 25 countries in Eastern Europe over five months. 

The fool wonders. The wise man wanders. — Susan Rea 

I had started my hike at 5:30 p.m. and planned to hike all night. It was June 21 and the sun doesn’t set 

when you’re above the Arctic Circle on the Summer Solstice. So it really doesn’t matter when you hike. At 

11:00 p.m. I ate some food in a deserted cabin and then went to use the outhouse. I tried all sorts of clever 

ways of getting out and they all failed. Then I thought, “Wait a sec. I am an American. Therefore, I must 

love violence and be a brute. Hell, Arnold Schwarzenegger is my governor. What would he do?” 

I decided that the old fashioned, just‐bang‐the‐door‐down method was best. I gave the door a swift 

kick. BLAM! 

Nothing. 

“Okay…” I took a deep breath of the foul air and then let out the hardest kick my legs could deliver. 

BING! BAM! BOOM! The door stubbornly stared at me. 

I sat on the toilet to think. Finland has one of the most sophisticated telecommunications 

infrastructures in the world, far better than America. I may be in the middle of some remote forest around 

the Arctic Circle, but I wouldn’t be surprised if those crafty Finns had a cell phone tower nearby. 

Checking my phone, I had a solid reception. “Gotta love these Finns,” I smiled to myself. So as my 

California friends were getting ready for lunch, I punched out a text message (SMS) to describe my 

predicament: 

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Funny, but scary: I am trapped in an outhouse. The outside lock flipped when 

I went in. Nobody here. Getting cold. Trying 2 bang out. 

Most were busy eating a tofu burger so they didn’t get back to me. One friend, though, suggested 

“CALL 911!” 

“Good idea,” I thought. But then I remembered that dialing 911 in another country usually doesn’t get 

you the emergency services. However, it might get you a pizza delivery service, which would be nice. 

On the other hand, even if I got an emergency service, I was so deep in the Arctic wilderness they 

wouldn’t get here until morning at the earliest. By then I would be a frozen Popsicle. So I went back to 

kicking. Then I threw my measly body into the door a few times. I cursed, “I knew I should have eaten 

more cheeseburgers before I left!” I slammed my shoulder into the door so many times that I was nearly 

breaking a sweat in the frigid temperatures. “Damn it, Hollywood makes this look so easy!” 

I screamed and lunged at the door with vigor. The door put me back in my place: on the toilet seat. I 

panted in the putrid air wondering what else I could do. I started to shiver as my sweat cooled my body. I 

couldn’t tip over the outhouse. I couldn’t break open the roof. Finally, I had one last idea: Matrix‐like, 

Keanu Reeves rapid‐fire kicks. I may not be The One, but I was the only one around, so I better kick some 

ass. 

I lay down so that my back rested on the toilet seat while I looked at the ceiling. My legs were cocked 

close to my chest, ready to repeatedly slam the obstinate door into submission. I took a few deep breaths 

and then let out a fury of kung fu kicks that would make Bruce Lee proud. After 20 kicks (and nearly 

falling into the toilet), the tenacious door flew open. 

I’m not as manly as you might think: I didn’t even break the lock. The vibrations from the continuous 

kicks just made it unlatch. Nevertheless, I breathed a sigh of relief (and some fresh air), and hiked the rest 

of the night. 

I had always wanted to live an adventurous life. It took a long time to realize that I was 

the only one who was going to make an adventurous life happen to me. — Richard Bach 

It was June 2004, exactly three years after I set off on my Appalachian Trail thru‐hike. I craved another 

adventure. Once again, I wanted to wander and learn. I visited Prague and Budapest in 1992, and Russia 

and Ukraine in 1999. However, the rest of Eastern Europe was still a mystery to me. 

Therefore, in 2004 I set a simple goal: visit every country in Eastern Europe and see what I could learn. 

I wanted the Eastern Europeans to teach me about their cuisine, history, languages, sites, innovations, 

economy, religion, and drinking habits. Then after five years, in 2009, I would return to spend two years 

there to see what’s changed. By 2011, I will have spent nearly three years collecting the wisdom of the 

Hidden Europe. 

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Reopening the American mind 

I am a first generation American. My mom was born and raised in Santiago, Chile. Her dad was laid 

off from his factory job when she was 16 years old, so she quit high school to work and help support the 

family. When she was 25, she emptied her retirement fund so that she could have enough money to buy a 

one‐way ticket to America. She arrived in the United States with only $300 in her pocket—too little to buy 

a flight back to Chile. It was far easier to immigrate to America in 1964 than it is today. She barely spoke 

any English when she arrived alone in San Francisco. Within two weeks, however, she landed a job that 

didn’t require speaking much English—being a clerk at Bank of America. My father was born and raised 

in France. He grew up with the Great Depression, the Nazi occupation, and World War II. Yes, my dad 

had issues, and not just because he’s French. 

By 1947, France’s military was getting involved in Vietnam and Algeria. My grandfather didn’t want to 

lose his only son after having lost his brother in World War I. Therefore, he put my 17‐year‐old dad on a 

one‐way boat voyage to Buenos Aires, Argentina. He lived there for seven years under the rule of Juan 

and Evita Peron. He witnessed how their populist policies destroyed the economy, and so, at the age of 

25, he immigrated to the land of liberty: Philadelphia. After two years there, he crisscrossed the United 

States in his car and parked it in San Francisco. He started working there and several years later, he met 

my mom. They started a successful company importing goods from Latin America. In short, they 

achieved the American Dream. 

My parents didn’t just bring their bodies and hard work ethic to America. They brought their ideas. It’s 

that fresh input of ideas that has kept America competitive and strong since its founding. America’s open 

mind and flexibility helped it become the most powerful nation in the world. However, the fear of 

terrorism and xenophobic worries has made it incredibly difficult to immigrate here. Millions of brilliant 

minds lie outside our borders yearning to get in. If we don’t nab them, another country will. Our 

competitive advantage will decrease and the American Era will end. 

Therefore, the purpose of this book isn’t to just share the insights of the Eastern Europeans. Its purpose 

is also to stir curiosity in you. I hope to inspire you to wander and learn. I want America to open its 

borders and brains not just to the brightest minds of Eastern Europe, but to the brightest minds of the 

world. 

When it’s OK to stereotype 

This book may offend you. You will read sweeping statements like “Slovenians are polyglots,” or 

“Latvians like to dress up,” or “Americans are idiots.” Some people hate such stereotyping and 

generalizing, especially when it’s negative. Nobody will complain if I say “Ukrainian women are 

beautiful,” but they will say I’m a closed minded, superficial American if I say “Polish women are fat 

slobs.” Politically correct folks tell us that we should never stereotype. “Generalizations are always bad,” 

they declare, not realizing the contradiction in their statement. 

If our ancestors didn’t stereotype, we’d be dead. Let’s say cavemen with a blue dot on their cheek are 

responsible for killing half of your tribe. What would happen to your idealistic neighbor if she refused to 

stereotype those with the blue dot? Let’s just say she would produce few descendants. Hence, the human 

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brain is wired to look for patterns and to categorize everything. We can’t suppress that. It’s part of being 

human. That’s why when we’re looking for potential suicide bombers, we instinctively look for young 

Arab men and not old ladies from Sweden. 

You think you don’t stereotype? Sure you do. You avoid dark alleys with disheveled humans, because 

you know that you’re more likely to be assaulted there than in an office building. You stereotype office 

workers as peaceful creatures and gun totting gangsters in alleyways as high risk. Of course, these 

stereotypes are sometimes wrong: office workers go on shooting sprees and gangsters can help you to a 

hospital. However, you continue to depend on stereotypes to get you through the day. 

Stereotypes simply summarize the tendencies of a group of people. I’ve tried to document the Eastern 

European tendencies, while recognizing that there are no absolutes and that there are plenty of 

exceptions. Therefore, when I say, “Albanians are friendly,” obviously there are plenty who are assholes. 

Pointing out all the exceptions gets tedious after a while, especially for the intelligent reader who realizes 

that a generalization is not an absolute statement. 

Admittedly, stereotyping gets tricky when you have few data points. Although I spent nearly three 

years in Eastern Europe, sometimes I only stayed two weeks in a particular country. I would have loved 

to spend months (or years) in each country, but with 25 Eastern European countries, I had to keep 

moving. Therefore, a few of my observations are based on just a brief glimpse of a country. If I was 

unlucky to meet the only four jerks who live in Lithuania (and met no one else), it was hard not to walk 

away concluding that Lithuanians are jerks. 

I did my best to get around these limitations. For instance, I would ask neighboring countries, “Are all 

Lithuanians really jerks?” 

They would usually reply, “No, but Americans are.” 

By asking the locals about how their life is really like, I could make up for my lack of data points. On 

the other hand, locals also make mistakes and spread false stereotypes. Bulgarians told me that most 

Romanians are thieves, which is obviously wrong, since Bulgarians are so poor that there is nothing to 

steal! (Relax, Bulgarians, I’m kidding.) 

A great way to avoid the pitfalls of anecdotal evidence is to consider polls that systematically survey 

thousands of people. Thus, we’ll consider what reputable international pollsters, such the Pew Research 

Center and Gallup, reveal about Eastern Europeans, while recognizing that surveys have their own 

shortcomings. By combining extensive personal travel with statistics and surveys, we should be able to 

paint a fair and accurate description of each country. You’ll finally understand how an Albanian differs 

from a Kosovar. 

Why not avoid stereotyping completely? “Please don’t!” cry the Baltic states. Estonians, Latvians, and 

Lithuanians hate that the world thinks they are all the same. They each want their own identity. In short, 

they want their own unique stereotype. Slovaks, Belarusians, and Ukrainians created their countries 

partly because they were tired of being lumped together with some other nationality and identity. 

Moreover, the people in those countries often have common character traits. To claim that Germans and 

Italians, for example, have the same character is idiotic. It’s cute and idealistic to believe that we should 

just avoid labels altogether and just call ourselves Homo sapiens, but humans demand more granularity 

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than that. Lastly, if you just say, “There are all types of people everywhere,” we miss an interesting 

opportunity to understand the traditional values, beliefs, and characteristics of a people. 

Hence, the solution isn’t to avoid stereotypes—that’s impossible. Instead, the solution is to have 

flexible stereotypes and to be open to exceptions. More importantly, if you see enough exceptions, consider 

changing the stereotype. For example, let’s say you believe that most Arab men are suicidal, religious 

maniacs. However, after visiting an Arabic country, you quickly notice that most young men aren’t 

blowing themselves up. Now you can create a new stereotype: young Arab men are friendly, peaceful, and 

have fewer weapons than the average American. In short, you still have a stereotype (because your brain 

demands it), but you’ve adjusted it to the new information you learned. 

Travel is fatal to prejudice, bigotry, and narrow‐mindedness.... Broad, wholesome, 

charitable views of men and things cannot be acquired by vegetating in one little corner 

of the earth all one’s lifetime. — Mark Twain 

To avoid making inaccurate stereotypes, I sought to experience the country from the ground level— 

where the “real people” live. Unlike most tourists, I avoided hotels, fancy restaurants, taxis, and rented 

cars. I rode crowded buses, ate sketchy food from street vendors, shopped at farmers markets, and stayed 

with locals whenever possible. In short, I did my best to detect the subtle differences among Eastern 

European countries, while trying not to impose stereotypes or invent differences that don’t exist. Of 

course, everything is extremely nuanced, especially a country’s history. 

Learning history from the locals 

Even before this book went to press, it was already pissing off some people. Whenever I shared early 

versions of it with Eastern Europeans they would typically say, “I loved it! You’re so accurate at depicting 

the people and places in Eastern Europe. However, what you said about my country is completely 

inaccurate and unfair. You’re just like every other American: arrogant and stupid.” 

For example, Albanians thought I depicted every country in the Balkans well except for Albania. 

Macedonians thought I depicted every country in the Balkans well except for Macedonia. In addition, 

some Eastern Europeans disagreed with how I summarized their country’s history. As one Serbian put it 

in an e‐mail to me, “U R so full of incompetence and not up to this story. But that’s only my opinion and 

don’t let me discourage U. Keep up the good work.” 

Pay no attention to what the critics say; there has never been set up a statue in honor of a 

critic. — Jean Sibelius, a Finnish composer 

Although I wanted to learn everything about each country from its locals, that methodology has its 

flaws. First, their knowledge of their country’s demographics and economic activity might be based on 

their town, not their country. Second, their impression of their neighbors frequently had no empirical 

evidence, just hearsay. Third, their recollection of history is highly selective. People remember and forget 

different events. They emphasize certain events while overlooking others. Every country does this. 

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Throughout my travels in Eastern Europe, people would vividly recount both how their country came to 

be and the root cause to their country’s problems. I would travel 100 kilometers to another region and 

listen to others describe, with equal passion and zeal, the same events in a completely different way. 

One of the things important about history is to remember the true history. 

—George W. Bush 

Not exactly, George. History is a funny thing. I always believed that there was only one true, objective 

version of history. In theory, that might be true, but in practice it isn’t. First, even if all history books in the 

world said the same thing, what really matters is what the people believe, because that is what they will 

teach the next generation. It is said, “victors write history.” That’s true, but the losers don’t necessarily 

read or believe it. Instead, they tell their children “what really happened.” 

Although I’ve thoroughly researched Eastern Europe’s history, retelling history is a thankless task 

because it’s impossible to please everyone. Moreover, I’m not a scholarly historian, so some snooty PhD 

might tell me that my facts are slightly off. However, there’s often no consensus even among professional 

historians, who love to gather in conferences and deliver astonishingly dull speeches meant to cure 

anyone of insomnia. 

History is a set of lies agreed upon. — Napoleon Bonaparte (1769‐1821) 

If you dig deep enough, perhaps you can uncover the truth, but it is often a murky and tricky affair. 

However, in some ways the truth doesn’t really matter to me. I’m not a historian. I’m an explorer. For me, 

perception is reality; the people’s version of history is, for this book, the history that matters. I wanted to 

hear the history parents tell their children. 

Even when I knew the locals were wrong, I had little hope (and even less interest) in changing their 

minds. My goal was to understand them, their reasoning, their beliefs, and their world view. This book 

compares their view of history with “what really happened,” while recognizing that my sources (as 

objective as I hope they are) have their own biases. If this all ends up making you more confused than 

ever, wonderful. Welcome to Eastern Europe. 

A not‐so‐stupid question: where is Eastern Europe? 

Asking, “Where is Eastern Europe?” seems as stupid as asking, “Who is buried in Grant’s tomb?” 

Obviously, Eastern Europe is in the eastern part of Europe. However, where to draw that line is extremely 

controversial. Indeed, it’s hard to find two people who agree on what countries are in Eastern Europe. 

Back in good old Cold War days, defining Eastern Europe was easy: it was made up of all those losers 

who were on the wrong side of the Iron Curtain. Eastern Europe had those backward, communist 

countries who were frozen in the Stone Age. 

Because the world had such a low opinion of Eastern Europe, nowadays nobody wants to admit that 

they live there. For example, let’s just look at the Baltic countries. I’ve met Estonians who assert that they 

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are in Northern Europe, Latvians who proclaim that they are in Central Europe, and Lithuanians who 

argue that they are in Western Europe! 

If you were to believe everyone you talked to, you would conclude that Eastern Europe just doesn’t 

exist! When pressed, Eastern Europeans admit that Eastern Europe exists, but they all believe the region 

starts just east of whatever country they happen to live in. I like this definition. My father was French, so 

Eastern Europe, for me, starts in Germany. Sorry, Germans. 

If you’re European, it’s time to review Geography 101. Any territory can be divided a number of ways. 

For instance, you can divide it east‐west and/or north‐south. If you like, you can create a central region. To 

have even more granularity, you can create a northeast region, a southeast region, and so on. However, 

sometimes people don’t want all those options. They just want a simple binary division (thereby eliminating 

the concept of a central region). For example, if you want to divide the US with a north‐south split, we 

usually use the old Civil War dividing lines. If you want a simple east‐west split, we usually use the 

Mississippi River, even though it’s an imperfect split. Chicago boys may dislike being called an Eastern 

American just as a Hungarian might dislike being called an Eastern European. They both would yell, 

“We’re Central, not Eastern!” Similarly, someone from Montana might say, “I’m not in the Western US, 

I’m in the Northern US!” They would all have a good point. However, if central and northern are not 

options (and they are not, when you divide a territory with a simple east‐west split), then you must 

choose a side. You may not like east‐west splits, but there’s nothing evil about dividing any region that 

way. So get over it. 

However, we still have the challenge of deciding where that east‐west line should be. Let’s be scientific 

about it. Geologists agree that Eastern Europe ends at the Ural Mountains, which lie hundreds of 

kilometers east of Moscow, Russia. Let’s assume that Western Europe begins in Portugal. If you made a 

perfect 50/50 split of Europe, then the east‐west line would be roughly near the cities of Helsinki, Rīga, 

Warsaw, Budapest, and Belgrade. However, geologists would point out that the westernmost point of 

Europe is not Portugal, but rather Iceland. Therefore, with Iceland at one end of Europe and the Urals at 

the other, the perfect east‐west line shifts eerily near to where the Iron Curtain used to be. Although most 

Eastern Europeans like to deny they are in Eastern Europe, it’s hard to argue against geology and a simple 

50/50 split. 

Of course, Eastern Europeans won’t like that answer. They would cry, “Iceland isn’t in Europe! It’s on 

another freakin’ planet!” 

So let’s do another geological split. As the crow flies, it’s 5,200 kilometers (3,250 miles) from Lisbon, 

Portugal to Perm, Russia (a city next to the Urals). The halfway point for the crow would be Wrocław, a 

Polish city near the German border. If you extend a north‐south line through Wrocław, it would cross the 

Czech Republic, Austria, and western Croatia. Only Slovenia would find itself on the west side of that 

dividing line (I can hear the Slovenians cheering). In short, this alternative way of finding the middle 

point of Europe also results in an east‐west border that is quite close to the Cold War dividing line. 

One more way to solve this tedious problem is to learn where experts say is Europe’s geographic 

center. Wherever that point is, we could project a north‐south line across it, thereby clearly marking 

Europe’s east‐west division. Unfortunately, geographers can’t agree on the edges of Europe, so they can’t 

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agree on its exact center. Geographers have placed Europe’s center as far west as Dresden (Germany), as 

far east as Rakhiv (Ukraine), and as far north as Estonia’s island of Saaremaa. 

War is God’s way of teaching Americans geography. – Ambrose Bierce 

Before we invest too much time finding the perfect 50/50 split, let’s remember that many east‐west (or 

north‐south) divisions are asymmetrical. For example, about two‐thirds of America lies on one side of the 

Mississippi River. Russia’s east‐west line is the Ural Mountains, even though that results in an 80/20 split. 

Cities often have artificial and arbitrary east‐west divisions that are hardly symmetrical. They might be 

based on a historic railway line or a river. Therefore, even if you play with a world map to “prove” that 

Europe’s perfect 50/50 east‐west split lies east of Romania, it doesn’t mean that’s where the division 

should be. 

Although a dispassionate view of a map favors having an east‐west split near the old Iron Curtain, 

there’s another good reason to use the old Cold War dividing line. History shapes who we are. Whether 

Eastern Europeans like it or not, the communist experience is still in their collective memory. Those who 

are under 30 years old today might yell, “But I don’t remember those days! I grew up with Western 

values!” However, their parents and teachers drilled their local history and values into their children’s 

brains. It’s part of who they are. The legacy of slavery can still be felt in the southern regions of the US, 

even though slavery ended 150 years ago. Communism, in contrast, ended less than 25 years ago. 

Communism may have left Eastern Europe, but its long shadow is still there. 

Finally, there’s one more thing that Eastern European countries have in common: they’re still relatively 

hidden. Of course, businesses and tourists have poured into the region ever since the Wall came down in 

1989. However, the world is still far more familiar with Western Europe than Eastern Europe. Most 

people can explain the difference between Italy and Ireland; however, they’ll give you a blank look if you 

ask them to compare Slovenia and Slovakia. 

In conclusion, for geological, historical, and even touristy reasons, I have defined Eastern Europe quite 

broadly. This book puts 25 countries in Eastern Europe. This includes Western Russia, Germany’s eastern 

half, and the ex‐Yugoslavian countries. It also includes three countries that few consider part of 

traditional Eastern Europe: Finland, Greece, and Turkey. Finland is east of Poland (and north of the 

Baltic), so geographically it is certainly in Eastern Europe. Greece is also geographically in Eastern Europe 

(it’s south of the Balkans). However, we will only examine the part of Greece that is most tied to the rest 

of Eastern Europe: Greece’s northern portion. Like Russia, most of Turkey is in Asia, so we will look just 

at its western side. In sum, I spent three years in 25 countries nearly 25 years after the Wall came down. 

Americans may wonder why I’m taking so much time to define Eastern Europe. “What’s the big deal, 

anyway?” you may ask. “So you’re in Eastern Europe. So what? Who cares?” Trust me. It’s a really big deal 

in this region. It’s a highly charged and emotional topic that sparks endless and explosive debates. If you 

want to make Eastern Europeans twitch and squirm, just tell them that they are from Eastern Europe. The 

only people who don’t seem to care are the Moldovans. They’re just happy that anyone knows that 

Moldova exists. 

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About the lessons 

Each chapter in this book focuses on one Eastern European country. Every chapter ends with a brief 

summary of what that country can teach you. Although it’s tempting to just read the summaries and skip 

the rest, that might make you jump to erroneous conclusions. I can already hear the proud Russian who 

skips right to the summary of the Russian chapter and then yells at me, “All you learned from the biggest 

country in the world is how great it is to drink vodka?!” 

Therefore, before you read the summaries, remember that: 

These aren’t the only things you can learn. Just because there are only two ideas in a summary, 

doesn’t mean that those are the only two things you can learn from a country. First, you can learn many 

more things within the chapter itself, which is packed with information about each country’s culture. 

Second, the summaries only focus on practical ideas that you can implement in your everyday life. Third, 

there are plenty of things to learn about each country that I missed. 

Other countries may be able to teach you the same lesson. Just because one good idea is in the 

summary, doesn’t mean that you couldn’t have learned that same concept elsewhere. For instance, if five 

countries can all teach you the same concept, only one country will get credit so that you don’t have to 

read about the concept five times. 

Other countries may have been the pioneers. Just because I give credit to one country for doing 

something clever, doesn’t mean it invented the idea. 

Other countries may do it better. Just because I give credit to one country for something useful, 

doesn’t mean they are the best at practicing it. 

Therefore, to answer the patriotic Russian, “Yes, there’s much more to Russia than drinking vodka; 

Belarus is also great at drinking vodka; Ukraine invented vodka; and nobody drinks more vodka per 

capita than Moldova. Now are you all happy?” 

“No,” says the Russian, “because those last two points are not true. Poland invented vodka and we’re 

the best in the world at drinking it, not Moldova!” 

“Yeah, you’re right. See, I told you that Russia has a lot to teach you about drinking vodka.” 

Lastly, the main purpose of this book is positive—to learn the best things about Eastern Europeans; 

however, we’ll also learn about the stupid and idiotic things in Eastern Europe. Indeed, sometimes the 

most effective Eastern European lessons are the ones where they show us what not to do. I fell in love 

with Eastern Europe, warts and all. Perhaps you will too. 

Before the development of tourism, travel was conceived to be like study, and its fruits 

were considered to be the adornment of the mind and the formation of the judgment. 

— Paul Fussel 

I began my voyage in Finland. During the Soviet Era, Finland was a quasi‐Eastern European country. It 

was neither in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), nor in the Warsaw Pact. Therefore, it 

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would be a good place to start the adventure. So we’ll start there too, using it as a useful stepping‐stone 

into the Hidden Europe. 

Francis Tapon’s mother is from Chile and 

his father is from France. They met in San 

Francisco thanks to a slow elevator. His 

brother, Philippe Tapon, is the author of 

A Parisian from Kansas and The Mistress, 

published by Dutton. 

Francis was born and raised in San 

Francisco, California where he attended a 

French school for 12 years. He is fluent in 

English, French, and Spanish. Proficient in 

Portuguese, Italian, and Russian. Horrible in 

Slovenian and Japanese. He earned a Religion 

Degree with honors from Amherst College, 

and wrote his thesis on the Baháʹí Faith and 

the Worldwide Church of God. 

After working for Hitachi in Latin 

America, he earned an MBA from Harvard 

Business School. 

After Harvard he co‐founded SIGHTech 

Vision Systems, a robotic vision company. 

Four years later he sold his stake to hike the 

Appalachian Trail. He consulted at Microsoft 

before hiking the Pacific Crest Trail in 2006. In 

2007, he became the first person to yo‐yo the 

Continental Divide Trail. This seven‐month 

journey spanned nearly 6,000 miles (9,000 

km). He backpacked from Mexico to Canada 

through New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, 

Idaho, and Montana. Once he reached 

Canada, he turned around and walked back 

to Mexico through the Rocky Mountains. 

Today Francis is an author, speaker, and 

life coach. He delivers fun and informative 

speeches on getting your life and your 

* * * 

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organization out of a rut and onto the ridge. 

He also runs workshops and offers individual 

coaching too. 

He is the author of Hike Your Own Hike: 7 

Life Lessons from Backpacking Across America. 

He is donating half of his book royalty to the 

Triple Crown of thru‐hiking—Appalachian 

Trail, Pacific Crest Trail, and Continental 

Divide Trail. 

His next book, The Hidden Europe: What 

Eastern Europeans Can Teach Us, will be about 

his travels in Eastern Europe. It will be out in 

August 2011. 

In 2012, he plans to spend two years 

visiting every country in Africa and plans to 

write a book about that too. 

His website is http://FrancisTapon.com 

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BOOK (P)REVIEW 

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Etruscan, Roman and Toscan Art 

Example issue from the Coloring Booklet Series of Eurasian Arts * 

Introduction 

There are lands in Western‐Eurasia which are well‐endowed and layered with arts. Among them the 

ancient Etruria is prominently beloved for its known and admired artistic heritage which had been 

formed during the 1 st millenium B.C. on the Italian land of the old Etruscan people. The migrating sailors 

with rich eastern cultural background arrived to Italy at the beginning of the millenium. 

Fig. 1. The migrating ancestors of Etruscans with rich eastern cultural heritage from Asia Minor. 

* The complete series can be accessed in electronic format at: http://www.federatio.org/tkte.html. The graphical illustrations of 

this paper are the author´s drawings and paintings. 

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Origin of the Etruscan people 

Etruscans, according to Herodotus migrated to Italy from Ludia, Asia Minor. After the collapse of the 

Cretean State the sailors of the Mediterranean threatened the peace all around the sea. Egypt repulsed 

their attack several times, as can be read on old pillars. There is archaeological evidence in Asia Minor 

that also proves their origin. Their complex heritage preserved several Mesopotamian and Scythian 

elements like the animal fight scenes, and the princeps jewel: the pectoral. The well‐known face‐covering 

plate belongs to this heritage, too. The famous, developed smithworkmanship also reveals Asia Minor 

origin. Etruscans had well‐known balcksmith (ironsmith) centers and mines on the Elba Island. They also 

melted Greek art elements into their ceramics. 

Fig. 2. Etruscan ceramics picturing Greek character figures wrestling with ladies dancing around them. 

Town building architecture, iron industry ceramic art 

The arriving Etruscans found wild territories. They dried out marshes and built stone towns. They had 

developed rich industrial technologies and famous blacksmith culture in their new homeland. They 

formed a confederacy of towns and competed with the neighboring Italian tribes in forming the 

landscape. 

The Etruscan state organisation was the confederacy of the townstates. Rules governed the building of 

a town. They fixed the position of the city by a ceremonial procedure and furrowed the line of the city 

walls. At the place of the gates they took out the plough from the ground and moved it in the air to the 

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next wall position. They selected two main streets of the town: the north and south and the east and west 

axes. They erected a holy well at the crossing point. They guarded the walls, nobody was allowed even to 

approach them. The Middle‐Italian pastoral tribes gradually occupied the Etruscan towns. On the place of 

the present‐day Rome there were several ancient Etruscan towns like Veii. The well‐known Apollo of Veii 

is a famous sculpture from the facade of the temple from the town. The Etruscan temple was different 

from the Greek one, because of different traditions as sources. Open porticus was standing before the 

closed inner sanctuary. Triple God sculptures were standing in the sanctuary; later the Romans accepted 

them by the names of: Iuno, Jupiter and Minerva. 

Fig. 3. Iron production in a great Etruscans blacksmith workshop. 

Fig. 4. Etruscan ceramics with human figures, witnessing of great phantasy. 

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Arts: sculptures, paintings, cemeteries 

There are several preserved, well‐known products of the Etruscan art: the Lion of Arezzo, and the Wolf 

of Capitolium. The latter had been complemented by the figures of Romulus and Remus by Pollaiulo, the 

renaissance master. But the city walls, the gates on them, the houses and the tombs are also masterworks. 

The dome like tombs were constructed in a half sphere ceiling with outer ground coverage. The Etruscan 

paintings can be studied in the graves. Their style and richness is somewhat similar to those of the 

Creteans, and Southern Italians, like as those of Pompei and Herculaneum. 

Fig. 5. Etruscan carved figures on a sarcophagus. 

Fights aganist Latin tribes and against the forming Rome 

Etruscans had given three kings to the early Roman Kingdom. Later, however, they had got the worst 

of the fights against the Latin tribes. Nevertheless, their work had been incorporated into the culture of 

the Roman Empire. 

Fig. 6. The fights of Etruscans against the conquering Romans. 

Octavian, the first emperor of Rome, under the name of Augustus, originated from an Etruscan ancient 

family. Maecenas, the famous patron of artists, especially poets, also had Etruscan origin. 

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When the Roman Empire became weaker and finally collapsed, Italy was dissected to town states. In a 

region with the name Toscana the new era brought the resurrection of the ancient Etruscan traditions and 

with the central town state Firenze gave the renaissance to Europe. 

Toscana, Michelangelo 

Almost unquestionable Michelangelo is the immortal master of arts who represents the living Etrsucan 

artistic traditions in the form of the renaissance, not only in sculputre, but in painting and architecture 

and even in poetry. In several of his masterpieces he continues the 2500 years old Etruscan traditions. The 

best example is the group of sculptures that adornes the tomb of the Medici Princeps. 

Fig. 7. The front cover of the coloring booklet: The family sarcophagus from Cervitery cemetery and 

the figure of Down by Michelangelo’s Medici tomb sculptures are compared for body arrangement. 

We can see the modernised variants of this group even in present‐day Budapest on buildings built 

during the Hungarian Millennium festivities, at the turn of the 19 th and 20 th centuries. They are used as 

tympanons above the windows of the neorenaissance building facades. On the Medici tombs the figures 

were taken from the ancient Etruscan sarcophagi, where single persons or pairs of a man and woman are 

leaning on their elbows: the allegoric sculptures of Dusk and Dawn, the Day and Night. They can be seen 

all over Europe till today, too. Hence, the Etruscan art, and its countinuation, the Roman and Toscan art is 

a rich store of the stratifications of cultures. It is a branch of Eurasian arts, which preserved its beauty and 

expressivity during thousands of years. 

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Fig. 8. The back cover of the coloring booklet: Sculpture and fresco art of Michelangelo together with 

ancient Etrsucan sculptures of the Lion of Arezzo and Wolf of Capitolium 

There is another branch of the Etruscan culture which achieved new and new bloomings through the 

Roman and Toscan ages till today. That is the technological production, the engineering works and 

inventions. The engineering creativity brought the arc from the east to western Eurasia, as it appears in 

the architecture of the Etruscan towns. There are aquaducts which also use this invention. This 

engineering art is further developed in the imperial Rome and distributed all over the known world at 

that time. 

Fig. 9. Etruscan pietà from the ancient sculptural art and Pietà of Michelangelo. 

The Romanesque arc became an important architectural element in the communal buildings: 

aquaducts, triumphal gates, and finally in baths and in amphiteatres. The best well‐known of them is the 

Colosseum in Rome, but all around the Mediterranean Sea we can find remnant ruins of them. This 

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proves that inventious people can enrich the larger community by distribution of their heritage via a 

larger empire, Rome. This engineering branch of the Etruscan culture reached a peak in the person of 

Leonardo da Vinci. His machines, studies of motion, plans and realized constructions also prove the 

vitality of the ancient Etruscan culture later, in medieval Europe. 

Summary 

The Etruscan, Roman and Toscan culture became part of the Hungarian life in several branches. The 

Christianity connected us to Rome; later King Matthias had rich renaissance relations with Italy. We hope 

that the study of the Etruscan arts will also help us to develop our love for Eurasian arts by painting in 

this booklet, we hope it gives joy and amusement, good work and good thinking to our fellows who 

prefer art and engineering history, or art alone, remembering the destiny of old peoples, old nations, old 

traditions. 

References 

Artner T. (1979): Az ókor művészete. Móra, Budapest; 

Bakay K. (1997, 1998): Őstörténetünk régészeti forrásai. I. II. Miskolc; 

Beke L. (1987): Műalkotások elemzése. Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest; 

Bérczi Sz., Bérczi K., Bérczi Zs., Kabai S. (2003): Coloring Booklet Series about the Arts of Central Eurasia with Rich 

Heritage of Ethnomathematical Ornamental Arts. Symmetry: Culture and Science, 12. No. 1‐2. p. 231‐239.; 

Castiglione L. (1971): Római művészet. Corvina, Budapest; 

Götz L. (1995): Keleten kél a Nap. Püski, Budapest; 

Hajnóczi Gy. (1973): Az építészet története. Ókor. Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest; 

Hood, S. (1978): The Arts in Prehistoric Greece. Penguin, Harmondsworth; 

Huszka J. (1930): A magyar turáni ornamentika története. Pátria, Budapest; 

Huyghes, R. (1971): Formes et Forces. Flammarion, Paris; 

Kenediné Szántó L. (1977): Az etruszkok nyomában. Corvina, Budapest; 

László Gy. (1974): A népvándorláskor művészete Magyarországon. Corvina, Budapest; 

Lükő G. (1993): Az ige, a magyar ige. Zöldövezet, 2. szám. 48. old.; 

Pogány F. (1965): Szobrászat és festészet az építőművészetben. Műszaki, Budapest; 

Pogány F. (1971): Firenze. Corvina, Budapest; 

Pogány F. (1967): Róma. Corvina, Budapest; 

Pogány F. (1973, 1975): Itália építészete. I. II. Corvina, Budapest; 

Vayer L. (1982): Az itáliai reneszánsz művészete. Corvina, Budapest; 

Vickers, M. (1985): A római világ. Helikon, Budapest; 

Warren, P. (1989): Az égei civilizációk. Helikon, Budapest. 

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CLASSICAL WRITINGS ON 

EURASIA 

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HIRTH, Friedrich 

Die chinesischen annalen als Quelle zur Geschichte 

asiatischer Völker 

* * * 

This writing, providing an analysis of the value the classical Chinese annals bear as a source if 

Asian history, is a chapter from Ćhinesische Studien I.´ [Ćhinese Studies I.´], München und 

Leipzig 1890. 

* * * 

Die Chinesen dürfen sich bekanntlich einer historischen Litteratur rühmen, wie sie an Umfang und 

Einheit der Methode ihrer Behandlung kaum ein anderes Kulturvolk besitzt. Mit dem Vater der 

chinesischen Geschichte Ssû‐ma‐chʹien anfangend, hat seit der älteren Han‐Dynastie jedes Herrscherhaus 

seine eigene Geschichte gehabt. Das Material zu diesen dynastischen Geschichtswerken wurde den 

während der jeweiligen Regierungszeit verfassten Hofchroniken (Jih‐li, täglichen Chroniken) entlehnt, 

und diese wurden den Blicken des Regenten wie der Minister vorenthalten. So verlangte es das Gesetz, 

das auf uralter Ueberlieferung beruhend, nur ausnahmsweise durch die Willkür der Machthaber verletzt 

worden ist. Die Zusammenstellung des Materials geschah erst nach dem Sturze eines jeden 

Regentenhauses, und zwar durch die offiziellen Geschichtsschreiber der folgenden Dynastie. 

Die bis jetzt existierenden vierundzwanzig dynastischen Geschichtswerke oder Shih bilden eine 

stattliche Bibliothek, im Ganzen 3000 Chʹüan oder Bücher. Am Ende eines jeden Werkes finden sich 

ethnographische Mitteilungen über die fremden Völker, mit denen der chinesische Hof während der 

verflossenen dynastischen Periode in Berührung gekommen ist. Diese von jeder Parteifärbung 

unberührten Skizzen wurden aus den gleichzeitigen Aufzeichnungen der Hofchronisten meist nicht 

allzulange (ein bis drei Jahrhunderte) nach der bezüglichen Periode zusammengestellt. Sie bilden die 

wichtigste Quelle der gesamten ethnographischen Kenntnis der Chinesen während des Altertums und im 

Mittelalter bis zur Zeit der Ming‐Dynastie, die im Jahre 1644 von der gegenwärtigen Dynastie der Tsíng 

gestürzt wurde. 

In dem »Buche über die Völker des fernen Westens« (Hsi‐yü‐chuan), womit die Geschichte der 

späteren Han‐Dynastie (Hou‐han‐shu) abschliesst, findet sich zum ersten Male die Beschreibung eines 

Landes namens Ta‐tsín. Wir finden in diesem im knappen historischen Stil der Zeit verfassten Abriss 

eine Anzahl von Thatsachen betreffend die Grenzen, die Lage, das Volk, die Produkte und sonstige 

Eigentümlichkeiten des Landes, die allein im Stande sind, uns die nötigen Fingerzeige zur Identifizierung 

zu geben. Leider hat sich, sobald der Inhalt dieser in ihrer ersten Gestalt den beiden ersten Jahrhunderten 

nach Christus entstammenden Mitteilungen bekannt wurde, das Vorurteil eingeschlichen, dass mit dem 

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Lande Ta‐tsʹih, als dem mächtigsten des Westens, das römische Reich mit der Hauptstadt Rom gemeint 

sei. Diese Theorie ist unter anderen von Visdelou und de Guignes, und neuerdings wieder von 

Bretschrieider, Edkins und von Richthofen verteidigt worden. Ich muss gestehen, dass ich anfangs dieses 

Vorurteil geteilt habe, und dass ich mich mit dem besten Willen, in den chinesischen Annalen die Stadt 

des Romulus mit ihrem grossen Volke wiederzuerkennen, in die Urquellen vertieft habe. Ich kann sagen, 

dass ich dies sine studio et ira gethan habe; denn die europäische Litteratur über diesen Gegenstand war 

mir so gut wie unbekannt, als ich anfing, die chinesischen Historiker zu lesen. Diese Unkenntnis, möchte 

ich behaupten, ist mir sehr zu statten gekommen, indem ich so gezwungen war, lediglich aus dem 

chinesischen Material heraus mir von der Identität des Landes ein Bild zu machen. Dabei stellte sich 

heraus, dass eine ziemliche Anzahl von Thatsachen auf Rom gar nicht passen wollte, so dass ich, einmal 

zweifelnd, anfing, das mir vorschwebende Bild mit den übrigen Ländern des antiken Westens zu 

vergleichen. Zunächst waren es gewisse Produkte, die mich in die Levante führten. Die Bewohner von 

Ta‐tsín »sammelten das Harz gewisser Bäume und kochten Storax«. Dies konnte weder in Rom, noch in 

Griechenland der Fall gewesen sein; denn der beste Storax kam aus Syrien. Syrien war ferner der Sitz des 

Handels mit Gold, Edelsteinen, Perlen, der Glas‐ und Tuchindustrie; in syrischen oder phönizischen 

Städten wurde chinesische Seide gefärbt, zu Stickereien verwendet und, wenn eine Parallelstelle im 

Plinius und in einem der chinesischen Berichte nicht trügt, auseinandergezupft, um anderweitig 

verwoben zu werden. Dazu kamen die Gründe, die bereits vor zwanzig Jahren von Wylie zu Gunsten der 

nestorianischen Inschrift von Hsi‐an‐fu geltend gemacht wurden, und die nach ihm inʹs Feld geführten 

Argumente Pauthierʹs, der trotz seiner mangelhaften Kenntnis der chinesischen Sprache gegenüber 

seinen sonst überlegenen Gegnern Julien, Neumann und Renan in der Hauptsache Recht behalten hat, 

wenn auch seine Idee, das spätere Fu‐lin mit dem ost‐römischen Reiche zu identifizieren, eine 

unglückliche genannt werden muss. Der Bericht des Hou‐han‐shu würde genügt haben, die Identität mit 

Syrien herzustellen. Doch bringen andere, zum Teil bisher unbekannte Texte wichtiges Material bei, 

Material, das nicht allein die damalige Kenntnis der Chinesen charakterisieren hilft, sondern, wenn 

einmal richtig interpretiert, manches Licht auf antike Verkehrsverhältnisse zu werfen und so die 

bezüglichen klassischen Autoren des Westens zu ergänzen geeignet ist. 

Um auf die Annalen der zweiten Han‐Dynastie zurückzukommen, so müssen wir annehmen, dass die 

vom Verfasser Fan‐yeh (420 bis 477 n. Chr.) benutzten Dokumente während der bezüglichen Dynastie 

niedergeschrieben wurden, d. i, in den Jahren 25 bis 220 n. Chr. Wir dürfen annehmen, dass Fan‐yehʹs 

Text ein halbes Jahrtausend hindurch nur als Manuskript existierte. Ich habe die editio princeps dieses 

Werkes nicht gesehen, doch hat mir eine der ältesten Ausgaben, die vom Jahre 1168 (mit Ergänzung 

verlorener Blätter aus einer Ausgabe des Jahres 1242) vorgelegen. Ich habe mich davon überzeugt, dass 

der das Land Ta‐tsín betreffende Text mit einer unbedeutenden, den Sinn nicht berührenden Ausnahme 

sich vom Text der jetzt kursierenden Standard editions in nichts, ausser im äusseren Anblick, 

unterscheidet, dass sich mithin der Text sieben Jahrhunderte hindurch erhalten hat, ohne von der Kritik 

irgendwie berührt zu werden. 

Dies ist ein für die Entwicklung der chinesischen Litteratur charakteristisches Zeichen; die Verehrung 

des Alten ist so gross, dass niemand es wagt, einen als klassisch anerkannten Text anzutasten. Was somit 

für die letzten sieben Jahrhunderte erwiesen ist, lässt sich für die vorhergehenden fünf Jahrhunderte 

behaupten. Ich glaube aus den übereinstimmenden Zeugnissen fast gleichzeitiger Texte, sowie besonders 

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aus der Zuverlässigkeit der darin gemachten Angaben (die mit der tabula rasa und gänzlichen 

UnZuverlässigkeit dessen, was wir in griechischen und römischen Schriftstellern über das Land der 

Thinai und Seres, über die Stadt Cattigara und die terrae incognitae des Ostens entnehmen, in grellem 

Kontrast stehen) schliessen zu dürfen, dass es sich mit der Manuskript‐Ueberlieferung ähnlich verhalten 

hat. Den bedeutenderen Werken der chinesischen Litteratur, namentlich solchen, denen sich die offizielle 

Aufmerksamkeit der Archiv‐Verwaltung zuwendete, wie dies bei den dynastischen Geschichtswerken 

der Fall war, ist es bei der Erhaltung ihres Textes ungleich besser ergangen als unseren besterhaltenen 

antiken Klassikern. Text‐Kritik existiert für diese Werke so gut wie gar nicht, insofern es nie nötig 

gewesen ist, sie zu üben. Die Gründe dafür liegen auf der Hand. Die gelehrten Archivbeamten, denen zu 

allen Zeiten die Staatsbibliotheken mit den in hohen Ehren gehaltenen Manuskript‐Annalen früherer 

Regentenhäuser anvertraut waren, Hessen sich mit den Mönchen unseres Mittel‐ alters, die durch ihre oft 

hirnlosen Schreibfehler in griechischen und lateinischen Texten die Philologie zu einer so nützlichen 

Wissenschaft gemacht haben, in Bezug auf Nachlässigkeit nicht vergleichen. Auf der anderen Seite hatten 

sie auch nicht mit gleichen Schwierigkeiten zu kämpfen; denn während das Studium klassischer Sprachen 

Jahrhunderte lang darniedergelegen hatte, als ihre Schätze von neuem an´s Licht gezogen wurden, 

arbeitete der chinesische Gelehrte zu allen Zeiten in einer ihm von Jugend auf vertrauten, seiner 

Muttersprache. Die Manuskripte, die er zu kopieren hatte, bestanden nicht in verstümmelten 

Pergamenten, und der Begriff des Palimpsestes ist hier schwerlich je bekannt gewesen; die Gestalt der 

Schrift, die sich bei uns für die klassischen Texte beider Sprachen immerhin genügend verändert hat, um 

dem Ungeübten Schwierigkeiten zu bereiten, ist in China während der letzten fünfzehnhundert Jahre 

dieselbe geblieben. Als der Text der Annalen der späteren Han‐Dynastie redigiert wurde, war bereits 

mehr als ein Jahrhundert seit dem Tode des berühmten Schönschreibers Wang Yu‐chün (st. 379 n. Chr.) 

verflössen, dessen Handschrift noch heute als Muster der Eleganz nachgeahmt wird. 

Als Urquelle dieser, sowie der übrigen dynastischen Geschichtswerke müssen wir, wie gesagt, die 

gleichzeitigen »täglichen Aufzeichnungen« (Jih‐li), die ἔργα καἰ ἡμἑραι der chinesischen Höfe, 

betrachten. Diese gehörten nach Ma Tuan‐lin (Ch. 51, S. 15) zu den Obliegenheiten der 

Hofgeschichtsschreiber (Shih‐kuan), die eine ähnliche, wenn auch bequemere Rolle spielten als die 

öffentlichen Zensoren (Tu‐chá‐yüan) der gegenwärtigen Dynastie, insofern ihnen das Recht zustand, die 

Handlungen ihrer Regierung einer nach ihrer Ansicht gerechten Kritik zu unterziehen, ohne dass der 

Monarch und seine Räte den Inhalt der Aufzeichnungen kannten. Ob dieser im Prinzip von allen 

Dynastien anerkannte Brauch häufig oder selten verletzt wurde, hat auf die Zuverlässigkeit unserer 

ethnographischen Texte kaum irgend welchen Einfluss, da weder der Monarch, noch die Räte, noch die 

Chronisten an der Fälschung von Thatsachen bei der Beschreibung so fern gelegener Länder ein 

persönliches Interesse hatten. Die Art und Weise, wie jene ethnographischen Aufzeichnungen durch 

Vermittlung der Tageschroniken zu Stande kamen, lässt sich aus dem, was über die Arbeit der 

Hofgeschichtsschreiber bekannt ist, sowie aus der Natur der vorgefundenen Mitteilungen wenn nicht 

beweisen, so doch vermuten. Die in den Hsi‐yü‐chuan oder ethnographischen Kapiteln sich vorfindenden 

Mitteilungen entstammen entweder den Protokollen über die Vernehmung fremder Gesandten und 

sonstiger Reisenden, die, wie es scheint, nach bestimmten Formeln über ihr Heimatsland ausgefragt 

wurden; oder den Akten chinesischer Gesandtschaften nach dem Auslande, die wiederum bald das 

Selbstgesehene, bald das durch Hörensagen in Erfahrung Gebrachte niederschrieben; oder endlich den 

bereits vorliegenden chinesischen Litteraturprodukten. 

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Bei der Vernehmung der fremden Gesandten wurde es vermutlich mit den Beglaubigungsschreiben 

fremder Monarchen nicht allzu genau genommen. Was hätte auch ein noch so gelehrter Würdenträger 

des Hofes der Han mit einer Papyrusrolle voll griechischer, lateinischer oder syrischer Schriftzeichen 

anfangen sollen? Das wichtigste Dokument, das von den Gesandtschaften eingereicht wurde, war ohne 

Zweifel die Liste der Tributartikel, die vermutlich nicht in der fremden Sprache verfasst war. Die 

chinesischen Höfe aller Zeiten waren augenscheinlich etwas zu sehr dazu geneigt, die als Tribut (kung) 

dargebrachten Geschenke als den hauptsächlichsten Biestandteil einer Gesandtschaft anzusehen, so dass 

irgend ein fremder Abenteurer sich als Gesandter seines Monarchen einführen und die damit ohne 

Zweifel verbundenen Reise‐, Handels‐ und sonstigen Vorteile gemessen konnte, wenn er nur durch die 

nötigen Tributgeschenke die Gunst des Hofes für sich zu gewinnen vermochte ; und dies konnte bei der 

volkstümlichen Eitelkeit der Regierungen der früheren Dynastien, die ihr Ansehen im Auslande nicht 

nach wirklichem Einfluss, sondern nach der Häufigkeit, der mit Geschenken belasteten 

Huldigungskommissionen bemassen, für den bemittelten Unterthan eines fernen Staates nicht allzu 

grosse Schwierigkeiten bieten. 

Die zahllosen Berichte, die uns über die Länder des mittleren und westlichen Asiens in den 

chinesischen Annalen des Altertums erhalten sind und die vermutlich zum Teil den Protokollen über die 

Vernehmung der betreffenden Tributbringer entstammen, zeugen trotz der Verschiedenheit des 

behandelten Materials von einer gewissen Uniformität in der Behandlung, insofern gewisse Gruppen von 

ethnographischen Thatsachen mit fast schematischer Regelmässigkeit behandelt sind. Wie bei den 

Aufzeichnungen Marco Poloʹs suchen wir vergeblich nach Mitteilungen über manche uns jetzt 

interessierende Gegenstände, wogegen uns das Berühren stereotyper Thatsachen, die unserem Interesse 

mehr oder weniger fern liegen, als monoton und überflüssig erscheint. Es will scheinen, als ob diese Art 

der Behandlung mit irgend einem Reglement zusammenhing, wonach die fremden Tributbringer bei 

ihrem Erscheinen am chinesischen Hofe ein nach festgesetztem Schema vorgenommenes Kreuzverhör zu 

bestehen hatten, dass mit Hilfe der zu Gebote stehenden doppelten oder dreifachen Dolmetscher 

bestimmte Fragen an die aufzunehmenden »Gesandten« gerichtet wurden. Der vermeintliche Abgesandte 

des Kaisers An‐tun zum Beispiel hätte von Ceylon, wo das Griechische als Handelssprache gesprochen 

wurde, in Begleitung eines griechisch sprechenden Ceylonesen, sowie eines mit Ceylon verkehrenden 

und die in Ceylon gesprochene Landessprache ver‐ stehenden annamitischen Kaufmannes seine Reise 

nach Annant fortsetzen und von hier aus mit diesen beiden, sowie einem Chinesisch verstehenden 

annamitischen Dolmetscher nach Chang‐an (Si‐ngan‐fu), der damaligen Hauptstadt Chinaʹs, reisen 

können; wenn nicht die Fähigkeiten der drei Dolmetscher sich in einem einzigen Individuum vereinigt 

fanden, was bei der Natur des antiken ceylonesischen Handels keineswegs ausgeschlossen ist Die am 

chinesischen Hofe vorgelegten stereotypen Fragen mochten etwa folgendermassen lauten: Wie heisst dein 

Vaterland? Wo liegt es? Wie viel Li umfasst es? Wie viel Städte enthält es? Wie viel abhängige Staaten? 

Aus welchem Material ist eure Hauptstadt erbaut? Wie viel Einwohner enthält sie? Wie heissen die 

Produkte des Landes, u. s. w.; und schliesslich: was kannst du uns sonst noch über deine Heimat 

mitteilen? 

Dies mag der Ursprung der ethnographischen Aufzeichnungett in den »täglichen Chroniken« sowie in 

den Annalen gewesen sein, insofern sie nicht den Akten der eigenen Gesandtschaften im Ausland (z. B. 

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Chang Chʹien im zweiten Jahrhundert v. Chr., Pan Chʹao am Ende des ersten Jahrhunderts n. Chr.) oder 

den Berichten eingeborener Reisender (Hsüan‐chuang im siebenten Jahrhundert u. A.) entstammen. 

Dass die Verfasser der dynastischen Geschichtswerke ihre Eintragungen nicht auf die Aufzeichnungen 

der Hofchronisten beschränkten, geht aus der jetzigen Gestalt ihrer Texte deutlich genug hervor. Als 

Männer von hervorragendem litterarischen Ansehen, und von ihren Zeitgenossen als Meister des 

historischen Stils chinesischer Prosa geschätzt, mussten sie es als ihre erste Aufgabe betrachten, das 

vorgefundene Aktenmaterial in einen zusammenhängenden Bericht zu verarbeiten. Sie entledigten sich 

dieser Aufgabe in echt chinesischer Weise, indem sie vor allen Dingen nicht allein die Akten der 

beschriebenen Dynastie sondern auch die über den betreffenden Gegenstand bereits vorhandene ältere 

und gleichzeitige Litteratur verwerteten. Sehr kritisch sind sie dabei nicht zu Werke gegangen; es ist 

daher besonders bei späteren Historikern oft ebenso schwer, wie es wichtig ist, zu unterscheiden, was aus 

den Aufzeichnungen früherer Perioden herübergenommen und was sich auf die beschriebene Periode 

selbst bezieht. Zu den Ausnahmen dürfte es gehören, dass ein Autor in der Zeit noch über die Quellen 

der beschriebenen Periode hinausgeht, indem er Nachrichten, die erst seit dem Erlöschen der Dynastie bis 

zu seiner eigenen Blütezeit nach China gedrungen, mit seinen Berichten vermengt Trotz dieser 

Schwächen, die uns ja in vielen deshalb nicht minder wertvollen Aufzeichnungen des Altertums in 

anderen, ja selbst den klassischen Litteraturen entgegentreten, haben wir allen Grund, den Chinesen für 

ihre Berichte dankbar zu sein. 

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