4th International Poultry Meat Congress
PROCEEDINGS
PROCEEDINGS
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established in 2005 by the leading companies of the<br />
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PROCEEDINGS<br />
Copyright © 2016 by BESD-BİR<br />
Beyaz Et Sanayicileri ve Damızlıkçıları Birliği Derneği<br />
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in<br />
any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical<br />
methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher BESD-BİR.<br />
Editors<br />
Necmettin Ceylan (Ankara University)<br />
Dr.Sait Koca (BESD-BİR)<br />
Özge Pamukçu (BESD-BİR)<br />
Desing & Editing<br />
Papyon Event<br />
Color Separation,Printing, Binding<br />
Umur Basım<br />
Publication No: 27<br />
ISBN: : 978-975-01984-7-2<br />
26-30 April 2017<br />
Kaya Palazzo Golf Resort & Kaya Belek<br />
Antalya / TURKEY
Editors<br />
Prof. Dr. Necmettin CEYLAN<br />
(Ankara University)<br />
Dr. Sait KOCA<br />
(BESD-BİR)<br />
Özge PAMUKÇU<br />
(BESD-BİR)
Welcome<br />
Organisation and Committees<br />
Program & Contents<br />
Invited and Oral Presentations 19<br />
Poster Presentations 252
Organization and Committees<br />
Chair of the <strong>Congress</strong>:<br />
Prof. Dr. Necmettin CEYLAN<br />
Ankara University,Turkey<br />
...........................................................................................................<br />
Organising Committee (BESD-BİR):<br />
Dr. Sait KOCA<br />
Süleyman ÖZTÜRK<br />
Ömer GÖRENER<br />
Nezih GENCER<br />
İpek ÜSTÜNDAĞ<br />
Mehmet KESKİNOĞLU<br />
Ender ABALIOĞLU<br />
Prof. Dr. Ahmet ERGÜN<br />
Aslı İLGEN<br />
...........................................................................................................<br />
Scientific Committee: (In order of surname)<br />
Prof. Dr. Hakan Akbulut (Ankara University, Turkey)<br />
Prof. Dr. Fuat Aydın (Erciyes University, Turkey)<br />
Prof. Dr. Shai Barbut (Guelph University, Canada)<br />
Prof. Dr. Sacit Bilgili (Auburn University, USA)<br />
Prof. Dr. Dilek Boyacıoğlu (Istanbul TeknikUniversity,Turkey)<br />
Dr. Andrew Butterworth (Bristol University,UK)<br />
Prof. Dr. Mingan Choct (New England University,Australia)<br />
Prof. Dr. Kezban Candoğan (Ankara University, Turkey)<br />
Prof. Dr. İbrahim Çiftçi Ankara University, Turkey)<br />
Prof. Dr. Selim Çetiner (Sabancı University, Turkey)<br />
Prof. Dr. K. Serdar Diker Ankara University, Turkey)<br />
Prof. Dr. Michael Grashorn (Hohenheim University,Germany)<br />
Prof. Dr. Okan Elibol (Ankara University, Turkey)<br />
Prof. Dr. Muammer Göncüoğlu (Ankara University, Turkey)<br />
Prof. Dr. Hafez Mohamed Hafez (Free University of Berlin,Germany)<br />
Doç. Dr. Massimiliano Petraccı (Bologna University, Italy)<br />
Prof. Dr. Bingür Sönmez (Memorial Şişli Hospital, Turkey)<br />
Prof. Dr. Pınar Saçaklı Ankara University, Turkey)<br />
Prof. Dr. Zehava Unı (Hebrew University, Israel)<br />
Prof. Dr. Servet Yalçın (Ege University, Turkey)<br />
Prof. Dr. Sevinç Yücecan (Near East University, Turkey)<br />
...........................................................................................................
Dear Stakeholders of <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Industry, Dear Friends<br />
First three of the <strong>International</strong> <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> <strong>Congress</strong> which is traditionally organised by<br />
Turkish <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Producers and Breeders Association (BESD-BİR) in each two years has<br />
realized in 2011,2013 and 2015 spring in Antalya with increased participation and success.<br />
The quality of the third congress has successfully reached to the international standards with<br />
it’s high quality content including 52 poster presentations, 22 short presentations, 36 invited<br />
papers presented by scientists from our country and 9 different countries in 19 scientific session<br />
distributed into 3 different meeting room. We have hosted total 1573 participants including<br />
family members and, approximately 1040 active national and come from 26 countries<br />
international participants in the third congress which has significant mission for our industry to<br />
extend and share the science and technology, and also strong integration to the world.<br />
Turkish poultry meat industry grew up around 90% in a very short period, from 1.1 million tons<br />
poultry meat in 2007 to 2.1 million tons in year 2016. This huge growth made an incredible<br />
increase in our export by 550% , from 52 thousand tons to about 337 thousand tons for that<br />
short period. So it is clear that Turkish <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Industry makes valuable contribution to<br />
supply healthy, enough and safe foods for humans not just live in Turkey, but also live in other<br />
foreign countries.<br />
As a representative of Turkish <strong>Poultry</strong> Industry which has become the world’s 8 th largest<br />
poultry producers, we together with organising and scientific committees are proud of being<br />
accomplished a higher quality congress as worthy of our country in April 2017. Including 24<br />
invited by distinguished scientists and 45 short oral presentation, total 133 presentation during<br />
the congress were presented related to poultry meat production from farm to fork including all<br />
disciplines. The total participant forf the congress were 1700 from 30 different countries from<br />
all around the world. The main theme of the 4 th congress was new devolopments, challanges,<br />
strategies for future considerations, safe poultry meat , sustainability besides importance of<br />
poultry meat for human nutrition and supplying enough and healthy meat for consumers.<br />
We really look forward to welcoming you to 5 th <strong>International</strong> <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> <strong>Congress</strong> which will<br />
be held in beautiful Antalya from April 2019 to obtain more and more benefits for humanity<br />
with science and industry hand in hand by discussing the innovations and changes of poultry<br />
meat production in most comprehensive way with participation of leading scientists and<br />
experts. Many thanks to all those who contribute and join us for making the congress possible.<br />
With our best wishes to you all..<br />
Dr. Sait KOCA<br />
President of BESD-BİR<br />
Prof. Dr. Necmettin CEYLAN<br />
Chair of the <strong>Congress</strong>
NO<br />
IS01<br />
IS02<br />
O01<br />
O02<br />
O03<br />
IS03<br />
O04<br />
O05<br />
IS04<br />
O06<br />
O07<br />
O08<br />
IS05<br />
IS06<br />
CONTENTS of 4 th INTERNATIONAL POULTRY MEAT CONGRESS<br />
PROCEEDINGS<br />
(Title, and Authors)<br />
Invited Speaker (IS), Oral Presentatıons (O), Posters (P)<br />
INVITED SPEAKERS and ORAL PRESENTATIONS<br />
Important Aspects of Sustainable Broiler Production to Keep Safe the Industry<br />
Anne-Marie Neeteson, Santiago Avendaño, Magnus Swalander<br />
Genetic and Breeding Aspects of <strong>Meat</strong> Yield and <strong>Meat</strong> Quality<br />
Avigdor Cahaner<br />
Interaction Between Egg Storage Duration and Brooding Temperatures in Broilers<br />
Servet Yalçın, Güldehen Bilgen, İhsan Gürsel, Begüm Han Horuluoğlu,<br />
Gözde Güçlüler, Gamze Turgay İzzetoğlu<br />
The Effect of Hatching Time, Feed Access Time, and Post-hatch Holding Time<br />
on Broiler Live Performance<br />
Serdar Özlü, Reza Shıranjang, John Brake, Okan Elibol<br />
Some Performance Traits of <strong>Meat</strong> Type Chicken Parents Lines and Possibilities<br />
of Obtaining Heterosis<br />
Musa Sarıca, Beyhan Yeter, Emrah Oğuzhan, Sinan Çağlak, İsmail Özkan,<br />
Adnan Cengiz<br />
The Perspectives of Corn Production, Consumption and Developments in Trade<br />
and Its Effects to The Broiler Costs<br />
Alvaro Cordero<br />
The Market Structure of Genetically Modified Products in the World and Their<br />
Effects on Nutrition, Socio-Economic Status and Sustainability<br />
Tuğba Sarıhan Şahin, Yılmaz Aral, Arzu Gökdai<br />
Determinants of Chicken <strong>Meat</strong> Production: Evidence From the Autoregressive<br />
Distributed Lag (ARDL) Bounds Test Approach for Turkey<br />
Hamza Erdoğdu, Hasan Çiçek<br />
Is Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Contamination in <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> A Serious Threat<br />
to Human Health?<br />
Carmen Espinosa-Gongora<br />
Determination of Salmonella spp. in Organic <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Canan Asal Ulus, Ali Gücükoğlu<br />
Determination of Listeria Monocytogenes Presence and Antibiotic Resistance<br />
Profiles in Chicken Wing Samples<br />
Aksem Aksoy, Çiğdem Sezer<br />
Investigation Inhibitory Effect of Different Concentrations of Laurel (Laurus<br />
nobilis L.)’s Oil and Sumac (Rhus coriaria L.)’s Oil on Escherichia coli and Total<br />
Aerophilic Mezophilic Bacteria Population Growth in Chicken Breast <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Şeyma Bayrakçi, Sabire Yerlikaya, Sümeyra S. Tiske Inan<br />
Does High Hatching Rate Means Best Quality Chicks Obtained? What is<br />
Important in Hatchery Practice?<br />
Dr. Zekeriya Yıldırım<br />
The Effect of Eg Turning During Incubation on Hatchability of Broiler Chicks<br />
Okan Elibol, Serdar Özlü, Orhan Erkan, Mesut Türkoğlu<br />
Page<br />
20<br />
31<br />
36<br />
37<br />
38<br />
39<br />
45<br />
46<br />
52<br />
55<br />
56<br />
57<br />
58<br />
59
O09<br />
O10<br />
IS07<br />
O11<br />
O12<br />
IS08<br />
O13<br />
O14<br />
O15<br />
IS09<br />
O16<br />
O17<br />
O18<br />
O19<br />
IS10<br />
Impact of Oxygen Suplementation and Alternative Temperature Application on<br />
Hatchability and Total Incubation Time at High Altitude<br />
H. Cem Güler , Elif Babacanoğlu<br />
The Effects of High Setter and Hatcher Temperatures During Incubation on<br />
Slaughter Weight and Carcass Yield in Broilers<br />
Aydın İpek, Arda Sözcü<br />
M. Gallisepticum And M. Synoviae in Broiler Breeders and <strong>Meat</strong> Type of<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong>: Clinical and Economical Relevance and Control Strategies<br />
A. Feberwee<br />
Methods Used For Diagnosis of Chicken Mycoplasma Gallisepticum İnfection<br />
and İmportance of PCR Method<br />
Serpil Kahya Demirbilek, Özge Yılmaz, K. Tayfun Carlı<br />
Investigations on Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (IBDV) VP2 Gene Variations<br />
in Chickens<br />
Nuri Turan, Aydın Gürel, Utku Y. Çizmecigil, Özge Erdoğan Bamaç, Aysun<br />
Yılmaz, Özge Aydın, Hüseyin Yılmaz<br />
Enzyme Application Experiences in Broiler Feeds and Practical Application<br />
Strategies<br />
İbrahim Çiftçi<br />
Optimisation of Enzymes Combinations to Improve Overall Digestibility of Corn<br />
and Soybean Meal-Based Diets<br />
Olivier Guais<br />
Effect of Xylanase on Digestibility of Cereals and Proteinaceous by-products in<br />
Broiler<br />
Lode Nollet, Karel Bierman<br />
Implications of Protease Addition to Diets with NSPases and Different Levels of<br />
Phytase in Broiler Diets<br />
S. Peris, N. Şenköylü, R. Gonzalez-Esquerra, R.B. Araujo, C.G. Lima, J.<br />
Arce,C. Lopez-Coello<br />
Emerging Myopathies: White Striping and Wooden Breast Conditions and <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Quality in Broiler<br />
S. F. Bilgili<br />
White Striping Prevalence and Its Effect on Proximate Composition, Color<br />
Properties and Oxidative Stability of Broiler Chicken Breast Fillets<br />
Shahram Golzar Adabı, Eda Demirok Soncu, Ozcan Yücelt<br />
Effects of Ultrasound Pre-Treatment on Some Physical Properties of Chicken<br />
Breast <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Özlem Zambak, Sami Gökhan Özkal<br />
The Effect of Marination and Sous Vide Cooking on the Quality Parameters of<br />
Chicken <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Eda Demirok Soncu, N. Tuğçe Aytekin, Derya Çelik, İlknur Dursun, E.<br />
Yağmur Özdemir, Merve Uslu, Güliz Haskaraca, Nuray Kolsarıcı<br />
Slow Food:Slow Growing Broiler, <strong>Meat</strong> Quality and Welfare<br />
Metin Petek, Derya Yeşilbağ, Enver Çavuşoğlu, Ece Çetin, İbrahima<br />
Mahamane Abdourhamane, İsmail Çetin<br />
Significance of <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> For Public Health<br />
Recep AKDUR<br />
60<br />
61<br />
62<br />
66<br />
67<br />
68<br />
73<br />
79<br />
84<br />
91<br />
94<br />
101<br />
102<br />
103<br />
104
IS11<br />
O20<br />
O21<br />
O22<br />
O23<br />
O24<br />
O25<br />
IS12<br />
O26<br />
O27<br />
O28<br />
IS13<br />
IS14<br />
O29<br />
Effects Of Childhood Nutrition on Susequent Adult Obesity and Cardiovascular<br />
Diseases; Effects of <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Mustafa Metin Donma, Orkide Donma<br />
Analyzing the Factors Affecting Household Chicken <strong>Meat</strong> Consumption<br />
Expenditures in Turkey with Bivariate Heckman Sample Selection Model<br />
Mustafa Terin, Abdulbaki Bilgiç, İrfan Okan Güler<br />
Protected Organic Acids and Essential Oil Blends on Gut Microbiota and<br />
Production Performance of Broiler Chickens<br />
G. B. Tactacan, T. Wilson, R. Moore, N. Fernando, A. Anwar, T. T. Van, W.<br />
Bradshaw, J. C. Bodin, D. Detzler<br />
Effect of 1-Monoglycerides of Organic Acid in Controlling Clostridium<br />
Perfringens And Salmonella Typhimurium in Experimentally Infected Broiler<br />
Chickens<br />
Giovanni Tosi, Laura Fiorentini, Paola Massi, Alessio Paoli, Manuela Parini,<br />
Effects of Dietary Prebiotic Addition to Diets on Growth Performance and<br />
Intestinal Microflora in Broilers Exposed to Delay Feed and Water Access after<br />
Hatch<br />
Köksal BH, Cengiz Ö, Sevim Ö, Tatlı O, Beyaz D, Büyükyörük S, Boyacıoğlu<br />
M, Kuter E, Koçak P, Kaya M, Önol AG<br />
Effects of Guanidino Acetic Acid Supplementation and Energy Level of Broiler<br />
Diets with <strong>Poultry</strong> By-Product Meal on Growth Performance and <strong>Meat</strong> Quality<br />
Anıl Çenesiz, Necmettin Ceylan, İbrahim Çiftçi, İsmail Yavaş, Ozan<br />
Taşkasen, Oğuz Kıyak, Mario Mueller<br />
Efficacy of An Algo-Clay Complex on Decreasing Mycotoxin Liver Toxicity on<br />
Broilers<br />
Maria Angeles Rodriguez, Julia Laurain, Maria Garcia Suarez, Piotr<br />
Cierpinski<br />
The Real Truth on <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> and Management of Consumers Perception<br />
Christine Agnes<br />
A Public Survey on Consumer Habits Related to Label Informations of Packaged<br />
Raw <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> and It’s Evaluation by Turkish Food Regulation<br />
Sibel Özcakmak<br />
Consumption Habits of <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> and Products in Konya Region of Turkey<br />
Mehmet Uyar, Yasemin Durduran, Lütfi Saltuk Demir, Reyhan Evci, Özlen<br />
Tekin, Zehra Diker, Tahir Kemal Şahin<br />
Evaluation of <strong>Poultry</strong> Sector in Terms of Occupational Health and Safety<br />
Çakır M, Ocaktan E<br />
Diagnosis Failures of Respiratory Diseases in Broiler Chickens and Key Strategies<br />
Güney Gökçelik<br />
Diagnosis, Prevention and Control of Infectious Laryngotracheitis (ILT) in<br />
Broilers and Broiler Breeders<br />
Barış Sareyyüpoğlu<br />
Frequency of Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV) S1 Genotypes in Chickens and<br />
Development of ELISA by Using Recombinant IBV-N Protein<br />
Hüseyin Yılmaz, Utku Y. Çizmecigil, Aydın Gürel, Bonto Faburay, Burhan<br />
Çetinkaya, Özge Aydın, Juergen A. Richt, Nuri Turan<br />
105<br />
110<br />
111<br />
117<br />
124<br />
125<br />
132<br />
137<br />
141<br />
142<br />
143<br />
144<br />
150<br />
151
IS15<br />
O30<br />
O31<br />
O32<br />
IS16<br />
IS17<br />
O33<br />
O34<br />
IS18<br />
IS19<br />
O35<br />
IS20<br />
O36<br />
O37<br />
IS21<br />
O38<br />
Nutritional Modulation of Broiler Intestine in Starter Period and Intestinal<br />
Integrity<br />
Zehava Uni<br />
Effects of Paenibacillus Xylanexedens on Growth Performance and Intestinal<br />
Histomorphology in Broiler Chickens Challenged With Escherichia Coli K88<br />
Burcu Ekim, Ahmet Ceylan, Ali Calik, Pinar Sacakli<br />
Effects of The Mixture of Essential Oils and Organic Acids on Performance and<br />
İntestinal Histomorphology in Broilers<br />
Bülent Özsoy, Handan Eser, Sakine Yalçın, Suzan Yalçın, İlyas Onbaşılar<br />
The Effect of Intra-Amniotic Co-Enzyme Q10 Administration on Liver Oxidation,<br />
Fatty Acid Profile of Transported Hatchlings and Post-Hatch Performance of<br />
Broiler<br />
Shahram Golzar Adabi, Ali Calik, Pinar Sacakli<br />
Strategic Approaches of Brazil in the World <strong>Poultry</strong> Production<br />
Fadi Felfeli<br />
Management of Precise Broiler Production in Farm Level and Technology Usage<br />
David Speller<br />
Live Weight and Body Measurements of Male and Female Native Ducks of<br />
Reared in Different Housing System<br />
Mehmet Sarı, Kadir Önk, İsmayil Safa Gürcan, Serpil Adıgüzel Işık,<br />
Muammer Tilki<br />
Influence of Stunning with AC-pDC Electrical Current with Square-Chirp Waves<br />
Types and Low-High Frequencies on Some Welfare Parameters and Carcass<br />
Defects in Broilers<br />
İhsan Bülent Helva, Mustafa Akşit<br />
Efficacy of Vaccination of Broiler Chickens Against Coccidiosis and Recent<br />
Advancements<br />
Hafez Mohamed Hafez<br />
The Latest Situation on Avian İnfluenza (Bird Flu) in the World and Ministry<br />
Application and Efforts of Turkey<br />
Ümit Zoray<br />
Antimicrobial Effects of Peptide Isolated From Chicken Blood on Salmonella<br />
Serotypes<br />
Tuğçe Yıldırır, Barışhan Doğan, Mehmet Akan, K. Serdar Diker<br />
Protein Nutrition of Breeders to Improve Performance, Hatchability And<br />
Offspring Performance<br />
R.A. Van Emous<br />
Feed Supplementation Effect of 25-Hydroxycholecalciferol and Canthaxanthin<br />
in Broiler Breeders and Their Progeny<br />
Elisa Folegatti, Mustafa Unal<br />
Nutritional Modulation of Antioxidant System In <strong>Poultry</strong>:New developments<br />
with selenium on Hatching and Embriyonic Developmment<br />
Peter F. Surai, Vladimir .I. Fisinin<br />
Microbial Control Strategies in <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Production and Future Approaches<br />
Muammer Göncüoğlu<br />
Contamination Sources of Listeria monocytogenes in <strong>Poultry</strong> Processing Plants<br />
Kadir Emre Girgin, Özgür Çadirci<br />
152<br />
161<br />
168<br />
169<br />
178<br />
180<br />
183<br />
184<br />
185<br />
194<br />
195<br />
196<br />
209<br />
215<br />
223<br />
224
O39<br />
O40<br />
O41<br />
IS22<br />
O42<br />
O43<br />
O44<br />
IS23<br />
IS24<br />
O45<br />
Poster<br />
No<br />
P01<br />
P02<br />
P03<br />
P04<br />
P05<br />
P06<br />
P07<br />
P08<br />
Effects of Antimicrobial Usage on the Sensory Properties of <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Şeyma Yenioğlu Demiralp, Betül Karslıoğlu Özen, Eda Demirok Soncu,<br />
Nuray Kolsarıcı<br />
Determination of Lytic Effect Profiles of Listeria Phages Isolated from <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
Slaughterhouse Wastewaters<br />
Gizem Çufaoğlu , Naim Deniz Ayaz<br />
Effects of Acorns Extracts of Oak Trees On The Physicochemical and<br />
Antioxidative Properties of Chicken Thigh <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Ramazan Gökçe, Haluk Ergezer, Orhan Özünlü<br />
Predisposing Factors of Necrotic Enteritis (NE) in Broiler Chicks and Securing<br />
Broiler Flocks from NE<br />
Vasilious Tsiouris<br />
Metagenomic Analysis of Gut Microbiome Associated with Early Chick Mortality<br />
Mehmet Akan, İnci Başak Kaya, Seyyide Sarıçam, K.Serdar Diker<br />
Metagenomic Analysis of Cecal Microbiome Associated with Growth Retardation<br />
in Broiler<br />
İnci Başak Kaya, K. Serdar Diker, Okan Elibol, Mehmet Akan<br />
Investigation of Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles and Significant Serotypes of<br />
Chicken E. Coli Isolates<br />
Fethiye Çöven, Fulya Ocak, Ercüment Ertunç, Süheyla Türkyılmaz<br />
Alternative Feed Resources for Sustainable Broiler Production-Insect Meals<br />
Damian Józefiak<br />
Updates in Ca and P Requirements of Broiler Chickens<br />
Necmettin Ceylan, Sait Koca<br />
A Commercial Blend Of Plant-Derived Compounds Increases Production<br />
Performance Of Broilers In A Commercial Broiler Farm<br />
Feyaerts, J., Van de Mierop, K. and Goderis, A.<br />
POSTERS<br />
Effect of Dietary Sodium Butyrate Supplementation on Performance, Intestinal<br />
Microflora, and Intestinal Morphology<br />
Umair Ahsan, Aybala Kübra Önal, Eren Kuter, Özcan Cengiz, Ifrah Raza<br />
Eubiotics in Broiler Nutrition<br />
Mukaddes Merve Efil, Gülay Deniz<br />
The Effect of Animal Welfare on <strong>Meat</strong> Quality in <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
Hatice Berna Poçan, Mustafa Karakaya<br />
Use of Coriender (Coriendrum sativum L.) Seed in Broiler Nutrition<br />
Figen Kırkpınar, Selim Mert, Özgün Işık<br />
Use of Cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) in Broiler Nutrition<br />
Figen Kırkpınar, Özgün Işık, Selim Mert<br />
Use of Pulsed Electric Fields on <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Industry and Effects On Oxidation,<br />
Color, Texture and Sensory Propertıes<br />
Ceren Ateş, Gülsün Akdemir Evrendilek<br />
The Use Electrlyzed Water in <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Industry<br />
Şahin Bakay, Gülsün Akdemir Evrendilek<br />
Ozone Applications in <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Industry<br />
Merve Demiray, Gülsün Akdemir Evrendilek<br />
225<br />
226<br />
227<br />
228<br />
234<br />
235<br />
236<br />
237<br />
244<br />
249<br />
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P15<br />
P16<br />
P17<br />
P18<br />
P19<br />
P20<br />
P21<br />
P22<br />
P23<br />
P24<br />
Biogen Amins in Poutry <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Berna Karataş, Gülsün Akdemir Evrendilek<br />
Influences of Vegetable Oil (Sun Flower Oil) Usage on Some Physico-Chemical<br />
Features in the Production of Turkey <strong>Meat</strong> Salami<br />
Ahmet Akköse, Canan Çelik<br />
Importance of <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> in Human Nutrition<br />
Şenay Burçin Alkan, Yasemin Durduran, Serpil Koygun, Mehmet Uyar<br />
The Importance of The <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Sector in Terms of Food Security In Benin<br />
and Suggestions for Development of the Sector<br />
Oscar Akouegnonho, Nevin Demirbaş<br />
Sustainability in Broiler <strong>Meat</strong> Production<br />
Neslihan Kalkan, Servet Yalçın<br />
Influence of Different Levels of Phytogenic Feed Additive on Intestinal<br />
Microbiota and Intestinal Morphology on Broilers<br />
Umair Ahsan, Eren Kuter, Bekir Hakan Köksal, Özay Güleş, Ifrah Raza,<br />
Pelin Koçak Kızanlık, Devrim Beyaz, Özcan Cengiz<br />
Effect of Englightenment in Quails on Performance Parameters<br />
Ömer Görgülü, Tülin Çiçek Rathert<br />
A Research of Knowledge, Attitude of Medical Faculty Hospital Kitchen Workers<br />
About Consumption of Chicken <strong>Meat</strong> And Products<br />
Yasemin Durduran, Lütfi Saltuk Demir, Şenay Burçin Alkan, Mehmet Uyar,<br />
Serpil Koygun, Özlen Tekin, Seda Cazur, Zehra Diker, Tahir Kemal Şahin<br />
Some Slaughter and Carcass Traits of Ducks Reared in Free-Range and Barn<br />
Conditions<br />
Umut Sami Yamak, Mehmet Akif Boz, Musa Sarıca, Kadir Erensoy<br />
Effect of Selection Applied according to Breeding Values of the Fifth Week Live<br />
Weight on Growth Traits in Japanese Quails<br />
Mehmet Sarı, Kadir Önk, Mustafa Saatcı<br />
Isolation and Characterization of Listeria monocytogenes from Chicken Neck<br />
Skin Samples<br />
Gizem Çufaoğlu, Naim Deniz Ayaz<br />
Examination of Probiotics Effects on Intestinal Microbita of <strong>Poultry</strong> by<br />
Monitoring Feces<br />
Şems Yonsel, Miray Sevim, Tülay Şahin<br />
An Application of Genome Wide Meta Analyses for Mendelıean Chıcken<br />
Phenotypes<br />
Burak Karacaören<br />
Comparison of Susceptibility Level and 16S rDNA Regions in The Metagenomics<br />
Analysis of Chicken Cecum Microbiome<br />
İnci Başak Kaya, Yörük Divanoğlu, Mehmet Akan, K. Serdar Diker<br />
Evaluation of Discrimination Level of 16S rDNA Variable Regions in Aerobic<br />
Bacteria Taxons Originated from <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
K. Serdar Diker, Yörük Divanoğlu, Tuğçe Yıldırır, H. Kaan Müştak<br />
Effects of the Usage of Sepiolite with Water in Broiler Grower Feed on Pellet<br />
Quality and Pellet Production Parameters<br />
Sakine Yalçın, İlyas Onbaşılar, Fernando Escrıbano, Muhammad Shazaib<br />
Ramay, Mahlagha Pirpanahi<br />
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P31<br />
P32<br />
P33<br />
P34<br />
P35<br />
P36<br />
P37<br />
P38<br />
P39<br />
Effects of Post-Chilling Peroxyacetic Acid (Paa) Application on Chicken<br />
Carcasses to Extend the Storage Time<br />
Görkem Ozansoy, Bahar Onaran, Muammer Göncüoğlu, K. Serdar Diker<br />
The Effects of Different Monochromatic Lighting Applications<br />
during Embryogenesis on Some Hatching Characteristics<br />
Kübra Melis Sabuncuoğlu, Doğan Narinç, Firdevs Korkmaz,<br />
Hasan Ersin Şamlı<br />
Oxidative Deterioration in <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> and Its Prevention by Using Antioxidants<br />
Şeyma Yenioğlu Demiralp, Eda Demirok Soncu, Betül Karslıoğlu Özen,<br />
Nuray Kolsarıcı<br />
Effect of High Eggshell Temperature During the First Week of Incubation on<br />
Hatchability, Hatch Time and Chick Organ Development<br />
Kardelen Oya Avşar, Ahmet Uçar, Serdar Özlü, Okan Elibol<br />
Potantial Use of Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy in<br />
Charaterization of Turkish Salami Produced from Turkey <strong>Meat</strong> or Beef<br />
Ebru Deniz, Naşit İğci, Duygu Özel Demiralp, Kezban Candogan<br />
An Investigation on Possible Use of Myofibrillar and Sarcoplasmic Protein<br />
Fractions in Differantiating Pork and Turkey <strong>Meat</strong>s by FTIR Spectroscopy<br />
Ebru Deniz, Evrim Güneş Altuntaş, Öznur Özbey Subaşı, Beycan Ayhan,<br />
Duygu Özel Demiralp, Kezban Candogan<br />
Effect of Eggshell Temperature during Hatching Phase on Hatchability and<br />
Broiler Live Performance<br />
Tülay Can, Rana Dişa, Serdar Özlü, Ahmet Uçar, Uğur Can, Nejla<br />
Kahraman, İsmail Ertonga, Okan Elibol<br />
Effects of Battering Chicken Nuggets With A Dough Contains Corn Flour, Corn<br />
Starch and Different Hydrocolloids on Some Quality Characteristics<br />
Ramazan Gökçe, Ali Aytaç Akgün, Haluk Ergezer<br />
Metagenomic Analysis of Butyrate-Producing Bacteria in the Gut Microbiome<br />
of Broilers<br />
K.Serdar Diker, Tuğçe Yıldırır, Barışhan Doğan, Mehmet Akan<br />
Development of Gut Microbiome in Broiler Chickens<br />
K.Serdar Diker, Seyyide Sarıçam, Tuğçe Yıldırır, Mehmet Akan<br />
Effect of Organic Material on Antibacterial Activiy of Chlorine Against<br />
Salmonella Enteritidis, S.Typhimurium ve S.Infantis Serotypes<br />
Tuğçe Yıldırır, Barışhan Doğan, K. Serdar Diker<br />
Differences in the Gut Microbiome of Conventional Broiler and Free-Range<br />
Chickens<br />
K.Serdar Diker, İnci Başak Kaya, Ebru Torun, Mehmet Akan<br />
Effects of Clinoptilolite Added as Top-Dressed on Performance and Some Blood<br />
Parameters in Broilers<br />
Muhammed Shazaib Ramay, Sakine Yalçın, Yavuz Yener, Oğuz Berk<br />
Güntürkün, Emre Sunay Gebeş, Suzan Yalçın, Mahlagha Pırpanahı<br />
Evaluation of Worms as A Source of Protein in <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
Bülent Köse, Ergin Öztürk<br />
Effects of Ultrasound Pre-Treatment on Rehydration Properties of Dried Chicken<br />
Breast <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Özlem Zambak, Sami Gökhan Özkal<br />
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P47<br />
P48<br />
P49<br />
P50<br />
P51<br />
P52<br />
P53<br />
P54<br />
P55<br />
Evaluation of Turkish <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Export Performance within the Case of Brazil<br />
Harun Daysal, Nevin Demirbaş<br />
Comparison of Some <strong>Meat</strong> Quality Traits of Slow and Fast Grown Male Broiler<br />
Chickens Raised in Slat Floor Housing System<br />
İsmail Çetin, Ece Çetin, Enver Çavuşoğlu, Derya Yeşilbağ, Melahat Özbek,<br />
İbrahima M.Abdourhamane, Metin Petek<br />
Effects of Dietary Clinoptilolite Supplementation on Intestinal Histomorphology<br />
and Caecum Volatile Fatty Acids in Broilers<br />
Şule Yurdagül Özsoy, Sakine Yalçın, Gültekin Yıldız, Ali Çalık, Emre Sunay<br />
Gebeş, Muhammad Shazaib Ramay<br />
<strong>Meat</strong> Quality Characteristics in Geese<br />
Mehmet Akif Boz, Ahmet Uçar, Musa Sarıca, Umut Sami Yamak<br />
Evaluation of Slow-Growing Broiler in Three Rearing Systems: Growth<br />
Performance and Animal Welfare<br />
İbrahima Mahamane Abdourhamane, Melahat Özbek, Enver Çavuşoğlu,<br />
Metin Petek<br />
The Effect of Nutrients on Gene Expression Levels of <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
Hasan Hüseyin İpçak, Sema Özüretmen, Nurşen Alpagut Keskin, Ahmet<br />
Alçiçek<br />
Effect of Litter Material on Broiler Performance, Slaughtering Characteristics<br />
and House Ammonia Levels<br />
Seher Küçükersan, Sakine Yalçın, Emre Sunay Gebeş, Özge Sızmaz,<br />
Özlem Aydın,<br />
Najwa Omar Haıaba, Maglagha Pırpanahı<br />
Effects of Carob Products With Β-1,4 Mannanase Suplementation on<br />
Performance, Carcass Characteristics, Intestinal Histomorphology and Caecal<br />
Short Chain Fatty Acids in Broiler Diets<br />
Seher Küçükersan, Sakine Yalçın, M. Kemal Küçükersan, Ali Çalık,<br />
Muhammad Shazaib Ramay, Ozan Ahlat, Oğuz Berk Güntürkün<br />
Developments in Broiler Breeder Rearing<br />
Ahmet Uçar, Serdar Özlü, Mesut Türkoğlu<br />
Sectoral Structure in The Scope of Contracted Breeding and Broiler Integration<br />
Relations in Chicken <strong>Meat</strong> Production<br />
Arzu Gökdai, Tuğba Sarıhan Şahin, Yılmaz Aral<br />
Weapons of Immune System: Antimicrobial Peptides-Bacteriocins<br />
İmge Duru, Pınar Saçaklı<br />
Lipoic Acid and It’s Antioxidan Capacity<br />
Pınar Özdemir, Hatice Basmacıoğlu-Malayoğlu<br />
Effects of Dietary Levels and Sources of Fiber in Broiler Diets<br />
A. Anıl Çenesiz<br />
Effects of Olive Leaf Supplementation to Broiler Diets, on Lipid Oxidation of<br />
Breast <strong>Meat</strong>s<br />
Hatice Basmacıoğlu Malayoğlu, İsmail Yavaş<br />
Prevention of Broiler Feed Mill from Salmonella Contamination<br />
Şevket Özlü, Anıl Çenesiz<br />
Effects of Pellet Quality on Broiler Nutrition<br />
H. Ozan Taşkesen, Necmettin Ceylan<br />
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P62<br />
P63<br />
P64<br />
P65<br />
Effects of Vitamin Nutrition in Broiler Breeders on Fertility and Chick Quality<br />
İsmail Yavaş, Emine Yücesoy Yavaş<br />
Effects of Mycotoxins on Nutrient Digestibility and Feed Passage<br />
Esra Evrenkaya, Necmettin Ceylan<br />
Is There A Benefit of Using an Endotoxin Solution in Broiler Feed That Already<br />
Contains a Mycotoxin Binder ?<br />
A. Goderis, K. Van de Mierop, W. Merckx<br />
Searching and Optimizing of Chicken Gelatin Production Conditions by<br />
Chicken Mechanically Deboned <strong>Meat</strong> (MDM) Residues in Acidic Mediums<br />
Aydın Erge, Ömer Zorba<br />
Effects of Black Cumin and Flaxseed on Various Physical, Chemical,<br />
Technological, Sensorial and Textural Properties of Spent Hen Patties and<br />
Modelling These Effects with Response Surface Methodology<br />
Fatime Demir, Gülşah Arslan, Nursel Söylemez Milli, Ömer Zorba<br />
Consumer Opinions for Processed <strong>Meat</strong> Products Consumption: Bolu Example<br />
Burak Mumay, Enes Özkaya, Muhammed Yavuz, Seda Gülçek, Şerife<br />
Yıldız, Şeyma Şahin, Tolga Sak, Ahmet Yaman<br />
Effect of An Algae-Clay Mix on the Use By Broiler Chickens of a Diet<br />
Containing Corn DDGS<br />
Maria Garcia Suarez, Marie Gallissot, Piotr Cierpinski<br />
Influence of Algae-Based Complex on Broilers Performances<br />
Cierpinski Piotr, Quéro Benoît, Bussy Frédérick, Le Goff Matthieu<br />
Effects of Dietary Amino Acid Density on Broiler Chickens<br />
A. Anıl Çenesiz<br />
The Situation of Egg and Chicken <strong>Meat</strong> Consumption Among Students at the<br />
Veterinary Medicine<br />
Pınar Ayvazoğlu Demir, Erol Aydın<br />
SPONSORS<br />
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18
INVITED AND ORAL<br />
PRESENTATIONS<br />
19
IS 01 Important Aspects of Sustainable Broiler Production to Keep Safe the<br />
Industry<br />
Anne-Marie Neeteson, Santiago Avendaño, Magnus Swalander<br />
Aviagen Group<br />
Introduction<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> meat is an important, healthy, affordable source of protein. It accounts for 35% of global<br />
meat consumption, after pork (36%) (1). Half of the increase in total meat production within the<br />
next decade will be captured by poultry meat and will be located mostly in developing countries<br />
(1, 2). The human population is expected to grow to nine billion people by 2050, with people<br />
in the upcoming economies adding significant animal product to their diets, resulting in a demand-driven<br />
livestock revolution (3, 4).<br />
There are a number of factors affecting the availability of resources for global production of food<br />
for human consumption:<br />
Firstly, population and agricultural land (including pasture) are not equally divided across the<br />
globe: compared with relative scarcity of agricultural land in Europe and Asia (0.6 and 0.4 ha/<br />
person respectively), North and Latin America have agricultural land per capita: 1.4 and 1.2 ha/<br />
person (5). If there is no alteration in available land, Africa, with a fast growing population, will<br />
change from 1.1 ha/person in 2011 to 0.5 in 2050. Globally, the area for producing food per person<br />
will decrease from 0.7 to 0.5 ha/person (Figure 1). Furthermore, sustainable water supplies<br />
are one of humanity’s most critical resource needs (6) – the available amount of freshwater is<br />
24,776 m³ (cu m)/inhabitant/year (5).<br />
Figure 1. Population and agricultural land in the regions of the world<br />
Left. Agricultural land 2011. Middle. Populations 2011 and 2050. Right. Agricultural land per<br />
person. Assuming available land will not change, 2011 areas are divided by 2050 population<br />
projections. (5, 7).<br />
Secondly, increasing populations and growing economies will increase competition for avail-<br />
20
able resources between feed, food, fibre and fuel production (6). For example, for the European<br />
Union (EU) to produce 5.75% of its fuel as biofuel (not achieved goal for 2010), it would need<br />
13-15% of the its agricultural area. Goals for 2015 and 2030 were/are 8% and 25%, respectively<br />
(8, 9).<br />
Thirdly, with societies becoming more affluent people are tending to eat more animal protein,<br />
starting with poultry, and this trend is expected to continue. Generally, meat consumption patterns<br />
are shifting towards poultry, as is indicated in the opening paragraph. Some policy makers<br />
(e.g. UNEP, 2012) call for moderation of meat consumption, but globally an increase is likely to<br />
precede any possible decline in animal protein consumption.<br />
Fourthly, climate change will increase insecurity in harvesting and food availability. Food security<br />
in the widest sense will become more of an issue, with problems in volatility of feed prices<br />
and food availability. This will have most impact on less wealthy regions and people. (7)<br />
This paper will focus on the aspects of sustainability of poultry production, and in particular<br />
how breeding contributes to increase the sustainability of poultry production, through targeted<br />
improvements in efficiency, health and welfare.<br />
Sustainability<br />
Sustainability, as defined in the Brundtland report (10), p.15, is “meeting the needs of the present<br />
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. The United<br />
Nations General Assembly (2005) has adopted a resolution indicating the three major aspects<br />
of sustainability to be environment, society and economy. Since then, these categories are commonly<br />
used as the pillars of sustainability, e.g. http://www.un.org/en/ga/president/65/issues/sustdev.shtml<br />
or http://en.aviagen.com/social-responsibility/.<br />
Environmental impact<br />
The first sustainability pillar to address is the environment, i.e. the environmental impact of<br />
(animal) food production. In this section, the environmental impact of poultry production will<br />
be addressed in the following contexts: i. livestock production broadly; ii. different poultry production<br />
systems; iii. genetic improvement and expression of the genetic potential in the field.<br />
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodology for calculating the lifetime environmental impact<br />
of a product or service, i.e. the environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a<br />
product’s life from cradle to grave. During the 1970s and ’80s, many approaches to reducing<br />
environmental impact emerged, but they included one stage of the process. In the late 1980s,<br />
life-cycle assessment was developed as tools to better understand the risks, opportunities and<br />
trade-offs of product systems and of the nature of environmental impacts.<br />
Environmental impact of poultry<br />
An early study to work out a life-cycle-assessment system model for agricultural and horticultural<br />
production was made by Adrian Williams and colleagues (11, Figure 2).<br />
21
Figure 2. Environmental Impacts and Resources Used of various UK Production Systems<br />
<strong>Meat</strong>s / t of carcass, / 20,000 eggs (~ 1 t) / 10m 3 milk. GWP=Global Warming Potential; ARU = Scale<br />
related to scarcety of resources.<br />
(After: Williams et al., 2006. DEFRA Project Report ISO 205).<br />
Williams et al.(11) show that poultry has a low environmental impact compared to other livestock<br />
systems. In their study, the global warming potential (GWP, in kg CO 2<br />
equivalent) of<br />
beef, milk, sheep meat, pork, poultry meat and eggs is 16, 10.6, 17, 5.5 and 4.6 respectively.<br />
The primary energy use (GJ) is 28, 25, 23, 17, 12 and 14 respectively. Eutrophication potential<br />
(kg PO 4<br />
3-<br />
) is 158, 64, 200, 100, 49 and 77. The acidification potential (kg SO 2<br />
) of the respective<br />
systems is calculated as 471, 163, 380, 394, 173 and 306. The abiotic resource use (kg antimony;<br />
a scale related to scarcity of resources) turns out to be 36, 28, 27, 35, 30 and 38.<br />
Environmental impact of systems<br />
The environmental impact of various poultry production systems has been calculated by Williams<br />
et al. (11) and by Leinonen et al. (12, Figure 3). The comparisons of conventional, free<br />
range and organic broiler systems by Leinonen et al. (12) show important environmental advantages<br />
for conventional over free range and organic broiler systems for primary energy used,<br />
global warming potential, eutrophication and acidification potential, abiotic resource use and<br />
land use.<br />
120<br />
6<br />
100<br />
5<br />
kg/Ton of edible product<br />
80<br />
60<br />
40<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
Tonnes CO2, 100 yrs<br />
Eutrophication potential (kg<br />
PO4 equivalent)<br />
Acidification potential (kg SO2<br />
equivalent)<br />
Global warming Potential (t<br />
CO2 equivalent, 100 timescale)<br />
20<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Standard Free Range Organic<br />
0<br />
Figure 3. Environmental Impact of Three Alternative Broiler Production Systems.<br />
Pollutants/Ton edible product. Global warming potential to 100 yrs. (After: Leinonen et al., 2012).<br />
22
Animal breeding and expression of genetic potential<br />
The impact of animal breeding to reduce nitrogen and methane emissions from livestock based<br />
food chains have been laid out in a DEFRA study by Jones for Genesis Faraday Partnership (13),<br />
estimating that environmental impact improvement could be achieved mainly by improving<br />
FCR and growth rate in broilers. The review and modelling study revealed that more data were<br />
required to come to precise estimations.<br />
Broilers 1988 - 07<br />
CH4<br />
NH3<br />
N2O<br />
GWP100<br />
Eggs layed<br />
Days finishing<br />
FCR<br />
Mortality<br />
KO%<br />
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%<br />
Proportion of total changes<br />
Figure 4. Drivers for Improvement of Environmental Impact via Animal Breeding.<br />
Left: Broilers; FCR = Feed Conversion Ratio. (After Genesis Faraday Partnership, 2008. Defra Project<br />
Report AC204).<br />
The impact of genetic change in broilers on environmental footprint has been quantified recently.<br />
Leinonen et al. (14) predicted the potential effects of 15yr prospective broiler breeding on<br />
the environmental impacts of a standard UK broiler production system. The scenario included<br />
changes in the traits of growth rate (reducing the time to reach a target weight 2.05 kg from 34<br />
d to 27 d), body lipid content, carcass yield, liveability and chick output. The authors found<br />
predicted changes in biological performance due to selective breeding could lead to reduced environmental<br />
impacts of the broiler production in terms of Eutrophication Potential (12%), Acidification<br />
Potential (10%) and Abiotic Resource Use (9%) and Global Warming Potential (9%).<br />
Global comparability<br />
The various ways of calculating the LCA components across the world, across species and across<br />
feed sources developed over time were not fully comparable, with the methods being slightly<br />
different. A stakeholder group of industry associations, scientists and non-governmental organizations,<br />
with the secretariat provided by FAO, is addressing the global comparability of the various<br />
LCA methods in the LEAP (Livestock Environmental Assessment and Performance, 2010 -<br />
2015) and LEAP + (2016 onwards) Partnership (http://www.fao.org/partnerships/leap/en/). LCA<br />
specialists from across the world have developed detailed joint guidelines to calculate LCA for<br />
feed, ruminants, poultry and pork. Close involvement of the international poultry associations<br />
with professional input and funding, has ensured the poultry LEAP guidelines (Version 1, LEAP,<br />
15) to be based on detailed direct poultry sector knowledge. The LEAP+ project will amongst<br />
others develop LCA guidelines for water usage and road test the Version 1 guidelines in various<br />
countries and/or systems. The LEAP Feed guidelines (Version 1, LEAP, 16) are supplemented<br />
by a global feed database hosted by the virtual Global Feed LCA Institute (http://www.ifif.org/<br />
pages/t/Global+Feed+LCA+Institute+(GFLI). The land use change as from 1990 is included in<br />
the LCA system. Discussions on the inclusion of land use change are ongoing with questions like<br />
‘do economies that stop using new land for agriculture deserve to be rewarded for that in LCA?’<br />
23
The expression of genetic potential in the field, will ultimately determine the real improvements<br />
made in land for feed requirements as well as requirements for e.g. water, buildings, and<br />
equipment. “The food-feed-fuel competition makes arable land an increasingly scarce resource.<br />
Improvement of livestock feed efficiency alleviates this, as can be illustrated by a broiler chicken<br />
example: The 2010 global consumption of chicken meat was 86.5 million tons (2012 data from<br />
FAOSTAT, undated), equivalent to 123.6 million tons body weight. The feed conversion ratio<br />
(FCR) converts this into the required amount of feed; our conservative estimate of the global<br />
commercial field improvement in FCR is -0.015 kg/kg each year, equivalent to a cumulative<br />
annual savings of 0.015 x 123.6 = 1.85 million tons of feed. The main chicken meat producing<br />
countries realized a 2010 harvest of 466 tons of wheat per km 2 (2012 data from FAOSTAT, undated),<br />
so the above FCR improvement frees up 1.85 million/466 = about 4000 km 2 of arable<br />
land, an area 1.5 times the size of Luxemburg or 3.3 times the size of New York City. This is a<br />
cumulative figure, realized every year” (17).<br />
Similar land for feed improvements can be estimated for regions or countries.<br />
Waste<br />
Big efficiency improvements can also be made via the reduction of waste and losses along the<br />
food chain, including waste on the farm, during transport, and by retail, restaurants and consumers<br />
at home. At the global level, 10–40% of agricultural production is wasted as well as one third<br />
of food for human consumption (6). Of the food losses, 40% is found after harvest and during<br />
processing in developing countries, and in industrialized countries this is 40% at the retail and<br />
consumer level (18). Also, using or quantifying by-product usage of human foods as feed would<br />
contribute to a better poultry footprint. Unfortunately, many biofuel by-products (from grain,<br />
sugar beet) are not very useable as poultry feed, but some plant oil by-products (from soya and<br />
cole/rape seed) can be usefully included (8).<br />
Societal aspects: human and animal<br />
“<strong>Poultry</strong> production affects the animals that are farmed, the farmers managing the birds and the<br />
people providing support and processing, the organizations marketing the animals and products,<br />
and the consumers who eat poultry meat and eggs. The animals should be looked after with care,<br />
knowledge and skill. The people managing poultry production perform a role in society of providing<br />
food, and are due a reasonable income from that. The members of society who consume<br />
poultry products want a safe and secure supply. Additionally, also people not eating poultry<br />
products have opinions about poultry production” (7).<br />
Human health and food safety<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> products are a healthy, affordable, lean source of protein. According to the Frequently<br />
Asked Questions section of the Second <strong>International</strong> Conference on Nutrition<br />
(ICN2, organized in 2014 by FAO and World Health Organization) ‘animal foods are<br />
good sources of high-quality protein and vitamins and minerals such as iron and zinc, which<br />
are especially important for children and lactating mothers. Increasing access to affordable<br />
animal-source foods could significantly improve many people’s nutritional status and health”<br />
and “excess consumption of high fat-containing meat is associated with heart disease and other<br />
non-communicable diseases” (http://www.fao.org/about/meetings/icn2/faq/en/ ). <strong>Poultry</strong> meats,<br />
for instance “a 3-ounce serving of boneless, skinless turkey breast contains 26 grams<br />
24
of protein, 1 gram of fat and 0 grams of saturated fat” (http://www.eatturkey.com/<br />
consumer/healthyeating) and fulfil the requirements of a healthy protein source.<br />
An indispensable requirement of food is that it is safe for the consumer, e.g. without pathogens<br />
or other substances that can influence their health negatively. Food health and safety standards<br />
and certificates play an increasingly important role. However, any food scandal will impact<br />
negatively on the whole food production sector – therefore, efforts on improving trust can never<br />
be seen in isolation.<br />
Food security<br />
As mentioned above, environmental impact analysis shows that poultry products are a very<br />
environmentally friendly source of animal protein, with the possibility of further improving its<br />
impact.<br />
The role of sustainable poultry and pig breeding for food security is described in Animal Frontiers<br />
(17). Pig and poultry breeding goals, according to animal breeding experts worldwide, have<br />
broadened much over time and are expected to broaden further (Figure 5). <strong>Poultry</strong> breeding<br />
should further “broaden in a balanced way, focusing on productivity and efficiency, subject to<br />
constraints due to feed availability, environmental load, and animal welfare as well as to possible<br />
restrictions due to genotype by environment interaction (G x E), antagonisms between traits and<br />
selection limits.” Breeding companies address GxE by selecting animals in high health environments<br />
using information of close relatives in challenging environments, and by providing technical<br />
support (both in a wide range of media and in person) to optimize the expression of genetic<br />
potential. The radial plots in Figure 5 show how breeding goals have changed from being mostly<br />
unidimensional during the 1950’s with production being the main driver, to a currently multi-dimensional<br />
breeding goal where a wide range of aspects are included in the breeding goal.<br />
Figure 5. Time trends in the relative importance of elements of pig and poultry breeding goals.<br />
Inquiry amongst global animal breeding experts. (After: Neeteson-van Nieuwenhoven et al., 2013).<br />
Antagonisms between performance and reproduction or health traits are addressed via careful<br />
selection of birds which perform well on many traits simultaneously. ”Given large enough<br />
breeding populations, high selection intensities, proper statistical methodology, and proper data-recording<br />
structure, this will maintain a desired balance”. Figure 6 shows the real genetic<br />
improvement over time of two antagonistic traits: growth rate and leg strength in the Aviagen<br />
broiler breeding programme from 1996-2012. See also the paper on this subject by Kapell et al.<br />
25
(19). The modern poultry breeding programme realizes this simultaneous improvement/maintenance<br />
of traits/strengths over time for tens of traits.<br />
2012<br />
hig<br />
h<br />
leg<br />
str<br />
en<br />
gth<br />
1996<br />
Low<br />
low<br />
growth rate<br />
high<br />
Figure 6. Genetic trend (black broken line) in growth rate and leg strength in a broiler chicken<br />
line.<br />
(After: Neeteson-van Nieuwenhoven et al., 2013)<br />
This trend of broadening the breeding programme with simultaneous improvements of robustness,<br />
health, welfare, environmental impact and performance has been applied for decades in<br />
Aviagen and will continue.<br />
Selection limits are not in sight. The evidence is that little genetic variation has been lost and<br />
such rates are indeed sustainable in the future (20).<br />
Animal health and welfare<br />
Farm animal welfare is a major item in the public debate. People do not all have the same concept<br />
of animal welfare, and in addition to physical aspects, many people put more emphasis<br />
on mental aspects and on naturalness (21). Animal welfare groups and members of the public<br />
express concern not only about the physical welfare of birds, but also about mental welfare and<br />
the degree of naturalness of conditions in which they are kept (22).<br />
According to Marian Stamp Dawkins (professor of animal behavior, Oxford University, UK,<br />
2012), it is dangerous to determine animal welfare in terms of anthropomorphism, “to think you<br />
should just open your hearths, and that you do not need any evidence about animal consciousness<br />
– just use your kind of intuition, as is often felt by people who are not scientists. If you look<br />
at free-range chickens, the mortality rates are much higher than they are inside or in cages.<br />
That surprises a lot of people, but it’s an important piece of evidence, before you actually<br />
start evaluating the welfare of the animals. For example, being outside in cold English<br />
winter really isn’t necessarily better for an animal’s welfare than being warm and comfortable<br />
inside. We’re very misled by these different words.” Also, “a lot of people think that<br />
good welfare is when animals are allowed to perform natural behavior, and you can judge<br />
welfare by how natural it is. … Animals in the wild are regularly chased by predators, and<br />
that would be natural” (23). She indicates we are ignorant about consciousness – it is better to<br />
face this than to pretend we have solved what is consciousness and use that as a basis for animal<br />
welfare. “There’s a lot of new legislation about animal welfare. Unfortunately, a lot of it is<br />
26
not evidence-based.” Stamp Dawkins defines animal welfare as animals that are healthy and<br />
have what they want. In investigating animal welfare, scientists must then work with the people<br />
who keep the animals, and with large scale production. “If you want to really do research on<br />
farm animal welfare that’s going to really make a difference, you have to work with the<br />
people who keep the animals. You have to work with the producers. You have to get them<br />
on-board. They [can] see all the reasons for doing this. They wanted to know the answer….<br />
The way to get animal welfare forward is to work with the actual producers, front-line. Not<br />
small-scale and then transfer it upwards. … That’s the way to have impact—much more than<br />
try to criticize them.” One of her researches in broilers, involving 70% of the UK broiler industry,<br />
shows that not stocking density is a key factor in lameness and mortality, but management<br />
factors like good litter, good air and good quality of environment. Another well-known animal<br />
welfare professor, Temple Grandin, also emphasizes that it is important for animal welfare to<br />
take account of what the animal shows us, and to take care that human perception of animal<br />
welfare is not taking over.<br />
In line with this, FAWC (24) has outlined the Five Freedoms [freedom from hunger and thirst,<br />
from discomfort, from pain, injury or disease, from fear and distress, and freedom to express<br />
natural behavior] as “ideal states rather than standards for acceptable welfare” and to achieve<br />
these “stockmanship, plus the training and supervision necessary to achieve required standards,<br />
are key factors in the handling and care of livestock”. FAWC (2007) has also defined the Three<br />
Essentials of Stockmanship [knowledge of animal husbandry, skills in animal husbandry, and<br />
personal qualities of affinity and empathy with animals, dedication and patience]: good tailored<br />
stockmanship to arrive as close to the ideal state of the Five Freedoms as possible. Similarly,<br />
the National Chicken Council recognizes the importance of professional knowledge, as well as<br />
scientific proof in its broiler and broiler breeder welfare guidelines (25, 26).<br />
For the bird’s welfare, it is best if there is a complete match between the welfare it experiences,<br />
and the perception of welfare by the consumer and the citizen. That should be the major drive<br />
for all parties to close possible gaps between welfare perception by humans and the welfare birds<br />
can perceive.<br />
Transparency and communication<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> is a ‘new meat’. It has grown in importance relatively recently. “Modern poultry production<br />
systems emerged in the late nineteenth century in Europe and America as breeders focused<br />
on improving meat and egg production, and it has subsequently spread across the globe” (15).<br />
However, “while agriculture in general has not been very successful in having a dialogue with<br />
society, particularly poultry, other agricultural sectors, in originally richer regions, have easier<br />
and stronger links to the influential circles of society.” (7). There is a gap between perception of<br />
poultry by citizens and by consumers.<br />
Transparency and communication about poultry are important. “In being transparent about animal<br />
food production in a pro-active and honest way while engaging in continuous welfare<br />
improvement, [the poultry sector] can play an important role to close the gap between welfare<br />
perception and welfare of the animal itself“ (17).<br />
“The players in the poultry sector, including the poultry associations, have been increasing their<br />
efforts towards transparency and dialogue with society during recent years. Although biosecurity<br />
is important, at local and national levels initiatives are frequently set up to ´open the doors,´<br />
27
such as the Open Days organized by the Science and Information Centre for Sustainable <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
Production of Vechta University (Germany), production of ´learning kits´ for schools, showing<br />
video clips on farming, and explaining poultry production via websites” (7), e.g. http://www.<br />
chicken.org.au/. The <strong>International</strong> <strong>Poultry</strong> Council (representing more than 90% of world broiler<br />
production) now employs activities on welfare and health, environment and sustainability, and<br />
communication.<br />
Economy<br />
An intrinsic part of the sustainability of poultry is its viability in economic terms. We will address<br />
the business prospects of poultry, the role of poultry for viability of regions, and the contributions<br />
of environment, health and welfare to performance and economy.<br />
Business prospects of poultry<br />
For poultry to be economically sustainable, it is important that there is demand for poultry, and<br />
that people working with poultry are able to get an income from this. “Production [of poultry<br />
meat] will increase by 17 % within the next decade, mostly in developing countries” (2). Rabobank<br />
reports the poultry economic growth to be 3.4 % in 2014, 3.1 % in 2015 (estimation) and<br />
forecasts 3.6% in 2016 (Rabobank, IMF Economic Outlook, January 2016, 27).<br />
“Relative stability in feed prices combined with short production cycles allows poultry meat<br />
to improve in profitability and respond rapidly to demand changes. … Production is expected<br />
to grow especially in regions where feed is available and used intensively. Half of the increase<br />
in total meat production within the next decade will be captured by poultry meat and will be<br />
located mostly in developing countries, with an additional 26 million tons of poultry meat produced<br />
globally [per annum] between now and 2024. Better feed conversion ratios together with<br />
improved meat-to-feed price margins will also contribute to production growth” (2).<br />
Performance and sustainability<br />
The economy of poultry production is an intrinsic and not a contradictory part of its sustainability.<br />
Better FCR is good for the environmental impact of poultry production ànd for its economic<br />
strength. If money is spent to obtain chicks or poults, and feed, water, energy, buildings and<br />
manpower are used to raise the birds, then losses to disease or mortality will be impacting health,<br />
welfare, environmental impact ànd the economy negatively.<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> will develop further, and new people who have not yet managed birds, will enter poultry<br />
production. Gradually, and increasingly, they will improve skills to fine-tune management to the<br />
birds, the specific environment (climate, feed, water availability) and the markets.<br />
Bird populations will change as breeding companies will continue to broaden and improve a<br />
balanced range of traits. In addition to regular markets, specialty markets will develop with<br />
different emphases like antibiotic ‘free’ or typical market schemes which can obtain higher price<br />
margins, like organic, and specific breeds coupled with tailor-made management programs. It is<br />
expected there will be a growing demand for specialty products. “It is important that specialty<br />
products are not marketed in a way that is detrimental to the image of conventional poultry meat<br />
and eggs, as the safety, environmental impact and the health and welfare of the birds producing<br />
the latter have much improved over time” (7).<br />
28
There are ample opportunities in poultry production. Sustainability can and should go hand in<br />
hand with production, and vice versa. There does not need to be a contradiction.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
Chris Renzelman for global 30 year field FCR improvement calculations. Dagmar Kapell for the<br />
1996-2012 leg strength and growth rate genetic trend.<br />
References<br />
1) FAO Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department, Animal Production and Health.<br />
2014. Sources of <strong>Meat</strong>. http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/themes/en/meat/backgr_sources.html.<br />
2) a.v.e.c. 2015. Annual report. http://www.avec-poultry.eu/annual-reports-overview.<br />
3) Delgado, D. Rosegrant, M., Steinfeld, H., Ehui, S. and Courbois, C. 1999. Livestock to 2020.<br />
The next Food Revolution, <strong>International</strong> Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC,<br />
USA, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Italy, <strong>International</strong> Livestock Research Institute,<br />
Nairobi, Kenya.<br />
4) Foresight. 2011. The Future of Food and Farming, Final project report. The Government<br />
Office for Science, London, UK.<br />
5) FAOSTAT undated ## www.fao.org<br />
6) UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme. 2012. Global Environmental Outlook<br />
GEO Environment for the future we want. Nairobi, Kenya.<br />
7) Neeteson-van Nieuwenhoven, A.M., Appleby, M.C. and Hogarth, G. 2016. Making a Resilient<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> Industry in Europe. Chapter 1. In: Eds. Burton, E., Gatcliffe, J., Masey O’Neill,<br />
H. and Scholey, D. Sustainable <strong>Poultry</strong> Production in Europe. UK WPSA Symposium, September<br />
2014, Chester, UK. <strong>Poultry</strong> Science Symposium Series. Volume 31. CAB <strong>International</strong>,<br />
London, UK.<br />
8) Plakké, T., Duijghuijsen, R. and Leenstra, F. 2008. Toekomstvisie pluimveehouderij 2015-<br />
2020. Stichting Fonds voor Pluimveebelangen, Zoetermeer, The Netherlands.<br />
9) European Commission. 2013. Renewable Energy Progress Report. COM. 2013. 175. Brussels,<br />
Belgium.<br />
10) Brundtland report. 1987. Our Common Future. World Commission on Environment and Development<br />
(1987). Oxford: Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.<br />
11) Williams, A.G., Audsley, E. and Sandars, D.L. 2006. Determining the environmental burdens<br />
and resource use in the production of agricultural and horticultural commodities, Main Report.<br />
Defra Research Project IS0205. Cranfield University, Bedford, UK.<br />
12) Leinonen I, Williams A.G., Wiseman J., Guy J. and Kyriazakis I. 2012. Predicting the environmental<br />
impacts of chicken systems in the United Kingdom through a life cycle assessment:<br />
Broiler production systems. British <strong>Poultry</strong> Science 91: 8-25.<br />
13) Genesis Faraday Partnership. 2008. A study of the scope for the application of research in animal<br />
genomics and breeding to reduce nitrogen and methane emissions from livestock based<br />
food chains. Jones, H.E. Defra Project Report AC204. UK Government, London, UK. 22p.<br />
29
14) Leinonen, I., Williams, A.G. and Kyriazakis, I. 2015. Potential environmental benefits of<br />
prospective genetic changes in broiler traits. <strong>Poultry</strong> Science.<br />
15) LEAP (Livestock Environmental Assessment and Performance), 2015 a. Greenhouse gas<br />
emissions and fossil energy demand from poultry supply chains. Guidelines for assessment.<br />
Version 1. LEAP Partnership. 188p.<br />
16) LEAP (Livestock Environmental Assessment and Performance), 2015 b. Environmental<br />
performance of animal feeds supply chains. Guidelines for assessment. Version 1. LEAP<br />
Partnership. 188p.<br />
17) Neeteson-van Nieuwenhoven, A.M., Knap, P. and Avendaño, S. 2013. The Role of Commercial<br />
Pig and <strong>Poultry</strong> Breeding for Food Safety. Animal Frontiers 3, 1, 52-57.<br />
18) European Commission Health and Consumers. ec.europa.eu/food/food/sustainability/index_<br />
en.htm (accessed 16-4-2014).<br />
19) Kapell, D. N. R. G., Hill, W. G., Neeteson, A. M., Mc Adam, J., Koerhuis, A. N. M. and<br />
Avendaño S. 2012. Twenty-five years of selection for improved leg health in purebred broiler<br />
lines and underlying genetic parameters. Poult. Sci. 91:3032-3043.<br />
20) Hill, W.G. 2016 Professor, Edinburgh University. Personal communication<br />
21) Fraser D., Weary D.M., Pajor E.A. and Milligan B.N. 1997. A scientific conception of animal<br />
welfare that reflects ethical concerns. Animal Welfare 6, 187-205.<br />
22) Rollin, B.E. (1993) Animal production and the new social ethic for animals, In: Baumgardt,<br />
B. and Gray, H.G. (eds.) Food Animal Well-Being. Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA,<br />
pp. 3-13.<br />
23) Stamp Dawkins, M. 2012. What do animals want? A conversation with Marian Stamp Dawkins.<br />
The Reality Club. https://www.edge.org/conversation/marian_stamp_dawkins-whatdo-animals-want,<br />
sourced March 2016<br />
24) Farm Animal Welfare Council. FAWC Report on Farm Animal Welfare in Great Britain:<br />
Past, Present and Future. 2009. www.fawc.gov.uk<br />
25) National Chicken Council. 2014. Animal Welfare Guidelines and Audit Checklist for Broilers.<br />
35pp. http://www.nationalchickencouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/NCC-Guidelines-Broilers-August2015.pdf.<br />
26) National Chicken Council. 2015. Animal Welfare Guidelines and Audit Checklist for Broiler<br />
Breeders. 28pp. http://www.nationalchickencouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/<br />
NCC-Animal-Welfare-Guidelines2014-Revision-BROILER-BREEDERS.pdf.<br />
27) Mulder, N.D. 2016. <strong>Poultry</strong> Industry Global Economic Outlook. Rabobank. Presentation at<br />
<strong>International</strong> <strong>Poultry</strong> Council Conference. Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. 19 February<br />
2016.<br />
28) United Nations General Assembly. 2005. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly 60/1<br />
10. World Summit Outcome 1. Values and Principles. United Nations, New York USA.<br />
30
IS 02 Genetic and Breeding Aspects of <strong>Meat</strong> Yield and <strong>Meat</strong> Quality<br />
Avigdor Cahaner<br />
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Faculty of Agriculture, Rehovot, Israe<br />
Early history of breeding chickens for meat production<br />
Since domestication, chickens were reared mainly for egg production, and their meat was a<br />
secondary product, due to other meat sources (cattle, sheep and goat, pork, etc.) During 1940’s,<br />
chicken meat became more popular in North America and Europe. Mechanized processing and<br />
cold-chain shipping and marketing were developed. With the increasing demand for chicken<br />
meat in the developed countries, efficient meat production became an important breeding objective.<br />
Efficiency of chicken meat production<br />
Efficiency is improved by reduction of costs per unit of product (meat).<br />
Total production costs of broiler meat consists of four main components:<br />
1. Chicks’ costs: reproductive performance (more chicks per breeder hen)<br />
2. Rearing costs: fast growth (more flocks per year with same facility and labor)<br />
3. Feed costs: fast growth & lean/meaty body for better FCR (feed conversion ratio)<br />
4. Processing costs: high slaughter weight & meat yield (lower costs per product weight)<br />
The traits affecting these cost factors have genetic background, and their breeding contributes to<br />
reducing production costs and improve efficiency<br />
Chicks’ costs are determined mainly by the reproductive performance of broilers’ parent stocks<br />
In the1940’s, breeders started to select for high growth rate (heaviest individuals) in relatively<br />
heavy-body dual-purpose chicken breeds (mainly Plymouth Rock). The elevation in growth rate<br />
reduced egg production (less chicks per hen) due to negative correlation (genetic and non-genetic)<br />
between these traits. The selection’s negative effects on reproduction have been partially<br />
relieved by restricted feeding and by separate feeding of the males in breeder flocks, yet meattype<br />
breeder hens lay far less eggs than egg-type hens<br />
In order to further improve the reproduction of day-old chicks for efficient meat production,<br />
a 3-way cross of specialized maternal and paternal breeds is used since 1950’s. The mothers<br />
(breeder hens) are hybrid females expressing heterosis in egg production; they are progeny of a<br />
cross between two genetically different Plymouth Rock breeds. Cornish-type males from breeds<br />
with high potential for meat production are the fathers of commercial meat-type chicks. Due to<br />
the relative low number of males in breeder flocks (only 1 male per 10 females), the effect of<br />
their higher cost (due to the stock’s poor egg production) is negligible.<br />
31
Breeding to improve the efficiency of feed utilization<br />
Feed accounts for 60-70% of total production costs chicken meat; therefore, it is highly desired to<br />
improve the feed conversion ratio (FCR = Total feed consumption divided by Body weight gain).<br />
The total feed consumption, from hatch to marketing, consists of two components, feed for<br />
growth and feed for body maintenance.<br />
Feed consumption for growth is reduced by breeding for more meat and less fat because nutrients<br />
deposition in muscles is 4-times more effective than deposition in fat tissues. It is son<br />
because water content is ~80% in muscles and only ~20% in fat tissues. Therefore, when 1 gr<br />
feed’s dry matter is deposited in muscles, add 5 gr body weight (1 gr dry matter + 4 gr water),<br />
whereas 1 gr feed’s dry matter is deposited in fat tissue, add only 1¼ gr body weight (1 gr dry<br />
matter + ¼ gr water).<br />
Feed consumption for maintenance is reduced by breeding for lower activity (docile broilers),<br />
but mainly by breeding for more rapid growth. More rapid growth, by decreasing the number<br />
of days to marketing weight, is reducing ‘life-time’ amount of feed consumed for body maintenance,<br />
and consequently is improving overall FCR.<br />
The improvement in FCR from the 1980’s (~2.5 i.e. 5kg feed to 2kg BW) to the current levels<br />
(~1.5 i.e. 3kg feed to 2kg BW) reduced total feed consumption by 40%. With feed accounting<br />
for about 65-70% of total broiler production cost, the better FCR improves the latter by 25-30%.<br />
Breeding for higher breast meat yield:<br />
The increasing demand for breast meat led to a very successful selection for higher breast meat<br />
yield, rising from ~13% of BW around the 1980’s, up to ~25% in recent years. This dramatic<br />
elevation in breast meat yield, and in overall carcass yield, contributed to improved overall<br />
efficiency of broiler meat production, also by improving FCR and reducing relative processing<br />
costs. Additionally, the change in breast shape eliminated the phenomenon of breast blisters that<br />
was, until the 1990’s, a major cause of reduced quality of broiler carcasses and breast-meat.<br />
On the other hand, rapidly growing large breast muscles appear to lead (in some broilers) to<br />
myopathies (white strips, woody breast, etc.), possibly due to insufficient supply of oxygen and<br />
nutrients to the expanding breast muscles. If the tendency to develop these myopathies has a<br />
genetic background, its incidence can be expected to be reduced by breeding – as in the cases of<br />
leg problems, excessive fatness and ascites.<br />
Along with the continuous improvement in the genetic potential for high breast meat yield and<br />
quality, the materialization of this potential is increasingly susceptible to suboptimal conditions,<br />
especially heat. It is so because the higher body weight (BW), growth rate, and meat yield of<br />
fast-growing broilers are driven by higher rate of feed intake (more feed per day) and higher<br />
metabolism. Consequently, modern broilers generate more internal heat, and they must dissipate<br />
its excess in order to maintain normal body temperature. Under hot conditions, heat dissipation<br />
rate of broilers with body weights above ~1.5 kg is too low to allow them to consume feed as<br />
their counterparts under temperate conditions. Thus, modern broilers adapt to chronic hot conditions<br />
by reducing the rate of feed intake. This, in turn, reduces internal heat production and<br />
lethal elevation in body temperature is avoided. Consequently, mortality is not a major issue in<br />
flocks reared under hot chronic hot conditions, but their performance is compromised because<br />
by depressing feed intake, hot conditions reduce growth rate and therefore extend the rearing<br />
32
period. Moreover, because the breast muscle are non-functional, their growth has the “lowest<br />
priority” when feed intake is reduced, and therefore their growth is depressed more than the<br />
growth of all other body parts and organs. Therefore, hot conditions significantly reduce breast<br />
meat yield and its quality.<br />
Due to their increasing susceptibility to hot conditions, modern broilers need lower ambient temperatures<br />
in order to fully express their improved genetic potential for rapid growth and for high<br />
meat yield. Presently, broiler houses need costly forced ventilation and cooling in most regions<br />
and seasons, to avoid (or reduce) the negative effects of hot conditions.<br />
Genetics and breeding for heat tolerance enhance breast meat yield and quality:<br />
Realizing that hot conditions are the main factor that negatively affect breast meat yield and<br />
quality, we studied these parameters in broiler genotypes differing in their susceptibility to heat<br />
due to different levels of feather coverage. Results from studies under experimental hot conditions<br />
and in hot climates (in Israel, Turkey, Egypt, Vietnam) indicated positive effects of the<br />
naked neck phenotype, but with only partial alleviation of heat stress (Cahaner et al., 1993,<br />
Cahaner, 2008). Consequently, we hypothesized that entirely naked body can fully alleviate heat<br />
stress, and may allow fast-growing broilers to acquire real heat resistance, with no reduction in<br />
growth, and in yield and quality of breast meat.<br />
The option of entirely naked (featherless) chickens was available since 1954, when the spontaneous<br />
mutation called Scaleless was found in a population of New Hampshire chickens in the<br />
University of California at Davis (Abbott and Asmundson, 1957). The scaleless mutation is fully<br />
recessive (i.e., only homozygous sc/sc are featherless). The development of a new experimental<br />
population of featherless broilers was initiated at the Hebrew University’s Faculty of Agriculture<br />
(Rehovot, Israel) in 2002. Males from the original New Hampshire scaleless line (sc/sc) were<br />
mated with females from contemporary fast-growing broiler stocks and the +/sc male progeny<br />
were repeatedly backcrossed to females from contemporary broiler stocks (Cahaner, 2008). Already<br />
after one cycle of backcross, the featherless birds were markedly superior to their fully<br />
feathered and naked neck sibs under hot conditions (Cahaner et al., 2008). After two additional<br />
cycles of backcross, growth rate and BW of the featherless broilers and their feathered sibs were<br />
further elevated yet considerably lower than those of contemporary commercial broilers under<br />
normal (comfortable) conditions (Azoulay et al., 2011). Under hot conditions in both studies,<br />
only the featherless broilers maintained normal body temperature, and consequently their mean<br />
growth rate and final BW were not depressed by heat, in contrast to the means of their feathered<br />
sibs and the contemporary commercial broilers (Azoulay et al., 2011).<br />
Two early studies suggested that breast meat yield increases as feather coverage decreases (Cahaner<br />
et al., 1987, 1993). In agreement with this finding, breast meat yield of featherless birds was<br />
much greater than that of their feathered counterparts and contemporary broilers, mainly under<br />
hot conditions but also under normal conditions (Cahaner et al., 2008; Azoulay et al., 2011).<br />
Results from Cahaner et al. (2008) also suggested that greater oxygen-carrying capacity (larger<br />
hearts and higher hematocrit levels) contributes to the greater breast meat yield in featherless<br />
broilers.<br />
In the studies of Hadad et al. (2014a,b), the following hypotheses were tested: (1) lack of feathers<br />
contributes to higher breast muscle yield and better meat quality, particularly when broilers<br />
are reared under hot conditions, and (2) these differences are due, at least in part, to higher car-<br />
33
diovascular capacity. The parameters growth rate, BW, breast muscles yield, body temperatures,<br />
cardiovascular parameters, and two main meat-quality parameters (color and “water-holding<br />
capacity”), were evaluated in featherless broilers and in their feathered sibs, as well as in contemporary<br />
commercial broilers, reared together under comfortable conditions versus hot conditions<br />
in several trials.<br />
In all trials, the superior genetic background of the contemporary broilers was manifested under<br />
the control (comfortable) conditions; their mean BW was about 15% higher than the means of<br />
the featherless broilers and their feathered sibs. The hot conditions depressed BW of the two<br />
groups of broiler with feathers by approximately 25%, with hardly any effect on the BW of the<br />
featherless broilers. Breast meat yield (% of BW) in the featherless broilers was higher than in<br />
the feathered broilers (those with feathers), especially under the hot conditions. Furthermore, the<br />
featherless broilers were characterized by superior meat quality as indicated by lower drip loss,<br />
lower lightness and higher redness. The superior meat quality of the featherless broilers could be<br />
explained by their larger hearts and higher hematocrit values, suggesting superior cardiovascular<br />
capacity to supply oxygen and nutrients to the breast muscles.<br />
Summary and Conclusions<br />
The continuous genetic increase in growth rate of commercial broilers, with the subsequent<br />
reduction in number of days to marketing body weight and better FCR, has been the major<br />
drive for more efficient production of poultry meat. The counter reduction in reproductive performance<br />
of broiler mother was the main negative response, and it was partially alleviated by<br />
using hybrid mothers and crossing them to specialized high-yield paternal lines. Other negative<br />
phenomena (e.g. leg problems, excessive fatness, ascites) were found to be heritable and countered<br />
by the primary breeding companies.<br />
Following the elevating demand for breast meat, its yield in commercial broilers has been continuously<br />
increasing, from ~10% in the 1960’s to ~25% in contemporary broilers, in direct response<br />
to selection on body conformation and indirect response to the selection for better FCR.<br />
However, modern broilers do not fully express their higher potential for breast meat yield when<br />
reared under hot conditions, whereas their featherless counterparts, that continue to eat and grow<br />
under hot conditions, also maintained high breast meat yield. Also, meat quality in featherless<br />
broilers was superior – better colors and water-holding capacity – apparently due to better vascularization<br />
in the breast muscles. These results suggest that broiler meat yield and quality in<br />
hot regions and climates can be improved by introducing the featherless gene into contemporary<br />
commercial broiler stocks. Such introduction has become feasible since the recent development<br />
of a simple DNA test (Wells et al., 2012) to identify carriers of the recessive sc mutation.<br />
References<br />
Abbott, U. K., and V. S. Asmundson. 1957. Scaleless, an inherited ectodermal defect in domestic<br />
fowl. J. Hered. 48:63–70.<br />
Azoulay, Y., S. Druyan, L. Yadgary., Y. Hadad., and A. Cahaner. 2011. The viability and performance<br />
under hot conditions of featherless broilers versus fully feathered broilers. Poult.<br />
Sci. 90:19–29.<br />
Cahaner, A. 2008. Breeding fast-growing, high-yield broilers for hot conditions. Pages 30–47 in<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> Production in Hot Climates. 2nd ed. N. J. Daghir, ed. CAB Int., Oxfordshire, UK.<br />
34
Cahaner, A., J. A. Ajuh, M. Siegmund-Schultze, Y. Azoulay, S. Druyan, and A. Valle Zarate.<br />
2008. Effects of the genetically reduced feather coverage in naked neck and featherless<br />
broilers on their performance under hot conditions. Poult. Sci. 87:2517–2527.<br />
Cahaner, A., N. Deeb, and M. Gutman. 1993. Effects of the plumage-reducing naked neck (Na)<br />
gene on the performance of fast growing broilers at normal and high ambient temperatures.<br />
Poult. Sci. 72:767–775.<br />
Cahaner, A., E. A. Dunnington, D. E. Jones, J. A. Cherry, and P. B. Siegel. 1987. Evaluation<br />
of two commercial broiler male lines differing in efficiency of feed utilization. Poult. Sci.<br />
66:1101–1110.<br />
Hadad Y., A. Cahaner, and O. Halevy. 2014. Featherless and feathered broilers under control<br />
versus hot conditions. 1. Breast meat yield and quality. Poult. Sci. 93:1067–1075.<br />
Hadad Y., A. Cahaner, and O. Halevy. 2014. Featherless and feathered broilers under control<br />
versus hot conditions. 2. Breast muscle development and growth in pre- and post-hatch<br />
periods. Poult. Sci. 93:1076–1087.<br />
Wells K. L., Y. Hadad, D. Ben-Avraham, J. Hillel, A. Cahaner, and D. J. Headon. 2012. Genome-wide<br />
SNP scan of pooled DNA reveals nonsense mutation in FGF20 in the scaleless<br />
line of featherless chickens. BMC Genom. 13:257.<br />
35
O 01 Interaction Between Egg Storage Duration and Brooding<br />
Temperatures in Broilers<br />
Servet Yalçın 1 , Güldehen Bilgen 1 , İhsan Gürsel 2 , . Begüm Han Horuluoğlu 2 , Gözde<br />
Güçlüler 2 , Gamze Turgay İzzetoğlu 3<br />
1<br />
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Animal Science, İzmir,<br />
2<br />
Bilkent University, THORLAB, Department of Moleculer Biology and Genetics, Ankara,<br />
3<br />
Ege University Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, İzmir, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was conducted to test the hypothesis that chicks from longer egg storage durations<br />
would need higher brooding temperatures. Chicks were obtained from eggs stored for 3 or 14<br />
days and exposed to optimum or higher brooding temperatures. Longer egg storage duration decreased<br />
chick weight and PepT1 (peptid transporter 1) and SGLT1 (sodium glucose linked transporter<br />
1) expression at day of hatch. The results showed that chicks from eggs stored for 3 days<br />
did not require higher brooding temperatures. Higher brooding temperatures increased body<br />
weight of chicks from eggs stored for 14 days. This result associated with their villus height<br />
and crypt depth at 14 days. SGLT1 expression was found higher in chicks exposed to higher<br />
brooding temperatures regardless of egg storage duration at day 14. This result probably be due<br />
to increased glucose concentration in the intestinal lumen and organism in chicks exposed to<br />
higher brooding temperatures. These results suggested that in case of longer egg storage duration,<br />
higher brooding temperatures than optimum may be beneficial to give them a good start.<br />
36
O 02 The Effect of Hatching Time, Feed Access Time, and Post-Hatch<br />
Holding Time on Broiler Live Performance<br />
Serdar Özlü 1 , Reza Shiranjang 2 , John Brake 2 , Okan Elibol 1<br />
1<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Animal Science, Ankara, Turkey<br />
2<br />
North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of <strong>Poultry</strong> Science, 27695-7608,<br />
Raleigh, NC, USA<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was conducted to determine of the effects of broiler chick hatching time, immediate<br />
or delayed feed access (IFA or DFA), and post-hatching holding on subsequent broiler live<br />
performance. Hatching eggs from commercial flocks at 55 and 49 wk of age in experiments 1<br />
and 2, respectively, were stored for 2 d at 18°C and 70% RH. Hatching was divided into Early<br />
hatch of 471-474 h, Middle hatch of 483-486 h, and Late hatch of 493-496 h. Half of the chicks<br />
were pulled at each hatch time and were weighed and transferred to pens to eat and drink (IFA)<br />
within 3 h. Remaining chicks were pulled at 510 or 504 h of incubation and held for 8 or 3 h<br />
before being placed in pens in experiments 1 and 2, respectively. Feed access time differences<br />
between IFA and DFA for Early, Middle, and Late chicks were 41, 29, and 19 h, respectively,<br />
in experiment1. In experiment 2 DFA Early, Middle, and Late chicks had 30, 18, and 8 h of no<br />
feed access after hatch, respectively. Feed consumption and BW was recorded at 7 and 35 d of<br />
age. Chicks in IFA groups were weighed either at the same time as DFA groups to determine the<br />
effect of early feeding or at the same age relative to placement on feed and water to evaluate the<br />
effect of post-hatch holding. BW were greater at placement in Late chicks compared to Early<br />
chicks in DFA groups in both experiments but this advantage disappeared at 7, and no significant<br />
difference was found any hatch time group at 35 d. The IFA chicks were initially heavier<br />
(P
O 03 Some Performance Traits of <strong>Meat</strong> Type Chicken Parents Lines and<br />
Possibilities of Obtaining Heterosis<br />
Musa Sarıca 1 , Beyhan Yeter 2 , Emrah Oğuzhan 3 , Sinan Çağlak 3 , İsmail Özkan 3 ,<br />
Adnan Cengiz 3<br />
1<br />
OMÜ Faculty of Agriculture, Animal Science, Samsun; 2 KSÜ Faculty of Agriculture, Animal<br />
Science, Kahramanmaraş, 3 Geçit Kuşağı Agricultural Research Institute, Eskişehir, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was conducted to execute some production traits of material of developing meat<br />
chicken parents project in our country. The experiment was conducted in <strong>Poultry</strong> Unit of Eskişehir<br />
Geçit Kuşağı Agricultural Research Institute. Egg production traits and broiler performance<br />
of 2 sire and 3 dam lines which were obtained from a breeding company in 2015 were given in<br />
the study. Also, heterosis levels in live weight and carcass parts (breast and thigh) of offspring<br />
obtained from the mating between dam and sire lines were determined. Egg production traits<br />
of sire (B1 and B2) and dam (A1, A2, A3) lines were determined in families of 10 hens and 1<br />
cockerel. Growing traits were determined in day old chicks obtained from parent lines (A1, A2,<br />
A3, B1, and B2) and two-way crossings (B1xA1, B1xA2, B1xA3, B2xA1, B2xA2, B2xA3) in<br />
6 weeks growing period.<br />
Sexual maturity ages of A1, A2, A3, B1, and B2 parent lines were found as 171, 176, 170, 175 and<br />
171days, whereas sexual maturity weights were as 3034.7, 3272.2, 3087.9, 3377.2 and 3229.1 g,<br />
respectively. First egg weights of these lines were as 47.52, 46.39, 47.59, 48.3 and 47.67 g, and<br />
egg production in 52 weeks were 119.1, 114.6, 120.4, 78.4 and 89.8, respectively. Live weights<br />
of A1, A2, A3, B1, and B2 parent lines were as 2665.1, 2571.9, 2624.5, 2891.6 and 2917.8 g in<br />
6 weeks. Live weights of B1xA1, B1xA2, B1xA3, B2xA1, B2xA2, B2xA3 crosses and commercial<br />
hybrid (Cobb) were determined as 2872.3, 2887.2, 2863.1, 2857.6, 2864.0, 2778.8 and<br />
2970.9 g. Feed conversion ratios of all pure, cross and commercial hybrid groups were found<br />
between 1.604 and 1.703. heterosis levels of B1xA1, B1xA2, B1xA3, B2xA1, B2xA2, B2xA3<br />
crosses were determined as 4.08 % , 5.85%, 4.84%, 2.37%, 4.34% and 2.56%.<br />
The findings of this study showed that these lines which breeding is still continuing have the<br />
enough traits to use in commercial production and can be used in developing parents.<br />
Keywords: Heterosis, live weight, feed conversion, breast ratio, meat type parent lines, egg<br />
production<br />
38
IS 03 The Perspectives of Corn Production, Consumption and<br />
Developments in Trade and Its Effects to The Broiler Costs<br />
Alvaro Cordero<br />
US Grains Council, USA<br />
39
40
41
42
43
44
O 04 The Market Structure of Genetically Modified Products in the World<br />
and Their Effects on Nutrition, Socio-Economic Status and Sustainability<br />
Tuğba Sarıhan Şahin, Yılmaz Aral, Arzu Gökdai<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Health Economics<br />
and Business Administration, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
With the passage of time, the world population continues to grow on the other hand economic activities<br />
have some adverse effects on the environment. It is stated that product efficiencies should<br />
be increased by at least 60% in terms of adequate nutrition for the targeted population of 9,7 billion<br />
people to be reached in 2050. Risk factors due to adverse environmental conditions related<br />
to food production necessitate sustainable policies in terms of producing sufficient amounts of<br />
vegetable and animal origin foods, providing them at reasonable prices and fair distribution. Experts<br />
point out that there will be more severe drought and climate problems in the near future due<br />
to global warming. One of the basic measures to be taken against the scarcity problems that may<br />
arise as a result of these and other possible scenarios is development of resistant species which<br />
can be easily adapted to climate changes. Governments that have recognized the advantages of<br />
gene transfer technologies on productivity growth and sustainability have been approving gene<br />
transfer technologies as traditional agricultural practices have been inadequate to tackle existing<br />
problems. In 2015, 179 million hectares of GM crops were produced in 28 countries. Despite<br />
significant production levels, controversy continues over the risks of these products today.<br />
Key Words: Genetically modified products, production, market, sustainability<br />
45
O 05 Determinants of Chicken <strong>Meat</strong> Production: Evidence From the<br />
Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) Bounds Test Approach for<br />
Turkey<br />
Hamza Erdoğdu 1 , Hasan Çiçek 2<br />
Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department<br />
of Economics, Afyonkarahisar, 2 Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,<br />
Department of Animal Health Economics and Management, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The study aims to investigate the long-run and short-run relationships between chicken meat<br />
production in Turkey and its determinants (feed prices, chicken meat producer prices and chicken<br />
meat export). In the study, the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bounds test approach<br />
is employed, using annual time series data for the period of 1994-2014. The emprical findings<br />
first suggest that there is a long-run equilibrium relationship between chicken meat production<br />
and its major determinants. Second, there exists too fast adjustment in chicken meat production<br />
when feed prices, chicken meat producer prices and chicken meat export change. Third, a 10%<br />
increase in the feed prices will lead in a long-run decrease of 2.29% in chicken meat production<br />
while other variables remain constant. On the other hand, a 10% change in the chicken meat<br />
producer prices and chicken meat export level will increase in a long-run change of 4.05% and<br />
1.43% in chicken meat production, respectively, while other variables remain constant. As a<br />
results, the findings of the study enable to assist policymakers in supporting the broiler sector<br />
in Turkey. It is important for the broiler industry which has cost disadvantages in terms of feed<br />
prices to achieve a satisfactory level of producer income (chicken meat producer prices and<br />
export) in order to grow steadily.<br />
Keywords: Chicken meat production, ARDL, cointegration analysis, Turkey<br />
Introduction<br />
Turkey has produced about 2 million tons of chicken meat, a share of 2% in the global production<br />
recently. The production volume of the chicken meat sector increased by 8.1 times and the<br />
export volume increased by 29 times between 1994 and 2014 (1, 2). It can be said that Turkey<br />
has reached a level where it can compete with the pioneering countries of the sector, in terms<br />
of technical performance of production (feed conversion rate and live-weight). However, the<br />
disadvantage of production costs particularly is challenging for export competition. It has been<br />
reported that the cost of 1 kg live weight in Turkey is 13-60% higher than the important countries<br />
of the sector (3).<br />
The greatest share of production costs is the share of feed. In Turkey and in the major countries<br />
of the sector (Brazil and America), the ratio of the feed is close (66-70%) in total cost. However,<br />
feed prices in Turkey are higher than the corresponding countries. Enough maize and soybeans<br />
production in these countries provides a price advantage and reduces feed costs (3, 4). In Turkey<br />
due to insufficient production, maize and soybeans are imported in considerable quantities. This<br />
leads to an increase in production costs.<br />
46
In recent years, feed prices have risen due to the use of maize and soybeans for energy sources<br />
such as biodiesel and ethanol in addition to the global drought in 2007 (5). For example, maize<br />
prices have increased 64% in the US between 2007-2012 and 49% in Brazil between 2007-2011.<br />
Soybeans prices have increased by 95% and 43% in Brazil and America, respectively, between<br />
2007-2012. Although prices for both raw materials have fallen after 2013, which has not been<br />
reflected in chicken meat producer prices. In Brazil and the United States, chicken meat prices<br />
increased by 102% and 46%, respectively, between 2007-2014 (6).<br />
In the same period (2007-2014), chicken meat producer prices in Turkey increased by 59% in<br />
terms of TL, but there was no change in terms of US Dollar (2). Although this seems to be a competitive<br />
advantage in exports, no increase in producer prices in real terms means that producer<br />
income also decreases. On the other hand, producer prices are known to affect chicken meat<br />
production positively (7). Therefore, it can be said that firms operating in the sector in Turkey<br />
try to grow both in cost and income trap. In this study, the possible relationships and effects of<br />
chicken feed prices, chicken meat producer prices and export levels on chicken meat production<br />
in Turkey were examined.<br />
Materials and Methods<br />
Annual data from the year of 1994 through the year of 2014 is obtained from the official sources<br />
of TUİK (2015). The functional relationship of the chicken meat production is assumed to be<br />
linear in parameters. Following Kapombe and Colyer (8) and Dagdemir et al. (7) the chicken<br />
meat production model in log-linear form is specified as:<br />
LnCMP +<br />
t<br />
= β<br />
0<br />
+ β1LnFPt<br />
+ β2LnCPP<br />
t<br />
+ β3LnExpt<br />
ut<br />
(A)<br />
where; CMP is chicken meat production (tons),<br />
FP is feed prices (TL/kg),<br />
CPP is chicken meat producer prices (TL/kg),<br />
Exp is chicken meat export (tons).<br />
To identify major drivers of chicken meat production in Turkey, the relatively new ARDL methodology is applied<br />
in the study. The ARDL bounds test approach developed by Pesaran et al. (9) has some advantages over the other<br />
methods, Engle and Granger (10) and Johansen (11).<br />
The ARDL bounds test approach is required the estimation of the below equation.<br />
ΔLnCMP<br />
= α +<br />
t<br />
n−1<br />
∑<br />
α ΔLnCMP<br />
+<br />
n−1<br />
∑<br />
α ΔLnFP<br />
0 1i<br />
t−1<br />
2i<br />
t−1<br />
3i<br />
t−1<br />
4i<br />
t−1<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
+ β<br />
1LnCMP t<br />
+ β2LnFPt<br />
+ β3LnCPP<br />
t<br />
+ β4LnExpt<br />
+ ut<br />
(B)<br />
+<br />
n−1<br />
∑<br />
α ΔLnCPP<br />
where; Δ denotes the first difference operator and n denotes the number of observations.<br />
+<br />
n−1<br />
∑<br />
α ΔLnExp<br />
If the null hypothesis of no cointegration is rejected, the following unrestricted error-correction model (ECM) is<br />
estimated Pesaran et al. (9).<br />
t<br />
n−1<br />
n−1<br />
n−1<br />
n−1<br />
∑α1iΔLnCMPt<br />
−1<br />
+ ∑α<br />
2iΔLnFPt<br />
−1<br />
+ ∑α<br />
3iΔLnCPPt<br />
−1<br />
+ ∑α<br />
4iΔLnExpt−1<br />
+ λECTt<br />
−1<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
i=<br />
1<br />
ΔLnCMP<br />
= α +<br />
+ ε<br />
0<br />
t<br />
(C)<br />
where; ECT denotes the error correction term and λ denotes the speed of adjustment parameter.<br />
47
Results and Discussion<br />
The time series variables are displayed in Figure 1.<br />
Chicken <strong>Meat</strong> Production (tonnes)<br />
Feed Prices (TL/kg)<br />
2,000,000<br />
1,400,000<br />
1,600,000<br />
1,200,000<br />
1,000,000<br />
1,200,000<br />
800,000<br />
800,000<br />
600,000<br />
400,000<br />
400,000<br />
200,000<br />
0<br />
94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14<br />
0<br />
94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14<br />
Chicken <strong>Meat</strong> Producer Prices (TL/kg)<br />
Chicken <strong>Meat</strong> Export (tonnes)<br />
6,000,000<br />
360,000<br />
5,000,000<br />
320,000<br />
280,000<br />
4,000,000<br />
240,000<br />
3,000,000<br />
200,000<br />
160,000<br />
2,000,000<br />
120,000<br />
1,000,000<br />
80,000<br />
0<br />
40,000<br />
94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14<br />
0<br />
94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14<br />
Figure 1. Time Series Variables<br />
We use Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) unit root test to check the stationary properties of the<br />
time series variables. Table 1 presents the results of the test.<br />
Table 1. Unit Root Test Results<br />
Variables<br />
Level<br />
First difference<br />
ADF test statistic p-value ADF test statistic p-value<br />
LnCMP<br />
t<br />
-4.882** 0.005 - -<br />
LnFP<br />
t<br />
-4.123* 0.021 - -<br />
LnCPP<br />
t<br />
-2.763 0.228 -3.148* 0.044<br />
LnExp -3.033 0.148 -3.366* 0.027<br />
t<br />
**, * indicate significance levels at 1% and 5%, respectively.<br />
The unit root test results show that the series LnCMP t<br />
and LnFP t<br />
are integrated of order zero, I(0)<br />
and the series Ll LnCPP t<br />
and LnExp t<br />
are integrated of order one, I(1) Since none of the series<br />
is, I(2)the ARDL bounds test approach can be applied to examine the existance of cointegration<br />
among the series. Table 2 displays the bounds test results.<br />
48
Table 2. The Bounds Test Results<br />
K F-statistic Significance Level I (0)<br />
I (1)<br />
3 10.410<br />
k denotes the number of regressors.<br />
10% 2.37 3.2<br />
5% 2.79 3.67<br />
1% 3.65 4.66<br />
*<br />
Since the computed F-statistic for the bounds test is 10.410 which is larger than all the critical<br />
values for the upper bounds, we conclude to reject the null hypothesis of no cointegration. This<br />
result shows that there is a long-run equilibrium relationship between the chicken meat production<br />
and its determinants.<br />
Table 3 indicates the results of the estimated ARDL cointegrating model (1,2,3,3). The model<br />
was selected automatically based on Akaike Information Criterion (AIC).<br />
Table 3. The Estimated Long-run ARDL Cointegrating Model (1,2,3,3)<br />
Variable Coefficient Standard Error t-statistic p-value<br />
LnFP<br />
t<br />
-0.229 0.069 -3.295 0.022<br />
LnCPP<br />
t<br />
0.405 0.062 6.529 0.001<br />
LnExp<br />
t<br />
0.143 0.006 21.992 0.000<br />
C 9.463 0.328 28.808 0.000<br />
The coefficients of LnFP<br />
t<br />
, LnCPP<br />
t<br />
and LnExpt<br />
are signed as expected and statistically<br />
significant at the 5% level. Table 3 also represents estimates of elasticities of chicken meat production<br />
with respect to the feed prices, the chicken meat producer prices and the chicken meat<br />
export.<br />
Table 4. The Estimated ARDL Short-run Error-Correction Model (1,2,3,3)<br />
Variable Coefficient Standard Error t-statistic p-value<br />
Δ LnFP t<br />
0.018 0.055 0.322 0.760<br />
ΔLnFP t−1<br />
0.559 0.079 6.999 0.001*<br />
Δ LnCPP t<br />
-0.423 0.063 -6.612 0.001*<br />
ΔLnCPP t−1<br />
-0.563 0.081 -6.933 0.001*<br />
ΔLnCPP t−2<br />
0.064 0.031 2.041 0.096<br />
Δ LnExp t<br />
0.026 0.011 2.346 0.065<br />
ΔLnExp t−1<br />
-0.101 0.018 -5.385 0.003*<br />
ΔLnExpt−2<br />
0.054 0.011 4.789 0.005*<br />
C 14.733 2.653 5.552 0.002*<br />
ECT -1.556 0.161 -9.679 0.000*<br />
t−1<br />
* indicates significance at the 1% level.<br />
49
Table 4 reports the results of the estimated ARDL cointegrating short-run error-correction model.<br />
The error-correction term, ECT t-1<br />
, is significant at the 1% level and negative (-1.556) as<br />
expected confirming the existance of long-run relationship among the variables. However, the<br />
error-correction term is also expected less than one which is not true in our case. This can be<br />
interpreted that the disequilibria in the chicken meat production originating during the previous<br />
period will be adjusted too fast in the current period.<br />
Finally, the cumulative sum (CUSUM) and the cumulative sum of squares (CUSUM Square)<br />
tests are performed to test the stability of the long-run and short-run coefficients estimated by<br />
the ARDL model. Proposed by Brown et al. (12), the tests are applied to the recursive residuals<br />
of the ARDL (1,2,3,3) model. In Figure 2 and 3, the plots of both CUSUM and CUSUM Square<br />
are within the critical boundries of the %5 level.<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
1.6<br />
1.2<br />
0.8<br />
0<br />
-2<br />
0.4<br />
-4<br />
-6<br />
0.0<br />
-8<br />
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014<br />
-0.4<br />
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014<br />
CUSUM<br />
5% Significance<br />
CUSUM of Squares<br />
5% Significance<br />
Figure 2. Plot of CUSUM Test<br />
Figure 3. Plot of CUSUM Square<br />
Thus, the two figures provide emprical evidence for the stability of the long-run and short-run<br />
coefficients estimated by the ARDL (1,2,3,3) cointegrating model.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The study aims to investigate the long-run and short-run relationships between chicken meat<br />
production in Turkey and its determinants (feed prices, chicken meat producer prices and chicken<br />
meat export). In the study, the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bounds test approach is<br />
employed, using annual time series data for the period of 1994-2014.<br />
The results of the ARDL bounds test first reveal that there exists a long-run equilibrium relationship<br />
between chicken meat production and its major determinants. In addition, the signs of<br />
all the long-run coefficients are all statistically significant and are consistent with the economic<br />
theory. Second, there exists too fast adjustment in chicken meat production when feed prices,<br />
chicken meat producer prices and chicken meat export change. Third, a 10% increase in the feed<br />
prices will lead in a long-run decrease of 2.29% in chicken meat production while other variables<br />
remain constant. A 10% change in the chicken meat producer prices will result in a longrun<br />
change of 4.05% in chicken meat production while other variables remain constant. A 10%<br />
change in the chicken meat export level will result in a long-run change of 1.43% in chicken<br />
meat production while other variables remain constant.<br />
50
It is empirically detected that the independent variables; feed prices, chicken meat producer<br />
prices and chicken meat export, used in the study are the main determinants of chicken meat<br />
production. The findings of the study enable to assist policymakers in supporting the broiler sector.<br />
It is important for the broiler industry which has cost disadvantages in terms of feed prices<br />
to achieve a satisfactory level of producer income (chicken meat producer prices and export) in<br />
order to grow steadily. Since it is known that the feed prices have the biggest effect on chicken<br />
meat production, the main goal should be to lower the production costs. Therefore, incentives<br />
given to the broiler producers should be increased. Especially, procurement of raw materials for<br />
feed (maize and soybean) should be subsidized and promoted. The study also shows that chicken<br />
meat export is one of the major drivers of chicken meat production. So, new markets (such as<br />
European Union and the Middle East countries especially, Saudi Arabia) which allow for export<br />
opportunities are very important for increasing chicken meat production.<br />
References<br />
BESD-BİR. Beyaz Et Sanayicileri ve Damızlıkçıları Birliği Derneği, Piliç eti sektör raporu (üretim,<br />
tüketim, dış ticaret, sorunlar, görüşler). Ankara, 2014.<br />
TÜİK. Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu, Veri tabanı, Erişim: http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreTabloArama.<br />
do?metod=search&araType=vt, Erişim Tarihi: 15.12.2015.<br />
Tandoğan M, Çiçek H. Technical performance and cost analysis of broiler production in Turkey.<br />
Brazilian Journal of <strong>Poultry</strong> Science 2016; 18(1): 169-174.<br />
Van Horne PLM, Bondt N. Competitiveness of the EU poultry meat sector. LEI Report 2013-<br />
068, 65 p., 2013.<br />
Çınar H. Kanatlı eti ve yumurta. TEAE Bakış, Sayı 9, Nüsha 14, 2007.<br />
FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Statistics of producer prices.<br />
Erişim: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/PP, Erişim Tarihi: 10.12.2016.<br />
Dagdemir V, Demir O, Keskin A. Estimation of supply and demand models for chicken meat in<br />
Turkey. Journal of Applied Animal Research 2004; 25(1): 45-48.<br />
Kapombe CM, Colyer D. Modeling U.S. broiler supply response: a structural time series approach.<br />
Agricultural and Resource Economics Review 1988; 27(2): 241-251.<br />
Pesaran MH, Shin Y, Smith RJ. Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships.<br />
Journal of Applied Economics 2001; 16: 289-326.<br />
Engle RF, Granger CWJ. Cointegration and error correction representation: estimation and testing.<br />
Econometrica 1987; 55: 251-276.<br />
Johansen S. Statistical analysis of cointegrating vectors. Journal of Economic Dynamics and<br />
Control 1988; 12: 231-254.<br />
Brown RL, Durbin J, Evans JM. Techniques for testing the constancy of regression relations<br />
over time. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 1975; 37: 149-163.<br />
51
IS 04 Is Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Contamination in <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> A<br />
Serious Threat to Human Health?<br />
Carmen Espinosa-Gongora<br />
National Veterinary Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark<br />
Summary<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> meat is often contaminated with resistant bacteria originating from live animals and<br />
external sources along the way from the farm to the consumer. Foodborne transmission of these<br />
resistant pathogens has been confirmed in numerous occasions, including recent studies that use<br />
high-resolution typing methods such as whole genome sequencing. However, some interesting<br />
hypotheses about transmission still remain unanswered.<br />
Introduction<br />
Antimicrobial resistance is a threat to public and animal health worldwide. The World Health<br />
Organisation (WHO) highlights the importance of non-human usage of antimicrobials in the<br />
frequency of infections and treatment failures in humans 1 . This means resistant pathogens can<br />
emerge under high selective pressure in animals and be transmitted to humans by direct or<br />
indirect contact, including meat 2 . Foodborne antimicrobial resistance can be transmitted to people<br />
in the form of zoonotic resistant bacteria that will cause disease in the person, and also in<br />
the form of resistance genes that may be subsequently acquired by other compatible bacteria.<br />
Therefore, in order to evaluate the impact of resistance in poultry meat and identify targets for<br />
implementation of control strategies, it is crucial to i) understand which pathways have led to<br />
their transmission, ii) choose appropriate methods for typing and iii) make a good interpretation<br />
of the results. This presentation will drive through these concepts and define which are the most<br />
important resistant bacteria associated to poultry meat and why, taking into consideration the<br />
antibiotic class that the bacteria have acquired resistance to and the impact of this resistance in<br />
the treatment of infections.<br />
Narrative<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> meat, similarly to that from other food animals, can be contaminated with bacteria that<br />
originate from the live animals and cross contamination from other sources, mainly people involved<br />
in the manipulation of meat. In terms of pathogenic potential and resistance, the most<br />
important pathogenic bacteria isolated from poultry meat include non-typhoidal Salmonella,<br />
Campylobacter spp., Escherichia coli (E. coli), Enterococcus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus<br />
(S. aureus). These species have a great potential to cause invasive infections in humans and<br />
in addition have been reported resistant against drugs in the WHO list of Critically Important<br />
Antimicrobials (CIA)1 which classifies as critically important those antimicrobials used to treat<br />
diseases caused by bacteria from animal sources. Resistance to critically important antibiotics<br />
beta-lactams (including aminopenicillins and 3rd, <strong>4th</strong> and 5th generation cephalosporins), fluoroquinolones<br />
(e.g. ciprofloxacin) and polymyxins (e.g. colistin) is found in poultry-associated<br />
pathogens3–7. Resistance to beta-lactams is transmitted horizontally among enterobacteria, including<br />
E. coli and Salmonella. Therefore, confirmation of poultry meat as the direct source of<br />
52
infection requires the analysis of the genetic determinants (genes and plasmids) that are transmitted<br />
horizontally between bacteria. Current research is able to confirm a poultry source of<br />
human infections based on whole genome sequencing (WGS) data4,8. Despite being a critically<br />
important antibiotic for human medicine, colistin is largely used to treat food animals in Europe9<br />
and even as growth promoter in other countries10. Colistin resistance is plasmid-mediated<br />
and is increasingly reported in poultry-associated Salmonella and E. coli isolates711, including<br />
extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) ST13112. A different mechanism of resistance to beta-lactams<br />
is the one mediated by mecA in methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), in this case<br />
transmitted vertically. Even though the prevalence in poultry meat can be high, especially in<br />
turkey meat13, MRSA has been considered a foodborne pathogen only in few occasions3,14,15.<br />
More research is needed to determine the risk of skin and mucosae colonization in people that<br />
handle MRSA-contaminated meat. Fluoroquinolone resistance emerges by a single-point mutation<br />
after exposure to the antibiotic in bacteria that will spread clonally and remain resistant even<br />
after termination of selective pressure. Fluoroquinolone-resistant Campylobacter is frequently<br />
isolated form broiler meat and human isolates worldwide16. In addition, fluoroquinolone resistance<br />
can be plasmid-mediated and transmit horizontally between enterobacteria5,17. Surveillance<br />
and antimicrobial stewardship in the last years in poultry medicine have contributed to the<br />
reduction of meat-associated human infections such as Salmonella2. In addition, alternatives to<br />
antibiotics such as phage therapy and vaccinations can reduce the presence of these pathogens<br />
in live poultry and slaughterhouse good practices and chemical decontamination can reduce the<br />
contamination of meat18. Additionally to reducing the risk of meat contamination, it is necessary<br />
to educate in good kitchen practices, as these represent the frontline against transmission<br />
and infection in people.<br />
Conclusion<br />
The impact on human health of poultry meat contaminated with antimicrobial-resistant zoonotic<br />
pathogens depends on the antibiotic class, the pathogenic potential of the bacterial species and<br />
on whether or not antimicrobial treatment is advised. Zoonotic transmission can only be confirmed<br />
through studies that use high resolution typing techniques. Such studies will elucidate the<br />
pathways of transmission and consequently allow the identification of targets for intervention.<br />
References<br />
1.World Health Organization - Critically Important Antimicrobials for Human Medicine. 5th<br />
Revision 2016. Ranking of antimicrobial agents for risk management of antimicrobial resistance<br />
due to non-human use. (2016).<br />
2.EFSA (European Food and Safety Authority) and ECDC (European Centre for Disease Prevention<br />
and Control), 2016. The European Union summary report on trends and sources of<br />
zoonoses, zoonotic agents and food-borne outbreaks in 2015. EFSA J. 14, 4634 (2016).<br />
3.Bortolaia, V., Espinosa-Gongora, C. & Guardabassi, L. Human health risks associated with<br />
antimicrobial-resistant enterococci and Staphylococcus aureus on poultry meat. Clin. Microbiol.<br />
Infect. 22, 130–140 (2016).<br />
4.Franco, A. et al. Emergence of a Clonal Lineage of Multidrug-Resistant ESBL-Producing<br />
Salmonella Infantis Transmitted from Broilers and Broiler <strong>Meat</strong> to Humans in Italy between<br />
2011 and 2014. PLoS One 10, e0144802 (2015).<br />
5.Antunes, P., Mourao, J., Campos, J. & Peixe, L. Salmonellosis: the role of poultry meat.Clin.<br />
53
Microbiol. Infect. 22, 110–121 (2016).<br />
6.de Jong, A., Stephan, B. & Silley, P. Fluoroquinolone resistance of Escherichia coli and Salmonella<br />
from healthy livestock and poultry in the EU. J. Appl. Microbiol. 112, 239–245 (2012).<br />
7.Doumith, M. et al. Detection of the plasmid-mediated mcr-1 gene conferring colistin resistance<br />
in human and food isolates of Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli in England and<br />
Wales. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 71, 2300–2305 (2016).<br />
8.de Been, M. et al. Dissemination of cephalosporin resistance genes between Escherichia<br />
coli strains from farm animals and humans by specific plasmid lineages. PLoS Genet. 10,<br />
e1004776 (2014).<br />
9.European Medicines Agency, European Surveillance of Veterinary Antimicrobial Consumption,<br />
2016. Sales of veterinary antimicrobial agents in 29 European countries in 2014.<br />
EMA/61769/2016. (2016).<br />
10.Ohya, T. & Sato, S. Effects of dietary antibiotics on intestinal microflora in broiler chickens.<br />
Natl. Inst. Anim. Health Q. (Tokyo). 23, 49–60 (1983).<br />
11.Kempf, I., Jouy, E. & Chauvin, C. Colistin use and colistin resistance in bacteria from animals.<br />
Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 48, 598–606 (2016).<br />
12.Ewers, C. et al. Genome Sequence of Avian Escherichia coli Strain IHIT25637, an Extraintestinal<br />
Pathogenic E. coli Strain of ST131 Encoding Colistin Resistance Determinant MCR-<br />
1. Genome Announc. 4, (2016).<br />
13.Fessler, A. T. et al. Characterization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates<br />
from food and food products of poultry origin in Germany. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 77,<br />
7151–7157 (2011).<br />
14.Larsen, J. et al. Evidence for Human Adaptation and Foodborne Transmission of Livestock-Associated<br />
Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin. Infect. Dis. 63, 1349–<br />
1352 (2016).<br />
15.Kluytmans, J. A. J. W. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in food products: cause<br />
for concern or case for complacency? Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 16, 11–15 (2010).<br />
16.Skarp, C. P. A., Hanninen, M.-L. & Rautelin, H. I. K. Campylobacteriosis: the role of poultry<br />
meat. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 22, 103–109 (2016).<br />
17.Rodriguez-Martinez, J. M. et al. Plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance: Two decades on.<br />
Drug Resist. Updat. 29, 13–29 (2016).<br />
18.Umaraw, P., Prajapati, A., Verma, A. K., Pathak, V. & Singh, V. P. Control of campylobacter<br />
in poultry industry from farm to poultry processing unit: A review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr.<br />
57, 659–665 (2017).<br />
54
O 06 Determination of Salmonella spp. in Organic <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Canan Asal Ulus, Ali Gücükoğlu<br />
Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Depertmant of Food Hygiene and<br />
Technology, Samsun, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In this survey from May 2015 to August 2015, 150 samples of packaged organic chicken products<br />
(n=50 wings, n=50 whole chicken leg, n=50 without skin-breast) were randomly collected<br />
from the province of Samsun in order to investigate the presence of Salmonella spp. In this context;<br />
i) Salmonella spp. in the samples were isolated using conventional cultivation techniques<br />
and IMS method, ii) Isolated colonies suspicious for Salmonella spp. were identified with the<br />
MALDI-TOF (VITEK MS), iii) Confirmation of presumptive Salmonella isolates were completed<br />
using PCR. As a result of the analysis; contamination with Salmonella spp. were detected in<br />
42 (28%) of 150 chicken samples. Research findings based on sample distribution shows that: 15<br />
(15/50-30%) of whole chicken leg samples, 20 (20/50-40%) of wing samples and 7 (7/50-14%)<br />
of without skin-breast samples were contaminated with Salmonella spp.<br />
55
O 07 Determination Of Listeria Monocytogenes Presence and Antibiotic<br />
Resistance Profiles in Chicken Wing Samples<br />
1<br />
Aksem Aksoy, 2 Çiğdem Sezer<br />
1<br />
Kafkas University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Food Engineering Department,<br />
Kars, 2 Kafkas University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Depertmant of Food Hygiene and<br />
Technology, Kars, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In this study, it was aimed to determine the presence of Listeria monocytogenes and antibiotic<br />
resistance profiles in chicken wing specimens. In this study, it was used to 110 chicken wing<br />
samples as material. According to the result of isolation and identification tests by classical culture<br />
method, Listeria monocytogenes was detected positively in 65 (83.3%) of the isolates. Antibiotic<br />
susceptibility of the obtained isolates was determined by standard disc diffusion method.<br />
It was found to be resistant to gentamicin of 3 isolates (4.61), to tetracycline of 4 isolates (6.15),<br />
to erythromycin of 23 isolates (35.38), to rifampin of 5 isolates (7.69), to ciprofloxacin of 11<br />
isolates (16.92), to penicillin of 53 isolates (81.53), to cefotaxime of 15 isolates (23.07), to ampicillin<br />
of 6 isolates (9.23), to amikacin of 25 isolates (38.46), to trimethoprim / sulfamethoxazole<br />
of 49 isolates (75.38), to meropenem of 38 isolates (58,46) and to chloramphenicol of 5 isolates<br />
(7.69). Resistance to one or more antibiotics of isolates was very worrying in terms of public<br />
health.<br />
Keywords: Listeria monocytogenes, chicken wing, antimicrobial resistance<br />
56
O 08 Investigation Inhibitory Effect of Different Concentrations of Laurel<br />
(Laurus nobilis L.)’s Oil and Sumac (Rhus coriaria L.)’s Oil on<br />
Escherichia coli and Total Aerophilic Mezophilic Bacteria Population<br />
Growth in Chicken Breast <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Şeyma Bayrakçı, Sabire Yerlikaya, Sümeyra S. Tiske İnan*<br />
Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University Faculty of Engineering, Food Engineering Department,<br />
Karaman, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In this study, the inhibitory effect of laurel oil and sumac oil at different concentrations injected<br />
in chicken breast meat on the growth of Escherichia coli (E. coli) and total aerophilic mesophilic<br />
bacteria (TAMB) populations was invesitigated. The chicken breast meat used in the research<br />
was initially divided into 3 groups and the first group was used as a control sample. After inoculation<br />
of E. coli at 2 different concentrations (log 12 cfu / g, log 15 cfu / g) to chicken breast<br />
meat in the second and third groups, 6 different subgroups were formed and incubated for 30<br />
minutes at room temperature (25ºC). Subsequently, each subgroup was injected with oil at 3<br />
different concentrations (0%, 10%, 20%) from 2 different oil varieties (laurel oil, sumac oil)<br />
and incubated for 30 minutes at room temperature (25ºC). Than the samples cultivated to the<br />
selective agars and the inhibitory effects on the E.coli population with TAMB were investigated.<br />
Each parameters was tested in two replications.<br />
The results suggest that the inhibitory activity on the TAMB and E. coli populations at different<br />
concentrations of sumac oil and laurel oil comparated to the control groups (p
IS 05 Does High Hatching Rate Means Best Quality Chicks Obtained?<br />
What is Important in Hatchery Practice?<br />
Zekeriya Yıldırım<br />
Cobb, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Hatcheries, all over the world have been spending a lot effort to get good quality and healthy<br />
chicks. “Hatch of fertile” (HOF) is the main drive to assess the hatchery performance. But it is<br />
a must to hatch first grade chicks. Expected hatch of fertile should be over 90% for the young<br />
parent stocks but a few point less after 50 weeks of age as 88%. It is not uncommon to face high<br />
first week mortality and bad performance of the flocks hatched remarkably with very high HOF<br />
therefore high HOF does not always mean good quality chicks.<br />
Fresh air need of embryos, egg weight loss, egg shell temperature, chick yield, yolk free body<br />
weight, cloaca temperature and chick holding place temperature and ventilation are the key factors<br />
which have significant impact on chick quality. Any mistakes will damp chick quality even<br />
you will have high HOF.<br />
Setting and hatching rooms both must have tightly sealed fresh and exhaust plenums and also<br />
the fans should have variable speeds accordingly controlled by pressure. Unfortunately, most<br />
of the hatcheries have constant speed fans. The air supply to the setter fresh air room should be<br />
13.52cmh per 1000 eggs. And speed of the fan should not be controlled by temperature. The air<br />
supply to the hatcher fresh air room or plenum should be 28.73 cmh per 1000 eggs.<br />
Reference points or values about weight loss until transfer time is12%, egg shell temperature is<br />
100.5 F 0 , chick yield 67%, yolk/chick weight ratio less than 10%, Cloacal temperature is 40.5<br />
C 0 , temperature in holding area and inside the chick box shouldn’t be more than 25 C 0 and 33 C 0 .<br />
Early and late hatches are the source of many issues therefore hatch window is a good indicator<br />
to assess many stages of incubation. Ideal hatch window is 30% hatch at minus 24 and 75% of<br />
hatch at minus 12 hours of pull time.<br />
All the mistakes mentioned above will cause retarding of internal organs development, supressed<br />
immunity and poor entire life performance because of not having a good start for the life.<br />
58
IS 06 The Effect of Egg Turning During Incubation on Hatchability of<br />
Broiler Chicks<br />
Okan Elibol 1 , Serdar Özlü 1 , Orhan Erkan 2 , Mesut Türkoğlu 1<br />
1<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Animal Science, Ankara, 2 Erpiliç <strong>Poultry</strong> Production<br />
Marketing and Trade. Ltd. Sti., Bolu, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Turning is one of the main environmental factors for the success of incubation. Three main aspects<br />
of turning can affect the success of incubation; Turning duration, frequency and angle. In<br />
practice, generally all hatching eggs have been intended to be turned hourly through an angle of<br />
90o for 18 days of incubation. It is very clear that the most critical period for turning commercial<br />
broiler hatching eggs during incubation was determined to be from 0-7 d with the single most<br />
critical 2-d period being 0-2d. However, turning is not absolutely necessary after 14 d of incubation.<br />
If turning eggs 96 times per day following a period of no turning after setting, decreased<br />
the incidence of Malposition II and so increased the hatchability of fertility as compared to<br />
turning 24 times per day. The incidence of malpositioned embryos was significantly increased<br />
and fertile hatchability of older broiler breeder flock eggs was numerically decreased by the 35o<br />
angle. However, malposition was significantly decreased and fertile hatchability improved at a<br />
turning angle of 35o when the turning frequency increased from 24 times daily to 96 times daily.<br />
Continuous turning through 90o each hour or normal rapid hourly turning through 90o had no<br />
overall effect on fertile hatchability but the incidence of early dead embryos was significantly<br />
reduced by continuous turning.<br />
59
O 09 Impact of Oxygen Suplementation and Alternative Temperature<br />
Application on Hatchability and Total Incubation Time at High Altitude<br />
H. Cem Güler , Elif Babacanoğlu<br />
Yüzüncü Yıl University, Faculty of Agricultural, Animal Science, VAN, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of hatchability and total incubation time at high<br />
altitude (1720 m) with incubation conditions (oxygen supplementation and high incubation temperature)<br />
of hatching eggs obtained from see level adapted broiler chicks (2 m). For this purpose,<br />
1260 fertilized eggs were used from a Ross broiler genotype at 45 weeks of age provided by<br />
commercial hatchery. This study consisted of a total of 7 different groups in which one control<br />
and the other two incubation treatments [oxygen supplementation (O 2<br />
) and high temperature<br />
(S)] were carried out during the period of 3 different embryonic development (0-11, 12-21 and<br />
18-21 days of incubation). To determine the time of embryo shell external pipping and total<br />
incubation period, eggs were counted every 3 hours from the 464 th hour of incubation, and egg<br />
numbers of pipping and hatching chicks were recorded. In the last period of embryonic development<br />
(between 18 th and 21 st days), the lowest external pipping time was observed in the O 2<br />
and S groups. The highest hatchery was determined in the middle and last periods of incubation<br />
for O 2<br />
supplementation and S group for in the middle periods of incubation. Significant effect<br />
of O 2<br />
supplementation (23.5% O 2<br />
) and high temperature (38.5 ºC) on external pipping and total<br />
incubation time have been determined.<br />
Key words: high altitude, hypoxia, oxygen concentration, embryo, incubation<br />
60
O 10 The Effects of High Setter and Hatcher Temperatures During<br />
Incubation on Slaughter Weight and Carcass Yield in Broilers<br />
Aydın İpek, Arda Sözcü<br />
Uludağ University, Faculty of Agriculture, Animal Science, Gorukle, Bursa, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was performed with the aim of determining the effects of higher setter and hatcher<br />
temperatures on slaughter weight and carcass yield in broilers. Setter temperatures were applied<br />
as 37.8–38.2 °C (control) and 38.9–40.0 °C (high) between days 10 and 18 during incubation<br />
(experiment 1)., and hatcher temperatures were applied as 36.8–37.0 °C (control) and 38.8–39.0<br />
°C (high) during the hatching period (experiment 2). A total of 240 chicks from each experiment<br />
were randomly selected after the hatching process was complete. A total of 120 broilers from<br />
each experiment were weighed and slaughtered at 42 days of age. The carcass weight was lower<br />
in the higher temperature groups in both experiments. In the higher setter temperature group,<br />
the breast weight was lower (981.4 g), but the percentage of breast was higher (45.59%). In experiment<br />
2, the weight and the percentage of breast was similar in the control and high hatcher<br />
temperature groups. In conclusion, slaughter weight and carcass yield, subsequently efficiency<br />
are affected by higher setter and hatcher temperatures.<br />
Key words: incubation temperature, broiler, slaughter weight, carcass yield, breast yield<br />
61
IS 07 M. Gallisepticum And M. Synoviae in Broiler Breeders and <strong>Meat</strong> Type<br />
of <strong>Poultry</strong>: Clinical and Economical Relevance and Control Strategies<br />
Anneke Feberwee<br />
Animal Health Service - GD, Deventer, the Netherlands<br />
Organisms which have been thought to be pathogenic avian mycoplasmas were first isolated<br />
from chickens in 1935 (Nelson). Currently approximately 25 species have been identified in<br />
birds, of which M. gallisepticum and M. synoviae are economically and clinically the most relevant<br />
for the commercial poultry industry (Kleven, 2008). Infections with M. gallisepticum and<br />
M. synoviae alone may be responsible for no or mild clinical disease. However the interaction<br />
with other pathogens is significant. This is also the main reason for the implementation of control<br />
programmes for these mycoplasma species in the poultry industry.<br />
M. gallisepticum is responsible for mild respiratory disease, decreased growth, egg production<br />
losses, and impaired hatchability rates in broiler breeders. In the broiler and meat turkey industry,<br />
M. gallisepticum is related to respiratory disease and significant downgrading of carcasses<br />
at slaughter due to the systemic effects and airsacculitis (Stipkovits & Kempf, 1996; Ley, 2008).<br />
The severity of clinical signs may vary considerably between strains and can be complicated by<br />
the occurrence of other respiratory viral or bacterial agents (Gross, 1961; Fabricant & Levine<br />
1962; Mohammed et al., 1987; Stipkovits & Kempf, 1996). The clinical and economical relevance<br />
of M. synoviae in commercial poultry has for long been subject for debate. This however<br />
has changed during the last two decades due to the increasing number of clinical disease reports<br />
on this mycoplasma species. In broiler breeders reduction in egg production, reduction in hatchability<br />
and increased mortality in off spring has been reported to be associated with M. synoviae<br />
infections (Stipkovits & Kempf, 1996). M. synoviae has also been reported as the causative<br />
agent of infectious synovitis in broiler breeders and turkeys (Morrow et. al., 1990 & Landman<br />
& Feberwee, 2012). Furthermore this mycoplasma species is also associated with airsac lesions<br />
and higher condemnation rates in broilers and pneumonia in turkey breeder hens (Kleven et<br />
al., 1975, Osorio et al., 2010).The most recent reports are on M. synoviae isolates with oviduct<br />
tropism. These isolates induce well defined eggshell apex abnormalities (EAA) with a significant<br />
reduction in eggshell strength and a decrease in egg production. These strains are also<br />
of importance for the broiler breeder industry although broiler breeders seem less susceptible<br />
for the production of eggs with EAA than commercial layers (Feberwee et al., 2009, 2010). In<br />
analogy with M. gallisepticum, the severity of clinical signs may also vary considerably between<br />
M. synoviae strains a can be complicated by occurrence of other respiratory viral or bacterial<br />
agents (Kleven et al., 1972; Springer et al., 1974; Feberwee et al., 2009, 2010). Also subclinical<br />
infections with M. gallisepticum or M. synoviae can occur which may have an economic impact<br />
resulting from trade limitations.<br />
M. gallisepticum and M. synoviae can be transmitted vertically (in ovo) and horizontally. Transmission<br />
in ovo from infected breeder birds to progeny is the major route of spread of the infection,<br />
and is of economic relevance regarding international trade Transmission of M. gallisepticum<br />
and M. synoviae in ovo from infected breeder birds to their progeny is the major route<br />
of spread of the infection. The egg transmission rates are unpredictable and may vary between<br />
62
strains (Stipkovits & Kempf, 1996). The peak egg transmission rates occur about 3-4 weeks after<br />
infection and is the lower in the chronic phase of the infection. Although the number of infected<br />
progeny are low in the chronic phase, they are still able to infect the entire flock. The understanding<br />
regarding the reservoirs and the survival of both mycoplasma species has improved,<br />
however the epidemiology is not yet fully understood and outbreaks are still common (Soeripto<br />
et al., 1989; Ley, 2008). Mechanisms of spread between flocks are largely unknown and may<br />
involve aerosol and fomite transmission as well as intermediate hosts like backyard poultry and<br />
wild birds (Stipkovits & Kempf, 1996; Ley et al., 2016; Michels et al., 2016). M. gallisepticum<br />
demonstrated the ability to produce biofilms which may enhance survival outside of the host<br />
(Hongjun Chen et al., 2012). Multiple age premises and high density poultry areas are expected<br />
to have an increased risk of infection .<br />
Mycoplasma control programmes are aiming at the reduction of vertical and horizontal transmission.<br />
Control programmes are based on three principles (i) accurate identification of infected<br />
breeding stock by frequent monitoring of flocks (ii) minimize the risk of vertical transmission by<br />
slaughter of infected reproduction flocks (iii) reduce risk of horizontal transmission by improvement<br />
of hygiene management procedures and implementation of practical channeling. Practical<br />
channeling means the separation of contacts (egg and feed transport etc) between infected<br />
and non-infected farms (Landman, 2014). Although elimination of infected breeding stock will<br />
minimize risk of vertical transmission, in a situation of high prevalence this approach is not<br />
economically sustainable. In a situation of high prevalence antibiotic treatment and vaccination<br />
programmes may contribute to the reduction of the clinical and economic impact of the disease<br />
(Levisohn & Kleven, 2000; Landman, 2014).<br />
Monitoring programmes for the detection of M. gallisepticum and M. synoviae infected breeder flocks<br />
are in general based on serological tests using the Rapid Agglutination (RPA test) test and the Enzyme-Linked<br />
Immunoabsorbent Assay (ELISA) (Landman, 2014). The accuracy of the detection of<br />
an infection is dependent on the sample frequency, sample size and the specificity and sensitivity of<br />
used serological tests. To prevent vertical transmission a M. gallisepticum and M. synoviae infection<br />
needs to be detected as early as possible (preferably at 5 to 10% prevalence with 95% confidence).<br />
This can be achieved by monitoring flocks regularly and collecting a representative number of blood<br />
samples (30 to 60) per house ((Cannon & Roe, 1982). A flock cannot be regarded infected on basis<br />
of one serological positive sample. In case of indecisive serological results an additional confirmation<br />
test like a PCR test is needed. PCR in contrast to culture enables the direct detection of specific DNA<br />
which reduces the time to diagnose the infection (Feberwee et al., 2005). For the monitoring of turkey<br />
flocks the PCR tests seem more sensitive than serological tests (Landman & Feberwee, 2012). Whenever<br />
freedom of both M. gallisepticum and M. synoviae by elimination of infected breeder flocks is<br />
not economically attainable, antibiotic treatment and vaccination can contribute to the reduction of<br />
the clinical and economic impact. The major shortcoming of medication is that it does not eliminate<br />
the infection (Whithear, 1996). In general mycoplasma vaccines do not prevent colonization and horizontal<br />
transmission however they can contribute to the reduction of shedding and spread of the mycoplasma<br />
species. It has shown that long term vaccination eventually can contribute to the control of M.<br />
gallisepticum on multiple-age farms. A beneficial effect of the use of live mycoplasma vaccines is that<br />
they are able to replace field strains by vaccine strains. This latter has been shown for M. gallisepticum<br />
but recently experimentally also for M. synoviae (Whithear, 1996; Feberwee, 2006; Feberwee et al.,<br />
2017). However the disadvantage of the use of live M. gallisepticum and M. synoviae vaccines is that<br />
they may interfere with the serological and PCR tests used in monitoring programmes.<br />
63
References<br />
Cannon, R.M. & Roe, R.T. (1982). Livestock Disease Surveys: A Field Manual For Veterinarians.<br />
Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.<br />
Fabricant, J. & Levine, P.P. 1962. Experimental production of complicated chronic respiratory<br />
disease infection. Avian Diseases, 39 ,766-777.<br />
Feberwee, A., Mekkes, D.R., de Wit, J.J., Hartman, E.G. & Pijpers, A. (2005). Comparison of<br />
culture, PCR, and different serologic tests for detection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and<br />
infections. Avian Diseases, 49, 260-268.<br />
Feberwee, A., de Wit, J.J. & Landman, W.J. (2009). Induction of eggshell apex abnormalities<br />
by Mycoplasma synoviae: field and experimental studies. Avian Pathology, 38, 77–85.<br />
Feberwee, A. & Landman, W.J. (2010). Induction of eggshell apex abnormalities in broiler<br />
breeder hens. Avian Pathology, 39, 133-137.<br />
Feberwee, A., von Banniseht-Wysmuller, Th., Vernooij, J.C.M., Gielkens, A.L.J. & Stegeman,<br />
J.A. (2006). The effect of a live vaccine on the horizontal transmission of Mycoplasma<br />
gallisepticum. Avian Pathology, 35, 359-366.<br />
Feberwee, A., Dijkman, R., Klinkenberg,, D. & Landman W.J.M. (2017). Quantification of the<br />
horizontal transmission of Mycoplasma synoviae in non-vaccinated and MS-H vaccinated<br />
layers. Avian Pathology, accepted.<br />
Gross, W.B. (1961). The development of airsac disease. Avian Diseases, 5, 431-439.<br />
Hongjun Chen, Shengqing Yu, Meirong Hu, Xiangan Han, Danqing Chen, Xusheng Qiu, Chan<br />
Ding. (2012). Identification of biofilm formation by Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Veterinary<br />
Microbiology, 161, 96-03.<br />
Kleven, S.H., King, D.D. & Anderson, D.P. (1972). Airsacculitis in broilers from Mycoplasma<br />
synoviae: effect on air-sac lesions of vaccinating with infectious bronchitis and Newcastle<br />
virus. Avian Diseases, 16, 915-924.<br />
Kleven, S.H., Fletcher, O.J. & Davis, R.B. (1975). Influence of strain of Mycoplasma synoviae<br />
and route of infection on development of synovitis or airsacculitis in broilers. Avian Diseases,<br />
19, 126-135.<br />
Kleven, S.H. (2008). Mycoplasmosis. In Y.M. Saif, A.M. Fadly, J.R. Glisson, L.R. McDougald,<br />
L.K. Nolan & D.E. Swayne (Eds.), Diseases of <strong>Poultry</strong> (pp. 805-807). Ames, IA: Blackwell<br />
Publishing Professional.<br />
Landman, W.J. & Feberwee, A. (2012). Longitudinal field study on the occurrence of Mycoplasma<br />
synoviae in Dutch turkey flocks with lameness and experimental induction of the<br />
condition. Avian Pathology, 41, 141-149.<br />
Landman, W.J.(2014). Is Mycoplasma synoviae outrunning Mycoplasma gallisepticum? A viewpoint<br />
from the Netherlands. Avian Pathology, 43, 2-8.<br />
Ley, D.H., Hawley, D.M., Geary, S.J. & Dhondt, A.A. (2016). (2016). House Finch (Haemorhous<br />
mexicanus) Conjunctivitis, and Mycoplasma spp. Isolated from North American<br />
Wild Birds, 1994–2015. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 52, 669-673.<br />
Levisohn, S. & Kleven S. (2000). Avian mycoplasmosis. Revue Scientifique et Technique,19,<br />
425-442.<br />
Michiels, T., Welby, S., Vanrobaeys, M., Quinet, C., Rouffaer, L., Lens, L., Martel, A. & Butaye,<br />
P. (2016). Prevalence of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae in com-<br />
64
mercial poultry, racing pigeons and wild birds in Belgium. Avian Pathology, 45, 244-252.<br />
Morrow, C.J., Bell, I.G., Walker, S.B., Markham, P.F., Thorp, B.H. & Whithear, K.G. (1990).<br />
Isolation of Mycoplasma synoviae from infectious synovitis of chickens. Australian Veterinary<br />
Journal, 67, 121-124.<br />
Nelson, J.B. (1936). Studies on an uncomplicated Coryza of the domestic fowl: v. A Coryza of<br />
slow onset. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 63, 509-513.<br />
Osorio, C., Fletcher, O.J., Abdul-Aziz, T., Gonder, E., Tilley. B & Ley, D.H. (2007). Pneumonia<br />
of turkey breeder hens associated with Mycoplasma synoviae. Avian Diseases, 51,791-<br />
796.<br />
Soeripto, Whithear, K.G., Cottew, G.S. & Harrigan, K.E. (1989). Virulence and transmissibility<br />
of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Australian Veterinary Journal, 66, 65-72.<br />
Springer, W.T., Luskus, C. & Pourciau, S.S. (1974). Infectious bronchitis and mixed infections<br />
of Mycoplasma synoviae and Escherichia coli in gnotobiotic chickens. I. Synergistic role<br />
in the airsacculitis syndrome. Infection and Immunity, 10, 578–589.<br />
Stipkovits, L. & Kempf, I. (1996). Mycoplasmosis in poultry. Revue Scientifique et Technique,<br />
15, 1495-1525.<br />
65
O 11 Methods Used For Diagnosis of Chicken Mycoplasma Gallisepticum<br />
Infection and Importance of PCR Method<br />
Serpil Kahya Demirbilek, Özge Yilmaz, K. Tayfun Carli<br />
Uludağ University, Faculty of Agriculture, Animal Science, Bursa, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) belongs to the class Mollicutes, order Mycı-oplasmatales,<br />
family Myco-plasmatacea. MG can cause significant economic loss in chickens and turkeys due<br />
to chronic respiratory diseases, downgrading of carcasses in meat-type birds and loss of production<br />
in layers. Infection is diagnosed by detection of specific antibodies and/or the organism or<br />
its DNA. Several serological tests have been used to detect MG antibodies, but specificity and<br />
sensitivity have been lacking to some degree in all of them. They are more satisfactory for flock<br />
screening than testing individual birds. Significant antigenic variability among MG strains also<br />
exists, which could affect the sensitivity of serological tests, depending on the strain infection<br />
the flock and the strain used to prepare antigen. Cultivation techniques, have been considered<br />
an indispensable tool for definite diagnosis of MG, for they help determine the existence of infection<br />
in a certain flock and discover the casual organism, which, in return, allows for further<br />
epidemiological studies such as pathogenicity, antibiotic resistance, virulence factors and strain<br />
differences. However, cultivation techniques are laborious and time-consuming and isolation by<br />
these techniques may be difficult in chronically infected chickens or in those receiving antibiotics.<br />
Besides, there is the problem of overgrowth due to faster-growing Mycoplasmas or other<br />
organisms. Currently suspected situation in MG diagnosis by serological test can be readily<br />
figure out by molecular DNA based methods. DNA detection methods, mainly based on the<br />
polymerase chain reaction, have become more prevalence into use in laboratories by ready-use<br />
MG-PCR detection kits now, compared to the past.<br />
66
O 12 Investigations on Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (IBDV) VP2 Gene<br />
Variations in Chickens<br />
Nuri Turan 1 , Aydın Gürel 2 , Utku Y. Çizmecigil 1 , Özge Erdoğan Bamaç 2 , Aysun Yılmaz 3 ,<br />
Özge Aydın 1 , Hüseyin Yılmaz 1<br />
1<br />
Istanbul University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Virology, 2 Istanbul<br />
University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Patology, 3 Çevre Analysis<br />
Laboratory, Kağıthane, Istanbul, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Infectious bursal disease (IBD-Gumboro) is an economically important viral disease in chickens.<br />
The disease is caused by infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) which initiates immunosuppression<br />
and immunosuppressed chickens can not have a good immune response to vaccinations<br />
against other viral infections such as Newcastle disease or infectious bronchitis. Also, the risk of<br />
secondary infections is increases. In IBD, the degree and duration of immunosuppression varies<br />
depending on the genotype and virulence of virus detected.<br />
This study was aimed to investigate IBDV genotypes in chickens and the lesions occurred in<br />
bursa of Fabricius during infections. For this purpose, bursa of Fabricius from 65 broiler flocks<br />
located in different regions in Turkey were collected. In these samples, presence of IBDV and viral<br />
loadwee investigated by SYBR-Green real time RT-PCR. Of the samples with high CT value,<br />
the variable region of the VP2 gene was amplified, sequenced and phylogenetic analyses were<br />
performed to generate phylogenetic tree. Results of SYBR-Green real time RT-PCR showed<br />
that IBDV-RNA was detected in 50 (77%) samples and CT values were found to be between 19<br />
and 37. Phylogentic analyses revealed very virulent genotypes were present in 6 broiler flocks.<br />
In addition, classical and vaccine strains were identified. On histopathology, lesions indicating<br />
varying degrees of immunosuppression were observed in the bursa of Fabricus infected.<br />
In conclusion, IBDV continues to be a problem in our country in chickens. Especially subclinical<br />
immunosuppressions are not noticed easily and therefore this point needs attention. It will be<br />
useful to reevaluate the current preventive and control measurements for IBD.<br />
67
IS 08 Enzyme Application Experiences in Broiler Feeds And Practical<br />
Application Strategies<br />
İbrahim Çiftçi<br />
Ankara University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Animal Science, Feed and Animal<br />
Nutrition, Dışkapı, Ankara- Turkey<br />
Introduction<br />
In the last quarter century the development in molecular genetics, microbiology and fermentation<br />
technologies provide immense developments in the area of enzyme production technologies<br />
and usage. Today, enzymes are widely used in food, textile, detergent and feed industries.<br />
Market of feed enzyme and developments<br />
The monetary volume of global feed enzyme market in 2014 was greater than 1 billion USD and<br />
it is indicated that it will be 1.5 billion USD and 2.5 billion USD 2020 and 2025, respectively.<br />
In 2014 phytase enzyme and NSP enzymes protease enzymes value in the total market were 450<br />
and 550 million USD, respectively. The usage and monetary value of phytase enzymes in the<br />
enzyme market has increased rapidly.<br />
Currently, the usage of phytase enzyme usage become standard in almost all of the poultry feed<br />
since it is very economic compared to inorganic P sources to increase P utilization and it decreases<br />
the negative results of anti nutritional effects of phytate.<br />
Mode action of enzymes and substrate relation<br />
Generally under normal conditions enzymes combine with substrate involving in key lock relation<br />
and form an enzyme-substrate complex and then form an enzyme -product complex by the<br />
impact of enzyme on the substrate and as a result a product based on substrate is formed.<br />
The parts of the grains that form a substrate for enzymes and that show anti-nutritional characteristics<br />
are located in the aleurone layer at 6-9% that is on the outer layers of the grain and<br />
in the outer pericarp sections that consists 3-5 % of the outer layer. Aleurone layer that has the<br />
anti-nutritional characteristics consists of fiber components that contains xylan and β-glucan<br />
compounds that large amounts are water insoluble and small amounts are water soluble (≤ %5)<br />
and also phytic acid. The outer pericarp section consists of fiber components that are insoluble<br />
as anti-nutritional factors ( xylan, cellulose and lignin).<br />
Brief overview of feed enzymes and their impacts<br />
We can categorize the feed enzymes for broilers in 4 main groups;<br />
Phytase : Plant hydrolyze its phytate and expose P, Ca, protein/AA and minerals and energy.<br />
Carbonhydrases : Main group is xylanase and beta-glucanase. They especially have an impact<br />
on the water-soluble NSP of the grain and cause a decrease of viscosity of intestine content, in-<br />
68
crease of energy of grains that is metabolizable by 3-8% and increase of absorption of nutrients.<br />
Besides they enable AXOS production as a result of AX decomposition in ileum and finally<br />
show prebiotic effect.<br />
Protease : Decreases nitrogen excretion by feces at 1/3 ratio and enhance protein/amino acid<br />
digestibility by 3-6% as an addition support to endogenous enzymes.<br />
Mannanase : Decompose the mannan that causes immune triggering based on feed and save<br />
energy (average 90 Kcal ME/kg feed) and other nutrients.<br />
Developments related to Phytase enzyme and its effects<br />
Phytate P compose of approximately 2/3 of phosphorus (total P) that vegetal feed raw materials<br />
consist. The phytate P percentage in the total P in corn, soya bean meal, full fat soya bean and<br />
sunflower seed meal that are used widely and at high amounts in broiler feed are 72-85%, 60-<br />
68%, 55% and 83-85%, respectively. Besides 92 % of the total P of wheat middlings, 72-80% of<br />
wheat and 76% wheat bran is phytate P. The same raw materials consist of 250-850, 1700-3100<br />
and 2500 FTU structural (herbal endogenous) phytate per kg, respectively.<br />
Herbal structural (endogenous) phytase does not have any practical importance for the utilization<br />
of phytate p for broilers because herbal phytate is negatively affected from feed production<br />
process related to activity.<br />
Miyoinozitol hexosephosphate (phytate P); binds food stuffs like starch, protein, mineral, Ca,<br />
Zn besides P. By usage of phytase enzyme, the utilization of these food stuff also increase at<br />
some certain rate as P, matrix value is used for ME and other food stuff besides P and Ca in<br />
feed formulation. Disintegration of phytate compound with phytase enzyme has a significant<br />
contribution to the decrease of anti nutritional effect of phytate. In this matter degrading of IP6<br />
to IP5, IP5 to IP4 and IP4 to IP3 forms a structure that is less harmful and binds minerals weaker<br />
when it is compared to IP6. Phytic acid compound binds nutrients and digestion enzymes and<br />
causes endogenous nutrition losses at stomach HCL secretion and mucin in ileum and therefore<br />
it decreases ileum nutrient digestibility.<br />
Phytase enzymes were developed by the help of new technologies. Phytase enzyme was produced<br />
so as to provide utilizable P by the rate of 0.1%, 0.125 % and 0.15-0.18% in years 1991-<br />
1995, 2007-2009 and after 2011, respectively. By introduction of the last generation phytase<br />
(6-phytase) super dose usage came up and addition to phosphor releasing feature by removing<br />
the anti nutritional effects of phytate compound at great extent and by release of inositol freely,<br />
the performance of broiler become better by immune and indirect effects. The state of art technology<br />
phytase enzymes has important contribution in general as bacterial 6-phytase enzymes.<br />
Related to the technological evolution of phytase enzymes due to years, a significant decrease<br />
in P clearance by feces which causes environmental pollution has been realized. Significant<br />
developments were achieved in heat treatment and storage stability besides the phytate P disintegration<br />
effectiveness of phytase enzymes.<br />
Considering the phytase effectiveness in broilers there are many factors related to the animal,<br />
phytase enzyme and feed including the duration of feed in the digestion system, pH of feed and<br />
digestion system content, existence of metal ions, phytate substrate density and specialty, organic<br />
acids added to the feed, toxin binders, antibacterial feed additives, Ca, total P and vitamin D3<br />
69
content of the feed and Ca/P ratio, whether it is 3- or 6-phytase, the age of the poultry, efficiency<br />
direction, etc. In the feeds that has low amino acid digestibility, the contribution of phytase to<br />
amino acid digestibility is higher. Besides the contribution from amino acids to the digestibility<br />
of methionine and lysine is lower. The effect of phytase on the digestibility of aspartic acid,<br />
sistine, glycine, threonine and serine amino acid is high and its effect on tryptophane, tyrosine<br />
and valine is at medium level.<br />
The contribution of Phytase enzyme related to the exposition of utilizable P from phytate P is not<br />
linear but curvilinear [(y=71.90+(-22.15*(0.998 x ))] Linear effect is up to a certain level but after<br />
a certain level additional contribution decreases considering the additional phytase dose. Today<br />
the 6-phytases decompose appr. 70% of the phytate phosphor in the broiler feed and therefore<br />
phytate P at 0.07% could not be utilized. Since the P exposition of phytase is curvilinear, the economic<br />
optimum phytase dose should be determined according to the marginal utility. It means 1<br />
kg phytase is important or the price of 1 FTY phytase inorganic source (like DCP or MCP) and<br />
price of 1 g inorganic P are important. For example when the price of 500 FTU phytase is 0.65$<br />
and the price of DCP including 19.76 % P is 660$/ton the optimum phytase dose is 996 FTU/<br />
kg feed. When the price of same DCP is 990 $/ton then the optimal phytase dose becomes 1231<br />
FTU/kg feed. However at the same DCP prices when the price of phytase is 0.95$ for 500 FTU<br />
the optimum doses are 762 and 996 FTU/kg feed, respectively. According to the P exposition<br />
characteristics of each enzyme the optimum doses shall differ even at the same prices. It is a very<br />
important matter in super dose applications considering the maximum utilization of phytase. In<br />
the feed formulation programs that has not the optimum dose determination feature by model<br />
input, it will be meaningful to determine and use of optimum dose practically by considering the<br />
P exposition matrix value of phytase at some certain phytase dose intervals.<br />
As a result, following could be indicated related to phytase; the effect of phytase differs from<br />
phytase to phytase, coarse grinding of feed increases the effectiveness of phytase, thin particles<br />
has a negative effect of P release, phytase has different effect according to the phytate solubility<br />
of feed materials, phytate is very strong anti nutritional factor, phytase effectiveness is maximum<br />
at optimum feed Ca level, stability for feed processing should be noted, phytase that has a lower<br />
effectiveness than expected causes acidity in broiler and deteriorate live weight uniformity,<br />
phytase that has a higher effectiveness than expected causes TD syndrome at animals, highly<br />
soluble lime stone decreases phytase effectiveness, addition of organic acid to feed increases<br />
phytase effectiveness, protease addition to raw materials that consists phytate-protein globoide<br />
increases phytase effectiveness, super dose phytase application increases performs compared to<br />
the control group that is insufficient of P and in phytase usage optimum economic dose addition<br />
to the feed causes the most appropriate result.<br />
NSP enzymes and impacts<br />
When NSP enzymes like β- glucanase (primarily xylanase) were first started to be used in commercial<br />
feed, they were used against substrate in feed like wheat, barley, oat and triticale flour<br />
which increase ileum content viscosity and that have high content of pentosan and/or β- glucanase<br />
soluble in water. Based on the results that the NSP enzymes have positive effect on water insoluble<br />
NSP subtracts they are started to be used in all kinds of broiler feed including corn-soybean based<br />
feeds. Further issues related to this matter came up due to the occurrence of AXOS and XOS after<br />
decomposition of AX of bacterial xylanase and that these compounds show prebiotic effect on the<br />
feed of broilers. Today broiler feed is produced so as to include xylanase of NSP enzymes<br />
70
Proteases<br />
Protease enzyme has an essential contribution to eliminate the negative effects of anti-nutritional<br />
factors like lectin etc. (primarily ant-tripsin factor for soya) that is in the protein sources that<br />
are not subject to appropriate or sufficient heat treatment or increase the amino acid digestion of<br />
feed materials that low protein digestion. Protease enzyme provides low amino acid digestibility<br />
in met and Lys amino acid and high amino acid digestibility in Cys and Thr amino acid. It is a<br />
great flexibility for rations and people preparing the rations that the low quality protein sources<br />
are introduced to rations economically. The success and progress of Protease still lag behind of<br />
phytase.<br />
Mannanase enzyme and effects<br />
Recently it is determined that some of the lectin that the feed raw material consists have negative<br />
impact on the ileum health of the broiler and causes impairment of the in. Intestine entrance<br />
barriers specialty and as a result it causes a nutritional cost. This feature triggers natural immune<br />
system by creating an effect like the carbohydrate structure receptors of the bacteria as Salmonella<br />
and E. coli of β-Mannanase that are in the soybean products that are widely used at high<br />
levels for broilers and it causes inflammation and high level excretion of mucin secretion due<br />
to immune system and expelling the Thr and Val amino acids as endogenous that are consisting<br />
at high levels in mucin secretion and also energy loss. Mannanase enzyme reduce the mannan<br />
compounds to more lower molecules that do not bring out anti nutritional impacts and causes<br />
feed caused inflammation in ileum and decreases nutritional losses and provides saving effects<br />
in some of the amino acids and energy. It is important that the mannan level of the feed reaches<br />
the critical level if the soya products are used more that 12% in the ration.<br />
Matrix usage of enzymes and strategies<br />
Matrix usage for enzymes consists of the most important part of the reflection of enzyme’s<br />
contribution to feed and it is the major issue that most of the mistakes occur in the field. This<br />
problem especially occurs when more than one different enzymes are used in the same feed and<br />
the energy and amino acid matrix is given and at what level the matrix values of the feed raw<br />
materials that the quality is indicated by the companies shall be used. We should be very careful<br />
about the contribution of each enzyme to the feed related to the same subtract and/or the enzymes<br />
that the impact mechanism interfere with each other. This situation leads to the question<br />
as “enzyme + enzyme 2 equals to what?”. Therefore, we see that in most of the cases 1+1 is not<br />
equal to 2. So, in order not to make any mistake in this matter supervision and information from<br />
broiler nutrition expert and/or enzyme producer company should be demanded and obtained.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Today it is impossible and meaningless to produce economic broiler feed without using feed<br />
enzymes and even double, triple enzymes. The success and the level of success in this subject<br />
could be attained by the quality of feed raw materials, the condition of broilers and the field,<br />
the accurate information related to the real impact of enzymes and also the matching of these<br />
information. Broiler nutrition experts should update and develop himself /herself in this subject,<br />
should not forget that the same enzymes can have different nutrient matrix values at some<br />
certain levels in order to provide a successful service for establishments and the perception of<br />
the keeper in the subject can also lead to have better results in general. It should be noted that<br />
71
feed enzymes both provide contribution to the supply of nutrients in broiler nutrition and also<br />
provide important contribution to animal health, welfare, product quality and environment<br />
protection.<br />
72
O 13 Optimisation of Enzymes Combinations to Improve Overall<br />
Digestibility of Corn and Soybean Meal-Based Diets<br />
Olivier Guais<br />
Adisseo, CERN Commentry, France<br />
Abstract<br />
A common indigestible fraction of cereal grains, representing a large part of poultry diet, is their<br />
content in non-starch polysaccharides of which arabinoxylan is the prominent type for wheat<br />
and corn. Despite being both mainly composed of xylose (X) and arabinose (A), their A:X ratio<br />
will be different with a higher value for corn than wheat (1). While an enzymatic solution<br />
such as classic xylanase based multienzyme composed of more than 50 hydrolytic enzymes (2)<br />
has already been proven efficient at improving nutritional value of feed by degrading NSP (3).<br />
Therefore, research work has been done to improve its capacity to degrade highly branched<br />
arabinoxylans. To address such complexity, a modified strain of Talaromyces versatilis has been<br />
developped to secrete a higher amount of xylanaseses and arabinofuranosidases. Such enzymatic<br />
enhancement is key to attack arabinoxylans with a high A:X ratio which are recalcitrant to<br />
breakdown by single xylanasese activity (4). This enzymatic enlargement allowed an improvement<br />
of the global feed digestibility by restoring to the control level AMEn and AA digestibility<br />
of a feed diet diluted by 3 % with an inert diluent when new type of xylanase based multienzyme<br />
is applied.<br />
Key words: Arabinoxylan, Xylanasese, Arabinofuranosidase, Overall feed digestibility, Feedase<br />
Introduction<br />
Cereals are an important source of energy in poultry diets. However, they are also rich in antinutritional<br />
factors such as non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) with content ranging from 7 to 19<br />
% in cereals (5). Arabinoxylan chains (AX) are the main NSP in wheat and corn, reaching up<br />
to 7.3 and 4.7% dry matter (DM), respectively (1). NSP-degrading carbohydrases, particularly<br />
xylanaseses (Xyn), have long been used in poultry diets (6). Endo-xylanaseses help degrade<br />
AX by hydrolyzing the xylan backbone. However, multiple arabinose substitutions reduce the<br />
efficiency of Xyn, especially in corn and associated by-products (1). Arabinofuranosidases (Abf)<br />
can cleave arabinose from the xylose backbone and offer access to endo-xylanasese activity (7).<br />
T. Lagaert et al. (2014) suggested that optimal hydrolysis of AX required the combined action of<br />
endo Xyn and Abf. The breakdown of AX offers higher accessibility to nutrients, which explains<br />
a large part of the observed digestibility improvement and mitigation of negative effects of NSP<br />
(9, 10). Objective of the present study was to present the best way of engineering Talaromyces<br />
versatilis to increase AX degradation potential through Xyn and Abf enrichment while keeping<br />
its broad spectrum of activities. Then, the effect of the newly developed product was estimated<br />
by comparing the overall feed digestibility of broilers fed a standard corn based diet to that of<br />
broilers fed a 3% diluted similar diet supplemented with. new type of xylanase based multienzyme<br />
73
Material and methods<br />
Enzymatic products<br />
Rovabio ® products are composed of multiple enzymes produced by Talaromyces versatilis under<br />
specific production conditions, strain: IMI378536 for Rovabio ® Excel and DSM26702 for<br />
Rovabio ® Advance. These cocktails are composed of more than 50 different enzymes mainly<br />
involved in NSP degradation (2), with xylanasese, beta-glucanase and cellulase being three of<br />
the major activities.<br />
In vivo assay<br />
Effect of new type of xylanase based multienzyme (Rovabio ® Advance) was studied in a digestibility<br />
trial with 120 broilers using a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement with two diets (standard and<br />
diluted, Table 1) and two level of enzymes (0 and 200 mL/t), to achieve at least 1250 xylanasese<br />
visco Units per kilo of feed). Diet was composed using wheat and soybean meal and was formulated<br />
to meet or exceed the birds’ nutrient specifications requirement according to Rhodimet ®<br />
Nutrition Guide recommendations (Adisseo Rhodimet Nutrition Guide, version 2013). A diluted<br />
form of the standard diet was achieved using sand as an inert diluent to give a diet containing<br />
97% of the plant raw ingredient base relative to standard diet. Titanium oxide (TiO) was added<br />
to both experimental diets at 0.5% to serve as an indigestible marker. From 0 to 12d, broilers<br />
were housed together in a floor pens and fed the diets ad libitum. The experimental period was<br />
divided into three phases: adaptation (13 - 19 d of age), excreta collection (20 - 22 d of age) and<br />
preparation prior to digesta collection (23 – 26 d of age). Digestibility of dry matter (DM), and<br />
gross energy (GE) were determined by analysis of feed and excreta, whereas AA digestibility<br />
was calculated based on measurement in diet and ileal digesta. The data (n = 120) were subjected<br />
to ANOVA with block (n = 30), diet (n = 2) and enzyme (n = 2) as fixed effects.<br />
Enrichment in xylanaseses and arabinofuranosidases activities<br />
Based on the observations of Bach Knudsen et al. (2014),AX is the main type of NSP brought<br />
by common cereals such as wheat and corn. In order to further improve the arabinoxylanolytic<br />
efficacy of the product, it was decided to enrich the product in Xyn and Abf activities. To obtain<br />
this, while keeping the already broad spectrum of activities in the product, gene regulation has<br />
been studied through transcriptomic analyses in order to identify the regulator of the AX catabolic<br />
pathway (Llanos et al. 2017 in press). The XlnR transcription factor was then identified and its<br />
over-expression in Talaromyces versatilis led to an enzymatic mix named Rovabio® Advance.<br />
Mass spectrometric analyses and enzymatic assays confirm the over-expression of hemicellulases,<br />
mainly composed in Xyn and Abf activities compared to Rovabio® Excel (Table 2). As a<br />
consequence, new type of xylanase based multienzyme contains three more Xyn and two additionnal<br />
Abf. So, at the end, Xyn from CAZy (11) families 10 and 11 and Abf from families 43,<br />
51, 54 and 62 are represented in. new type of xylanase based multienzyme This led to an increase<br />
of approximately 3 folds of xylanasese and arabinofuranosidase acitivities.<br />
In-vivo validation :new type of xylanase based multienzyme nutritional efficiency<br />
Nutritional interest of the Rovabio ® Advance has been demonstrated in a study using a standard<br />
wheat/soybean-based diet compared with a 3% nutrient-diluted diet using sand as an inert diluent.<br />
74
Comparing the two control diets, dilution of feed had no effect on gross energy digestibility<br />
(AME:GE) (around 73% for both diets), whereas apparent metabolisable energy corrected for<br />
zero N retention (AME N<br />
) content was 2.9% lower in the diluted versus standard diet (13.3 and<br />
13.7 MJ/kg DM respectively; P < 0.001). Rovabio ® Advance improved gross energy digestibility<br />
(AME:GE) of the 2 diets by +2.8% in average (P < 0.001), leading to a significant increase<br />
in AME N<br />
content of 500 and 400 kJ/kg DM in standard and diluted diets, respectively. Apparent<br />
metabolisable energy corrected for zero N retention content of the diluted diet with new type<br />
of xylanase based multienzyme was similar to that of the standard diet without new type of<br />
xylanase based multienzyme (P = 0.98), thus demonstrating the ability of enzymes to fully<br />
compensate for the 3% nutrient dilution. At ileal level, AA digestibility was around 75% across<br />
all treatments and the addition of enzymes increased AA digestibility by an average of 4.4%,<br />
ranging from x to y (P < 0.001) as presented in Figure 1.<br />
Conclusion<br />
First, this study presented an original way for enzyme development and improvement in connection<br />
with substrate evaluation. In order to further improve degradation of all patterns of AX,<br />
even the most substituted (A:X > 1, ), classic xylanase based multienzyme, was modified to<br />
overproduce Xyn and Abf thanks to a tuned gene regulation. A combination of Xyn and Abf<br />
improves AX degradation whatever the substitution rate by arabinose that, if too high, impairs<br />
the xylose backbone hydrolysis by the xylanasese by steric hindrance (12). Secondly, In vivo<br />
assay demonstrated that new type of xylanase based multienzyme can restore nutrient availability<br />
when the nutrient content of a diet is diluted by 3%. The exact mechanism responsible for<br />
this is not fully understood, but degrading the main NSP type in the feed leads to limit the cage<br />
effect and resulted in a larger access of nutrients for endogenous enzymes also to a better mixing<br />
between digestive enzymes and nutrients. In this case, it is apparent that an increase in AA<br />
digestibility and a potential effect on endogenous AA flow may be, in part, responsible of this<br />
restoration. In conclusion, this study has shown that new type of xylanase based multienzyme, a<br />
multi-enzyme complex containing Xyn and Abf, can improve the overall feed digestiblity.<br />
References<br />
1. Bach Knudsen KE. Microbial Degradation of Whole-Grain Complex Carbohydrates and Impact<br />
on Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Health. Adv Nutr. 2015 Mar 1; 6-2: 206-13.<br />
2. Guais O, Borderies G, Pichereaux C, Maestracci M, Neugnot V, Rossignol M, François JM.<br />
Proteomics analysis of “Rovabio ® t Excel”, a secreted protein cocktail from the filamentous<br />
fungus Penicillium funiculosum grown under industrial process fermentation. J Ind<br />
Microbiol Biotechnol. 2008 Dec;35(12):1659-68.<br />
3. Neto RM, Ceccantini ML, Fernandes JI. Productive Performance, Intestinal Morphology and<br />
Carcass Yield of Broilers Fed Conventional and Alternative Diets Containing Commercial<br />
Enzymatic Complex. <strong>International</strong> Journal of Poult Sci. 2012 Mar 1;11-7:474-81<br />
4. Lafond M, Guais O, Maestracci M, Bonnin E, Giardina T. Four GH11 xylanaseses from the<br />
xylanolytic fungus Talaromyces versatilis act differently on (arabino)xylans. Appl Microbiol<br />
Biotechnol. 2014;98(14):6339-52.<br />
5. Bach Knudsen, K. E., Carbohydrate and lignin contents of plant materials used in animal<br />
feeding. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 1997 67 (4): 319-338.<br />
6. Bedford MR, and Classen HL. Reduction of intestinal viscosity through manipulation of di-<br />
75
etary rye and pentosanase concentrations is effected through changes in the carbohydrate<br />
composition of the intestinal aqueous phase and results in improved growth rate and food<br />
conversion efficiency of broiler chicks. J. Nutr. 1992 122:560-569.<br />
7. De la Mare, M., O. Guais, E. Bonnin, J. Weber, and J.M. François. Molecular and biochemical<br />
characterization of three GH62 α-L-arabinofuranosidases from the soil deuteromycete<br />
Penicillium funiculosum. Enz. Microb. Techno. 2013 53:351-358.<br />
8. Lagaert S, Pollet A, Courtin CM, Volckaert G. β-xylosidases and α-L-arabinofuranosidases:<br />
accessory enzymes for arabinoxylan degradation. Biotechnol Adv. 2014 Mar-<br />
Apr;32(2):316-32.<br />
9. Wiseman J. Correlation between physical measurements and dietary energy values of wheat<br />
for poultry and pigs. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2000 84:1–11.<br />
10. McCracken KJ, Preston CM, and Butler C. Effects of wheat variety and specific weight on<br />
dietary apparent metabolizable energy concentration and performance of broiler chicks.<br />
Br. Poult. Sci. 2002 43:253–260<br />
11. Lombard V, Golaconda Ramulu H, Drula E, Coutinho PM, Henrissat B. The Carbohydrate-active<br />
enzymes database (CAZy) in 2013. Nucleic Acids Res. 2014 42:D490–D495.<br />
12. Koutaniemi S, Tenkanen M. Action of three GH51 and one GH54 α-arabinofuranosidases<br />
on internally and terminally located arabinofuranosyl branches. J Biotechnol. 2016 Jul<br />
10;229:22-30.<br />
76
Table 1. Composition and calculated analysis of experimental diets<br />
Item Standard diet Diluted diet<br />
Ingredient, % of diet<br />
Energy and nutrient content<br />
Wheat 57.72 55.99<br />
Extruded soybean 7.5 7.27<br />
Soybean meal 24.4 23.67<br />
Vegetable oil 5.75 5.58<br />
Dicalcium phosphate 1.27 1.23<br />
Limestone 1.18 1.14<br />
Salt 0.27 0.27<br />
Sodium sulphate 0.14 0.14<br />
DL-Methionine 0.32 0.31<br />
L-Lysine 0.26 0.25<br />
L-Threonine 0.08 0.08<br />
Filler - 2.96<br />
Mineral and vitamin premix 1 0.6 0.6<br />
Titanium oxide 0.5 0.5<br />
DM, % 89.3 89.5<br />
AME, kcal/kg 3010 2919<br />
CP, % 20.2 19.6<br />
Crude fat, % 8.5 8.2<br />
NDF, % 11.0 10.6<br />
Digestible lysine, % 1.12 1.08<br />
Digestible sulphur amino acids, % 0.87 0.84<br />
1<br />
Mineral and vitamin premix supplied the following per kg of feed, as fed: vitamin A, 12,000<br />
IU; vitamin D3, 3,000 IU; vitamin E, 100 IU, vitamin K3, 3 mg; vitamin B1, 2 mg; vitamin B2, 8<br />
mg; vitamin B6, 3 mg; vitamin B12, 0.02 mg; folic acid, 1 mg; biotin, 0.2 mg; pantothenic acid,<br />
15 mg; niacin, 40 mg; Mn, 80 mg; Zn, 60 mg; I, 1 mg; Fe, 80 mg; Cu, 15 mg; Co, 0.4 mg; Se,<br />
0.2 mg; ethoxyquin, 0.5 mg; BHA, 0.5 mg; narasin+nicarbazin, 80 mg<br />
Table 2. Relative composition of Rovabio® Excel and Advance based on mass spectrometric<br />
products characterization.<br />
Item<br />
classic xylanase based<br />
multienzyme<br />
family of enzymes, % of all hydrolytic enzymes<br />
Cellulases 56.2 44.8<br />
Hemicellulases 42.1 52.8<br />
Pectinases 1.7 2.4<br />
type of enzymes, % of all hydrolytic enzymes<br />
Xylanaseses 21.4 27.7<br />
Arabinofuranosidases 5.8 10.7<br />
new type of xylanase<br />
based multienzyme<br />
A reduced, alkylated and heat denaturated extract of each Rovabio ® was digested by trypsin.<br />
The peptides were then separated based on their charge on an ionic exchange chromatography<br />
column before analysis by tandem LC-MS/MS. Spectrometrical data were then confronted to<br />
Talaromyces versatilis annotated proteome. Quantitation is based on sepctral counting.<br />
77
Figure 1. Effect of enzyme supplementation on ileal digestibility of AA at 27d.<br />
78
O 14 Effect of Xylanase on Digestibility of Cereals and Proteinaceous<br />
by-products in Broiler<br />
Lode Nollet, Karel Bierman<br />
Huvepharma NV, Antwerp, Belgium<br />
Abstract<br />
A trial was conducted to evaluate the effect of a fungal Non-Starch Polysaccharide (NSP) degrading<br />
enzyme complex on digestibility of wheat, corn, barley, soybean meal, rapeseed meal<br />
and DDGS (wheat based) in broilers. In total 48 cages, of 6 birds each, were fed a general starter<br />
diet until 13 days of age. From 13-22 days, birds were fed the different test feeds with or without<br />
the enzyme complex. Feeds contained either 65 % of corn, wheat or barley, supplemented<br />
with a 35 % soybean meal based protein concentrate, or 30 % of either DDGS or soybean meal<br />
supplemented with a 70 % corn/wheat based carbohydrate concentrate. Further two test diets<br />
containing 10 or 20 % rapeseed meal were incorporated in the trial. Digestibility was measured<br />
between the age of 18 and 22 days based on the total faecal collection method. Results showed<br />
that enzyme inclusion led to an increase in metabolisable energy of 45, 104, 94, 89, 120, 33<br />
and 111 kCal/kg, and of fat digestibility of 1.6, 5.4, 3.2, 1.2, 7.7, 2.6 and 3.2 % for wheat, corn,<br />
barley, soybean meal, DDGS, 10 and 20 % rapeseed meal based feeds respectively. Faecal droppings<br />
were reduced by 4 to 14.5 % when using the enzyme complex while water intake was reduced<br />
between 0.5 and 6.1 %. From this trial it can be concluded that the inclusion of a particular<br />
fungal NSP enzyme complex in different types of feed gives a clear improvement in digestibility,<br />
while reducing faecal output and water consumption.<br />
Introduction<br />
Broilers need efficient ways to extract more nutrients out of the diet, in order to reach their full<br />
growth potential and to maintain intestinal health. Well-targeted feed enzymes offer nutritionists<br />
a tool to meet these crucial objectives in everyday broiler diet formulations. A multi-enzyme<br />
digestive complex produced by a non-GMO T. citrinoviride Bissett via a single Surface Fermentation<br />
process, demonstrates to provide a consistent solution in dietary energy utilization. Such<br />
a xylanolytic complex of enzymes with high intrinsic stability properties shows to overcome<br />
the anti-nutritional effects of multiple NSP fibre fractions, present inside conventional as well<br />
as more challenging broiler diets (1). Enzymes are used to degrade non-starch polysaccharides,<br />
mainly to reduce viscosity in the intestine (caused by soluble fibers) and to liberate more nutrients<br />
which are entrapped by insoluble fibrous structures. This improves the digestibility of the<br />
nutrients present in the feed, while reducing excretion, optimizing performance and improving<br />
gut health status.<br />
Material and methods<br />
The digestibility study was composed out of 56 cages of 6 female broilers (ROSS 308) per cage.<br />
Broilers were fed a starter feed till 13 days of age. From 13 till 22 days of age, animals were<br />
fed with the 14 different feeds. Day 13-18 was considered as the adaptation period, while the<br />
digestibility assay was conducted from day 18 till day 22. Different feeds were produced with<br />
79
or without the fungal NSP degrading enzyme complex (Hostazym ® X at 1500 EPU/kg of feed;<br />
Table 1). The first 3 feeds were composed diets containing 65 % wheat, corn or barley, combined<br />
with a 35 % protein based (soybean meal) complementary feed. The fourth and fifth feed was<br />
composed by either 30 % soybean meal or 30% wheat-based DDGS, added to a complementary<br />
feed containing corn/wheat as cereal sources in a 50/50 ratio. The last two feeds contained 10 or<br />
20 % rapeseed meal (at the expense of soybean meal), in which corn/wheat was dosed in a 50/50<br />
ratio. Eight cages per feedstuff were used, of which 4 cages received the control feed and 4 cages<br />
received the control feed + Hostazym ® X at 1500 EPU/kg. During the period of digestibility<br />
(d18-22) daily feed intake, total faecal droppings and water intake were measured. Digestibility<br />
was determined by the total collection method quantifying the total amount of faecal material<br />
produced (dry) and the total amount of feed ingested. After homogenization of the faecal material<br />
and subsampling, 250 g was freeze-dried to determine the dry matter content. The dry matter<br />
was then analyzed for energy, starch and fat. Feed was also analysed for these nutrients. The<br />
digestibility was calculated as follows: digestibility (%) = (total nutrient intake by feed – total<br />
nutrient output by faeces)/(total nutrient intake by feed) x 100 %.<br />
Table 1. composition of the different feeds<br />
Cereal feed Protein feed Rapeseed meal feed<br />
10 % 20 %<br />
Cereal 1 65 0 0 0<br />
Protein source 2 0 30 0 0<br />
Rape seed solvent extr 0 0 10 20<br />
Wheat 0 26.6 31.4 28.5<br />
Corn 0 26.6 31.4 28.5<br />
Soja, hipro 23.2 0 14.6 9.13<br />
Corn gluten meal 1.41 5.99 4.00 4.00<br />
Soybean oil 6.46 7.10 5.00 6.50<br />
Premix (Ca 0 g/kg) 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50<br />
Salt 0.14 0.15 0.14 0.15<br />
Sodiumcarbonate 0.35 0.37 0.35 0.33<br />
MCP 1.14 1.04 1.09 1.00<br />
Limestone 1.03 0.98 0.95 0.84<br />
DL-Methionine 99 % 0.25 0.11 0.15 0.1<br />
L-Lysine HCl 98.5 % 0.32 0.57 0.37 0.35<br />
L-Threonine98% 0.11 0.1 0.07 0.04<br />
1<br />
wheat, corn or barely<br />
2<br />
soybean meal of wheat DDGS<br />
Results and Discussion<br />
The inclusion of the enzyme complex increased the metabolisable energy (ME) of all feeds,<br />
ranging from 33 kCal/kg (rapeseed meal 10 %) up to 120 kCal/kg (wheat DDGS at 30 %) (Fig.<br />
1). Surprisingly a higher improvement in energy content was found for corn diets compared<br />
to wheat diets. It has always been assumed that endo-xylanases work better on wheat diets, as<br />
wheat contains higher levels of soluble fibres compared to corn diets (2). However it is also<br />
known that some endo-xylanases can degrade insoluble fibres, making entrapped nutrients like<br />
80
protein and starch granules more available for digestion by the endogenous proteases and amylases<br />
produced in the intestine, contributing to a higher feed digestibility (1, 3).<br />
Fig. 1. increase in ME (kCal/kg feed) when including a NSP degrading enzyme complex<br />
Secondly, the inclusion of the enzyme complex increased the fat digestibility by 1.2 % (soybean<br />
meal up to 7.7 % (DDGS) (Fig. 2). This effect was also higher in corn diets compared to wheat<br />
diets, which could also explain the higher energy improvement by the enzyme complex as discussed<br />
above. It is well known that fiber exerts an important effect on the gut microbiota in broilers,<br />
and thereby gut health (4). Feeding fibre can lead to a higher bacterial counts in the intestine,<br />
and thereby a higher bile salt hydrolysis capacity (5). A high bile salt hydrolysis capacity means<br />
a reduction in the emulsifying capacity of the fat by bile salts in the small intestine. As corn has<br />
a 2 to 3 times higher fat content than wheat, the impact of the reduction of bile salt hydrolysis<br />
due to the enzyme complex addition (which reduces the quantity of gut microflora) might partly<br />
explain the higher energy improvement of the corn diet (Fig. 1).<br />
Fig. 2. fat digestibility (%) with or without a NSP degrading enzyme complex<br />
81
Fig. 3. daily faecal droppings (g/bird/d) with or without a NSP degrading enzyme complex<br />
The inclusion of the enzyme complex also led to a reduction in faecal droppings (Fig. 3). This<br />
reduction in the excretion of dry matter, corrected for intake, demonstrates clearly that the enzyme<br />
complex is improving the overall dry matter digestibility. This might be linked to the effect<br />
of the enzyme complex on the degradation of insoluble fiber, making starch and protein more<br />
accessible for degradation by endogenous enzymes in the gut.<br />
Additionally, the inclusion of the enzyme complex resulted in a reduced daily water consumption,<br />
which might be linked to a reduced viscosity in the gut (Fig. 4). As a consequence of the<br />
effects shown in Fig. 3 and 4, a reduction in wet litter in field conditions can be expected when<br />
using the enzyme complex.<br />
Fig. 4. daily water consumption with or without a NSP degrading enzyme complex<br />
Conclusions<br />
The inclusion of a fungal NSP degrading enzyme complex (Hostazym ® X at 1500 EPU/kg)<br />
led to an increase in ME which was highest in the DDGS-based diet, followed by the diets<br />
containing 20 % rapeseed meal, 65 % corn or 65 % barley. It also resulted in an increase in fat<br />
digestibility (highest in the corn diets followed by the 30 % DDGS diet), as well as reduction in<br />
daily faecal droppings, thereby showing an increased digestibility of the feed dry matter and also<br />
82
a reduced water consumption. Both of these key findings effectuate a better performance and a<br />
lower risk of wet litter.<br />
References<br />
Coppedge JR, Oden LA, Ratliff B, Brown B, Ruch F, Lee JT. Evaluation of nonstarch polysaccharide-degrading<br />
enzymes in broiler diets varying in nutrient and energy levels as measured by<br />
broiler performance and processing parameters. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 2012; 21:226-234.<br />
Knudsen KEB. Fiber and nostarch polysaccharide content and variation in common crops used<br />
in broiler diets. Poult. Sci. 2014; 93 :2380-2393.<br />
Moers K, Courtin CM, Brijs K, Delcour JA. A screening method for endo-β-1,4 xylanase substrate<br />
selectivity. Anal. Biochem. 2003; 319:73-77.<br />
Dänicke S, Vahjen W, Simon O, Jeroch H. Effects of dietary fat type and xylanase supplementation<br />
to rye-based broiler diets on selected bacterial groups adhering to the intestinal epithelium,<br />
on transit time of feed, and on nutrient digestibility. Poult. Sci. 1999; 78:1292-1299.<br />
Canzi E, Tinarelli A, Brighenti F, Testolin G, Brusa T, Del Puppo E, Ferrari A. influence of<br />
long-term feeding of different purified dietary fibers on cecal microflora composition and its<br />
metabolising activity on bile acids. Nutr. Res. 1994; 10:1549-1559.<br />
83
O 15 Implications of Protease Addition to Diets with NSPases and Different<br />
Levels of Phytase in Broiler Diets<br />
S. Peris 1 , N. Şenköylü 2 , R. Gonzalez-Esquerra 3 , R.B. Araujo 3 , C.G. Lima 4 , J. Arce 5 ,C.<br />
Lopez-Coello 6<br />
1<br />
Novus Spain S.A. Edifici CEPID, Spain, 2 Novus Int. Istanbul, Turkey, 3 Novus Brazil, 4 Sao<br />
Paulo University, Department of Animal Science, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil<br />
5<br />
University of Morelia, Mexico, 6 National Autonomous University of Mexico<br />
Abstract<br />
Proteases have become a nutritional tool to improve not only chicken performance in terms of<br />
protein utilization, growth and FCR but also because of their positive impact on environment,<br />
gut health and animal welfare. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of protease<br />
contribution when used with different combination levels of phytase and NSPases in broiler diets.<br />
A total of 1890 Ross day-old mixed chicks were used in this study and randomly assigned to<br />
one of the 6 treatments with 7 replicate pens of 45 birds. In a 2 × 2 factorial scheme (2 levels of<br />
phytase: 500 or 1000 FTU; 2 levels of protease: 0 or 500g/ton) plus 2 positive control (PC) diets<br />
were used. Phytase was formulated at 500 FTU dose using suggested matrix for AA, AMEn, P<br />
& Ca; or 1000 FTU at 30% higher than 500 FTU-matrix. Negative Control (NC) diet were marginally<br />
deficient in AAs and ME levels based on Ross recommendations to make basal diet more<br />
sensible to enzymes addition. All diets were formulated with an NSPase containing xylanase,<br />
α-galactosidase and β-glucanase activities with matrix value of 50kcal at 500 g/ton dose level.<br />
Life performance (pen averages) and carcass (from 5 birds/pen) traits were analyzed by ANOVA<br />
and Tukey Test. Interactions between either phytase and protease were tested as a 2x2 factorial<br />
without PC. The results of the present experiment demonstrated that supplementation of protease<br />
at 500 g/ton dose level together with NSPase and with 2 dietary levels of phytase, 500 or<br />
1000 FTUs, significantly (P0.05) difference<br />
among experimental treatments with respect to FI and mortality in relation to different levels of<br />
fhytase and protease supplementation. However, beneficial effect of protease addition was also<br />
evident in carcass yield and breast weights. Significant (P
Introduction<br />
Proteases have become a nutritional tool to improve not only chicken performance in terms of<br />
protein utilization, growth and FCR but also because of their positive impacts on environment,<br />
gut health and animal welfare (Cowieson and Roos, 2016; Angel, et.al., 2010). Research studies<br />
recently carried out using proteases in combination with other enzymes such as phytase and<br />
xylanase have demonstrated that supplementation of proteases together with phytase and carbohydrases<br />
need to be clarified in relation to their additive effects, since contradictory results<br />
have been reported by using of proteases with phytase and or carbohydrases (Sultan, et al., 2011;<br />
Romero et al. 2013) Therefore the present study aimed to evaluate the effect of protease contribution<br />
when used with different combination levels of phytase and NSPases in broiler diets.<br />
Materials and Methods<br />
A total of 1890 Ross day-old mixed chicks were used in this study and randomly assigned to one<br />
of the 6 treatments (Table 1) with 7 replicate pens of 45 birds. A 2 × 2 factorial scheme (2 levels<br />
of phytase (Phytaverse® Novus Int.): 500 or 1000 FTU; 2 levels of protease (Cibenza DP100®;<br />
Novus Int.): 0 or 500g/ton plus 2 positive control diets were used. Phytase was formulated at 500<br />
FTU dose using suggested matrix for AA, AMEn, P & Ca; or 1000 FTU at 30% higher than 500<br />
FTU-matrix (Table 2). Negative Control diets were marginally deficient in AAs and ME levels<br />
based on Ross recommendations to make basal diet more sensible to enzymes addition (Table<br />
3). All diets were formulated with NSPase (Cibenza CSM®; Novus Int.) with matrix value<br />
of 50kcal at 500 g/ton dose level. Cibenza Phytaverse 10,000 “liquid”, Cibenza DP100® and<br />
Cibenza CSM® were used in this trial. The matrix values to be used for Phytase formulation (in<br />
all treatments and depending on its inclusion) are shown in Table 2. Nutritional contributions of<br />
the protease (Cibenza DP100) for starter, grower and finisher based on phytase dose levels have<br />
been shown in Table 4.<br />
Management and Diets<br />
The present trial was carried out in an experimental farm at Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico. All<br />
main ingredients (Corn, SBM and MBM) were analyzed prior to the study for: proximate analysis<br />
and amino acids. Dietary feeds were offered in mash form and feeding program was divided<br />
in 3 periods: Starter 1-21 days; Grower 22-35 days; and Finisher 36-42 days of age. Water and<br />
feed was given ad libitum. Salinomycin was used only in the Grower and Finisher phases to<br />
control coccidiosis. Chicks were observed at least twice daily. Bird mortalities were collected<br />
daily and weighted to be used in the calculation of mortality-corrected feed conversion. Feed<br />
intake corrected for the number of broilers, BW, BWG, commercial FCR, FCR corrected for<br />
mortality, production Index, and livability were measured at 42d of age. At 42d of age, 5 males<br />
per pen were randomly selected to carcass and cuts yield assessment (breast, wings, thighs and<br />
upper thighs in grams and % related to carcass).<br />
Statistical design and analysis of data<br />
Overall treatment effect was subjected to ANOVA using the GLM procedure of SAS. In addition,<br />
treatments, except for positive controls, were analyzed in factorial scheme. Tukey test was<br />
used to compare<br />
multiple treatments. Significant differences were declared at P < 0.05.<br />
85
Results and Discussion<br />
The results of this experiment demonstrated that supplementation of protease at 500 g/ton dose<br />
level together with NSPase containing xylanase, α-galactosidase and β-glucanase activities and<br />
with 2 dietary levels of phytase, at 500 or 1000 FTUs, significantly (P0.05) difference among the treatments with respect to FI and mortality<br />
in relation to different levels of phytase and protease supplementation. However, beneficial<br />
effect of protease addition was also evident in carcass and breast weights. Significant (P
suggested that the young broiler may be more responsive to proteases. Consequently, the results<br />
obtained in the present study are in line with the findings of various research results (Romero et<br />
al., 2013; Rada et al., 2014; Olukosi et al., 2015; Cowieson and Roos, 2016).<br />
Conclusions<br />
Protease is effective in corn-soybean meal based diets in broilers until 42d of age.<br />
Protease can be used in broiler diets and present additional benefits in performance when used<br />
together with either 500 or 1000 FTUs phytase and a blend of NSPases (xylanase, α-galactosidase<br />
and β-glucanase) or with 1000 FTUs phytase.<br />
Table 1. Dietary Treatments<br />
Treatments Phytase (FTUs) Protease<br />
T1 Positive Control 500 0<br />
T2 Negative Control* 500 0<br />
T3 T2 + Protease 500 500g/ton<br />
T4 Positive Control 1000 0<br />
T5 Negative Control* 1000 0<br />
T6 T5 + Protease 1000 500g/ton<br />
*Reduced AAs/ME levels based on improvements obtained with protease (500g/MT),<br />
according to the feeding phase and using PC as basal diet<br />
Table 2. Phytase Matrices<br />
Parameter Units Matrix Contribution Matrix Contribution<br />
50g/t feed 500FTU/kg diet 100g/t feed 1000FTU/kg<br />
diet<br />
AMEn kcal/kg 340000 17 221000 22<br />
Crude Protein % 10020 0.501 6513 0,651<br />
Calcium % 3000 0.15 1950 0,195<br />
Sodium % 840 0.042 546 0,055<br />
Dig Lysine % 420 0.021 273 0,027<br />
Dig Methionine % 180 0.009 117 0,012<br />
Dig Cysteine % 300 0.015 195 0,020<br />
Dig M+C % 480 0.024 312 0,031<br />
Dig Threonine % 580 0.029 377 0,038<br />
Dig Tryptophan % 80 0.004 52 0,005<br />
Dig Leucine % 1000 0.050 650 0,065<br />
Dig Isoleucine % 520 0.026 338 0,034<br />
Dig Arginine % 240 0.012 156 0,016<br />
Dig Phenylalanine % 520 0.026 338 0,034<br />
Dig Histidine % 240 0.012 156 0,016<br />
Dig Valine % 560 0.028 364 0,036<br />
87
Table 3. Negative Control Levels (marginally deficient ME and AAs)<br />
Starter (1-21d) Grower (22-35d) Finisher (36-42d)<br />
ME, kcal/kg 3000 3100 3180<br />
Lys, % 1,15 0,95 0,85<br />
Met+Cis, % 0,86 0,74 0,66<br />
Met,% 0,43 0,37 0,33<br />
Tre, % 0,76 0,64 0,57<br />
Val, % 0,87 0,73 0,66<br />
Ile, % 0,78 0,66 0,58<br />
Arg, % 1,19 1,00 0,89<br />
Trp, % 0.18 0.15 0.13<br />
Ca, % 1.00 0.90 0.80<br />
Pav, % 0.50 0.43 0.40<br />
Choline, % 1500 1400 1300<br />
Table 4. Nutritional Contribution of the Protease and Calculated Matrices at 500g/ton<br />
Starter Grower Finisher<br />
500FTU 1000FTU 500FTU 1000FTU 500FTU 1000FTU<br />
ME, kcal/kg 19,21 19,02 17,39 17,26 15,64 15,50<br />
Protein, % 0,568 0,562 0,514 0,510 0,462 0,458<br />
Lys, % 0,030 0,029 0,027 0,026 0,023 0,023<br />
Thr, % 0,023 0,023 0,021 0,020 0,018 0,018<br />
Met, % 0,008 0,008 0,007 0,007 0,007 0,007<br />
Cys, % 0,012 0,011 0,011 0,011 0,010 0,010<br />
M+C, % 0,020 0,019 0,018 0,018 0,016 0,016<br />
Trp, % 0,007 0,007 0,006 0,006 0,005 0,005<br />
Val, % 0,025 0,025 0,022 0,022 0,020 0,020<br />
Arg, % 0,033 0,033 0,030 0,029 0,026 0,026<br />
88
Table 5. Effects of Protease and Phytase on Life Performance Parameters<br />
Phytase<br />
(FTU)<br />
Protease BW FI FCR Livability<br />
500 PC 2,643 a 4,492 1,726 ab 98,41<br />
500 NC<br />
500 NC+Protease<br />
2,574 b 4,425 1,746 a 98,41<br />
2,637 a 4,402 1,695 c 99,05<br />
1000 PC 2,653 a 4,416 1,690 c 98,41<br />
1000 NC<br />
1000 NC+Protease<br />
2,579 b 4,457 1,756 a 98,73<br />
2,640 a 4,426 1,702 bc 96,51<br />
P < 0.0001 0,0958 < 0.0001 0,2198<br />
Mean 2,621 4,437 1,719 98,26<br />
SE 0,005 0,009 0,003 0,30<br />
CV (%) 1,24 1,36 1,10 1,97<br />
Means with different letters (a-c) within the same column differ significantly (P< 0.05).<br />
Table 6. Effects of Protease and Phtaverse on Carcass and cuts at 42d (kg)<br />
Phytase Protease Carcass Wings Breast Legs<br />
500 PC 2,366 a 0,235 0,701 a 0,609<br />
500 NC 2,330 bc 0,230 0,671 b 0,595<br />
500 NC+Protease 2,335 bc 0,229 0,706 a 0,606<br />
1000 PC 2,356 ab 0,234 0,706 a 0,597<br />
1000 NC 2,320 c 0,228 0,680 ab 0,607<br />
1000 NC+Protease 2,367 a 0,236 0,694 ab 0,606<br />
P
nous mono-component protease in the diets of non-ruminants. Anim. Feed Sci. Tech. Vol<br />
221, Nov., p.331-340<br />
Ghazi, S., Rooke, J.A., Galbraith, H., Bedford, M.R., 2002. The potential for the improvement of<br />
the nutritive value of soya-bean meal by different proteases in different chicks and broiler<br />
cockerels. Br. Poult. Sci. 43, 70-77.<br />
Guenter, W., Slominski, B.A., Simbaya, J., Morgan, A., Campbell, L.D., 1995. Potential for improved<br />
utilization of canola meal using exogenous enzymes. In: Proceedings of the 9th<br />
<strong>International</strong> Rapeseed <strong>Congress</strong>. Camridge, UK, pp. 164-166.<br />
Hessing, G.C., van Laarhoven, H., Rooke, J.A., Morgan, A., 1996. Quality of soybean meals<br />
and effect of microbial enzymes in degrading soya antinutritional compounds. In: 2nd<br />
<strong>International</strong> Soybean Processing and Utilization Conference, bankok, Tailand, pp. 8-13.<br />
Huo, G.C., Fowler, V.R., Inborr, J., Bedford, M.R., 1993. The use of enzymes to denature antinutritive<br />
factors in soybean. In: Van Der Poel, A.F.B., Huisman, J., Saini, H.S. (Eds.),<br />
Recent Advances of Research in antinutritional Factors in Legume Seeds. Wageningen<br />
the the Netherlands, pp. 517-521.<br />
Odetallah, N.H., Wang., J.J., Garlich, J.D., Shih, J.C., 2003. Keratinase in starter diets improves<br />
growth of broiler chicks. Poult. Sci. 82, 664-670.<br />
Olukosi, O.A., Beeson, L.A., Englyst, K., Romero, L.F., 2015. Effect of exogenous proteases<br />
without or with carbohydrases on nutrient digestibility and disappearance of non-starch<br />
polysaccharides in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 94, 2662-2669.<br />
Tukey’s Test, by Powers, R.A., One-way ANOVA Post Hoc Analysis –. University of Northern<br />
Colorado<br />
Rada, V., Lichovníková, M., Foltyn., M., 2014. The effect of serine protease on broiler growth<br />
and carcass quality. Acta Fytotechn. Zootechn., 17, (3): 87–89.<br />
Romero, L.F., Parsons, C.M., Utterback, P.L., Plumstead, P.W., Ravindran, V., 2013. Comparative<br />
effect of dietary carbohydrases without or with protease on the ileal digestibility of<br />
energy and amino acids and AME in young broilers. Anim. Feed Sci. Techno. 181, 35-44.<br />
SAS Institute. 2006. SAS/STAT User’s Guide. Release 9.1. SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, N.C.<br />
Sultan, A., Gan, C.Y., Li, X., Zhang, D., Bryden, W.L., 2011. Dietary enzyme combinations<br />
improve sorgum ileal protein and and starch digestibility during the broiler starter phase.<br />
In: 22nd Annual Australian <strong>Poultry</strong> Science Symposium Sydney, New South Wales 14<br />
-16th February 2011, p. 82.<br />
Windey, K., De Preter, V., Verbeke, K., 2012. Relevance of protein fermentation to gut health.<br />
Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 56, 184-196.<br />
90
IS 09 Emerging Myopathies: White Striping and Wooden Breast Conditions<br />
and <strong>Meat</strong> Quality in Broiler<br />
S. F. Bilgili<br />
Professor Emeritus, Department of <strong>Poultry</strong> Science, Auburn University, USA<br />
Broiler chicken meat will soon become the most consumed animal protein globally. The breeding<br />
efforts for improved health, growth efficiency, and muscularity of commercial lines of broiler<br />
chickens has been very effective. The rapid growth of the food service and its market preference<br />
for chicken white meat (i.e., breast muscle) have led to a steady increase in market weights of<br />
broiler chickens destined for value-added processing. Compared to other animal protein sources,<br />
the broiler chicken breast meat provides the processors with a homogenous raw material for<br />
further-processed, ready-to-cook and ready-to-eat products that are always consistent in their<br />
composition, quality (nutritional, sensory), functionality and price.<br />
Broiler chickens even slaughtered at heavy market weights are still considered developmentally<br />
as juveniles (1). The growth efficiency and muscle accretion rate of broilers during the juvenile<br />
phase of growth period is maximal, naturally requiring a sustained demand for nutrients, metabolic<br />
resources, and structural support. Muscle growth is a complex and extensively regulated<br />
process that involves a high rate of protein turnover. Degeneration and regeneration are normal<br />
physiological maintenance processes in the muscle tissue of rapidly growing animals, but even<br />
subtle aberrations in repair can result in the loss of tissue homeostasis and cellular dysfunction,<br />
leading to myopathies such as white striping (WS) and woody breast (WB). WS is characterized<br />
by the presence of white striations that occur between muscle fibers. Histologically, abnormal<br />
fat and connective tissue deposition is seen as a response to degenerating myofibers .Fillets<br />
affected by WS have significantly increased fat and collagen content, and lower protein content<br />
compared with normal fillets. WB, on the other hand, is abnormally firm to the touch, tough in<br />
texture and have a pale, bulging appearance. In severe cases, petechial hemorrhaging and fibrinous<br />
exudate may be present on the proximal end of the affected fillets.<br />
Broiler chicken myopathies have been reported in varying prevalence with all breeds/strains of<br />
chickens, under a wide-range of slaughter weights and rearing systems globally. Breast myopathies<br />
result in poor meat quality (i.e., color, texture, and composition) often manifested following<br />
slaughter, as affected birds exhibit excellent health and growth performance with no signs<br />
morbidity. Histological observations of muscle fiber fragmentation, swelling, and degeneration,<br />
as well as accumulations of connective tissue, fat and inflammatory cell have been commonly<br />
observed in all myopathies, but with varying severities. There is no indication of systemic or<br />
local infections, but only aseptic ischemic necrosis and inflammatory response. Histological observations<br />
include a high variability if fiber size, presence of degenerating fibers, accumulation<br />
of connective tissue and infiltration of inflammatory cells (macrophages, heterophils, lymphocytes<br />
and fibroblasts). Molecular analysis of gene expression fillets affected by WB show buildup<br />
of reactive oxygen species, reduced glycolytic metabolism, abnormal calcium homeostasis<br />
and hypoxia, indicative of multifactorial triggers.<br />
91
The breeding efforts that have been put in place to reduce their prevalence will naturally require<br />
some time, as the heritability values for myopathies are low. In the meantime, studies are<br />
focused on the influence of non-genetic factors (i.e., flock management, environment and nutritional<br />
programs), as the prevalence of WS, WB, and SB vary significantly by region, company,<br />
farms within a company, houses within a farm, and even lots of chickens within a house. So far,<br />
a number of factors have been investigated, including dietary nutrient (energy, amino acids)<br />
density, quantitative and qualitative feed restriction, high levels of phytase inclusion, dietary<br />
antioxidants (Vitamin E, creatine, carnosine) and trace mineral (Zn, Mn, Cu and Se) supplementation,<br />
and rearing temperature.<br />
References<br />
Bailey, R., A., K. A. Watson, S. F. Bilgili, and S. Avendano, 2015. The genetic basis of pectoralis<br />
major myopathies in modern broiler chicken lines Poult. Sci. 94: 2870-2879.<br />
Bilgili, S. F. 2015. Broiler chicken pectoral myopathies. 6 pages in: Proc. 3rd. <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong><br />
<strong>Congress</strong>, Antalya, Turkey.<br />
Bilgili, S. F., E. Heskett and E. Willinghan, 2006. Physiology of growth and yield. Elanco White<br />
Paper, Indianapolis, IN.<br />
Bilgili, S. F. J. B. Hess, R. J. Lien, A, Cahaner, and O.Halevy, 2014. Temperature effects on<br />
slow and fast growing strains of broiler chickens: Processing yields, meat quality and<br />
myopathies. Poult. Sci. (Suppl.1): 93: 258 (Abstr.)<br />
Bilgili, S. F., K. J. Meloche, A. Campasino, and W. A. Dozier, III. 2014. The influence of<br />
carnitine and guanidinoacetic acid supplementation of low and high amino acid density<br />
diets on Pectoralis major myopathies in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 93: 208 (Abstr.)<br />
Clark, D. L., and S. G. Velleman. 2016. Spatial influence on breast muscle morphological<br />
structure, myofiber size, and gene expression associated with the wooden breast<br />
myopathy in broilers. Poult. Sci.95:2930-2945.<br />
Cruz, R. F. A., S. L. Vieira, L. Kindlein, M. Kipper, H. S.Cemin, S. M. Rauber. 2017. Occurrence<br />
of white striping and wooden breast in broilers fed grower and finisher diets with<br />
increasing lysine levels. Poult. Sci. 96:501-510.<br />
Joiner, K. S., G. A. Hamlin, R. J. Lien, and S. F. Bilgili. 2014. Evaluation of capillary and<br />
myofiber density in the pectoralis major muscles of rapidly growing, high-yield broiler<br />
chickens during increased heat stress. Avian Dis. 58: 377-382.<br />
Kuttappan, V. A., S. D. Goodgame, C. D. Bradley, A. Mauromoustakos, B. M. Hargis, P. W.<br />
Waldroup, and C. M. Owens. 2012. Effect of different levels of dietary vitamin E (DLα-tocopherol<br />
acetate) on the occurrence of various degrees of white striping on broiler<br />
breast fillets. Poult. Sci. 91:3230-3235.<br />
Kuttappan, V. A., B. M. Hargis, and C. M. Owens. 2016. White striping and woody breast<br />
myopathies in the modern poultry industry: a review. Poult. Sci. 95:2724-2733.<br />
Meloche, K. J., W. A. Dozier, III, and S. F. Bilgili. 2014. Effects of genetic strain, sex, and dietary<br />
amino acid density on myopathies of the Pectoralis major in broiler chickens at 28, 42,<br />
and 56 days of age. Proc. XIVth European <strong>Poultry</strong> Conference, Stavanger, Norway.<br />
Meloche, K. J., B. I. Fancher, D. A. Emmerson, S. F. Bilgili, and W. A. Dozier, III. 2015. Effects<br />
of quantitative feed restriction on myopathies of the Pectoralis major muscles in broiler<br />
chickens at 32, 43,and 50 days of age. Poult. Sci. 94: 42. (Abstr.)<br />
Meloche, K. J., B. I. Fancher, D. A. Emmerson, S. F. Bilgili, and W. A. Dozier, III. 2016.<br />
Effects of qualitative nutrient allocation on myopathies of the Pectoralis major muscles<br />
in broiler chickens at 48 d of age. Poult. Sci. 95: 198 (Abstr.)<br />
92
Meloche, K. J., B. I. Fancher, S. F. Bilgili, D. A. Emmerson, and W. A. Dozier, III. 2016. Effects<br />
ofqualitative nutrient allocation from 8 to 35 d of age on subsequent myopathies of the<br />
Pectoralis major muscles in broiler chickens. Proc. World’s <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Congress</strong> XXV,<br />
Beijing, China.<br />
Meloche, K. J., B. I. Fancher, S. F. Bilgili, D. A. Emmerson, and W. A. Dozier, III. 2016. Effects<br />
of reduced digestible lysine density on myopathies of the Pectoralis major muscles in<br />
broiler chickens at 46 d of age. Poult. Sci. 95S: 51 (Abstr.).<br />
Mitchell, M. A.. 1999. Muscle abnormalities – pathophysiological mechanisms. Pages 65–98 in<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> meat science –<strong>Poultry</strong> Sci. symposium series. Vol. 25, in: R. I. Richardson, and<br />
G. C. Mead, eds. CABI Int., Wallingford, UK.<br />
Mutryn, M. F., E. M. Brannick, W. Fu, W.R. Lee, and B. Abasht. 2015. Characterization of a<br />
novel chicken muscle disorder through differential gene expression and pathway analysis<br />
using RNA-sequencing. BMC Genom. 16:399.<br />
Radaelli, G., A. Piccirillo, M. Birolo, D. Bertotto, F. Gratta, C. Ballarin, M. Vascellari, G. Xiccato,<br />
and A.Trocino. 2017. Effect of age on the occurrence of muscle fiber degeneration<br />
associated with myopathies in broiler chickens submitted to feed restriction. Poult. Sci.<br />
96:309-319.<br />
Sihvo, H. K., K. Immonen, and E. Puolanne. 2014. Myodegeneration with fibrosis and<br />
regeneration in the pectoralis major muscle of broilers. Vet. Pathol. 51:619-623. Sihvo,<br />
H.K., J. Lindén, N. Airas, K. Immonen, J. Valaja, E.and Puolanne. 2017. Wooden<br />
breastmyodegeneration of Pectoralis major muscle over the growth period in broilers.<br />
Vet. Path. 54:119-128.<br />
Soglia, F., S. Mudalal, E. Babini, M. Di Nunzio, M. Mazzoni, F. Sirri, C. Cavani, and M.<br />
Petracci. 2015.Histology, composition, and quality traits of chicken Pectoralis major<br />
muscle affected by wooden breast abnormality. Poult. Sci. 95:651-659.<br />
Tesseraud, S., I. Bouvarel, A. Collin, E. Audouin, S. Crochet, I. Seiliez, and C. Leterrier.<br />
2009. Daily variations in dietary lysine content alter the expression of genes related to<br />
proteolysis in chicken pectoralis major muscle. J. Nutr. 139: 38-43.<br />
Trocino, A., A. Piccirillo, M. Birolo, G. Radaelli, D. Bertotto, E.Filiou, M. Petracci, and G.<br />
Xiccato. 2015.Effect of the genotype, gender and feed restriction on growth, meat quality,<br />
and the occurrence of white striping and wooden breast in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci.<br />
94:2996-3004.<br />
Velleman, S. G., K. E. Nestor, C. S. Coy, I. Harford, and N. B. Anthony. 2010. Effect of posthatch<br />
feed restriction on broiler breast muscle development and muscle transcriptional<br />
regulatory factor gene andheparan sulfate proteoglycan expression. Int. J. Poult. Sci.<br />
9:417–425.<br />
Zambonelli, P., M. Zappaterra, F. Soglia, M. Petracci, F. Sirri, C. Cavani, and R. Davoli. 2016.<br />
Detection of differentially expressed genes in broiler pectoralis major muscle affected by<br />
White Striping–Wooden Breast myopathies. Poult. Sci. 95:2771-2785.<br />
Zuidhof, M. J., B. L. Schneider, V. L. Carney, D. R. Korver, and F. E. Robinson. 2014. Growth,<br />
efficiency, and yield of commercial broilers from 1957, 1978, and 2005. Poult. Sci. 94:<br />
1389–1397.<br />
93
O 16 White Striping Prevalence and Its Effect on Proximate Composition,<br />
Color Properties and Oxidative Stability of Broiler Chicken Breast Fillets<br />
Shahram Golzar Adabı 1 , Eda Demırok Soncu 2,* , Ozcan Yücelt 1<br />
1<br />
Cargill CPN, Istanbul, Turkey<br />
2<br />
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
White striping (WS) is characterized by white strations which are parallel to muscle fiber occuring<br />
on the broiler breast fillets. The severity of WS has gradually increased and it has become<br />
more common in poultry industry nowadays. A two-year constant period of observation in integrations<br />
indicated that WS is also a major problem in Turkey. It has been observed that the formation<br />
of WS incraeses with increasing age. Findings also indicated that more than 50 percent<br />
of broiler breast fillets obtained from 32-35 and 36-39 day of age had white stripes with different<br />
scores. From this point of view, in the current study, the effects of WS on the nutritional composition,<br />
color properties and lipid oxidation rate of breast fillets were examined. The incidence<br />
of white stripes with severe score induced the formation of less redness color on the cranial and<br />
caudal surface and darker color on the dorsal surface of breast fillets (P < 0.05). Lower protein<br />
and higher fat content were determined in moderate and severe white striped breast fillets compared<br />
to normal breast fillets (P < 0.05). Storage time had significant effect on meat malondialdehyde<br />
(MDA) so by increasing refrigerating time at 4ºC for 0, 3 and 7 days and freezing time at -18ºC for<br />
30 days, breast fillet were found to be more sensitive to lipid oxidation (P < 0.05). The WS score<br />
and its interaction with storage time were not significant for MDA.<br />
*Contribution was equal to that of the first author<br />
Introductıon<br />
The incidence of some abnormalities in chicken meat one of which is the occurrence of white<br />
striping (WS) are increasing rapidly in recent years (1, 2). White striping is one of the most important<br />
recent concerns in poultry meat quality (3) which decreases the acceptance of meat by<br />
consumers (4). White striping, the quantity and thickness of which changes from bird to bird, is<br />
characterized by white parallel lines in the same direction of the muscle fibers which are visible<br />
to naked eyes (1). Visual classification of the WS incidence in the breast fillets is based on the<br />
intensity and thickness of white striations: score 0, is a normal fillet without any white striations;<br />
score 1 (moderate) is fillets with small thin lines (1 mm) white striations (5, 6). Additionally, in 2016, Kuttappan et al. (3) added the forth<br />
score (Extreme) to this classification with super thick white bands (> 2 mm thickness) covering<br />
almost entire surface of fillet.<br />
During last five years, several studies have been conducted with the aim of determining the<br />
influence of WS on breast meat quality (7) and histological changes in breast meat. Structure of<br />
white lines in WS breast muscles are composed of adipose tissue. It has been reported that the<br />
94
east tissue severely affected by WS can exhibit varying degrees of muscle myofibril degeneration<br />
resulting from an increase in connective tissue which can also be visible under microscope<br />
(8, 9). Kuttappan et al. (7) reported an increase in the percentage of fat and a decrease in the<br />
crude protein level in the breast muscle based on the increasing degree of WS. In the same study<br />
they showed that normal scored fillet had different fatty acid profile compare to severe scored<br />
fillet. Some researchers attempt in reducing WS by dietary vitamin E supplementation was not<br />
successful (10, 11). Studies to this point have shown that the incidence of WS is under the effect<br />
of factors like genotype (high > standard breast yield), sex (males > females), growth rate (fast<br />
> low), diet (high > low energy diet), and weight at slaughter (heavy > light) (4). More recently<br />
Bailey et al. (1) showed the essentiality and contribution of some other factors such as the environment<br />
and/or management with an effect greater than 65% of the variance in the incidence<br />
of WS.<br />
Based on our knowledge, there is rare information regarding the effect of WS on chemical<br />
composition, color and lipid oxidation level of breast fillets. With that said, the purposes of the<br />
current study were to investigate 1) the difference regarding proximate composition and color<br />
properties among normal, moderate and severe breast fillets; 2) lipid oxidation level of those<br />
fillets during 7 days of refrigerated storage; 3) the effects of freeze-thawing on lipid oxidation<br />
in breast fillets.<br />
Materıal and Method<br />
The determination of WS in integrations<br />
The incidence of WS was observed through lesion scoring by collecting samples from different<br />
broiler integrations in Turkey from Dec. 2014 to Dec. 2016. To take samples for lesion scoring,<br />
regular visits were given to 12 integrations and 5 healthy birds with no clinical symptoms of any<br />
diseases were selected and sacrificed by cervical dislocation from 5 houses in each integration<br />
(in total 25 birds from each integration in each visit). Samples were from 5 different age groups<br />
which are given in Table 1. Selected samples’ weight were close to the flock weight (±10). Breast<br />
fillets were scored visually as Normal (Score 0; NORM), Moderate (Score 1; MOD), and Severe<br />
(Score 2; SEV) according to the grading system described by Kuttappan et al. (5). The results<br />
of scoring are shown in Table 1. The Extreme score defined by Kuttappan et al. (3) was not observed<br />
in the samples in the current study. Briefly, fillets with no white striations were served as<br />
Normal, Moderate were fillets with striations generally less than 1 mm thick but it can easily be<br />
seen on the fillet surface, and Severe score had white striations more than 1 mm thick.<br />
Table 1. White Striping prevalence observed on Pectoralis major muscle at different ages of<br />
broilers<br />
Incidence (%) of white striping in different age groups<br />
Scores 25-28 day of age 29-31 day of age 32-35 day of age 36-39 day of age<br />
Normal 56.00 50.67 38.47 28.12<br />
Moderate 37.33 40.00 45.33 51.32<br />
Severe 6.67 9.33 16.20 20.56<br />
Sampling procedure for laboratory experiment<br />
In a visit to a commercial local slaughter house (22.01.2016), totaly 1000 birds were separated<br />
95
from 35000 birds aged 41 days (Ross 308 broilers) after slaugthering. Then the selected slaughtered<br />
birds were lesion scored at the deboning section as Normal, Moderate and Severe (27%,<br />
51% and 22% respectively). After scoring, 40 breast fillets were separated for each score (in<br />
total 120 samples) to perform the laboratory analysis. Having been bagged separately (40 fillets<br />
/ group), samples were packed on ice and transported to the Ankara University <strong>Meat</strong> Science and<br />
Technology laboratory.<br />
Before preparation the fillets for analysis, excess fat and connective tissues were trimmed from<br />
fillets. CIE L*,a*,b* color values was measured in triplicate on both dorsal surface and cranial-caudal<br />
surface of each fillet using a Chroma Meter (CR300, Osaka, Japan).<br />
Then the breast fillets were divided into four groups. Three groups were stored at 4ºC to determine<br />
the lipid oxidation rate at day 0, day 3 and day 7 of refrigerated storage. The last group was<br />
freezed at -18ºC during 30 days to state the effect of freze-thawing process on lipid oxidation<br />
level of breast fillets. Each group/replicate was placed into polystyrene plates as a monolayer<br />
and covered with stretch film.<br />
Proximate composition of breast fillets<br />
Moisture (Sec. 950.46), crude fat (soxhlet procedure, Sec. 991.36), crude protein (Kjeldahl<br />
method, Sec. 955.04), and crude ash (Sec. 920.153) were determined in homogenized samples<br />
at day 0 based on the method of AOAC (12). The conversion factor of 6.25 was used to convert<br />
nitrogen to percentage protein.<br />
Thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) analysis<br />
A modified method of Mielnik et al. (13) was used to determine the TBARS value of breast<br />
fillets. After homogenizing a mixture of 10g meat with 30 ml of a 7.5% aqueous solution of<br />
trichloroacetic acid (TCA) at 10000 rpm for 1 min by means of an ultraturrax (Miccra D9, Germany),<br />
the homogenate solution was centrifuged (10000 rpm, 5 min; Hermle Z326K, Germany)<br />
and filtered throughout Whatman filter paper (No. 40). A mixture of 5.0 ml of extract and 5.0<br />
ml of 0.02 mol/l aqueous thiobarbituric acid (TBA) was prepared in a stoppered test tube. In<br />
another stoppered test tube a mixture of 5 ml distilled water and 5 ml TBA reagent was prepared<br />
as a blank. The samples were vortexed (Velp Scientifica, Usmate, Italy) and incubated at 100°C<br />
for 35 min in a water-bath and subsequently cooled for 10 min under tap water. Absorbance was<br />
measured at 532 nm aganist the blank (Perkin Elmer UV/VIS Spectrophotometer Lambda 35,<br />
USA). Results were expressed as milligrams malondialdehyde(MDA)/kg meat, by calculating<br />
from the standard curve of TEP (1,1,3,3-tetraethoxypropane) standard.<br />
Statistical analysis<br />
One way ANOVA analysis was performed by using SAS software, version 9.2 (SAS institute,<br />
2001) for proximate composition and L*, a*, b* color values to determine the significant differences<br />
among normal, moderate and severe samples. Regarding the TBARS values, the interaction<br />
of “WS degree × storage time” and main effect of “WS degree” or “storage time” were analyzed<br />
by using repeated measure ANOVA design. All data are shown as mean values ± standard<br />
error mean. When necessary, means separation was accomplished by using the Tukey’s post hoc<br />
test. Statistical differences were considered significant at P < 0.05.<br />
96
Results and Discussion<br />
Kuttappan et al. (14) and Lorenzi et al. (15) reported that the incidence of WS increased with<br />
increasing live weight. According to Lorenzi et al. (15) birds that reached higher slaughtering<br />
weights (3.8–4.2 kg) exhibited higher incidence of WS than flocks slaughtered at lower weights<br />
(3.0–3.8 kg) at a similar age. As seen in Table 1, in the current study, the incidence of WS increased<br />
with the increasing ages for both moderate and severe samples.<br />
The moisture, crude fat, crude ash and crude protein values of breast fillets are summerized in<br />
Table 2. No significant differences were determined for ash and moisture contents among different<br />
scores. However, the lowest fat and the highest protein amounts were measured in Normal<br />
breast fillets. In spite of that, the highest fat and the lowest protein amounts were determined<br />
in Severe breast fillets. These findings showed that crude fat amount increased while protein<br />
amount decreased with the increasing level of WS (P ≤ 0.05). Similar results were also reported<br />
by previous processors (4,6). They determined higher fat and lower protein content in moderate<br />
or severe striped breast fillets.<br />
Table 2. Comparison of proximate composition (%) of broiler breast fillets with 3 different<br />
scores of white striping*<br />
Parameter Crude fat Crude Ash Crude Protein Moisture<br />
Normal 4.12 ± 0.38 c 1.59 ± 0.013 21.24 ± 0.12 a 73.09 ± 0.74<br />
Moderate 4.59 ± 0.41 b 1.54 ± 0.017 20.59 ± 0.16 b 73.29 ± 0.62<br />
Severe 5.22 ± 0.35 a 1.56 ± 0.014 19.99 ± 0.15 c 73.22 ± 0.68<br />
a,b,c<br />
: Values within the same column with no common superscript are significantly different (P < 0.05).<br />
* Values represent the means of 40 samples per each scores of white striping.<br />
Color is a critical food quality attribute because it affects consumer’s initial selection of raw<br />
meat product in the market place (16). Color values of broiler breast fillets are presented in<br />
Table 3. L* value indicates lightness, +a* indicates redness and +b* indicates yellowness color<br />
coordinates. Of these color parameters, L* is probably the most important in poultry as consumers<br />
can detect and discriminate lightness values easier than the other values (17). On the cranial<br />
and caudal surfaces of breast fillets, with different scores of WS, no significant differences were<br />
observed in terms of L* values, but darker color was measured on the dorsal surface of severe<br />
fillets (P ≤ 0.05). The highest redness value on the cranial and caudal surfaces was determined<br />
in moderate fillets followed by normal and then severe (P < 0.05). Comparing moderate and severe,<br />
it is possible to note that a* value decreased with increasing level of WS. In other respects,<br />
different degree of WS did not affect the b* value of fillets for either of surfaces. In contrast to<br />
these results, previous researchers reported a significant increase for yellowness on dorsal surface<br />
of severe striped breast fillets while no alterations were observed for L* and a* values (14).<br />
More redness and more yellowness were determined on dorsal surface of moderate or severe<br />
striped breast fillets when comparing to normal groups (18). Mudalal et al. (19) noted the impact<br />
of WS on color properties of breast fillets were negligible. In that case, it is crucial to emphasis<br />
that further studies are needed to determine the relationship between WS and color properties<br />
of breast fillets.<br />
97
Table 3. L*, a*, and b* color values of broiler breast fillets with 3 different scores of white<br />
striping*<br />
Color<br />
parameters<br />
Dorsal surface<br />
Cranial and caudal surface<br />
L* a* b* L* a* b*<br />
Normal 54.92±0.42 a 3.66±0.25 7.82±0.36 55.51±0.32 3.04±0.37 ab 6.62±0.22<br />
Moderate 54.96±0.47 a 3.64±0.29 7.57±0.37 55.33±0.39 3.74±0.39 a 6.11±0.49<br />
Severe 53.10±0.61 b 3.61±0.31 7.94±0.47 55.02±0.65 2.59±0.28 b 5.33±0.37<br />
a,b<br />
: Values within the same column with no common superscript are significantly different (P < 0.05).<br />
* Values represent the means of 40 samples per each scores of white striping.<br />
Lipolysis is a main reaction for hydrolysis of triglycerides and phospholipids in fresh meat<br />
during storage. This reaction results in formation of free fatty acids which are major substrate<br />
for lipid oxidation defined as reaction of free fatty acids with molecular oxygen via free radical<br />
chain mechanism. This oxidation reaction causes formation of carcinogenic compounds such as<br />
MDA. TBARS analysis is used to measure MDA amount in meat and meat products from past to<br />
date to determine lipid oxidation rate (20,21,22). TBARS values of breast fillets during refrigerated<br />
or frozen storage are summerized in Table 4. No significant differences were determined for<br />
the WS scores and interaction of “WS degree × storage time” (P > 0.05), while the level of MDA<br />
increased by increasing the storage time both in refrigerated storage at 4ºC or frozen storage at<br />
-18ºC. The highest (P < 0.05) level of MDA was observed in 7 days refrigerated meat compare to<br />
fresh meat (0 day storage). The level of MDA was also significantly (P < 0.05) higher in frozen<br />
meat than in fresh meat.<br />
Table 4. TBARS value (mg MDA/kg) of broiler breast fillets with 3 different scores of white<br />
striping*<br />
Interaction<br />
WS degree × time<br />
Storage time<br />
Day 0 Day 3 Day 7 Day 30<br />
Normal 1.03±0.03 1.18±0.03 1.48±0.05 1.38±0.07<br />
Moderate 1.04±0.02 1.26±0.04 1.62±0.06 1.50±0.08<br />
Severe 1.02±0.03 1.26±0.02 1.61±0.09 1.53±0.11<br />
Main effects<br />
WS degree Normal Moderate Severe<br />
Refrigerated storage 1.23±0.04 1.31±0.05 1.28±0.05<br />
Frozen storage 1.20±0.05 1.27±0.07 1.28±0.08<br />
Storage time Day 0 Day 3 Day 7 Day 30<br />
1.03±0.01 cy 1.23±0.02 b 1.57±0.04 a 1.47±0.05 x<br />
p-value WS degree × time WS degree Storage time<br />
Refrigerated storage 0.56 0.11 0.01<br />
Frozen storage 0.49 0.39 0.01<br />
a,b,c<br />
: Values within the same row with no common superscript are significantly different due to the main effect of refrigerated storage (P<br />
< 0.05).<br />
x,y<br />
: Values within the same row with no common superscript are significantly different due to the main effect of frozen storage (P < 0.05).<br />
* Values represent the means of 40 samples per each scores of white striping.<br />
98
Conclusion<br />
White striping is a popular and major problem for meat industry nowadays. The findings of a<br />
two-year follow up in Turkey showed that more than 50 percent of broiler breast fillets obtained<br />
from birds aged 32-35 or 36-39 have white stripes with different scores. On the other hand,<br />
based on results of laboratory study, the WS prevalance influenced the proximate composition,<br />
color properties and oxidative quality of broiler breast fillets. To our knowledge, limited number<br />
of studies were conducted regarding the physico-chemical quality of breast fillets since the discovery<br />
of white striping. With that said, more future studies should be carried out and the effects<br />
of WS on the quality of breast fillets for food industry should be propounded.<br />
References<br />
Bailey RA, Watson KA, Bilgili SF, Avendano S. The genetic basis of pectoralis major myopathies<br />
in modern broiler chicken lines. <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci 2015; 00:1-10.<br />
Petracci M, Mudalal S, Soglia F, Cavani C. <strong>Meat</strong> quality in fast-growing broiler chickens. World<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> Sci J 2015; 71:363-374.<br />
Kuttappan VA, Hargis BM, Owens CM. White striping and woody breast myopathies in the<br />
modern poultry industry: a review. <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci 2016; 0:1-10.<br />
Mudalal S, Babini E, Cavani C, Petracci M. Quantity and functionality of protein fractions in<br />
chicken breast fillets affected by white striping. <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci 2014; 93:2108-2116.<br />
Kuttappan VA, Lee Y, Erf GF, Meullenet JF, Owens CM. Consumer acceptance of visual appearance<br />
of broiler breast meat with varying degrees of white striping. <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci 2012;<br />
91:1240-1247.<br />
Petracci M, Mudalal S, Babini E, Cavani C. Effect of white striping on chemical composition<br />
and nutritional value of chicken breast meat. Ital J Anim Sci 2014; 13:179-183.<br />
Kuttappan VA, Brewer VB, Apple JK, Waldroup PW, Owens CM. Influence of growth rate on<br />
the occurrence of white striping in broiler breast fillets. <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci 2012; 91:2677-2685.<br />
Ferreira TZ, Casagrande RA, Vieira SL, Driemeier D, Kindlein L. An investigation of a reported<br />
case of white striping in broilers. J Appl <strong>Poultry</strong> Res 2014; 23:748-753.<br />
Russo E, Drigo M, Longoni C, Pezzotti R, Fasoli P, Recordati C. Evaluation of White Striping<br />
prevalence and predisposing factors in broilers at slaughter. <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci 2015; 00:1-6.<br />
Guetchom B, Venne D, Chenier S, Chorfi Y. Effect of extra dietary vitamin E on preventing nutritional<br />
myopathy in broiler chickens. J Appl <strong>Poultry</strong> Res 2012; 21:548-555.<br />
Kuttappan VA, Goodgame SD, Bradley CD, Mauromoustakos A, Hargis BM, Waldroup PW,<br />
Owens CW. Effect of different levels of dietary vitamin E (DL-alphatocopherol acetate)<br />
on the occurrence of various degrees of white striping on broiler breast fillets. <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci<br />
2012; 91:3230-3235.<br />
AOAC. Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official methods of analysis of AOAC <strong>International</strong>.<br />
Washington DC; 2010.<br />
Mielnik MB, Olsen E, Vogt G, Adeline D, Skrede G. Grape seed extract as antioxidant in cooked<br />
cold stored turkey meat. LWT-Food Sci Tech 2006; 39:191-198.<br />
Kuttappan VA, Brewer VB, Mauromoustakos A, McKee SR, Emmert JL, Meullenet JF, Owens<br />
CM. Estimation of factors associated with the occurrence of white striping in broiler<br />
breast fillets. <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci 2013; 92:811–819.<br />
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Lorenzi M, Mudalal S, Cavani C, Petracci M. Incidence of white striping under commercial conditions<br />
in medium and heavy broiler chickens in Italy. J Appl <strong>Poultry</strong> Res 2014; 23:1–5.<br />
Fletcher DL. Broiler breast meat color variation, pH, and texture. <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci 1999; 78:1323-<br />
1327.<br />
Guidi A, Castigliego L. <strong>Poultry</strong> meat color in Handbook of <strong>Poultry</strong> Science and Technology,<br />
Volume 2: Secondary processing. 25th ed. Pages 359-388. Wiley publisher; 2010.<br />
Petracci M, Mudalal S, Bonfiglio A, Cavani C. Occurrence of white striping under commercial<br />
conditions and its impact on breast meat quality in broiler chickens. <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci 2013;<br />
92:1670-1675.<br />
Mudalal S, Lorenzi M, Soglia F, Cavani C, Petracci M. Implications of white striping and wooden<br />
breast abnormalities on quality traits of raw and marinated chicken meat. Animal<br />
2015; 9(4):728-734.<br />
Gandemer G. Lipids in muscles and adipose tissues, changes during processing and sensory<br />
properties of meat products. <strong>Meat</strong> Sci 2002; 62:309-321.<br />
Cheng J, Wang S, Ockerman HW. Lipid oxidation and color change of salted pork patties. <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Sci 2007; 75:71-77.<br />
Cheng JH, Wang ST, Sun YM, Ockerman HW. Effect of phosphate, ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol<br />
injected at one-location with tumbling on quality of roast beef. <strong>Meat</strong> Sci 2011;<br />
87:223-228.<br />
100
O 17 Effects of Ultrasound Pre-Treatment on Some Physical Properties of<br />
Chicken Breast <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Özlem Zambak, Sami Gökhan Özkal<br />
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Pamukkale University, Denizli,<br />
Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of ultrasound pre-treatment on some<br />
physical properties such as, color (L*, a*, b* and Browning index) porosity and apperent density<br />
of dried chicken breast meat. For this purpose, ultrasonic probe with 20 kHz frequency<br />
was used for pre-treatment. Ultrasound pre-treatment applications were made in distilled water<br />
with 100 % amplitude during 5 and 10 minutes to the vacuum packed cubes of chicken breast<br />
meat. After ultrasound pre-treatment drying was performed by hot air at 0.3 m/s air velocity and<br />
at two different air temperatures of 50°C and 80°C. Ultrasound pre-treatment caused changes<br />
in L*, a*, b* and browning index values of the samples dried at both of the temperatures. The<br />
sample with highest apparent density was found as the sample dried at 80 o C after 5 min ultrasound<br />
pre-treatment with 1.15 kg/m 3 density value. Ultrasound pre-treatment caused decrease in<br />
porosity values of the samples dried at 50 °C, however it caused increase in porosity values the<br />
samples dried at 80 °C.<br />
101
O 18 The Effect of Marination and Sous Vide Cooking on the Quality<br />
Parameters of Chicken <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Eda Demirok Soncu, N. Tuğçe Aytekin, Derya Çelik, İlknur Dursun, E. Yağmur Özdemir,<br />
Merve Uslu, Güliz Haskaraca, Nuray Kolsarıcı<br />
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Sous vide, a populer thermal treatment process, is used in foods on the purpose of extending the<br />
shelf life and increasing the nutritional, sensory and microbiological quality. With that said, the<br />
purpose of this study was determination the effects of sous vide cooking and marination as a<br />
pre-treatment on physico-chemical, microbiological and organoleptic quality of chicken breast<br />
and thigh meats stored at 4ºC during 56 days. Cooking yield increased by 3.91% for breast meat<br />
and 6.26% for thigh meat as a result of marination applied before sous vide cooking (p
O 19 Slow Food:Slow Growing Broiler, <strong>Meat</strong> Quality and Welfare<br />
Metin Petek 1* , Derya Yeşilbağ 2 , Enver Çavuşoğlu 1 , Ece Çetin 3 , İbrahima Mahamane<br />
Abdourhamane 1 İsmail Çetin 2<br />
2<br />
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Uludağ University, Bursa,<br />
2<br />
Department of Animal Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,<br />
Uludağ University, Bursa,<br />
3<br />
Depertmant of Food Hygiene and Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Uludağ University,<br />
Bursa, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Slower growing broiler genotypes are not using in conventional poultry meat production because<br />
of longer slaughter age and high production cost. They are very popular in organic, free<br />
range and some special production such as Label Rouage. Compare to high-yielding, fast growing<br />
broilers, slow growing broilers have better meat quality, less health and welfare problems.<br />
They are more suitable for the consumers had a concern about sustainable production and seeking<br />
product differentation. In near future, it has been waiting to use a great number of slow or<br />
medium growing broiler in conventional broiler meat production, especially in developed countries.<br />
This study was made to investigate the meat quality, injuriy or lesion on foot pad, hock and<br />
breast meat of a slow growing broiler raised in conventional deep litter housing system.<br />
Key Words: Slow food, broiler meat quality, welfare.<br />
103
IS 10 Significance of <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> For Public Health<br />
Recep Akdur<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Public Healthy<br />
Abstract<br />
The biochemical events which during the formation of the humankind, survival and generation<br />
are the transformation of the substance into other substances and the transformation of the substance<br />
into energy. The Law of conservation of substances is valid to the human body. For this<br />
reason, the person would like to be healthy must be fed regularly and in a continuous manner.<br />
People need to fed constantly and regularly in order to survive in a healthy manner, at the same<br />
time this food consumption must be sufficient, balanced and hygienic.<br />
The data on food consumption and illness in Turkey, shows that Inadequate and unbalanced<br />
nutrition, especially lack of animal protein is an important public health problem<br />
The lack of animal protein in feed has a negative inpact on the infant and children, adolescents,<br />
and women of childbearing age, pregnant and breastfeeding and the elderly and the workers in<br />
Turkey.<br />
Chicken meat may have a crucial role in solving this important public health problem; because<br />
of production and distribution more economical compared the other meats, on the other hand,<br />
there are also many more advantageous in comparison to cow and ship meat in terms of nutritional<br />
value.<br />
104
IS 11 Effects of Childhood Nutrition on Susequent Adult Obesity and Cardiovascular<br />
Diseases; Effects of <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Mustafa Metin Donma 1 , Orkide Donma 2<br />
1<br />
Namik Kemal University, Medical Faculty, Department of Pediatrics, Tekirdag, Istanbul<br />
2<br />
University, Cerrahpasa Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Istanbul,<br />
Turkey<br />
Summary<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> meat is an animal product important in human nutrition. A variable, and moderate energy<br />
content, highly digestible proteins of good nutritional quality, unsaturated lipids, fat-soluble and<br />
B-complex vitamins as well as minerals make poultry meat a valuable food.<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> meat is one of the recommended constituents of Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension<br />
Diet as well as the Mediterranean Diet. The substitution of red meat with poultry as well as<br />
fish, nuts and legumes decreases the risk of developing type 2 and gestational diabetes mellitus,<br />
improves glycemic control and cardiovascular risk factors. Low-fat diets supported by fruits,<br />
grains, nuts, fish and poultry instead of red meat yields cardiovascular health benefits. Anti-inflammatory<br />
and antioxidative diet enriched with high-quality foods reduces pro-inflammatory<br />
cytokines. This favors anti-inflammatory milieu which in turn improves insulin sensitivity and<br />
endothelial function and ultimately act as a barrier to obesity, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes<br />
mellitus and development of atherosclerosis.<br />
Introduction<br />
Obesity is a chronic low-grade inflammatory disease. In recent years, it has become a major<br />
health problem particularly in children. The prevention of this disease particularly during childhood<br />
will inhibit the development of obesity in adulthood as well as obesity-associated diseases<br />
such as cardiovascular diseases, atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, non alcoholic fatty liver disease,<br />
hypertension and cancer. Overweight children are potentially at risk of early atherosclerosis<br />
as much as obese children (1). Overweight children are also susceptible to the development<br />
of heart failure (2). T cell immunity plays important roles in chronic inflammatory diseases such<br />
as obesity. Decreased regulatory T cells status is noted in obese children (3).<br />
The major concern is the reduction in the energy intake of individuals, prevention of foods with<br />
high fat and carbohydrate content. <strong>Poultry</strong> meat is an animal product important in human nutrition.<br />
A variable, and moderate energy content, highly digestible proteins of good nutritional<br />
quality, unsaturated lipids, fat-soluble and B-complex vitamins as well as minerals make poultry<br />
meat a valuable food (4,5).<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> meat is under the threat of oxidative stress parameters, which impair the quality of it. However,<br />
successful antioxidative strategies may fight against oxidative damage produced and supported<br />
by the harmful effects of reactive oxygen species including those of free radicals (Figure 1).<br />
105
Consumption of poultry meat along with vegetables and fruits is associated with a risk reduction<br />
of developing overweight and obesity, cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes mellitus, cancer.<br />
The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization consider poultry meat widely available,<br />
relatively inexpensive food to be particularly useful in developing countries. <strong>Poultry</strong> meat consumption<br />
due to its essential nutrients gains importance particularly in pediatric and geriatric age<br />
groups and during some physiological conditions such as pregnancy and breast feeding periods (4).<br />
The nutritive value of poultry meat<br />
The nutritive value of poultry meat depends on different factors such as age, feeding, keeping,<br />
hybrids, carcass parts and type of meat. Breast meat is richer in protein and poorer in fat than<br />
meat of drumsticks and thighs. <strong>Poultry</strong> meat is a good quality protein source. The low content<br />
of collagen is another positive aspect of poultry meat, because collagen reduces the digestibility<br />
of the meat (4,5).<br />
Aside from fat soluble vitamins B group vitamins such as niacin, pyridoxine and pantothenic<br />
acid are found in considerable amounts in poultry meat. Variable concentrations of physiologically<br />
essential trace elements (iron, zinc and copper) essential for the human body are found<br />
across different types of meat. <strong>Poultry</strong> meat is also an excellent source of selenium, another<br />
essential trace element with antioxidative and anticarcinogenic properties (4,5).<br />
The effect of oxidative stress<br />
Protein oxidation takes place at the center of biochemical reactions, which affect the poor quality<br />
of pale, soft and exudative poultry meat. Proteins of the breast meat are more susceptible to<br />
oxidative stress due to lower pH, an impaired activity of endogenous antioxidant enzymes such<br />
as glutathione peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase (6).<br />
Cooking techniques as well as the length of cooking are two major contributors to the production<br />
of oxidation products, particularly the oxidation of thiols, tryptophan, alkaline amino acids and<br />
protein cross-linking, in poultry meat. Out of grilling, roasting, frying and sous-vide techniques,<br />
the last one seems to be the most advantageous cooking methods to obtain high-quality meat<br />
devoid of protein carbonylation and disulfide bond formation. Free thiol groups, Schiff base<br />
formation and hardness are impacted by the length of the cooking (7).<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Consumption, Obesity and Cardiovascular Diseases<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> meat is one of the recommended constituents of Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension<br />
Diet as well as the Mediterranean Diet (19-21). The substitution of red meat with poultry as<br />
well as fish, nuts and legumes decreases the risk of developing type 2 and gestational diabetes<br />
mellitus, improves glycemic control and cardiovascular risk factors. Low-fat diets supported by<br />
fruits, grains, nuts, fish and poultry instead of red meat yields cardiovascular health benefits. Anti-inflammatory<br />
and antioxidative diet enriched with high-quality foods reduces pro-inflammatory<br />
cytokines. This favors anti-inflammatory milieu which in turn improves insulin sensitivity<br />
and endothelial function and ultimately act as a barrier to obesity, metabolic syndrome, type 2<br />
diabetes mellitus and development of atherosclerosis (22-24).<br />
Introduction of some meat including poultry to children in later ages is detected in populations<br />
with low nutritional status compared to populations with middle and good nutritional status (25).<br />
106
Adequate consumption of poultry meat can facilitate the control of body weight due to its high<br />
protein content and help to counteract against the development of obesity, cardiovascular diseases,<br />
diabetes mellitus and cancer (4).<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> is one of the most common dietary sources of L-arginine, the precursor amino acid for<br />
nitric oxide synthesis. L-arginine supplementation may be a novel therapy for obesity and metabolic<br />
syndrome (26).<br />
Supplementation or fortification with selenium contributes to the matter with its anti-inflammatory<br />
and antioxidative properties. Selenium is also considered for the treatment of obesity (27).<br />
Conclusion<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> meat is particularly susceptible to oxidative damage. Lipid oxidation is a major threat to<br />
the quality of processed poultry meat. Low feed intakes, poor performance, diseases, rancidity,<br />
formation of toxic compounds are some of the impacts of oxidation (28). Protein oxidation plays<br />
important roles in the impaired quality poultry meat. Therefore, it will contribute to the productivity<br />
in this field to avoid from applications, which may lead to oxidative damage.<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> meat prepared in optimum conditions will favor the healthy growth and development<br />
of children. The replacement of this valuable protein source with high calorie foods commonly<br />
consumed at present by the young population will help children to avoid obesity and obesity-associated<br />
chronic diseases both during childhood and also their adulthood.<br />
References<br />
1.Alpsoy S, Akyuz A, Akkoyun DC, Nalbantoglu B, Topcu B, Tulubas F, Demirkol M, Donma<br />
MM. Is overweight a risk of early atherosclerosis in childhood? Angiology 2013 Feb 11<br />
[Epub ahead of print]<br />
2.Alpsoy S, Akyuz A, Akkoyun DC, Nalbantoglu B, Topcu B, Degirmenci H, Ozdilek B, Donma<br />
MM. Effect of overweight on cardiac function in children. Turk Cardiol Org Arch 2013;<br />
41(8): 714-723.<br />
3.Donma M, Karasu E, Ozdilek B, Turgut B, Topcu B, Nalbantoglu B, Donma O. CD(4),<br />
CD(25), FOXP3 (+) T regulatory cell levels in obese, asthmatic, asthmatic obese and<br />
healthy children. Inflammation 2015; 38(4):1473-1478.<br />
4.Marangoni F, Corsello G, Cricelli C, Ferrara N, Ghiselli A, Lucchin L, Poli A. Role of poultry<br />
meat in a balanced diet aimed at maintaining health and wellbeing: an Italian consensus<br />
document. Food Nutr Res 2015; 59: 27606.<br />
5.Kralik G, Kralik Z. <strong>Poultry</strong> products enriched with nutricines have beneficial effects on human<br />
health. Med Glas (Zenica) 2017;14(1): 1-6.<br />
6.Carvalho RH, Ida EI, Madruga MS, Martinez SL, Shimokomaki M, Estévez M. Underlying<br />
connections between the redox system imbalance, protein oxidation and impaired quality<br />
traits in pale, soft and exudative (PSE) poultry meat. Food Chem 2017; 215: 129-137.<br />
7.Silva FAP, Ferreira VCS, Madruga MS, Estevez M. Effect of the cooking method (grilling<br />
, roasting, frying and sous-vide) on the oxidation of thiols, tryptophan, alkaline amino<br />
acids and protein cross-linking in jerky chicken. J Food Sci Technol 2016; 53(8): 3137-<br />
3146.<br />
107
8.Leinonen I, Kyriazakis I. How can we improve the environmental sustainability of poultry<br />
production? Proc Nutr Soc 2016; 75(3): 265-273.<br />
9.Shanta IS, Hasnat MA, Zeidner N, Gurley ES, Azziz-Baumgartner E, Sharker MA, Hossain K,<br />
Khan SU, Haider N, Bhuyan AA, et al. Raising Backyard <strong>Poultry</strong> in Rural Bangladesh:<br />
Financial and Nutritional Benefits, but Persistent Risky Practices. Transbound Emerg<br />
Dis. 2016 Jun 16. [Epub ahead of print]<br />
10.Headey D, Hirvonen K. Is Exposure to <strong>Poultry</strong> Harmful to Child Nutrition? An Observational<br />
Analysis for Rural Ethiopia. PLoS One 2016; 11(8): e0160590.<br />
11.Nogareda C, Moreno JA, Angulo E, Sandmann G, Portero M, Capell T, Zhu C, Christou<br />
P. Carotenoid-enriched transgenic corn delivers bioavailable carotenoids to poultry and<br />
protects them against coccidiosis. Plant Biotechnol J 2016; 14(1): 160-168.<br />
12.Adabi SHG, Cooper RG, Ceylan N, Corduk M. L-carnitine and its functional effects in poultry<br />
nutrition. Worlds <strong>Poultry</strong>Sci J 2011; 67(2): 277-296.<br />
13.Diaz-Sanchez S, D’Souza D, Biswas D, Hanning I. Botanical alternatives to antibiotics for<br />
use in organic poultry production. Poult Sci 2015; 94(6): 1419-1430.<br />
14.Dhama K, Tiwari R, Khan RU, Chakraborty S, Gopi M, Karthik K, Saminathan M, Desingu<br />
PA, Sunkara LT. Growth promoters and novel feed additives improving poultry production<br />
and health, bioactive principles and beneficial applications: The trends and advances-A<br />
review. Int J Pharmacol 2014; 10(3): 129-159.<br />
15.Dhama K, Latheef SK, Mani S, Samad HA, Karthik K, Tiwari R, Khan RU, Alagawany M,<br />
Farag MR, Alam GM, et al. Multiple beneficial applications and modes of action of herbs<br />
in poultry health and production-A review. Int J Pharmacol 2015; 11(3): 152-176.<br />
16.Yenice E, Mizrak C, Ceylan N, Yıldız T, Gultekin M, Atık Z. Effects of dietary sodium bentonite<br />
and mannan oligosaccharide supplementation on performance, egg quality, blood<br />
and digestion characteristics of laying hens fed aflatoxin contaminated diet. Kafkas Univ<br />
Vet Fac J 2015; 21(2): 211-218.<br />
17.Mizrak C, Yenice E, Kahraman Z, Tunca M, Yıldırım U, Ceylan N. Effects of dietary sepiolite<br />
and mannanoligosaccharide supplementation on the performance, egg quality, blood<br />
and digestion characteristics of laying hens receiving aflatoxin in their feed. Ankara Univ<br />
Vet Fac J 2014; 61(1): 65-71.<br />
18.Ceylan N, Cangiri S, Corduk M, Grigorov A, Adai SHG. The effects of phytase supplementation<br />
and dietary phosphorus level on performance and on tibia ash and phosphorus<br />
contents in broilers fed maize-soya-based diets. J Anim Feed Sci 2012; 21(4): 696-704.<br />
19.Sayer RD, Wright AJ, Chen N, Campbell WW. Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diet<br />
retains effectiveness to reduce blood pressure when lean pork is substituted for chicken<br />
and fish as the predominant source of protein. Am J Clin Nutr 2015; 102(2): 302-308.<br />
20.Estruch R, Salas-Salvadó J. “Towards an even healthier Mediterranean diet”. Nutr Metab<br />
Cardiovasc Dis 2013; 23(12): 1163-1166.<br />
21.Casas R, Sacanella E, Estruch R. The immune protective effect of the Mediterranean diet<br />
against chronic low-grade inflammatory diseases. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug<br />
Targets. 2014; 14(4): 245-254.<br />
22.Bao W, Bowers K, Tobias DK, Hu FB, Zhang C. Prepregnancy dietary protein intake, major<br />
dietary protein sources, and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort<br />
study. Diabetes Care 2013; 36(7): 2001-2008.<br />
108
23.Bales C. What you eat significantly impacts your heart health. A low-fat diet, plus more fruits,<br />
grains, nuts, fish and poultry instead of red meat, yields cardiovascular health benefits.<br />
Duke Med Health News 2011; 17(8): 4-5.<br />
24.Esposito K, Maiorino MI, Bellastella G, Panagiotakos DB, Giugliano D. Mediterranean diet<br />
for type 2 diabetes: cardiometabolic benefits. Endocrine 2016 Jul 9. [Epub ahead of print]<br />
25.Köksal E, Yalçın SS, Pekcan G, Özbaş S, Tezel B, Köse MR. Complementary feeding practices<br />
of children aged 12-23 months in Turkey. Cent Eur J Public Health 2015; 23(2):<br />
125-130.<br />
26.Lorin J, Zeller M, Guilland JC, Cottin Y, Vergely C, Rochette L. Arginine and nitric oxide<br />
synthase: regulatory mechanisms and cardiovascular aspects. Mol Nutr Food Res 2014;<br />
58(1): 101-116.<br />
27.Donma MM, Donma O. Promising link between selenium and peroxisome proliferator activated<br />
receptor gamma in the treatment protocols of obesity as well as depression. Med<br />
Hypotheses 2016; 89: 79-83.<br />
28.Estévez M . Oxidative damage to poultry: From farm to fork. <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci 2015; 94(6): 1368-<br />
1378.<br />
109
O 20 Analyzing the Factors Affecting Household Chicken <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Consumption Expenditures in Turkey with Bivariate Heckman Sample<br />
Selection Model<br />
Mustafa Terin 1 , Abdulbaki Bilgiç 1 , İrfan Okan Güler 2<br />
1<br />
Yüzüncü Yıl University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Economics, Van,<br />
Turkey<br />
2<br />
Atatürk University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Economics, Erzurum,<br />
Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Human beings need to consume vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates and proteins in sufficient<br />
amounts in order to maintain their lives in a balanced and healthy way. <strong>Meat</strong> and meat products,<br />
because of their high protein content, are at the top of the list of the main nutrients that need to be<br />
consumed for a balanced and healthy life. Chicken meat that occupies an important place among<br />
different kinds of meat, has a great importance in human nutrition with its low fat, low calorie<br />
content, relatively low price and easy to digest peculiarity. In this study, the changes in the socio<br />
economic and demographic structure of the households on their chicken meat consumption expenditures<br />
in Turkey between the years 2002 and 2013 by using the Bivariate Heckman Sample<br />
Selection Model. The data has been compiled from the pool of 12 year household budget questionnaires<br />
of the Statistical Institution of Turkey covering the period of 2002 and 2013. It has<br />
been determined that several socio-economic and demographic factors of the household heads<br />
and household themselves have an effect on the household chicken meat consumption expenditures.<br />
It has been concluded that household chicken meat consumption expenditures increase if<br />
the age of the household head increases, if he (or she) has green card, if he is married and if he<br />
has children. On the other hand the expenditures decrease if the head of the household receive<br />
social aid and if the family lives in an urban area.<br />
Key words: Bivariate Heckman Sample Selection Model, Chicken meat expenditures, Turkey<br />
110
O 21 Protected Organic Acids and Essential Oil Blends on Gut Microbiota<br />
and Production Performance of Broiler Chickens<br />
G. B. Tactacan 1 , T. Wilson 2 , R. Moore 3 , N. Fernando 2 , A. Anwar 2 , T. T. Van 3 , W. Bradshaw<br />
1 , J. C. Bodin 1 , and D. Detzler 1<br />
1<br />
Jefo Nutrition, I&D, Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada<br />
2<br />
Scolexia Animal and Avian Health Consultancy, Moonee Ponds, Victoria, Australia<br />
3<br />
Host-Microbe Interactions Laboratory, School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne,<br />
Australia<br />
Abstract<br />
The increasing concern about the use of antibiotics in poultry production has changed the ways<br />
in which producers manage the birds’ overall health. Currently, additives with anti-microbial and<br />
growth promoting effects are added in poultry feeds to prevent and control GI-tract infections<br />
that adversely affect performance. A study was conducted to determine the effects of a blend of<br />
protected organic acids (OAs) and essential oils (EOs) in performance and gut microbial profile<br />
of broiler chickens. A total of 612 Ross 308 day old chicks were randomly assigned to receive<br />
1 of 3 treatments for 28 d: 1) basal diet with no antibiotic + 100 ppm lasalocid (T1) (n=204), 2)<br />
T1 + 300 ppm of protected OAs and EOs (T2) (n=204), and 3) T1 + 1500 ppm of protected OAs<br />
and EOs (T3) (n=204). A completely randomized design with 3 treatments, 12 replicates, and 17<br />
birds in each replicate was used. On d 14 and 28, 1 bird from each pen was sacrificed to collect<br />
ileal and cecal samples for microflora analysis using high-throughput sequencing based on 16S<br />
ribosomal RNA genes. The BW of birds in T2 and T3 at d 21 was significantly increased relative<br />
to T1 (P
educe the proliferation of food-borne pathogens. Among the alternatives, organic acids (OAs)<br />
and essential oils (EOs) are two of the most commonly used.<br />
In their un-dissociated form, OAs are considered to affect microbial activity by two primary mechanisms;<br />
first is by cytoplasmic acidification with subsequent uncoupling of energy production and<br />
regulation, and second is by accumulation of dissociated acid anion to toxic levels (Taylor et al.,<br />
2012). On the other hand, EOs work by disrupting the cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane, thereby<br />
impacting many cellular functions, including maintaining the energy status of the cell, membrane-coupled<br />
energy-transducing processes, solute transport, and metabolic regulation (Burt,<br />
2004). More recent publications reported that EOs can also interrupt bacterial quorum sensing, and<br />
therefore may reduce the ability of the pathogen to initiate or cause an infection (Faleiro, 2011).<br />
The growth promoting properties of antibiotics are known to be strongly related to their ability to<br />
inhibit pathogens and the modulation of the gut microbiota. Gut microbiota significantly affects<br />
nutrition, health status, and animal performance by interacting with gastrointestinal tract development<br />
and nutrient utilization. Therefore, the focus of alternative strategies to antibiotics has been<br />
centered on modulation of the gut microflora in particular the prevention of the proliferation of<br />
pathogenic bacteria in the gut. To this end, a study was conducted to demonstrate the impact of<br />
using an alternative natural product based on a protected OAs and EOs blends in terms of intestinal<br />
microbial profile and measures of production performance in broiler chickens.<br />
Materials and Methods<br />
Six hundred and twelve Ross 308 day old chicks were placed in 36 pens in a commercial broiler<br />
farm and fed three different rations, one a control (T1) with lasalocid at 100 g/MT, and two<br />
groups treated with a combination of matrix protected OAs and EO blends, one at 300 g/MT<br />
(T2) and the other at 1.5 kg/MT (T3) added to the control diet. There were no antibiotic growth<br />
promoters in any of the groups. Feed intake and BW were measured weekly until d 28. On d 14<br />
and d 28, one bird from each pen was removed and samples of intestine and caecum removed for<br />
analysis of the microflora utilising high throughput sequencing technologies identifying unique<br />
tags for each organism based on the 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequence analysis on an Illumina<br />
MiSeq instrument. Samples were characterised using an average of at least 20,000 sequences<br />
per sample. Microflora profiles were assessed and compared using QIIME software. Operational<br />
Taxonomical Units (OTUs) were picked using the Uclust algorithm (Edgar, 2010) using a<br />
threshold of 97% sequence identity. This percentage identity is estimated to be equivalent to a<br />
species designation. Taxonomy was assigned using blast against the Greengenes database (De-<br />
Santis et al., 2006). The OTU frequency table was uploaded to Calypso Web V4.6, a data-mining<br />
and visualization tool for 16S ribosomal RNA datasets, to investigate the diversity of the microbial<br />
communities. Additional taxonomic assignment was done using a command line version<br />
of blast (Altschul et al., 1997) against the NCBI 16S microbial database. With two time points<br />
(1 and 2) and two tissue origins caecum and intestine, there are four sets of data to be analyzed.<br />
Statistical Analysis<br />
A completely randomized design with 3 dietary treatments was used. Data were subjected to<br />
ANOVA using the PROC GLM procedure of SAS software (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Differences<br />
between treatment means were determined using Tukey’s honestly significance difference.<br />
Differences with an α level of P
Results and Discussion<br />
Performance<br />
In this study, we examined the effects of a protected OAs and EO blends on production performance<br />
of broiler chickens. At d 21, BW of birds in the treatment groups T2 and T3 was significantly<br />
improved compare to the control T1 birds (4.6%, P< 0.02) as was the BW of birds in T2<br />
at d 28 (2% P
Gut Microbiota:Initial investigation focused on the effect of protected OAs and EOs blends on<br />
the overall diversity of the microbiota. Diversity refers to the overall structure, or complexity, of<br />
the gut microbiota which was determined by measuring its richness, which refers to the number<br />
of different species (or OTUs) present; and its evenness, which is a measure of how similar or<br />
different in abundance each species is. It is generally regarded that more diversity is good because<br />
it allows for better homeostasis of the gut flora population and that the use of antibiotics<br />
reduce the diversity of the microflora in the gut.<br />
In terms of microbiota diversity, the supplementation of protected OAs and EO blends at low<br />
and high dose rate did not result in altered microbial community diversity compared to the control<br />
group. At both d 14 and d 28, there were no significant differences in the caecal microbiota<br />
composition between treatment groups as judged by the Richness and Evenness indices (Figure<br />
3). Similar results were found in the ileal microbiota composition. This result indicates that the<br />
treatments did not have any adverse effects on the complexity and overall structure of the gut<br />
microbiota.<br />
Figure 3. Richness and evenness indices of caecal microbiota of broilers supplemented with and<br />
without protected organic acids and essential oil blends at d 14 and d 28.<br />
The next part of the analysis was the investigation of the actual species contributing to microbial<br />
diversity. ANOVA was used to identify those OTU’s that had statistically different levels of<br />
abundance between treatment groups. At d 14 and d 28, 11 and 3 OTUs differed in abundance<br />
between treatment groups in the ileum, respectively. In the caecum, there were more differentially<br />
abundant OTUs, with identified 18 on d 14 and 26 on d 28. When the OTUs that were differentially<br />
abundant between treatment groups were further inspected, that is when the phylogenetic<br />
relationship of the bacterium represented by the OTU was manually checked by BLASTing<br />
against the NCBI 16S database. The most interesting results indicated a significant decreased in<br />
114
the abundance of Enterobactericeae in the caecal samples from the treated groups compared to<br />
the control. However, the observed response was not found to be dose related. In addition, differences<br />
were also seen between the treatment groups and the control group in the composition<br />
of gut microflora with more Lactobacillus spp. present in the treated broilers with 1.4 times the<br />
average level of caecal Lactobacillus spp. in T2 and 3.8 times the level of Lactobacillus spp. in<br />
T3 than in the control group, respectively (Table 1).<br />
Table 1. Differentially abundant Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) in the cecum samples<br />
at d 28.<br />
OTU<br />
Identity<br />
Homology<br />
%<br />
% in T1 % in T2 % in T3<br />
76727 Lactobacillus salivarius 100 0.062 0.076 0.22<br />
57808 Lactobacillus salivarius 100 1.13 1.35 3.57<br />
35274 Lactobacillus salivarius 97 0.018 0.019 0.096<br />
217021 Lactobacillus salivarius 97 0.076 0.14 0.26<br />
196333 Lactobacillus salivarius 97 0.078 0.076 0.18<br />
157835 Lactobacillus salivarius 98 0.076 0.087 0.17<br />
5797<br />
Lactobacillus sp.<br />
crispatus/acidophilous/gallinarum<br />
97 0.18 0.26 0.87<br />
52716 Lactobacillus reuteri 96 0.063 0.061 0.21<br />
35461 Lactobacillus kitasatonis 97 0.010 0.044 0.13<br />
37371 Lactobacillus satsumensis 97 0.050 0.042 0.14<br />
96403 Lactobacillus salivarius 97 0.093 0.15 0.45<br />
Average Lactobacillus N/A 0.167 0.210 0.572<br />
Conclusions<br />
The use of the combination of matrix protected organic acids and essential oil blends had no<br />
adverse effect on the gut flora diversity, decreased and increased the levels of Enterobactericeae<br />
and Lactobacillus spp in the gut respectively, and appears to offer benefits with respect to gut<br />
health and productivity of broiler chickens.<br />
References<br />
Altschul S, Madden T, Schaffer A, Zhang J, Zhang Z, Miller W, Lipman D. Gapped BLAST<br />
and PSI-BLAST: a new generation of protein database search programs. Nucleic Acids<br />
Research, 1997; 25(17): 3389-3402.<br />
Bozkurt M, Kucukyilmaz K, Catli A, Cinar M, Cabuk M, Alcicek A. Effects of administering<br />
an essential oil mixture and an organic acid blend separately and combined to diets on<br />
broiler performance. Archiv Fur Geflugelkunde, 2012: 76(2): 81-87.<br />
Burt S. Essential oils: their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods – a review.<br />
Int J Food Microbiol, 2004: 94(3): 223-253.<br />
115
Castanon JI. History of the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in European poultry feeds.<br />
Poult Sci, 2007: 86(11): 2466-2471<br />
DeSantis T, Hugenholtz P, Larsen N, Rojas M, Brodie E, Keller K, Huber T, Dalevi D, Hu P,<br />
Andersen G. Greengenes, a chimera-checked 16S rRNA gene database and workbench<br />
compatible with ARB. Applied Environ Microbiol, 2006: 72(7): 5069-5072.<br />
Edgar R. Search and clustering orders of magnitude faster than BLAST. Bioinformatics, 2010:<br />
26(19): 2460-2461.<br />
Faleiro ML. The mode of antibacterial action of essential oils. In Science Against Microbial<br />
Pathogens: Communicating Current Research and Technological Advances; Méndez-Vilas,<br />
A., Ed.; Brown Walker Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2011: 1143-1156.<br />
Feighner SD, Dashkevicz MP. Subtherapeutic levels of antibiotics in poultry feeds and their effects<br />
on weight gain, feed efficiency, and bacterial cholyltaurine hydrolase activity. Appl Environ<br />
Microbiol, 1987: 53(2): 331-336.<br />
Niewold TA. The nonantibiotic anti-inflammatory effect of antimicrobial growth promoters, the<br />
real mode of action? A hypothesis. Poult Sci, 2007: 86(4): 605-609.<br />
Taylor TM, Joerger R, Palour E, Lopez-Malo A, Avils-Sosa R, Calix-Lara T. Alternatives to traditional<br />
antimicrobials for organically processed meat and poultry. In SC Ricke (Ed.) Organic<br />
meat production and processing. IFT Wiley-Blackwell Ames Iowa, 2012: 211-238.<br />
116
O 22 Effect Of 1-Monoglycerides of Organic Acid in Controlling Clostridium<br />
Perfringens and Salmonella Typhimurium in Experimentally Infected<br />
Broiler Chickens<br />
1<br />
Giovanni Tosi, 1 Laura Fiorentini, 1 Paola Massi, 2 Alessio Paoli, 2 Manuela Parini,<br />
1<br />
Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna, Diagnostic Section<br />
of Forli, Forli, Italy<br />
2<br />
SILO S.p.A., Firenze, Italy<br />
Abstract<br />
The aim of the present study was to evaluate in vivo the antibacterial activity of specific mixture<br />
of organic acid 1-monoglycerides (SILOhealth 104 L) against C. perfringens, Eimeria spp (trial<br />
1) and Salmonella typhimurium (trial 2).<br />
In the first trial, 2 diets supplemented or not with SILOhealth 104 L (Control: 0 % in all periods;<br />
Group 1: 0.5 % from day 1 to day 10 and 0.025 % from day 11 to day 21) was offered to broiler<br />
chickens experimentally infected at day 5 of life with 3,000 sporulated oocysts of a mix of Eimeria<br />
acervulina, maxima and tenella, respectively, and at day 11 with 10 6 CFU of C. perfringens.<br />
The efficacy of SILOhealth 104 L was evaluated in terms of intestinal gross lesions.<br />
In the trial 2 diets supplemented or not with SILOhealth 104 L (Control: 0 % in all periods;<br />
Group 1: 0.3 % from day 1 to day 34) was offered to 128 SPF broiler chickens experimentally<br />
infected via endoesophageal inoculation with 10 7 CFU of Salmonella typhimurium.<br />
Salmonella typhimurium colonization was monitored in both experimental groups demonstrating<br />
a strong effect of SILOhealth 104 L in fighting against the bacterium.<br />
Results of both trial indicated that the specific mixture of organic acid 1-monoglycerides (SILOhealth<br />
104 L) was able to prevent acute necrotic enteritis in broilers caused by the combination<br />
of Eimeria spp. and C. perfringens and to reduce Salmonella typhimurium colonization in broiler<br />
chickens.<br />
Organic acid 1-monoglycerides demonstrated to be a valid alternative to antibiotics in terms of<br />
antibacterial potency and absence of withdrawal periods in farms.<br />
Introduction<br />
The world-wide development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria and, in particular, the generation<br />
of multidrug-resistant bacteria among zoonotic agents, has highlighted the importance to<br />
reduce the usage of antibiotics and to provide new options and alternative strategies for preventing<br />
and treating animal diseases.<br />
117
Moreover, the report issued in 2009 by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control<br />
and the European Medicines Agency, underlined that the increasing occurrence of multidrug-resistant<br />
bacteria is associated with poor development of new antibiotic molecules to treat infections<br />
sustained by these bacterial agents.<br />
In this scenario, growing public health concern about food and environmental safety in terms<br />
of antibiotic resistance and residues has recently prompted research on the development of new<br />
disease control strategies. As a result, several alternatives to antibiotics were developed, such as<br />
pre- and probiotics, essential oils, plants extracts, spices, organic acids, bacteriophages, natural<br />
antibacterial peptides and many others.<br />
Among the suggested alternative compounds, organic acid 1-monoglycerides showed high antibacterial<br />
activity in vitro and in vivo.<br />
Several studies demonstrated both in vitro (Kabara et al., 1972) and in vivo (Boyen et al., 2008;<br />
Fernandez-Rubio et al., 2009) that 1-monoglycerides of organic acids have stronger antibacterial<br />
activity compared with the corresponding fatty acids (Kabara et al., 1972, 1984; Thormar<br />
et al., 2006)<br />
The antimicrobial activity depends on the selected fatty acid, concentration, bacterial species<br />
and other properties. Different mixtures of organic acid 1-monoglycerides were successfully<br />
tested against different bacterial species such as Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae,<br />
Helicobacter pylori, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter jejuni,<br />
Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enteritidis and typhimurium (Bergsson et al., 1998, 1999,<br />
2001, 2002; Wang and Johnson, 1992; Thormar et al., 2006; Namkung et al., 2011).<br />
Considering the increase in the European poultry industry of drug-resistant bacteria and protozoa,<br />
we investigated the efficacy of specific mixture of 1-monoglycerides of organic acid as feed<br />
supplements to control Clostridium perfringens and Eimeria spp (Trial 1 monitored by Istituto<br />
Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia-Romagna, Sezione Diagnostica di<br />
Forli, Forli, Italy) and Salmonella typhimurium (Trial 2 monitored by Istituto Zooprofilattico<br />
Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia-Romagna, Sezione Diagnostica di Forli, Forli, Italy)<br />
colonization in broiler chickens.<br />
Trial 1:<br />
Materials and Methods<br />
Birds Housing:Sixty female one-day old Ross 308 broiler chicks were divided into 2 groups of<br />
30 chicks each group and randomly housed in poultry isolators (HM 1500, Montair Andersen<br />
B.V., ZG Sevenum, The Netherlands). The isolators were equipped with drinkers, heating lamps,<br />
and filtered air. A 16 h/ 8 h light/ darkness program was applied.<br />
Chicks were vaccinated against Marek’s disease, Infectious Bronchitis and Newcastle disease at<br />
the hatchery. Vaccination against coccidiosis was not carried out. Chicks were offered drinking<br />
water and feed ad libitum. The trial lasted 35 days and animals were individually weighted at<br />
11, 16, 21 and 35 days.<br />
C. perfringens and Eimeria spp. strains cultivation:Eimeria spp. strains (E. tenella, maxima and<br />
118
acervulina) were isolated from clinical outbreaks of coccidiosis in unvaccinated broiler chickens.<br />
Oocysts were recovered from the intestinal contents of affected birds using saturated NaCl<br />
solution and centrifugation at 2000 rpm for 10 min. Collected oocysts were washed with distilled<br />
water, centrifugated and sporulated at 28 – 30 °C for 48 – 72 h. After all these steps, the sporulated<br />
oocysts were resuspended in KCr 2<br />
O 7<br />
solution and stored at 4°C. The number of oocysts in the<br />
suspension was calculated using a Mc Master’s chamber and the final concentration of oocysts<br />
was obtained adjusting the volume of the suspension by addition of a buffered saline solution.<br />
The C. perfringens strain used in the study was isolated from the intestine of broiler chickens<br />
with lesions caused by necrotic enteritis.<br />
The bacterium was growth under anaerobic conditions in brain heart infusion broth (BHI) for<br />
24 h at<br />
37 °C.<br />
Diets :The feed used in the trial was antibiotic and coccidiostat-free and negative for spore count.<br />
The experimental mixture of 1-monoglycerides of organic acids (MG) was provided by SILO<br />
S.p.A. (Florence, Italy; commercial name SILOhealth 104 L). The product contains 1-monoglycerides<br />
of propionic (C3:0), butyric (C4:0), caprylic (C8:0), capric (C10:0) and lauric (C12:0)<br />
acid.<br />
The experimental protocol is reported in Table 1.<br />
Table1. Concentration of SILOhealth 104 L and experimental protocol<br />
Group From day 1 to day 10 From day 11 to day 21 From day 21 to day 35<br />
Control === === ===<br />
Group 1 0.5 % SILOhealth 104L 0.025 % SILOhealth 104L ===<br />
In vivo challenge:On day 5 of age each bird was challenged via oral gavage with 3,000 oocysts<br />
of a mixture of Eimeria tenella, maxima and acervulina.<br />
During the trial, birds were daily monitored. On day 16, 21 and 35 of age, 10 birds for each<br />
group were sacrificed in order to be able to collect some samples.<br />
In order to evaluate gross lesions associated with coccidiosis, a 4-point scoring system lesion<br />
was applied for each Eimeria spp. used in the trial.<br />
The score ranged from 0 (no gross lesions) to 4 (gross lesions).<br />
Gut lesions caused by C. perfringens have been evaluated according to the procedure of Keyburn<br />
et al.<br />
A 6 point score was applied according to the following scheme: Score 0 = no gross lesions; score<br />
1 = thin or friable walls; 2 = focal necrosis (
necrosis (
Trial 2:<br />
Material and Methods<br />
Birds housing:Sixty four one – day old 128 SPF chicks were divided into 2 groups of 32 birds<br />
each randomly allocated to different isolators units (Montair Andersen HM1500) equipped<br />
with drinkers, heating lamps, air filtration devices, bedding straw. Birds were given feed and<br />
water at libitum.<br />
Before starting the experiment, a portion of chicks in each group were checked for the absence<br />
of S. typhimurium by serological analysis and microbiological assays in different organs after<br />
sacrifice.<br />
At 7 day of age the animals were challenged via endoesophageal inoculation with 1 mL of saline<br />
solution containing 1x10 7 CFU/bird of S. typhimurium. The control group chicks were inoculated<br />
with sterile saline solution only.<br />
24 h post infection, cloacal swabs were collected to determine S. typhimurium infection.<br />
At 7 and 17 days post-challenge, 10 birds in each group were sacrificed and the 12 birds left were<br />
sacrificed at day 27.<br />
The ceca and liver were collected to perform Salmonella assay and to determine the number of<br />
CFU/g.<br />
Diets :The experimental mixture of 1-monoglycerides of organic acids (MG) was provided<br />
by SILO S.p.A. (Florence, Italy; commercial name SILOhealth 104 L). The product contains<br />
1-monoglycerides of propionic (C3:0), butyric (C4:0), caprylic (C8:0), capric (C10:0) and lauric<br />
(C12:0) acid.<br />
The experimental protocol is reported in Table 4.<br />
Table 4: SILOhealth 104 L concentration and experimental protocol<br />
Group<br />
Feed treatment<br />
Control ===<br />
Group 1<br />
0.3 % SILOhealth 104 L from day 1 to 34 of life<br />
Results<br />
All the results are reported in Table 5.<br />
24 h after infection all cloacal swabs resulted positive for S. typhimurium.<br />
Control birds at 27 days post infection showed high mortality (25%).<br />
The group 1, fed with 0.3 % of SILOhealth 104 L, revealed a reduction of CFU/g of S. typhimurium<br />
in the ceca starting from 7 days post infection.<br />
121
Table 5. Media of CFU/g of S. typhimurium cecal content at different days post infection<br />
Group 7 day post infection 17 days post infection 27 days post infection<br />
Control 6.400.000 25.120.000 (*)<br />
Group 1 2.226.000 1.242.100 387.5<br />
(*)= value not determined due to the high mortality<br />
Discussion<br />
Nowdays, C. perfringens, Eimeria spp. and S. typhimurium are a serious issues in the poultry<br />
industry.Both trials mirrored a typical field exposure producing possible damages for the poultry<br />
industry. The trials and our results show that the use of SILOhealth 104 L may contribute to the<br />
prevention of coccidial and C. perfringens causing intestinal lesions, can reduce S. typhimurium<br />
colonization and can also improve performance in broiler chickens.<br />
In fact, SILOhealth 104 L used in the trials showed to be effective in reducing Eimeria spp, C.<br />
perfringens and S. typhimurium intestinal colonization in broiler chickens. This was inferred<br />
from the detection of low clostridial and salmonella levels and the reduced intestinal gross lesion<br />
score in treated groups compared to the control group.<br />
1-monoglycerides are derived by combining a molecule of glycerol with a molecule of organic<br />
acid, forming a molecule with hydrophilic and lipofilic characteristics.<br />
The covalent bond between organic acid and glycerol is stable from pH 1 to pH 8 and to high<br />
temperatures up to 230 °C<br />
These characteristics give stability to the molecule in different environments, such as water, feed,<br />
gizzard, stomach, gut and are associated with long-term preservation of antibacterial properties.<br />
This is an important difference between 1-monoglycerides and organic acid salts; the latter are<br />
dependent on pH, and exert their antibacterial activity at acid pH only under undissociated state<br />
conditions.<br />
1-monoglycerides of organic acid, due to their chemical – physical characteristics, are not incorporated<br />
into emulsion droplets formed in the upper intestinal tracts together with bile salts and<br />
are not re-combined into triglycerides. Hence, their fate is the transport through the intestinal<br />
lumen to colon and cecum exerting their action on intestinal villus (phosphorylation of protein<br />
composing tight junctions, anti-inflammatory and angiogenetic effect) and on pathogenic bacteria.<br />
1-monoglycerides are able to penetrate through bacterial wall causing, through different<br />
mechanisms, the cell death.<br />
The mode of action is still under study and new studies are needed.<br />
Conclusion<br />
In this scenario, 1-monoglycerides of organic acid in feed show the peculiar advantage to reduce<br />
the impact of C. perfringens, Eimeria spp. and S. typhimurium infection in the intestinal tract of<br />
122
oiler chickens. For this reason an effective alternative to the use of antibiotics could be represented<br />
by 1- monoglycerides mixture of organic acid as SILOhealth 104 L.<br />
References<br />
Bergsson, G., O. Steingrímsson, and H. Thormar. 1999. In vitro susceptibilities of Neisseria gonorrhoeae<br />
to fatty acids and monoglycerides. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 43(11):2790-<br />
2792.<br />
Bergsson, G., J. Arnfinnsson, O. Steingrímsson, and H. Thormar. 2001. Killing of Gram-positive<br />
cocci by fatty acids and monoglycerides. APMIS. 109(10):670-678.<br />
Bergsson, G., O. Steingrímsson, and H. Thormar. 2002. Bactericidal effects of fatty acids and<br />
monoglycerides on Helicobacter pylori. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 20(4):258-262.<br />
Bergsson, G., J. Arnfinnsson, S. M. Karlsson, O. Steingrímsson, and H. Thormar. 1998. In vitro<br />
inactivation of Chlamydia trachomatis by fatty acids and monoglycerides. Antimicrob<br />
Agents Chemother. 42(9):2290-2294.<br />
Boyen, F., F. Haesebrouck, A. Vanparys, J. Volf, M. Mahu, F. Van Immerseel, I. Rychlik, J.<br />
Dewulf, R. Ducatelle, and F. Pasmans. 2008. Coated fatty acids alter virulence properties<br />
of Salmonella Typhimurium and decrease intestinal colonization of pigs. Vet Microbiol.<br />
132: 319-327.<br />
Fernández-Rubio, C., C. Ordóñez, J. Abad-González, A. Garcia-Gallego, M. P. Honrubia, J. J.<br />
Mallo, and R. Balaña-Fouce. 2009. Butyric acid-based feed additives help protect broiler<br />
chickens from Salmonella Enteritidis infection. Poult. Sci. 88(5):943-948.<br />
Kabara, J. J. 1984. Antimicrobial agents derived from fatty acids. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc.<br />
61:397-403.<br />
Kabara, J. J., D. M. Swieczkowski, A. J. Conley, and Truant J. P. 1972. Fatty acids and derivatives<br />
as antimicrobial agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2(1):23-28.<br />
Namkung, H., H. Yu, J. Gong, and S. Leeson. 2011. Antimicrobial activity of butyrate glycerides<br />
toward Salmonella Typhimurium and Clostridium perfringens. Poult. Sci. 90(10):2217-<br />
2222.<br />
Thormar, H., H. Hilmarsson, and G. Bergsson. 2006. Stable concentrated emulsions of the<br />
1-monoglyceride of capric acid (monocaprin) with microbicidal activities against the<br />
food-borne bacteria Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella spp., and Escherichia coli. Appl<br />
Environ Microbiol. 72(1):522-526.<br />
123
O 23 Effects of Dietary Prebiotic Addition to Diets on Growth Performance<br />
and Intestinal Microflora in Broilers Exposed to Delay Feed and Water<br />
Access after Hatch<br />
Köksal BH 1 , Cengiz Ö 1 , Sevim Ö 1 , Tatlı O 1 , Beyaz D 2 , Büyükyörük S 2 , Boyacıoğlu M 3 ,<br />
Kuter E 1 , Koçak P 2 , Kaya M 4 ve Önol, AG 1<br />
1<br />
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Veterinary, Department of Animal Nutrition and<br />
Nutritional Disease,<br />
2<br />
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Veterinary, Department of Food Hygiene and<br />
Technology,<br />
3<br />
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Veterinary, Department of Pharmacology and<br />
Toxicology,<br />
4<br />
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Veterinary, Animal Science, Aydın, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was conducted to determined effects of dietary prebiotic supplementation on growth<br />
performance, intestinal microflora and some stress parameters in broiler chickens exposed to<br />
delay feed and water access after hatch. A total of 648 broiler chicks, a day-old, were divided<br />
into 6 experimental groups (3x2 factorial design) which were formed by supplementation of a<br />
dietary prebiotic and three levels of post-hatching holding time (0-, 24- and 48-hours). There<br />
were 6 replications for each treatment group and each replication consisted of 18 birds. Different<br />
post-hatch holding times (0-, 24-, and 48-hours) had no effect on body weight gains while they<br />
had effects on feed intake and feed conversion ratio in broilers by the end of this study (P
O 24 Effects of Guanidino Acetic Acid Supplementation and Energy Level<br />
of Broiler Diets with <strong>Poultry</strong> By-Product Meal on Growth Performance<br />
and <strong>Meat</strong> Quality<br />
Anıl Çenesiz 1 , Necmettin Ceylan 1* , İbrahim Çiftçi 1 , İsmail Yavaş 1 , Ozan Taşkasen 1 , Oğuz<br />
Kıyak 2 , Mario Mueller 2<br />
1<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Animal Science, Ankara, Turkey<br />
2<br />
Evonik Nutrition & Care GmbH, Germany<br />
Abstract<br />
This experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of guanidinoacetic acid (GAA) supplementation<br />
and energy level of broiler diets based on maize-soybean meal in the presence of 5%<br />
poultry by-product meal on growth performance, carcase yield and breast meat quality.A total<br />
of 792 one-day old male Ross 308 broiler chickens were randomly distributed into 6 dietary<br />
treatments with 8 replicates consisting of diets with 3 different energy level (standard AME n<br />
,<br />
50 kcal/kg reduced and 100 kcal/kg reduced) with 2 different level (0.00 and 0.06 %) of GAA.<br />
Birds were fed diets during the starter (days 0-10), grower (days 11-24) and finisher (days 25-<br />
41) periods. There was significant interaction between energy level and GAA supplementation<br />
for FCR, and no significant interaction for other performance parameters found. The FCR was<br />
significantly impaired (P 0.05), European<br />
Production Efficiency Factor was favourably affected by the GAA supplementation (P < 0.05).<br />
No significant effects of dietary treatment were found on carcase parameters and abdominal fat<br />
weights (as percentage of body weight) except increasing liver percentage, induced by decreasing<br />
dietary energy level, which was reduced through GAA supplementation. Dietary energy level<br />
and GAA addition had also no remarkable effect on drip loss, pH and chemical composition<br />
of breast meat. It can be concluded that supplementation of GAA to diets even including poultry<br />
by-product meal has the potential to improve growth performance of broilers by most likely<br />
increasing energy utilisation.<br />
Keywords: broiler, energy utilisation, growth performance, guanidinoacetic acid<br />
Introduction<br />
Feed cost contributes about 70 % to the cost of broiler production. Within this cost position<br />
the share of cost related to feed energy amounts to about 50 %. Thus, only feed energy covers<br />
about one third of the entire cost of broiler production. Fast-growing animals, such as broilers,<br />
need a lot of energy for the growth of muscle tissue. The universal source of energy in cells<br />
of all animals is adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The creatine phosphate/creatine system acts<br />
125
as a buffer, guaranteeing the permanent availability of ATP molecules. Creatine phosphate is<br />
a dynamic storage of energy-rich phosphate, and ensures a stable supply of ATP/ADP in the<br />
cell. The other important role that creatine plays is in transport of the high-energy phosphate<br />
groups from glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation to cytosolic ATP-consumption. Here, it<br />
might be postulated that a deficit of creatine could potentially be a limiting factor in provision of<br />
these high-energy phosphate groups, thus, limiting energy utilisation within the rapidly growing<br />
muscle tissues. Creatine is synthesized from guanidinoacetic acid(GAA) in the liver, which in<br />
turn is synthesized from arginine and glycine in the kidney. Subsequently, GAA is methylated<br />
by S adenosylmethionine to creatine, and finally, adenosine triphosphate donates aphosphorus<br />
moiety to form the high-energy compound, phosphocreatine (Meister, 1965). Thus, GAA may<br />
be important for poultry nutrition not only as a replacement for dietary Arg, an essential nutrient,<br />
but also to support overall energy homeostasis of the bird. Animals can partly replace the losses<br />
inevitable of creatine with the help of de-novo synthesis, but the major part of it has to be delivered<br />
via feed. Because of vegetable feed ingredients not having creatine and usage of animal<br />
sources is limited, the objective of this study was to check the energy sparing effect of GAA in<br />
a broiler diet in presence of poultry meal.<br />
Materials and Methods<br />
Birds and Housing<br />
The research was carried out in the <strong>Poultry</strong> House of Animal Science Department, Ankara University.<br />
792 day-old male Ross 308 chicks were used .<br />
Experimental Design<br />
The research was conducted according to a completely randomised block design in 2x3 factorial<br />
arrangements. The 3 x 2 factorial arrangement included 3 different levels of apparent metabolizable<br />
energy (AME N<br />
) (commercial standart level, 50 kcal/kg reduced and 100 kcal/kg reduced)<br />
and 2 levels of CreAMINO ® (CreAM) supplementation(0.00 and 0.06%) which contains 96 %<br />
of guanidino acetic acid(GAA). Day old chicks were randomly distributed into 6 dietary treatments<br />
each having 4 replicates with 16 chicks and 4 replicates with 17 chicks (Total 8 replicates)<br />
in floor pens of the poultry house.<br />
Feeds and Diets :<br />
Starter (day 0-10), grower (day 11-24), and finisher (25-42 days) diets were based on corn, soybean<br />
meal, and poultry by-product meal. After amino acid analysis done in raw materials, diets<br />
were formulated to meet Evonik recommendations (Evonik 2012) with regard to energy, amino<br />
acids on an SID base, phosphorus, and calcium. Feeds were served as mash form. Feeds and<br />
water were provided ad libitum throughout the experiment.<br />
Measurements:<br />
Birds were weighed at the beginning of the experiment, at day 10, 24 and 41 for each replication<br />
to define body weight (BW) and weight gain (BWG). Feed consumption (FI) were measured<br />
at the beginning of the experiment, at day 10, 24 and 41 for each replication. Feed conversion<br />
(FCR) were calculated for day 0-10, and day 11-24, 25-41 and 0-41 days period using feed intake<br />
and weight gain for each replication on a pen-base. At the end of experiment, 2 chickens per<br />
126
pen close to the average pen weight were selected for processing. Carcass yield, abdominal fat,<br />
thighs + drumsticks and breast meat were weighed and calculated as a fraction of individual live<br />
body weight. Drip loss(DL) was measured as described by Remignon et al. (1996). Ultimate pH<br />
were measured 24 h postmortem with a portable pH-meter.<br />
Statistical Analysis:<br />
The data for all response variables were analyzed as a completely randomized block design with<br />
6 dietary treatments and 8 replicate blocks by using General ANOVA/MANOVA procedure of<br />
the Statistica (1984), by analysis of variance or covariance. Main effects and interactions between<br />
the main affects were calculated. When significant differences (P < 0.05) among groups<br />
were found, means were separated using the Tukey HSD test.<br />
Results<br />
The results of GAA content in the experimental feeds introduced to broilers is shown in table 1.<br />
As seen in table 1, the proposed level of GAA supplementation in the feeds was reached. This<br />
mean that the research was conducted in a good shape.<br />
Table 1. Analysed Guanidino Acetic Acid Contents of the Experimental Feeds<br />
Treatments<br />
Guanidino Acetic Acid Contents,<br />
(mg/kg)<br />
Starter Grower Finisher<br />
Treatment 1-Control
influence on abdominal fat and pancreas weight. However there was also significant Energy<br />
Level*GAA interaction for liver percentage. Liver weight significantly increased by lowering<br />
energy both 50 and 100 kcal in nonsupplemented GAA groups while in GAA groups just increased<br />
in 100 kcal energy reduced group. GAA supplementation significantly decreased liver<br />
percentage from 2.027 to 1.910 % (P
Both energy and GAA supplementation did not influence the carcass parameters, dripp loss and<br />
pH of the breasr meat. Many researchers found also similar results and confirmed our findings.<br />
Michiels et al. (2012) examined the effectf of GAA on breast meat pH and drip loss and found<br />
no significant differences (P>0.05) between GAA supplemented and unsuplemented birds. Others<br />
have stated that GAA had no effect on carcass yield and carcas parts (Michiels et al., 2012;<br />
Carvalho et al., 2013; Mousavi et al., 2013;Abudobos et al., 2014).<br />
As explained before GAA is synthesised in the liver and kidney from arginine and glycine then<br />
acted upon by the enzyme transamidinase and subsequently methylated by S-adenosyl- methione<br />
to creatine (Wyss and Kaddurah-Daouk, 2000). Because of important role of creatine in<br />
energy metabolism the load of liver seems to be increasing when the supplied energy is lowered.<br />
So supplementation of GAA is helpfull to support de novo synthesis of creatine. Our results on<br />
liver confirmed by previous reports. Abudobos at al.(2014) and Mousavi et al.(2013) reported<br />
that GGA supplementation decreased liver weight.<br />
Broiler diets mainly based on vegetable ingredients and generally contain less amount of feedstuffs<br />
from animal origin which are rich in creatine. In both cases either containing animal<br />
by-product meal or not having them, the contrubution of creatine by dietary ingredients is low<br />
and one third of the requirment which is recomended as 195,8 mg/day/kg broiler (Thomson,<br />
2015) supposed to be supplied by dietary sources because of insufficient (two third ) de-novo<br />
synthesis of endogenous creatine in modern broilers. The need for creatine is age-dependent,<br />
higher amounts are needed by growing animals for muscle growth vs adults (Brosnan et al.,<br />
2009). So in the current study, although the diets have 5% poultry-byproduct meal, the contribution<br />
of dietary ingredient seems not enough to supply the creatine requirements.<br />
Conclusion<br />
So as a results of the present experiment, it can be concluded that dietary supplementation of<br />
GAA has the potential to improve growth performance of broilers by most probably increasing<br />
energy utilisation even in the diets have poultry meal. Based on that, it is recommended to lower<br />
the ME level at least by 50 kcal/kg when supplemented with GAA.<br />
Figure 1.Effect on GAA supplementation on feed conversion ratio of broiler at 3 different apparent<br />
metabolisable energy level (P
Figure 2.Effect on GAA supplementation on body weight gain of broilers at 3 different apparent<br />
metabolisable energy level (P
Mousavi, S.N., Afsar, A., Lotfıllahian, H. 2013. Effects of guanidinoacetic acid supplementation<br />
to broiler diets with varying energy contents. J. Appl. Poult. Res. 22 :47–54<br />
Proudfoot, F. G., and H. W. Hulan. 1987. Interrelationships among lighting, ambient temperature,<br />
and dietaryenergy and broiler chicken performance. Poult. Sci. 66:1744–1749.<br />
Remignon, H., Desrosier, V. & Marche, G. 1996. Influence of increasing breast meat yield on<br />
muscle histology and meat quality in the chicken. Reproduction Nutrition Development,<br />
36: 523–530.<br />
Saleh, E.A., Watkins, S.E., Waldroup, A.L.,Waldroup, W.P., 2004. Effects of dietary nutrient<br />
density on performance and carcass quality of male broilers grown for further processing.<br />
Int. J. <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci. 3:1-10.<br />
Statistica .1984. Statistica Computer Manual (Tulsa, OK, StatSoft Inc.).<br />
Thompson, J. 2015. Creatine as a conditionally essential nutrient. http://animal-nutrition.evonik.<br />
com/sites/lists/NC/DocumentsAN/Evonik_White%20Paper_Creatine_as_a_Conditionally_Essential_Nutrient.pdf<br />
Wyss, M., Kaddurah-Daouk, R., 2000. Creatine and creatinine metabolism. Physiol. Rev.<br />
80:1107-1213.<br />
131
O 25 Efficacy of an Algo-Clay Complex on Decreasing Mycotoxin Liver<br />
Toxicity in Broilers<br />
Maria Angeles Rodriguez, Julia Laurain, Maria Garcia Suarez, Piotr Cierpinski<br />
Olmix group, FRANCE<br />
Abstract<br />
The aim of this study was to measure the efficacy of an algo-clay complex (ACC) on T-2/HT-2<br />
toxin (2ppm), fumonisin (100ppm) and aflatoxin (2.8ppm) individual toxicity on the liver. The<br />
study was conducted by Samitec Institute in Brazil. 360 one-day-old male broiler chicks (Cobb<br />
500) were allocated to 11 treatments with 6 (test) or 12 (control) replicates and 10 animals in<br />
each group, from day 1 to day 21. Treatments differed by the contamination in mycotoxin and<br />
the inclusion of the algo-clay complex (0.25 or 0.50%). The inclusion of 0.50% of algo-clay<br />
complex in the diets containing mycotoxins always significantly improved the birds feed consumption<br />
and body weight compared with those fed with mycotoxins only (P≤0.05). In each<br />
treatment with ACC, the relative weight of the liver (RWL) of the animals that were supplemented<br />
with 0.50% of the algo-clay complex, was significantly improved and closer to the control<br />
value compared with those exposed to mycotoxins only. The inclusion of 0.50% of algo-clay<br />
complex in the diets containing 2.8 ppm of aflatoxin significantly improved the Lamic/Samitec<br />
Index compared with those from the birds fed with aflatoxin only (P≤0.05). The inclusion of<br />
0.25% and 0.50% of algo-clay complex in the diets containing 100 ppm of fumonisin diminished<br />
significantly the Sa/So compared with those from the birds exposed to fumonisin only (P≤0.05).<br />
The inclusion of 0.25% and 0.50% of algo-clay complex in the diets containing aflatoxin and<br />
fumonisin significantly improved the level of total plasma proteins (P≤0.05), also indicating a<br />
reduction in liver damage thanks to the algo-clay complex. According to the evaluated parameters,<br />
the algo-clay complex significantly decreased (P≤0.05) the deleterious hepatic effects and<br />
performance losses caused by very high levels of three types of mycotoxins on broilers.<br />
Introduction<br />
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium<br />
molds. In 2003, FAO estimated that 25% of the cereals produced worldwide contain mycotoxins.<br />
Mycotoxins are very stable during storage and processing. They are thermo-resistant and thus<br />
are not destroyed by technological treatments. Consequently, mycotoxins remain in the finished<br />
feed, even once molds disappear (CAST, 2003). Mycotoxin toxicity is variable depending on<br />
toxin and concerned animals. <strong>Poultry</strong> sensitivity to mycotoxins is now well established (AFSSA,<br />
2009; Andretta, 2012). Prevention measures are not always enough to reduce the risk. Different<br />
types of decontamination processes have been studied (physical, chemical and biological) with<br />
more or less efficacy. The aim of this study is to test the efficacy of an algo-clay complex, used<br />
in a premix of additives, on decreasing mycotoxin liver toxicity on broilers. Three families of<br />
mycotoxins have been tested: aflatoxin, fumonisin and T-2/HT-2 toxin.<br />
132
Material and Methods<br />
Experimental Design<br />
The study was conducted by the Samitec Institute of Analytical, Microbiological and Technological<br />
solutions in May 2016. The broilers were housed in a negative pressure room – size: 22<br />
m 2 – under ideal temperature at each stage of development. The birds were contained within<br />
batteries with four overlap cages separated in two boxes with 0.5 x 0.5 m (0.25 m 2 of area) and<br />
0.33 m of height each. Each box had a feeder, an individual nipple watering system with height<br />
adjustment and a conventional brooder. To conduct this experiment, 360 one-day-old male broiler<br />
chicks (Cobb 500) with an average weight of 46.92 grams were used. Mycotoxins were tested<br />
individually and 3 trials were performed. Treatments differed in mycotoxin contamination and<br />
inclusion of the algo-clay complex (ACC) used in a premix of additives named MT.X+.<br />
Feed:All the birds received the same feeding treatment, in other words, chickens were given ad libitum<br />
access to feed and water during the experimental period (day 1 to day 21), except in the weighing<br />
days, when they were subjected to a solid fasting for six hours. The animals received an iso-nutritive<br />
diet formulated according to the NRC (1994) recommendations, after NIRS evaluation, using maize,<br />
soybean meal and vitamin/mineral premix (Table 1). Raw materials and experimental diets were<br />
screened for the presence of mycotoxin (aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol, diacetoxiscirpenol, fumonisin,<br />
ochratoxin A, T- 2 Toxin and zearalenone) and nothing was detected. The feed used for the aflatoxin<br />
treatment (AFLA), contained 2.8ppm of aflatoxin composed of 93.1% of aflatoxin B1, 2.1% of aflatoxin<br />
B2, 3.4% of aflatoxin G1 and 0.7% of aflatoxin G2 produced with Aspergillus parasiticus. The<br />
feed used for the fumonisin treatment (FUM) contained 100ppm of fumonisin composed of 73% of<br />
fumonisin B1 and 27% of fumonisin B2, produced with Fusarium moniliforme. The feed used for<br />
the T-2/HT-2 toxin treatment (T-2/HT-2) contained 2 ppm of T-2/HT-2 toxin composed of 82% of T-2<br />
toxin and 18% of HT-2 toxin, produced with Fusarium sporotrichioides.<br />
Measurements<br />
Performance:Feed intake and body weight gain were recorded at D7, D14 and D21.<br />
Liver parameters and clinical biochemistry:The following parameters were obtained or calculated<br />
at 21 days of the experiment:<br />
- Relative weight of the liver: obtained by the ratio of the liver weight and the bird weight multiplied<br />
by 100;<br />
- Clinical biochemistry: average levels of total plasma proteins (TPP). Twelve blood samples<br />
were collected in each treatment, totaling sixty samples that were analyzed by Biureto’s Technique<br />
and measurements performed by Thermo Plate Analyzer®.<br />
- Sphinganine/Sphingosine ratio (Sa:So), biochemical marker of liver lesions. It was measured<br />
only in fumonisin trial at D21.<br />
- Lamic/Samitec Index (LSI). The Lamic/Samitec Index (LSI) consists of the relative weight of<br />
the liver and ΔE*ab variables, according to the equation: LSI = % RWL (100 – ΔE*ab) where<br />
% RWL = Relative weight of the liver; ΔE*ab = Difference between the liver’s color and the<br />
reference color (white).<br />
133
Statistical Analysis:All data obtained in this experiment were subjected to analysis of variance<br />
(One-way ANOVA). Any differences between the means were compared by Bonferroni test<br />
(P≤0.05). The analyses were performed by Statgraphics Centurion XV version 15.1 Software.<br />
Results and Discussion<br />
Feed consumption<br />
Table 1. Feed consumption per group for each trial<br />
Trial AFLA FUM T-2/HT-<br />
2<br />
Negative<br />
control 1121 a 1121 a 1121 a<br />
Control with<br />
0.50% ACC 1125 a 1125 a 1125 a<br />
Mycotoxin 877 c 1001 c 1021 b<br />
Mycotoxin +<br />
0.25% ACC<br />
Mycotoxin +<br />
0.50% ACC<br />
859 c 1065 b 1032 b<br />
988 b 1070 b 1094 a<br />
All mycotoxin treatments decreased feed intake when compared to the negative control (P≤0.05).<br />
The inclusion of 0.50% of ACC in the diet containing mycotoxin significantly improved the<br />
birds feed consumption compared with those exposed to mycotoxin only (P≤0.05), and fully<br />
compensated the deleterious effects of 2 ppm T-2/HT-2 toxin contamination.<br />
Final body weight<br />
All mycotoxin treatments decreased the broilers body weight when compared to the negative<br />
control (P≤0.05). The inclusion of 0.50% of ACC in the diets containing mycotoxin significantly<br />
improved the birds body weight compared with those exposed to mycotoxin only, and fully<br />
compensated deleterious effects of 2 ppm T-2/HT-2 toxin contamination.<br />
Table 2. Final body weight per group for each trial<br />
Trial AFLA FUM T-2/HT-2<br />
Negative<br />
control 762 a 762 a 762 a<br />
Control with<br />
0.50% ACC 753 a 753 a 753 a<br />
Mycotoxins 568 c 676 c 707 b<br />
Mycotoxins +<br />
0.25% ACC<br />
Mycotoxins +<br />
0.50% ACC<br />
584 c 713 b 708 b<br />
632 c 709 b 749 a<br />
Liver parameters<br />
134
Table 3. Relative liver weight per group per trial<br />
Trial AFLA FUM T-2/HT-2<br />
Negative control 3,11 c 3,11 c 3,11 a<br />
Control with<br />
0.50% ACC 3,14 c 3,14 bc 3,14 a<br />
Mycotoxins 4,81 a 3,44 a 2,94 b<br />
Mycotoxins +<br />
0.25% ACC 4,80 a 3,28 b 2,96 ab<br />
Mycotoxins +<br />
0.50% ACC 4,03 b 3,25 b 3,08 ab<br />
The relative weight of the liver (RWL) of chickens that were exposed to mycotoxin was either<br />
higher (aflatoxin and fumonisin) or lower (T-2/HT-2 toxin) than those from the control treatment<br />
(P≤0.05). The inclusion of 0.50% of ACC in the diets containing mycotoxin allowed to improve<br />
the RWL, to be closer to the negative control value.<br />
Figure 1. Lamic/Samitec Index (LSI) and liver aspect (AFLA trial)<br />
Negative<br />
control<br />
Control<br />
with<br />
0.5%<br />
ACC<br />
AFLA<br />
AFLA<br />
+<br />
0.25%<br />
ACC<br />
AFLA<br />
+ 0.5%<br />
ACC<br />
The LSI of broilers exposed to 2.8 ppm of aflatoxin was higher than in the negative control<br />
(+90%, P≤0.05). The inclusion of 0.50% of ACC in the contaminated diet significantly diminished<br />
the LSI compared with the aflatoxin group (-14%, P≤0.05).<br />
Table 4. Sphinganine-sphingosine ratio (Sa:So), FUM trial<br />
Negative control<br />
Control with 0,50% ACC<br />
Mycotoxins<br />
Mycotoxins + 0,25% ACC<br />
Mycotoxins + 0,50% ACC<br />
0.43 c<br />
0.43 c<br />
3.32 a<br />
2.3 b<br />
2.33 b<br />
Fumonisin alters the enzyme secretion in the liver and leads to an accumulation of sphinganine<br />
135
in this organ. Consequently, the sphinganine to sphingosine ratio (Sa:So) evolves and makes a<br />
good marker of fumonisin intoxication. This way, the Sa:So was significantly higher for broilers<br />
exposed to 100 ppm of fumonisin than the negative control (+67%, P≤0.05). Meanwhile, the<br />
inclusion of ACC in the diet containing 100 ppm of fumonisin significantly diminished the Sa:So<br />
compared to birds exposed to 100 ppm of fumonisin (-30 and -31%, respectively with 0.25% and<br />
0.50% of ACC, P≤0.05).<br />
Clinical biochemistry<br />
Trial AFLA FUM<br />
Negative control 3.44 a 3.33 a<br />
Control with 0.50% ACC 3.48 a 3.36 a<br />
Mycotoxins 2.56 c 2.93 c<br />
Mycotoxins + 0.25% ACC 2.6 c 3.12 b<br />
Mycotoxins + 0.50% ACC 2.86 b 3.12 b<br />
Total plasma protein (TPP) is an indicator of toxin damage in the liver. As a consequence, TPP<br />
levels of broilers exposed to 2.8 ppm of aflatoxin or 100 ppm of fumonisin were lower than in<br />
the negative control (P≤0.05). No significant difference was observed in the presence of T-2/<br />
HT-2 toxins. The inclusion of 0.25% or 0.50% of ACC in the diets containing mycotoxins significantly<br />
increased the level of TPP (P≤0.05).<br />
Conclusion<br />
According to the evaluated parameters, the use of ACC (0.50%) significantly decreased the<br />
deleterious effects caused by very high levels of mycotoxin (2.8 ppm of aflatoxin, 2 ppm of T-2/<br />
HT-2 toxin or 100 ppm fumonisin) added to the broiler chicken feed during the experimental<br />
period of 21 days (P≤0.05)<br />
Bibliography<br />
Afssa, 2009. Evaluation des risques liés à la présence de mycotoxines dans les chaines alimentaires.<br />
pp 308<br />
Andretta I, Kipper M, Lehnen C.R, Lovatto P.A, 2012. <strong>Poultry</strong> Science 91 :376–38<br />
136
IS 12 The Real Truth on <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> and Management of Consumers<br />
Perception<br />
Christine Agnes<br />
Elanco Food Chain Leader EMEA<br />
City myths on foods is negatively influence the consumption of meat, milk and eggs and be a<br />
barrier for access of these foods by consumers.<br />
Based on the results of the survey, the ENOUGH Movement is sharing the “Truth About Food,”<br />
a digital and media driven program to put accurate, fact-based information in forums to spark<br />
discussion to dispel misunderstanding on April 29 th at the 4 th <strong>International</strong> White <strong>Meat</strong> <strong>Congress</strong>..<br />
Information about the campaign can be found at www.enough.com/truthaboutfood<br />
Conflicting sources of information about how our food is produced make it difficult for families<br />
to make smart choices about nutrition and health, according to a new study from the ENOUGH<br />
movement, carried out in 11 countries globally, including countries in Europe. The consumer<br />
survey measured understanding and knowledge of popular food and nutrition topics including<br />
product labels, farming methods, nutritional value and environmental impacts.<br />
Among the key findings in Europe: although food and nutrition is a frequent topic of discussion<br />
for more than 93% of the respondents – there is a lot of uncertainty of what food claims and<br />
labels mean. A majority of consumers report choosing foods labeled “all-natural” or “organic”<br />
despite not knowing what the labels mean in terms of environmental impact, animal welfare, and<br />
other metrics commonly associated with healthy food choices.<br />
“The farm-to-table movement has revealed that we all want to know what’s in our food and<br />
where it comes from,”. “But it’s hard to separate fact from fiction when it comes to food labels,<br />
farming practices, and other food production topics. Distinguishing myth from reality can make<br />
a big difference in the choices families make about nutrition, household budgets and environmental<br />
impact.”<br />
Key findings from the survey and the Truth About Food program include:<br />
Food labels are one of the most confusing topics for consumers.<br />
-Organic buyers main motivation is because 36% believe free of chemicals/pesticides and 17<br />
% belive its safer.<br />
– “Organic” is a type of farm management and food production that only allows natural<br />
products to be used, but it doesn’t mean “pesticide free.” For example, the use of a<br />
certain number of organic (i.e. derived from natural sources and processed lightly if at<br />
all before use)(1) pesticides is allowed in EU organic farming(2)<br />
– For example, the use of a certain number of organic (i.e. derived from natural sources<br />
and processed lightly if at all before use)(3) pesticides is allowed in EU organic farming(4)<br />
137
– Further, an analysis done by Stanford University on more than 237 studies concluded<br />
the quality, safety and nutrition content of organic and conventionally produced foods<br />
to be equal.(5)<br />
– When it comes to “natural”, in the UK for example it means that a product consists<br />
of natural ingredients, i.e. ingredients produced by nature, not the work of humans or<br />
interfered with by humans.(6)<br />
Consumers are confused about modern agriculture, farming, and food production.<br />
-85 percent of survey respondents believe that more organic production globally is one of the top<br />
three solutions to feeding the growing population.<br />
– In fact, organic farming produces less food – about 25 percent on average globally i .<br />
It requires significantly more land and resources to produce the same yield as modern<br />
farming methods.<br />
– If Europe would try to feed itself exclusively through organic agriculture (at constant<br />
consumption), it would need an additional 28 million hectares, more than all cultivable<br />
land of Tuırkey and equal to all the remaining forests covering France, Germany, Denmark,<br />
and Great Britain combined.(7)<br />
While organic methods use less fertilizer, herbicides and energy, modern farming methods resulted<br />
in less soil erosion with better yields 1 . In fact, modern farming practices are often the<br />
most environmentally sustainable, using innovation to decrease the amount of land, feed and<br />
water to raise meat, milk and eggs. In fact, today’s conventional chicken production in Europe<br />
saves the equivalent of the CO² emission of 250 000 cars/year in Europe (2% of total). Thanks<br />
to continuous improvement less feed is needed, the carbon footprint impact is reduced by half,<br />
while producing the same quantity of meat.(8)<br />
Food waste and loss is a top concern among survey respondents.<br />
-91 percent of people surveyed believe that the number one way to eliminate hunger globally is<br />
to eliminate food waste.<br />
– Food waste is a significant challenge we must address, but it’s only part of the problem.<br />
And we also have to look at food waste across the entire production system. According<br />
to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 30 to 40 percent of<br />
food is lost in production each year. (9)<br />
– In animals, more than 20 percent of production is lost to death and disease(10). Best<br />
management practices and tools that help keep animals healthy are critically important<br />
to this challenge.<br />
-Veterinary medicines and vaccines leads to 20% resource waste reduction(11).<br />
When it comes to what we eat, globally, consumers are most concerned about hormones, antibiotics,<br />
and generally food safety. With so much conflicting information, it’s no wonder. But<br />
we can put these fears to rest. Did you know?:<br />
138
– All living things contain hormones – people, plants, animals and therefore also the<br />
food we eat.<br />
– There are no hormones used in livestock production in Europe. Yet 73% of consumers<br />
believe there are and 66% belive hormons are carcinogen.<br />
– All animals have the right to be free from pain, injury or disease. If an animal is sick, it<br />
should be treated(12). However, regardless of whether an animal was sick and treated<br />
with an antibiotic at some time in its life or was raised antibiotic free, the food you buy<br />
is free from any harmful residue.<br />
– Globally, 87% of respondants thinks meat is important for healthy nutrition but, 78<br />
believe, protein from meat can be met by other sources. This rate is 80% for Turkish<br />
respondants.<br />
– Globally, 37% of respondants believe food quality is worse compare to 30 years ago.<br />
Notes to Editors<br />
The Truth About Food Survey was conducted within large cities in 11 different counties – United<br />
States, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, Turkey, Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, Argentina<br />
and Peru – between August 17 and 31, 2016 among 3,337 adults aged 20 and over (at least 300<br />
per country). This online survey was sponsored by Elanco Animal Health and conducted by<br />
Kynetec. For more information about the survey, please visit http://www.kynetec.com/.<br />
About the ENOUGH Movement<br />
It’s time to solve the greatest issue of our time: building a food-secure world. In order to achieve<br />
this goal, we must have the courage to work together to tackle this complex issue from all sides.<br />
We need to produce more food using fewer resources. We must support farmers as food producers<br />
as they make sustainable choices that are right for their business. We should empower consumers<br />
to make the healthy food choices that are right for them. We must supply the high-quality<br />
and nutritious food that will nourish our children and lead to better health and development. And<br />
we must foster the kind of international infrastructure that ensure food reaches the people who<br />
need it, wherever they are.<br />
The ENOUGH Movement is a global community working together to ensure everyone has access<br />
to nutritious, affordable food — today and in the coming decades. We’re consumers, farmers,<br />
businesses, activists, and everyday people — passionate people who believe in implementing<br />
practical solutions to build a food-secure world.<br />
References<br />
1)http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2015/557009/EPRS_<br />
BRI(2015)557009_EN.pdf<br />
2)Annex II of implementing Regulation No 354/2014 amending and correcting Regulation No<br />
889/2008 on organic<br />
production and labelling.<br />
139
3)http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2015/557009/EPRS_<br />
BRI(2015)557009_EN.pdf<br />
4) Annex II of implementing Regulation No 354/2014 amending and correcting Regulation No<br />
889/2008 on organic<br />
production and labelling.<br />
5) https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2012/09/little-evidence-of-health-benefits-from-organic-foods-study-finds.html<br />
6) https://www.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/multimedia/pdfs/markcritguidance.pdf<br />
7)http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2015/557009/EPRS_<br />
BRI(2015)557009_EN.pdf<br />
8) http://www.bco2.fr/dt_auto_053.htm<br />
9)http://www.fao.org/in-action/seeking-end-to-loss-and-waste-of-food-along-production-chain/<br />
en/<br />
10)http://www.oie.int/for-the-media/editorials/detail/article/feeding-the-world-better-by-controlling-animal-diseases/<br />
11)http://www.ifaheurope.org/ifah-media/publications/313-infographic-healthy-animals-key-to-sustainable-food-production.html<br />
12) http://www.aspcapro.org/sites/pro/files/aspca_asv_five_freedoms_final_0_0.pdf<br />
i<br />
http://www.nature.com/articles/nature11069.epdf?referrer_access_token=J-HjaLXND-<br />
Qv21P-tSdmTT9RgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0OOiOFJwg8AGydfsSIsPdDn7zNlaZeoGs2l_OGI5sxL2Lv8XrQHVUPp8sSZFsWRScVn1hxWQbRNLq4o4gvU5TAhFWPNkLZhXmJrNP9Q5a3Vp5JcwvtVo15Z9f-83JiLl8y67rFDOdYEggGGqr47ZPBQtx9Bh0X-<br />
S8aUmEAyV6IeFTIQ0ON3m4jZ0qVjMpoigFBhiJKTIwZUAMaMeTmgtmn7C&tracking_referrer=www.scientificamerican.com<br />
ii<br />
https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/is-organic-agriculture-really-better-for-the-environment/2016/05/14/e9996dce-17be-11e6-924d-838753295f9a_story.html?utm_term=.602589c92d2f<br />
140
O 26 A Public Survey on Consumer Habits Related to Label Informations<br />
of Packaged Raw <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> and It’s Evaluation by Turkish Food<br />
Regulation<br />
Sibel Özcakmak<br />
Provincial Directorate of Agriculture and Livestock, Samsun, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Food manufacturer marketing food under its own name or trade name is responsible for food labeling<br />
and must provide on the food of the obligatory labeling information and should ensure its<br />
accuracy. Information in accordance with Turkish Food Codex (TFC) on Labeling on prepackaged<br />
food or on a label affixed to the packaging must be presented to the final consumer. Manufacturers<br />
that produce raw poultry meat production (including shredding/packaging) have to do packaging<br />
and labeling of the products considering the requirements of TFC <strong>Meat</strong> and <strong>Meat</strong> Products Notification,<br />
A Regulation of Special Hygiene Rules For Animal Food. In this study, a public survey was<br />
made to determine which information most interested in purchasing packaged poultry meat products<br />
for sale on the market of the consumers and also it was assessed whether the label information<br />
considering the legislations selected randomly at collective sale places for different 12 trademarks<br />
with 35 of these group products was appropriate. The survey was conducted on a https://www.<br />
google.com/intl/en_US/forms/about/ page, face-to-face and via social media, with a total of 264<br />
people. Participants were asked to grade the questions on the questionnaire according to their importance<br />
by 10 points, as well as to express opinions and thoughts on other topics. The results were<br />
evaluated according to the arithmetic mean obtained by arranging the frequency table. According<br />
to the results, it has been determined that 75-98% of the participants were great importance to the<br />
date of last consumption, the name of the manufacturer, the conditions of cleaning and product<br />
storage in the sales department. The only 31% of them was great importance to the Manufacture’s<br />
Certification Number, 70.1% of them didn’t consider the Party Serial Number to be insignificant,<br />
59% of them thought that it was not important for the products to have organic or good agricultural<br />
practices. Among the statements mentioned elsewhere, it was stated that the chickens were not<br />
raised in the natural environment; they prefer not to consume it because they were grown with<br />
needle. So far as the results obtained regarding the suitability of the label information to the legislations;<br />
all product labels contained the statements regarding storage conditions, but some product<br />
labels included statements covering storage conditions for both fresh and frozen products, not with<br />
respect to the present physical condition. It was observed that some products had superseded similarities<br />
(such as chickens being cut off by individual feeding) than the others. Some of them didn’t<br />
have address information for the firms that generate supremacy. The manufacturers of processing<br />
meat and meat products must have Veterinarian, Food Engineers, Agricultural Engineers (Food<br />
Department) anyway as the necessary personnel to be employed in accordance with the article of<br />
22/7 in Law No.5996. The presence of this information on the label does not constitute a superiority<br />
in terms of product safety, and it can also cause a perception of superiority in the consumer<br />
about products with the same characteristics. Excluding these determinations, it was observed that<br />
labeling and packaging have been carried out in accordance with all other legal requirements.<br />
Key words: Raw poultry meat, Law No.5996, Labelling Regulation.<br />
141
O 27 Consumption Habits of <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> and Products in Konya Region<br />
of Turkey<br />
Mehmet Uyar, Yasemin Durduran, Lütfi Saltuk Demir, Reyhan Evci, Özlen Tekin, Zehra<br />
Diker, Tahir Kemal Şahin<br />
Necmettin Erbakan University, Faculty of Medicine Meram, Department of Public Healthy<br />
Abstract<br />
Chicken meat for regular and balanced feeding, one thing to be consumed is one of the most<br />
important animal protein sources.<br />
This study was carried out to determine consumption habits, qualities, production levels and<br />
types related to advertisements and advertisements in Konya. This descriptive study has been<br />
applied to individuals aged 18 years or older at the 5 family health centers in the central province<br />
of Konya.<br />
116 people participated in the survey. The median age of participants was 36. The proportion<br />
of chicken meat produced with organic methods was found to be 45.7% and the rate of those<br />
who had knowledge about industrial chicken meat production was found to be 31.3%. 56.9%<br />
of chicken meat is easy to prepare, 31.9% is healthy and your preference is stated. Half of the<br />
news about chicken meat on the spot (58 people) was adversely affected in the media and 52<br />
people were not affected. 62.9% of the advertisements related to chicken meat were not affected.<br />
75.2% of the participants stated that they did not feed on the healthy diet of the chickens, 54%<br />
thought the chicken meat was safe, 85.2% the chicken meat was hormone and 61.3% thought it<br />
was halal chickens.<br />
Although it is not influenced by visual and written media in the beginning, it affects the news<br />
both positively and negatively. Chicken is in the first place because it is delicious, easy to prepare,<br />
cheap. The most of participants think that chicken meat is hormone but the safe at the same<br />
time.<br />
142
O 28 Evaluation of <strong>Poultry</strong> Sector in Terms of Occupational Health and<br />
Safety<br />
Çakır M 1 . Ocaktan E 2 .<br />
1<br />
Hopa Community Health Center<br />
2<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Public Healthy<br />
Abstract<br />
The aim of occupational health is to provide the development and maintenance of physical,<br />
mental and social wellbeing of employees at the highest level. Risk control and consistency of<br />
human and work studies must be necessary in order to reach this aim. Around 1.3 billion workers<br />
are employed in agriculture industry an this population is nearly equal to 50% of industry and<br />
this population is nearly equal to 50 % of the whole employment in the world. <strong>Poultry</strong> sector is<br />
an important part of agriculture industry, which keeps a significant place in animal food production<br />
industry. Occupational health and safety condition becomes an important topic from day to<br />
day in poultry sector which is a potential ascending economy. Number of studies related with<br />
occupational health and safety in this sector are rare. Studies related with working environment,<br />
risk factors, health status of workers and implemented measures are required in this sector. In<br />
this study it is aimed to detect occupational health and safety practices and health status of the<br />
workers in a poultry plant. Descriptive type study was carried out in a poultry plant in Bolu and<br />
reached to 625 workers. Significance level of statistical analysis was taken p
IS 13 Diagnosis Failures of Respiratory Diseases in Broiler Chickens and<br />
Key Strategies<br />
Güney Gökçelik,<br />
Protect Lab., İstanbul, Turkey<br />
Whenever the issue is “respiratory problems” we immediately receive the standard complaints<br />
from our practitioner veterinarian colleagues and producers: difficulty in breathing, panting,<br />
sneezing, wheezing, gurgling, etc. and the next thing we inevitably hear is the growl of the boss:<br />
But what exactly is the problem?!<br />
Differential Diagnosis Is Not Easy, Because:<br />
The respiratory systems of modern broilers which are genetically forced for fast growth and<br />
weight gain, fail to keep pace with this accelerated corporal development and this situation is<br />
further aggravated by a multitude of highly effective predisposing factors:<br />
Predisposing Factors<br />
Bird Associated Factors<br />
Environmental Factors<br />
Nature of the respiratory system Physical factors (dust, heat, moisture,<br />
ventilation)<br />
Age<br />
Chemical factors (gasses, nutrition)<br />
Genetic factors<br />
Biological factors (social stressors,<br />
Immunity<br />
growing conditions)<br />
Avian respiratory system and function are very different than mammalian (comparable to<br />
air vs water cooled engines):<br />
As shown in the following chart, the inhaled air first reaches the abdominal air sacs and the<br />
four stage moisture, heat, gas exchange process can be described as the “water cooled” system.<br />
Therefore the air sacs will be infected before the onset of pneumonia. This will render impossible<br />
the treatment of the air sacs - where the blood vessels are sparse - and consequently of the<br />
bird.<br />
144
Could “age” be of help in diagnosis…<br />
It should be noted that maternally transmitted Mg activity may express clinical signs only after 2<br />
weeks. Due to the robust immunity of the breeders, ND and IB infections are hardly seen during<br />
the first weeks. Agents such as ART and ORT can become clinically visible only after day 10<br />
or so. On the other hand, Aspergillosis which may appear within the first 3 days is an indication<br />
of hatchery contamination. This will recede in about 15 days but flock uniformity will remain<br />
impaired. Later cases of Aspergillus infection are related either to the housing or to the litter and<br />
they will be more persistent.<br />
“Dry” or “wet” cough signs cannot provide a clear clinical differentiation:<br />
Typical observations in problematic houses are morbid birds and swollen heads.<br />
As shown in the following photographs the swellings in the heads are associated with inflammations<br />
or edema. They can also be consequences of each other. Therefore, a definitive diagnosis<br />
based solely on swollen head will be premature.<br />
145
While torticollis is typical in NDV and AIV infections, it will often be observed also in ART<br />
infections complicated with encephalitis.<br />
While, difficult inhalation with stretched out neck is typical in chicks with Aspergillosis, it<br />
is also the clinical sign of early IBV infection cases.<br />
146
Although conjunctivitis (slanted eye) is a typical sign of ART infection, ammonia factor<br />
must not be overlooked.<br />
In necropsy the tracheas will always appear affected and will present various degrees of<br />
haemorrhage. However, as the complications will aggravate the level of bleeding this cannot<br />
serve as a clear diagnostic sign.<br />
It is still disputed whether E.Coli is a primary infectious agent or main cause of complications.<br />
Let us reflect on this issue: The broiler is living in a house where billions of agents are<br />
swarming around and furthermore 10 5 -6 /gr of the bird’s intestinal microbiota is Coli of which<br />
15% is pathogenic…?<br />
It is quite uncommon that signs of airsacculitis, pericarditis, perihepatitis be associated with<br />
a single factor such as E.coli. A thorough investigation is needed to rule out any possibility of<br />
complication and to be sure that the primary factor is not masked.<br />
147
Could “incubation time” be of help in diagnosis…?<br />
Incubation Times of Common Diseases<br />
ILT<br />
IBV<br />
NDV<br />
ART<br />
Coryza<br />
Mg<br />
E.coli<br />
…to further complicate the issue:<br />
4 – 12 days<br />
18 - 36 hours<br />
3 – 6 days<br />
6 – 12 days<br />
1 -3 days<br />
4 days – 3 weeks<br />
1 – 3 days<br />
· In necropsies we commonly make the mistake of looking at the signs of the complications<br />
instead of the primary factors;<br />
· We create pathognomic changes by continuing vaccinated / unvaccinated, treated /<br />
untreated production that blur the classic clinical signs;<br />
· We fail to evaluate epidemiological reports and share information with our neighbours<br />
to determine regional issues in order to engage in joint action with them to counteract<br />
the problems;<br />
· Since we don’t archive the results of routine serology tests, in case of problems<br />
we need to wait the emergence of antibodies or repeat the tests. We fail to perform<br />
slaughter age serology tests on all suspect flocks so that we can determine the measures<br />
we must adopt for the next cycle;<br />
· We do not make full use of determinative capabilities of PCR.<br />
Treatment Also Becomes A Challenge Because…<br />
· It is a hard fact that in every case of economic difficulty the first expense cuts are<br />
made on health controls;<br />
· Due to diagnostic difficulties listed above we fail to adopt the necessary measures fast<br />
enough;<br />
148
· Effective medication cannot always be possible due to price concerns or withdrawal<br />
period requirements.<br />
Prevention<br />
And we must never forget; “pharmacoeconomics” is not trying out cheap drugs<br />
but finding the correct treatment in a cost effective way!<br />
1. Biosecurity<br />
2. Biosecurity<br />
3. Biosecurity<br />
4. Accurate diagnosis<br />
5. Right vaccine – Right time – Right application<br />
149
IS 14 Diagnosis, Prevention and Control of Infectious<br />
Laryngotracheitis(ILT) in Broilers and Broiler Breeders<br />
Barış Sareyyüpoğlu<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Ankara,<br />
Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is an upper respiratory tract infection of chickens caused by<br />
an alphaherpesvirus, Gallid herpesvirus tiype 1 (GaHV-1). This virus may cause significant<br />
economic losses to poultry industry due to decreased weight gain, decreased egg production, and<br />
mortalities in broilers, broiler breeders and layer chickens.<br />
Different epidemiological and clinical forms of ILT, continuing virus spread by latent carriers<br />
and/or recovered birds in long-lived production types such as broiler breeders and layers, probable<br />
role of vaccines in spreading of ILT virus, gaining virulence in the field, and even emergence<br />
of new viruses, lax biosecurity, lack of collaboration between institutions in the control of disease<br />
could be the main factors effecting the proper control of ILT.<br />
Recent ILT cases observed in Turkey as well as in other countries of the world, created the<br />
necessity for re-evaluation of methods used in identification, prevention and control of ILT.<br />
For this reason, distinguishing characteristics of the disease, present identification methods, ILT<br />
vaccines, prevention and control strategies, as well as implications on regarding subjects will be<br />
briefly discussed in this review.<br />
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O29 Frequency of Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV) S1 Genotypes In<br />
Chickens and Development of ELISA by Using Recombinant IBV-N<br />
Protein<br />
Hüseyin Yılmaz 1 , Utku Y. Çizmecigil 1 , Aydın Gürel 2 , Bonto Faburay 3 , Burhan Çetinkaya 4 ,<br />
Özge Aydın 1 , Juergen A. Richt 4 , Nuri Turan 1<br />
1<br />
İstanbul University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Virology, İstanbul,<br />
2<br />
İstanbul University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pathology, İstanbul,<br />
3<br />
Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas<br />
State University, Manhattan, USA<br />
4<br />
Fırat University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Elazığ, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The avian coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (AvCoV-IBV) is recognized as an important<br />
global pathogen because new variants are a continuous threat to the poultry industry worldwide.<br />
Hence, the European Union has started a prevention and control action (COST FA-1207). In<br />
line with this action, this project (Number: 113O411) was supported by TUBITAK. The aims of<br />
this project were detection of S1 variants of infectious bronchitis virus, phylogenetic analyses,<br />
production of recombinant N protein by cloning IBV-N genes and development of an in-house<br />
ELISA test for diagnostic purposes by using the recombinant N protein produced in our laboratory.<br />
For these purposes, between 2014 and 2016, internal organs or tracheal swabs were taken<br />
from 108 broiler and 26 layer flocks (4-5 samples for each farm) located in different regions<br />
in Turkey and the virus isolation was performed. AvCoV-IBV RNA was detected in 98 (91%)<br />
broiler flocks and 16 (61%) of the layer flocks by TaqMan real-time RT-PCR. A phylogenetic<br />
tree based on partial S1 sequences of the 73 detected AvCoV-IBVs in broiler flocks revealed that<br />
viruses detected in 2 (2.7%) samples were similar to the 793/B genotype, 59 (80.8%) samples to<br />
Israeli variant-2 genotype, 10 (13.6%) samples to Ma5, M41, H120 genotypes, 2 (2.7%) samples<br />
to Morocco strain genotype and 1 (1.3%) sample to D274 genotype. Phylogentic analyses of<br />
partial S1 gene of IBV detected in 8 layer fams showed that viruses detected in 1 (12.5%) sample<br />
was similar to Massachuset and 7 (87.5%) 793/B, Israeli variant-1 genotypes. Recombinant<br />
IBV-N protein was produced by cloning of N gene of Israeli variant-2 in Baculovirus system<br />
and SF9cells. A band of 52-54 kDa was observed on Western immunobloting with recombinant<br />
N protein. Studies were conducted to develop an in-house ELISA test using recombinant N protein.<br />
The newly developed ELISA test was compared with the commercial IBV-ELISA test kit.<br />
Concordance was found in data obtained from both tests. These results indicate that the ELISA<br />
test developed by our laboratory can be used to detect IBV antibodies in chicken sera in the field.<br />
In conclusion, Israeli variant-2 genotypes of IBV were mostly determined in samples taken<br />
from chickens. Epidemiological studies should be performed before vaccination to determine<br />
IBV genotypes and variants to dtermine which vaccine to be used to get a better immunity to<br />
protect chickens against circulating genotypes around the region. dtermine which vuseful to use<br />
vaccines that can protect against genotypes circulating in the region. Also, mutations and recombinations<br />
in IBV viruses need to be monitored. ELISA developed in our laboratory can be used<br />
to detect IBV antibodies in chickens.<br />
151
IS 15 Nutritional Modulation of Broiler Intestine in Starter Period and<br />
Intestinal Integrity<br />
Zehava Uni<br />
Hebrew University, Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Department<br />
of Animal Science, Israel<br />
Summary<br />
Gut health which is characterized by intestinal integrity, intestinal microflora, mucin and enterocyte<br />
functionality, may be of greatest concern among poultry producers because it has a great<br />
influence on the growth performance and welfare of poultry, as it affects feed digestion, nutrient<br />
absorption, protein and energy utilization, immunity and disease resistance.<br />
A critical period in the lifespan of the broiler is the first week post hatch (starter period) were<br />
chicks are commonly fasted for the first 36 to 72 h post hatch (because of the logistics of commercial<br />
production), their digestive tract is not fully developed with low ability to digest absorb<br />
and assimilate nutrients. Moreover, their intestinal microbial community is not established yet<br />
and enables the colonization of the photogenic bacteria.<br />
The current presentation describes several nutritional manipulations which promote the intestinal<br />
development and influence intestinal microflora and gut integrity<br />
Introduction<br />
The immediate post hatch developmental period represents a significant phase in attaining quality<br />
broiler performance at marketing. An efficient transition period from late term embryo to<br />
a viable independent chick is necessary for achieving results. Post hatch birds must develop<br />
intensively their intestinal ability to digest and absorb, to make a shift from egg and embryonic<br />
nutrients to exogenous feed and to establish the “right” microflora. Under practical conditions<br />
many birds have access to feed only 36-72 h after moment of hatch and during this time body<br />
weight decreases, intestine and muscle development is retarded. Moreover, as the modern broiler<br />
lines are intensively selected for a higher growth rate and increased pectoral muscles, there is<br />
an enhanced requirement of chicken embryos for energy and protein. Accordingly, some of the<br />
challenges faced by broilers chicks include weakness, reduced feed intake, impaired growth,<br />
susceptibility to disease, and mortality. These symptoms may be due to immature digestive<br />
system unable to reload depleted energy reserves from consumed feed, to limitations in some<br />
nutrients in the first day’s post hatch and to luck of beneficial bacteria which promote the development<br />
of the intestine.<br />
Maintaining gut integrity and health and efficient growth performance in poultry is a priority.<br />
A stable enteric ecosystem, particularly in the hind gut of poultry, is essential as symbiotic microflora<br />
competitively excludes the adverse effects of more pathogenic species. Establishment<br />
of stable ecosystem depends on uncompromised early intestinal development, gut motility conditioning<br />
by the structural properties of feed and strategic use of organic acids, essential oils,<br />
prebiotics, probiotics, and enzymes.<br />
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Narrative<br />
Intestinal development<br />
The transition from embryo to independent chick is mediated by processes that occur during the<br />
critical period of a few days pre- and post-hatch. During this period, chicks make the metabolic<br />
and physiological transition from egg nutrients (i.e. yolk sac and amniotic fluid) to exogenous<br />
feed.<br />
Immediately post-hatch, the chick draws from its limited body reserves and undergoes rapid<br />
physical and functional development of the GIT in order to digest feed and assimilate nutrients.<br />
Therefore, the sooner the GIT achieves its functional capacity, the sooner the young bird can<br />
utilize dietary nutrients and efficiently achieve its genetic growth potential, while resisting infectious<br />
and metabolic diseases.<br />
An exploration of intestinal development shows that the GIT develops throughout incubation,<br />
but the functional abilities of the small intestine only begin to develop 3 days before hatch.<br />
Towards the end of incubation, extensive morphological, cellular and molecular changes occur<br />
in the intestine. Research in broiler embryos has shown that during the last days of incubation<br />
there is a significant increase in the weight of the intestine relative to embryonic weight (1.4% at<br />
17 days of incubation to 3.4% at hatch). Activity and RNA expression of brush-border enzymes,<br />
which digest disaccharides (sucrase-isomaltase) and small peptides (aminopeptidase), and of<br />
major transporters (sodium-glucose transporter and ATPase), begin to increase a few days before<br />
hatch and continue to increase on day of hatch.<br />
In the first two days’ post hatch chick the small intestinal mucosa appears to be immature and not<br />
fully developed. However, later on, from day 3 to day 10, the intestinal mucosa exhibit organization<br />
and establishment of the crypt region, a several-fold increase in villus height and area, an<br />
increase in the number and polarity of enterocytes and maturation of the goblet cells, which are<br />
capable of producing both acidic and neutral mucins.<br />
The immediate post-hatch period seems to be critical for intestinal development. Decreased<br />
development was found when chickens were fasted for 36 to 48 h post-hatch. This “fasting”<br />
condition is a common situation in the poultry industry. Since chicken embryos have a wide<br />
“hatching window”, commercial hatcheries do not remove birds until the maximum number of<br />
eggs have hatched; thus, chick age at exit from the hatchery averages more than 1 day. Hatchery<br />
treatments such as sexing, vaccination and transport to farms result in an additional time lag<br />
before birds receive first access to food and water. Thus, most chicks are fasted for 48 h or more<br />
before their first access to feed.<br />
The concept that meanwhile this process the yolk sac can maintain the hatchling, until stable<br />
feeding becomes available, is not proper for the current fast growing breeds. It has been shown<br />
that 36 to 48 h of fasting immediately post-hatch decreases enterocyte number, crypt size, the<br />
number of crypts per villus, crypt proliferation, villus area, rate of enterocyte migration, goblet-cell<br />
size and mucin dynamics. This withholding of feed also results in a decrease in growth at<br />
an early age and lower body weight (BW) and proportion of breast muscle at marketing.<br />
Modulating the functional development of the chicken intestine<br />
Since access to feed soon after hatch is critical for the development of the intestine and its digestive<br />
capacity there is a need to feed the hatchlings as soon as they hatched. A large body of<br />
knowledge shows that “feeding” the embryo 3 days before hatch ( by in ovo feeding methodology;<br />
Uni and Ferket 2003 ) accelerate enteric development and its capacity to digest nutrients. By<br />
injecting an isotonic in ovo feeding (IOF) solution into the embryonic amnion, the embryo can<br />
153
naturally consume supplemental nutrients orally before hatching. In ovo feeding, “jump-start”<br />
and stimulate intestinal development to begin earlier than would otherwise occur after<br />
Microflora in the chicken intestine<br />
Composition of intestinal microflora, definition and characterization of healthy intestinal ecosystem,<br />
examples for modifying intestinal microflora by feed and by feed additives and ways<br />
for early establishment of microflora to form healthy intestine is a hot topic nowadays in poultry<br />
production. Traditionally, intestinal health has been largely dependent on prophylactic and<br />
therapeutic uses of antibiotics. However, today as a result of customers’ concern about food<br />
safety and traceability and due to increasing antibiotic-resistance pathogenic bacteria – there are<br />
voluntary or legislated limits on the use of antibacterial feed additives for poultry. Therefore, a<br />
change in the methods to maintain good intestinal health is one of the major aims in poultry and<br />
veterinary research.<br />
Modulating gut health is possible by several mechanisms. Among them are altering intestinal<br />
pH; maintaining protective intestinal mucins; selection for beneficial intestinal organisms or<br />
against pathogens; enhancing the fermentation volatile short-chain fatty acids; enhancing nutrient<br />
uptake; and increasing the humeral immune response (Ferket, 2003).<br />
Since AGPs mainly targeting the gut microflora population, manipulation of the intestinal microbial<br />
flora profile, by other ways, may apply similar health benefits and growth promoting effects<br />
as AGPs. Strategic use of different feed additives can be used to stabilize the enteric ecosystem.<br />
These enteric conditioning feed additives include probiotics, prebiotic non-starch polysaccharides,<br />
essential oils, organic acids and short-chain fatty acids, mananoligosaccharide (MOS)<br />
derivatives of yeast cell wall, and microbial enzymes.<br />
Microbes in the gut and intestine may be grouped into either commensal organisms or transient<br />
and potential pathogens. The commensals are adapted to the host environment and are often<br />
considered beneficial by providing vitamins, amino acids, and short-chain fatty acids to the host:<br />
acetate, butyrate, and succinate are commonly produced, with butyrate being the preferred energy<br />
source for host epithelial cells. The normal microbiota also militates against pathogens by<br />
mechanisms that are not yet fully understood.<br />
Cultivation techniques limit the ability to define the intestinal micobiota. However, molecular<br />
techniques based on determining DNA and RNA sequences similarity of selected genes within<br />
microbial community are being used successfully to detect and characterized microbiota. Previous<br />
studies consist on culturing methods have been replaced with new methgenomic approaches<br />
for defining population biodiversity and their relative abundantly. Using 16s rRNA analysis on<br />
chicken GIT, revealed that groups of Clostridiales, Bacteroidaceae, Lactobacillaceae, Enterococcaceae,<br />
Porphyromonadaceae, Eubacteriaceae, Ruminococcaceae, Lachnospiraceae, Veillonellaceae<br />
and Rikenellaceae were dominant (Tang et al., 2014). Analysis in our lab indicated<br />
that in young chicks (4 d) the major species presented in the small intestines and ceca was<br />
Lactobacilli, with a Bifidobacteria population becoming more dominant in the ceca at older age<br />
while Clostridium was detected only in some segments of the small intestine. In older chickens,<br />
Salmonella, Campylobacter, and E. coli species were found in the ceca (Amit-Romach 2004).<br />
This microflora has a role in nutrition, detoxification of certain compounds, growth performance,<br />
and protection against pathogenic bacteria. The intestinal microflora lives in close contact with<br />
its surrounding intestinal wall (enterocyte epical membrane, mucin, intestinal immunity) as well<br />
as with other bacteria that may exert beneficial or harmful effects on the host, depending on<br />
whether they are classified as symbiotic or as pathogens. The interaction is determined on one<br />
154
hand by characteristics of the microorganisms (e.g. type of microorganism), and on the other<br />
hand by characteristics of the intestinal wall (e.g. level of intestinal immunity). Together they<br />
determine the health status of the intestine.<br />
A healthy gut is one that has a stable and diverse microbial ecosystem. The criteria for desirable<br />
microflora is not high or low presence of specific microbial species but a bacterial community<br />
which have a significant influence on animal performance.<br />
Modulating the intestinal microflora and intestinal integrity by feed and feed additives<br />
Diet formulation and feed form affect the colonization of enteric pathogens. Structural properties<br />
of the feed that stimulate gizzard motility has been demonstrated to promote reverse peristalsis,<br />
thereby improving the foregut digestion of proteins, fat, and starches leaving little for<br />
competitive microbiota to prosper. In contrast, viscous non-starch polysaccharides that impede<br />
reverse peristalsis and digestion of protein, fat, and starches in the foregut of poultry will cause<br />
the competitive microbiota (pathogens) to grow.<br />
Essential oils have been recognized for their anti-microbial activity (Lee et al., 2004), and they<br />
have gained much attention for their potential as alternatives to antibiotics. Lee and Ahn (1998)<br />
found that cinnamaldehyde, derived from the cinnamon essential oil, strongly inhibits Clostridium<br />
perfringens and Bacteroides fragilis in vitro, and moderately inhibits Bifidobacterium<br />
longum and Lactobacillus acidophilus. Also, a wide range of in-vitro anti-microbial activities<br />
of essential oils derived from cinnamon, thyme and oregano were presented during the last 10<br />
years. The exact anti-microbial mechanism of essential oils is poorly understood; it may be associated<br />
with their lipophilic property and chemical structure (Lee et al., 2004). To be as effective<br />
as growth promoters, these herbal antimicrobial compounds must be supplemented to the feed<br />
in a more concentrated form than found in their natural state, which will increase usage costs.<br />
Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients, which beneficially affect the host by selectively<br />
stimulating the growth of one or limited number health-promoting bacteria in the GIT (Gibson<br />
and Roberfroid 1995, Roberfroid 2007). Prebiotic selectively utilized by endogenous microbial<br />
population groups such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli leads to changes, both in the composition<br />
and/or activity in the GIT microflora that confers benefits upon host well-being and health.<br />
Moreover indirectly, prebiotic treatment may have immunomodulatory (Babu et al., 2012) effects<br />
by enhanced the IgM and IgG antibody titers in plasma (Janardhana et al., 2009). These<br />
findings emphasize the multisystem involved by bacteria gut modulation. Prebiotics refers<br />
groups are: trans-galacto-oligosaccharide, fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS), Xylo-oligosacchrides,<br />
Mannan-Oligosaccharides (MOS), inulin and lactulose.<br />
MOS: During the past years, poultry feed industry has proceeded to non-pharmaceutical alternative<br />
additive, mannan-oligosaccharide, which constructs the yeast cell wall. Comprehensive<br />
data-pulling from 1993 to 2003 of bird feed with Bio- MOS (Alltech Inc. from the yeast Saccharomyces<br />
cerevisiae) indicated that MOS reduced mortality in bird as much as antibiotics (Hooge<br />
2004). Since MOS have high affinity to ligands, it’s acting as lectin, offering a competitive<br />
binding site rather than intestinal epithelial cells for bacteria attachment (Ofek et al., 1977).<br />
Several studies have demonstrated the benefits of adding MOS to broiler diets, improved gut<br />
morphology in features such as villus length and villus area (Iji et al., 2001; Baurhoo et al., 2007<br />
a,b); Solis de los Santos et al., 2007), growth performance characteristics such as body weight,<br />
feed-conversion rate and apparent metabolized energy (Hooge, 2004; Rosen, 2007; Yang et al.,<br />
2007a;Yang et al., 2007b; Yang et al., 2008a; Yang et al., 2008b). Adding MOS to the poultry diet<br />
also exhibited beneficial changes in intestine and performance (Oliveira, M. C., et al. 2008), in<br />
mucin secretion and in goblet cell number per villus (Baurhoo et al., 2007a,b; Solis de los Santos<br />
et al., 2007), in digestibility and brush-border enzyme activity (Yang et al., 2007a,b) and in gut<br />
155
immune responses (Newman, 1994; Kocher et al., 2004; Baurhoo et al., 2007a,b). Furthermore,<br />
MOS has been shown to alter the gut microflora (Fernandez et al., 2000; Baurhoo et al., 2007) by<br />
reducing the number of pathogenic bacteria that colonize the GIT (Spring et al., 2000; Fernandez<br />
et al., 2002). Work to study MOS’s molecular interaction on broilers intestinal transcriptome was<br />
investigated by Affymetrix microarrays. Results indicated that a cell energy production, death,<br />
and protein translation were altered. Further pathway analysis indicated up-regulation of oxidative<br />
phosphorylation, cellular stress response, and immune processes cycles (Xiao et al., 2012).<br />
Fiber-degrading enzymes supplementation has become a standard practice in the poultry industry,<br />
largely driving by the rising feed ingredient costs. Supplemental enzymes in the feed are<br />
used to achieve the following aims: alleviate the adverse effects of anti-nutritional factors (such<br />
as arabinoxylans, b-glucans); extract certain nutrients more available for absorption and enhance<br />
the energy value of feed ingredients and also modulate intestinal microflora to a healthier state<br />
(Engberg et al., 2004).<br />
Probiotics: Probiotic microorganisms increase the colonization of commensal bacteria at the<br />
lower intestinal tract and inhibit growth of potentially pathogenic microorganisms by competitive<br />
exclusion (Nurmi and Rantala, 1973). Competitive exclusion of commensal microflora<br />
against pathogens include: 1) lowering the pH through production of lactate, lactic acid and<br />
short-chain fatty acids (SCFA); 2) competing for gut lining attachment and available nutrients;<br />
3) producing bacteriocins; 4) stimulating the gut associated immune system through cell wall<br />
components (Nousiainen and Setala, 1998); and 5) increasing the production of SCFA, which<br />
have bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties (Fuller, 1977) and stimulate intraepithelial lymphocytes,<br />
and natural killer cells (Ishizuka and Tanaka, 2002; Ishizuka et al., 2004). Thus, probiotics<br />
have been shown to improve performance, decrease mortality, and improve FCR of poultry.<br />
Most commercial probiotic products are composed of pure defined cultures of one or more micro-organisms.<br />
Thus, prebiotic is also known as defined competitive exclusion cultures. Defined<br />
competitive exclusion cultures given to broilers have been shown to decrease Salmonella Typhimurium<br />
(Corrier et al., 1995). Also, undefined competitive exclusion products originating from<br />
adult intestinal microbiota are usually inoculated to 1-day-old chicks in order to control of Salmonella<br />
contamination (Mead, 2000). Another recent publication (Zhang and Kim (2014) states<br />
that dietary supplementation with multi-strain probiotics improved broiler growth performance,<br />
ileal amino acids digestibility, and humoral immunity. Furthermore, the probiotics decreased the<br />
cecal numbers of E. coli and decreased the NH3 content of excrete.<br />
Many recent publications demonstrated the multifunction of probiotic bacteria on GIT epithelium:<br />
Altering the broiler GIT epithelium morphologic and cell development (Rodríguez-Lecompte<br />
et al., 2012); Stimulate the Immune system (Brisbin et al., 2012, Rajput et al., 2014);<br />
Influences on tight junction dynamic proteins component (Ulluwishewa et al., 2011) and alter<br />
mucus secretion (Smirnov at el., 2005).<br />
It should be noticed that Probiotics have some disadvantages in comparison to other modulators<br />
of enteric microflora (Fooks et al., 1999; Isolauri et al., 2004) as they may have a short<br />
shelf-life and sensitivity to excessive heat and pressure during feed processing. Some probiotic<br />
microorganisms may be reduced or eliminated by the low pH in the gizzard, and thus have little<br />
effect in the lower intestinal tract where pathogens pose problems. If a probiotic is added to the<br />
drinking water, the chlorine sanitizer may adversely affect its survivability. Acidification would<br />
be a better sanitizer than chlorine when delivering a probiotic via the drinking water. Coating<br />
technology has helped with some of these concerns.<br />
Synbiotics : The combinations of prebiotics and probiotics are known as synbiotics (Patterson<br />
and Burkholder, 2003). Study showed that supplementation of broiler diets with a prebiotic<br />
MOS and a probiotic-mixture significantly increased the body weight gain with slightly im-<br />
156
proved feed conversion ratios, compared with the un-supplemented control (Falaki et al., 2011).<br />
Conclusions<br />
Challenges faced by broilers chicks in the starter week include weakness, reduced feed intake,<br />
impaired growth, susceptibility to disease, and mortality. These symptoms may be due to immature<br />
digestive system unable to reload depleted energy reserves from consumed feed, to limitations<br />
in some nutrients in the first day’s post hatch and to luck of beneficial bacteria which<br />
promote the development of the intestine.<br />
This microflora has a role in nutrition, detoxification of certain compounds, growth performance,<br />
and protection against pathogenic bacteria. The intestinal microflora lives in close contact with<br />
its surrounding intestinal wall (enterocyte epical membrane, mucin, intestinal immunity) as well<br />
as with other bacteria that may exert beneficial or harmful effects on the host, depending on<br />
whether they are classified as symbiotic or as pathogens.<br />
Maintaining gut integrity and health and efficient growth performance in poultry is a priority.<br />
Establishment of stable ecosystem depends on uncompromised early intestinal development,<br />
gut motility conditioning by the structural properties of feed and strategic use of organic acids,<br />
essential oils, prebiotics, probiotics, and enzymes.<br />
Modulating gut integrity for the starter period and afterwards is possible by several mechanisms.<br />
Among them are in ovo feeding with specific nutrients, altering intestinal pH; maintaining protective<br />
intestinal mucins; selection for beneficial intestinal organisms or against pathogens; enhancing<br />
the fermentation volatile short-chain fatty acids; enhancing nutrient uptake at early age<br />
; and increasing the humeral immune response<br />
References<br />
Amit-Romach, E., D. Sklan, and Z. Uni. 2004. Microflora ecology of the chicken intestine using<br />
16S ribosomal DNA primers. Poult Sci 83:1093-1098.<br />
Babu, U. S., K. Sommers, L. M. Harrison, and K. V. Balan. 2012. Effects of fructooligosaccharide-inulin<br />
on Salmonella-killing and inflammatory gene expression in chicken macrophages.<br />
Vet Immunol Immunopathol 149:92-96.<br />
Baurhoo, B., A. Letellier, X. Zhao, and C. A. Ruiz-Feria. 2007a. Cecal populations of lactobacilli<br />
and bifidobacteria and Escherichia coli populations after in vivo Escherichia coli<br />
challenge in birds fed diets with purified lignin or mannanoligosaccharides. Poult Sci<br />
86:2509-2516.<br />
Baurhoo, B., L. Phillip, and C. A. Ruiz-Feria. 2007b. Effects of purified lignin and mannan oligosaccharides<br />
on intestinal integrity and microbial populations in the ceca and litter of<br />
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160
O 30 Effects of Paenibacillus Xylanexedens on Growth Performance<br />
and Intestinal Histomorphology in Broiler Chickens Challenged With<br />
Escherichia Coli K88<br />
Burcu Ekim 1 , Ahmet Ceylan 2 , Ali Calik 3 , Pinar Sacakli 3<br />
Life Sciences Research and Application Center, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey<br />
2<br />
Department of Histology Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ankara University,<br />
Turkey<br />
3<br />
Department of Animal Nutrition & Nutritional Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ankara<br />
University, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study investigated the effects of dietary Paenibacillus xylanexedens supplementation on<br />
growth performance and histomorphology in broiler chickens challenged with Escherichia coli<br />
K88. A total of 320 one-day-old male broiler chickens were randomly allocated to 4 experimental<br />
groups with each group comprising 8 replicate pens containing 10 birds each. The treatments<br />
were as follows: negative control (NC) birds were fed a corn-soybean meal basal diet and not<br />
challenged with E. coli K88; positive control (PC) birds were fed a basal diet and challenged<br />
with E. coli K88; Paenibacillus xylanexedens treatment (PRO) birds were fed a basal diet supplemented<br />
with 1 × 10 9 P. xylanexedens cfu/kg feed and challenged with E. coli K88; and colistin<br />
sulphate treatment (ANT) birds were fed a basal diet supplemented with 20 mg of colistin sulphate/kg<br />
of feed and challenged with E. coli K88. The E.coli K88 challenge decreased BWG in<br />
PC birds compared with the ANT birds on d 21 (P = 0.039) and 28 (P = 0.007). Feed conversion<br />
ratio was improved by dietary P. xylanexedens and colistin sulphate supplementation on d 14,<br />
21 and 28 (P
To our knowledge, the effect of P. xylanexedens on infected broilers have not been investigated.<br />
The present study evaluated the effects of P. xylanexedens on growth performance and intestinal<br />
epithelium integrity in broiler chickens challenged with E. coli K88.<br />
Materials and Methods<br />
Animal Care and Use:All experimental procedures were approved by the Animal Ethics Committee<br />
of Gazi University (G.Ü.ET-15.049).<br />
Birds, Diets, and Experimental Design:Three hundred and twenty 1-day-old male broiler<br />
chicks (Ross 308), with average weight of 40.51 ± 1.94 (Mean ± SD), were obtained from a<br />
commercial hatchery (Beypiliç, Bolu, Turkey). The birds were randomly allocated to 4 experimental<br />
groups, with each group comprising 8 replicate pens containing 10 birds each. Birds were<br />
housed in a controlled environment for 28 d. The ambient temperature was thermostatically<br />
controlled and gradually decreased from 32 to 35°C on the first day, to 22°C when the broilers<br />
were 3-weeks-old. The temperature was maintained at 22°C thereafter. The treatments were<br />
as follows: negative control (NC) birds were fed a corn-soybean meal basal diet and not challenged<br />
with E. coli K88; positive control (PC) birds were fed a basal diet and orally challenged<br />
with of E. coli K88; Paenibacillus xylanexedens treatment (PRO) birds were fed a basal diet<br />
supplemented with 1 × 10 9 P. xylanexedens cfu/kg feed and orally challenged with E. coli K88;<br />
and colistin sulphate treatment (ANT) birds were fed a basal diet supplemented with 20 mg of<br />
colistin sulphate/kg of feed and orally challenged with E. coli K88. E. coli K88 was provided<br />
by Ankara University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Microbiology. Birds in<br />
PC, PRO, and ANT treatment groups were orally gavaged with 0.1 mL E. coli K88 (2 × 10 9<br />
cfu/mL) on d 7 and 0.5 mL mL E. coli K88 (2 × 10 9 cfu/mL) on d 10, 14 and 21. The negative<br />
control birds were administrated similarly with the same amount of 0.9% saline solution. The<br />
birds of each treatment placed individual rooms to prevent cross-contamination. The rooms had<br />
same condition throughout the study. The starter and grower diets were based on maize-soybean<br />
meal and were offered to the birds from 0 to 14 and 15 to 28 d of age, respectively (Table 1). All<br />
diets were formulated to meet or exceed NRC (1994) nutrient recommendations. Each pen was<br />
equipped with a manual plastic feeder and nipple drinker. Water and the experimental diet (in<br />
mash form) were provided ad libitum throughout the experimental period.<br />
Experimental Protocol:All chicks were individually weighed and feed intake (FI) was recorded<br />
at weekly intervals. Body weight gain (BWG), FI, and the feed conversion ratio (FCR) were<br />
subsequently calculated based on performance values. At 28 d of age, one bird from each replicate<br />
was selected according to the average body weight of each treatment group. Birds were<br />
euthanized by exsanguination and the intestinal tract was immediately removed. Tissue samples<br />
were obtained from the jejunum and ileum for histomorphological analysis.<br />
Morphological Measurements of the Jejunum and Ileum:Tissue samples in the formalin<br />
solution were dehydrated in graded ethanol solutions, cleared with xylol, and then embedded<br />
in paraffin. The intestinal segments were sectioned at a thickness of 5 μm with a microtome.<br />
Cross sections were prepared and stained with Mallory’s triple stain, as modified by Crossman,<br />
in order to determine the jejunal and ileal morphometry (9). Villus height was measured from the<br />
top of the villus to the crypt mouth, and crypt depth was defined as the depth of the invagination<br />
between adjacent crypt mouths. Villus width was measured at the bottom of the villus.<br />
A total of 10 well-oriented villi and crypts were randomly selected for histological measurements.<br />
Histological sections were examined under a light microscope (Leica DM 2500, Leica<br />
Microsystems GmbH, Wetzlar, Germany) and photographed with a digital microscope camera<br />
(Leica DFC450, Leica Microsystems GmbH, Wetzlar, Germany). The images were evaluated<br />
using the ImageJ software (US National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD).<br />
162
Table 1. Ingredients and composition of basal diet<br />
Basal Diet<br />
0-14 d 15-28 d<br />
Ingredient, g/kg<br />
Corn 549.40 575.00<br />
Soybean meal, CP 48% 375.00 342.40<br />
Vegetable oil 33.00 44.00<br />
Limestone 5.00 3.60<br />
Dicalcium phosphate 24.50 23.40<br />
DL-Methionine (98%) 3.60 3.15<br />
L-Lysine HCI (78%) 3.00 2.35<br />
L-Threonine 1.50 1.10<br />
Salt 2.50 2.50<br />
Vitamin premix 1 1.00 1.00<br />
Mineral premix 2 1.00 1.00<br />
Cholin chloride 0.50 0.50<br />
Total 1000 1000<br />
Chemical composition (Calculated)<br />
Dry Matter, % 87.93 87.93<br />
Crude Protein, % 23.04 21.57<br />
AME n , kcal/kg 3006 3105<br />
Lysine, % 1.44 1.30<br />
Methionine + cysteine, % 1.08 0.99<br />
Threonine, % 1.00 0.90<br />
Calcium, % 0.97 0.88<br />
Available phosphorus, % 0.48 0.44<br />
1<br />
Provided per kilogram of complete diet: vitamin A, 15,000 IU; vitamin D3, 5,000 IU; vitamin<br />
E, 100 mg; vitamin K3, 3 mg; thiamin, 5 mg; riboflavin, 8 mg; pyridoxine, 5 mg; pantothenic<br />
acid, 16 mg; niacin, 60 mg; folic acid, 2 mg; biotin, 200 µg; vitamin B12, 20 µg.<br />
2<br />
Provided per kilogram of complete diet: Cu, 16 mg; I, 1.5 mg, Co, 500 µg; Se, 350 µg; Fe, 60<br />
mg; Zn, 100 mg; Mn, 120 mg; Mo, 1 mg.<br />
Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA) Staining:Immunohistochemical staining was<br />
performed on the stored 4-µm thick formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue sections. Tissue<br />
sections were placed on poly-L-lysine microscope slides (Thermo Scientific, Braunschweig,<br />
Germany). The microscope slides were then placed in an oven at 37°C overnight and deparaffinized<br />
with xylene and rehydrated through graded alcohols. Endogenous peroxidase activity<br />
was blocked by quenched with H 2<br />
O 2<br />
(3% in methanol) for 30 min. The sections were pre-treated<br />
by heating for 20 min in 0.01 M citric acid buffer (pH 6) in a microwave oven at 800 W. After<br />
cooling for 20 min at room temperature, tissue sections were washed with PBS and incubated<br />
with 10% normal goat serum for 30 min for protein blocking to prevent the non-specific binding<br />
of antibodies, followed by incubation with the primary antibody to PCNA (MAB424, mouse anti<br />
PCNA monoclonal antibody, PC10 clone; EMD Millipore, Darmstadt, Germany) at dilutions of<br />
1:100 overnight at 4 ºC. After incubation with the primary antibodies, the tissue sections were<br />
washed with PBS and incubated with a biotinylated secondary antibody (Goat anti-rabbit IgG,<br />
Invitrogen) for 30 min at room temperature. Negative control experiments were performed by<br />
replacing the primary antibodies with PBS. After a PBS wash, tissue sections were incubated<br />
using a streptavidin horseradish peroxidase kit (Histostain-Plus IHC Kit, HRP, broad spectrum,<br />
Invitrogen, USA) for 30 min at room temperature. Final PBS was followed by incubation for<br />
163
color development 3,3-diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride (DAB, Invitrogen, USA) for 3 min<br />
at room temperature. Tissue sections were counterstained with Gill’s hematoxylin, dehydrated<br />
in graded alcohols, applied to a coverslip using Entellan (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany), and examined<br />
with a Leica DM2500 light microscope. All images were captured with a digital camera<br />
(Leica DFC450) and processed with Image J. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen positive nuclei<br />
of total crypt epithelial cells on ten different randomly selected intact crypts, regardless of the<br />
staining intensity, were counted as described by Bologna-Molina ve ark. (10).<br />
Statistical Analysis:Data were analyzed using the ANOVA procedure of the SPSS software,<br />
version 14.01 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). Significant differences among treatment groups were<br />
tested by Tukey multiple range tests. Statistical differences were considered significant at P ≤<br />
0.05.<br />
Results<br />
Growth Performance:The E.coli K88 challenge decreased BWG in PC birds compared with<br />
the ANT birds on d 21 (P = 0.039) and 28 (P = 0.007) (Table 2). Feed intake were increased (P<br />
= 0.028) in PC birds in comparison to NC birds on d 14. No significant differences in FI was<br />
observed on d 7, 21, and 28. The FCR was higher in PC birds compared with the unchallenged<br />
birds and PRO and ANT birds on d 14 (P = 0.004), 21 (P < 0.001), and 42 (P < 0.001).<br />
Table 2. Effects of Paenibacillus xylanexedens on growth performance in broilers. 1<br />
Dietary treatment 2<br />
Item 3 NC PC PRO ANT SEM P-value<br />
0 to 7 d<br />
BWG (g) 128.3 128.6 128.2 129.0 0.18 0.392<br />
FI (g) 141.9 144.4 143.4 144.3 0.88 0.754<br />
FCR 1.106 1.122 1.119 1.118 0.01 0.881<br />
0 to 14 d<br />
BWG (g) 358.7 354.6 362.8 368.3 1.92 0.063<br />
FI (g) 425.1 b 446.8 a 434.7 ab 439.7 ab 2.72 0.028<br />
FCR 1.185 b 1.261 a 1.199 b 1.194 b 0.01 0.004<br />
0 to 21 d<br />
BWG (g) 797.2 ab 751.7 b 784.4 ab 803.4 a 7.09 0.039<br />
FI (g) 1013 1009 996 1016 6.41 0.711<br />
FCR 1.271 b 1.343 a 1.270 b 1.267 b 0.01
Table 3. Effects of Paenibacillus xylanexedens on intestinal morphology and PCNA–positive<br />
cells of the jejunum and ileum on d 28. 1<br />
Dietary treatment 2<br />
Item NC PC PRO ANT SEM P-value<br />
Jejunum<br />
Villus Height (µm) 1067 a 910.4 c 985.1 b 1016 ab 13.58
coli K88 challenge influenced small intestine morphology by decreasing villus height and crypt<br />
depth in jejunum and ileum. Moreover, dietary supplementation of Paenibacillus xylanexedens<br />
was effectively reduced negative effect of E. coli K88 on intestinal lining. In agreement with<br />
previous study results Wang ve ark. (11) observed that yeast supplementation improved intestinal<br />
integrity under challenged conditions. It can be assumed that, aforementioned improvements<br />
in intestinal integrity may be related to the beneficial effect of Paenibacillus xylanexedens on<br />
intestinal microflora population which influenced the differentiation and proliferation of enterocytes.<br />
Intestinal epithelial cells have a short lifespan and need to be replaced rapidly and continuously<br />
via the replication of undifferentiated cells. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen, also known<br />
as cyclin or DNA-polymerase delta auxiliary protein, is an endogenous nuclear protein that is<br />
used to identify replicating cells in tissues (15-17). Increased villus height is directly related to<br />
higher epithelial turnover (18) and activated cell mitosis (19). The improvements in intestinal<br />
integrity in the present study are presumably related to the positive effects of Paenibacillus<br />
xylanexedens administration on intestinal epithelial cell turnover in the crypt region, which supports<br />
the growth of beneficial bacteria.<br />
In conclusion, the results of present study revealed that enterepathogenic E. coli K88 decreased<br />
growth performance of broiler chickens, however dietary supplementation of Paenibacillus xylanexedens<br />
improved intestinal integrity and alleviate the growth suppression effect.<br />
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concentrations of broiler chickens. J Sci Food Agri 2014; 94: 341-348.<br />
15. Foley J, Ton T, Maronpot R, Butterworth B, Goldsworthy TL. Comparison of proliferating<br />
cell nuclear antigen to tritiated thymidine as a marker of proliferating hepatocytes in rats. Environ<br />
Health Persp 1993; 101: 199-205.<br />
16. Gulbahar MY, Yuksel H, Guvenc T, Okut H. Assessment of proliferative activity by AgNOR<br />
and PCNA in prostatic tissues of ram lambs implanted with zeranol. Reprod Domest Anim 2005;<br />
40: 468-474.<br />
17. Uni Z, Platin R, Sklan D. Cell proliferation in chicken intestinal epithelium occurs both in<br />
the crypt and along the villus. J Comp Physiol B 1998; 168: 241-247.<br />
18. Fan YK, Croom J, Christensen VL, Black BL, Bird AR, Daniel LR, McBride BW, Eisen EJ.<br />
Jejunal glucose uptake and oxygen consumption in turkey poults selected for rapid growth. Poult<br />
Sci 1997; 76: 1738-1745.<br />
19. Samanya M, Yamauchi KE. Histological alterations of intestinal villi in chickens fed dried<br />
Bacillus subtilis var. natto. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2002; 133: 95-104.<br />
167
O 31 Effects of The Mixture of Essential Oils and Organic Acids on<br />
Performance and Intestinal Histomorphology in Broilers<br />
Bülent Özsoy 1 , Handan Eser 2 , Sakine Yalçın 3 , Suzan Yalçın 4 , İlyas Onbaşılar 5<br />
1<br />
Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Nutrition<br />
and Nutritional Diseases, Hatay,<br />
2<br />
Abant İzzet Baysal University, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, <strong>Poultry</strong> Science,<br />
Bolu,<br />
3<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Nutrition and Nutritional<br />
Diseases, Ankara<br />
4<br />
Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Food Hygiene and Technology,<br />
Konya,<br />
5<br />
Hacettepe University, Faculty of Medicine, Laboratory Animal Breeding and Research Unit,<br />
Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of dietary additive containing essential<br />
oils wıth organic acids on performance and intestinal histomorphology in broilers. A total of<br />
300 Ross 308 broiler male chicks aged one day were divided into one control group and two<br />
treatment groups each group containing 100 chicks. Each group was divided into 5 replicates, as<br />
subgroups, each comprising 20 chicks. The experimental period lasted 39 days. Basal diet was<br />
supplemented with the additive containing essential oil with organic acids (NafOil Anti Plus,<br />
thyme oil, orange oil, garlic oil and organic acids, Biotem Ltd Company). Additive was added at<br />
0.1 and 0.2% to the first and second treatment groups, respectively. Dietary supplementation of<br />
additive containing thyme oil, orange oil, garlic oil and organic acids didn’t affect the final body<br />
weight, body weight gain, feed intake and feed efficiency during the 39 days of experimental<br />
period. Livability was increased significantly with the usage of additive. Supplementation of<br />
essential oil-organic acid mixture increased the ratio of villus height to crypt depth in jejenum,<br />
villus height and depth in ileum. As a conclusion effectiveness of the mixture of essential oil and<br />
organic acids (NafOil Anti Plus) could be more pronounced when the additive is supplemented<br />
into diets in suboptimal conditions due to improvement in livability and intestinal development.<br />
Keywords: Broiler, essential oils, organic acids, performance, intestinal histomorphology<br />
168
O 32 The Effect of Intra-Amniotic Co-Enzyme Q10 Administration on Liver<br />
Oxidation, Fatty Acid Profile of Transported Hatchlings and Post-Hatch<br />
Performance of Broiler<br />
Shahram Golzar Adabi * , Ali Calik , *1 , Pinar Sacakli *<br />
*<br />
Cargill CPN, Istanbul, Turkey † Department of Animal Nutrition & Nutritional Diseases, Faculty<br />
of Veterinary Medicine, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was investigated the effects of intra-amniotic Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) administration<br />
on hatching performance, liver oxidation, liver fatty acid profile of transported hatchlings<br />
and also post-hatch performance of broiler chickens. Total of 480 eggs, containing viable embryos<br />
were divided into 5 groups of 96 eggs each. The embryonic amnion was injected according<br />
to the following treatment descriptions; NC = Negative Control (not injected); PC = Positive<br />
Control (injected with 0.1 mL olive oil); Q5 = 0.5 mg/0.1 mL CoQ10 in 0.1 mL olive oil; Q10 =<br />
1 mg/0.1 mL CoQ10 in 0.1 mL olive oil; Q20 = 2 mg/0.1 mL CoQ10 in 0.1 mL olive oil. After<br />
sampling, remaining hatchlings were transported for 6 h with an average speed of 80 km/h. Prior<br />
to transportation, a total of 150 broiler hatchlings were randomly allocated to 5 experimental<br />
groups (based on with 5 replicate pens containing 6 birds per each. The administration of intra-amniotic<br />
CoQ10 to the embryonated eggs on E17 did not affect hatchability and hatching<br />
weight. Liver MDA level linearly decreased (P ≤ 0.001) with the increasing level of CoQ10.<br />
Intra-amniotic CoQ10 inclusion had a positive effect on FCR at d 0 to 11 (P = 0.001). Our results<br />
show that intra-amniotic administration of CoQ10, as an antioxidant, reduced transport stress<br />
and improved broiler early growth performance.<br />
1<br />
Contribution was equal to that of the first author<br />
Introduction<br />
Chicken embryonic development happens in egg and all the nutrient needs are met by egg yolk<br />
and white that accumulated within the egg for the development of a healthy hatchlings (1).<br />
During the 21-d incubational period, an intense transfer of yolk polyunsaturated fatty acids<br />
(PUFA) results in a preferential incorporation of 20- and 22-carbon long-chain PUFA in the<br />
tissues of newly hatched chicks (2). Due to highly PUFA nature of the chick embryonic tissue,<br />
such system need antioxidant defense mechanism (1,3).<br />
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is a lipophilic molecule composed of a quinoid head and a hydrophobic<br />
tail, which contains 10 isoprenoid units (4). Coenzyme Q10 present in both animal and plant<br />
cellular membranes and this compound plays two major functions as an electron carrier in the<br />
mitochondria respiratory chain and as a lipid soluble antioxidant<br />
Transportation is an essential part of the intensive poultry production and responsible to a different<br />
degree of stress to birds, ranging from mild discomfort to death (5). During the transportation,<br />
birds may encounter several stressors such as handling by humans, feed withdrawal,<br />
169
noise, vibration thermal changes, social disruption, crowding, and restriction of movement (6,7).<br />
Transport alters both metabolism and physiological state of the birds which involves changes in<br />
concentration of several hormones, enzymes, blood and muscle metabolism, and immune function<br />
of the domesticated animals (5,8). Exceptionally from the other production animals, poultry<br />
hatchings transported at very early life which makes them more vulnerable to several stressors<br />
(9,10). Degree of the transport stress that exposed at early ages might have detrimental effect in<br />
broiler future performance (11). However, most of the studies focused on pre-slaughter transport<br />
stress and based on our knowledge, there is very little evidence about post-hatch transport stress<br />
and how intra-amniotic antioxidant administration effect on liver antioxidant status and early<br />
broiler performance. Based on findings that also suggest beneficial antioxidant effect of CoQ10,<br />
two experiment was conducted to survey the effect of intra-amniotic CoQ10 administration. In<br />
experiment 1, fertile eggs were injected with different levels of CoQ10 to determine hatching<br />
performance, liver oxidation and liver fatty acid profile after hatchlings transportation. In experiment<br />
2, chicks from same incubational basket were randomly assigned and transferred to a floor<br />
pen for performance study.<br />
Material and Methods<br />
Experiment 1<br />
Incubation Procedures and In Ovo Administration:Nine hundred eggs (Ross 308) were<br />
obtained from a 36 wk old maternal flock in a commercial hatchery (Beypiliç A.Ş., Bolu, Turkey).<br />
On arrival, all eggs were individually weighed and 573 eggs with an average weight of<br />
61.43 ± 1.82 g (Mean ± SD) were selected and placed in the incubator under standard conditions.<br />
Prior to the injection, at 17 th d of incubation (E17), the eggs were candled and those unfertilized<br />
or with dead embryos were discarded and total of 480 eggs, with an average weight<br />
of 56.39 ± 1.93 (Mean ± SD) containing viable embryos were divided into 5 groups of 96 eggs<br />
each.<br />
The Coenzyme Q10 which used in current study was provided from Antiaging Institute of California<br />
(USA, California). Four glass cylinders containing olive oil were autoclaved (Systec<br />
D-90, Linden-Germany) for 20 psi for a period of 20 min by autoclave prior to use (12). Due<br />
to the fat soluble nature of the CoQ10, injectable solutions were prepared using sterile olive<br />
oil. Fatty acid profile of experimental olive oil is presented in Table 3. The location of amnion<br />
was previously marked through candling process on the day of injection (E17) and the site of<br />
injection was disinfected by ethyl alcohol. The injection was done through a hole on the side of<br />
air-cell chamber which was made by using a sterile 21-gauge needle. The embryonic amnion<br />
was injected according to the following treatment descriptions; NC = Negative Control (not<br />
injected); PC = Positive Control (injected with 0.1 mL olive oil); Q5 = 0.5 mg/0.1 mL CoQ10<br />
in 0.1 mL olive oil; Q10 = 1 mg/0.1 mL CoQ10 in 0.1 mL olive oil; Q20 = 2 mg/0.1 mL CoQ10<br />
in 0.1 mL olive oil.<br />
Intra-amniotic administration was performed by injecting the eggs with 0.1 mL of the test solution<br />
using self-refilling syringes (Socorex, Ecublens, Switzerland), in accordance with the method<br />
described by Tako et al. (13). The amount of time that the eggs were out of the incubator<br />
during the in ovo injection procedure was similar for all replicates. After injection, the injection<br />
holes were sealed with cellophane tape, and eggs were placed in hatching trays such that each<br />
treatment was equally represented in each location of the incubator (13).<br />
170
Hatch Sampling:At hatch, the number of live-hatched and non-hatched chicks was counted to<br />
determine hatchability of fertile eggs (%). Non-hatched eggs were opened to determine cause<br />
of death. All hatched chicks were weighed, sexed, leg banded and 16 male chicks from each<br />
treatment were randomly selected to determine the internal organ and residual yolk weights.<br />
Liver tissue were collected and stored at -20 o C to determine malondialdehyde (MDA) level and<br />
fatty acid (FA) profile (analysis procedures are detailed in the section describing Experiment 2).<br />
Road Transportation:Remaining hatchlings were leg banded and rood-transported in hatchery<br />
chick baskets. The baskets were loaded to a van and transported for 6 h with an average speed<br />
of 80 km/h. The journey covered highways, roads with traffic lights without any traffic. The<br />
ambient temperature was 33 to 35°C during transportation (7,14). After arriving, 8 male chicks<br />
per treatment were randomly selected, killed by cervical dislocation and liver tissue was excised<br />
and snap frozen in liquid nitrogen, and preserved at –80 o C for further analysis.<br />
Liver Fatty Acid Profile and Oxidation Level:The sample preparation for gas chromatography<br />
was according to the method presented by Wang et al. (15) with a little modification. Briefly,<br />
frozen liver sample tissues thawed at 4 °C and homogenized were homogenized and mixed<br />
with 4 ml anhydrous diethyl ether (contains 10 ppm BHT). The homogenates were vortexed<br />
for 1 min. After 1 hour, diethyl ether level was transferred to teflon-lined tubes and solvent was<br />
evaporated. Samples were dissolved in 2N NaOH-methanol (5 mL) in a 60 °C bath for 15 min.<br />
Subsequently, 2.175 mL of BF3-Methanol (10% w/w) was added and samples placed in 60 °C<br />
bath for 30 min. Fatty acid methyl esters were extracted with 1 mL hexane and 2 mL of saturated<br />
sodium chloride. After centrifugation (4000 rpm for 5 min) top layer were transferred to gas<br />
chromatography vials for analysis.<br />
Supernatants were analyzed by using gas chromatography (Shimadzu GC-2010, Shimadzu Co.,<br />
Kyoto, Japan) coupled with 30 m × 0.25 mm i.d. column (SP TM -2330, Supelco, Bellefonte, PA)<br />
and a flame ionization detector to determine FA methyl esters of yolk and liver samples. Conditions<br />
were as follows: injector: 250 °C; detector: 250°C; oven: 160 °C for 1 min increased to<br />
240°C (4°C/min), and held for 1 min. One microliter was injected automatically with a split of<br />
1:100. Each FA was identified in the form of a methyl ester by comparing the retention times<br />
with the F.A.M.E Mix C8-C24 (Supelco 18918-1AMP) methyl ester standard. Fatty acid peaks<br />
were identified by using pure standards. Those data were presented as relative percentage of total<br />
fatty acids.<br />
The extent of lipid peroxides in liver samples was assessed by measuring thiobarbituric acid<br />
according to the method described by Botsoglou et al. (16). A 1 ± 0.1 g sample was transferred<br />
into a 25-mL centrifuge tube, and volumes of 5% aqueous trichloroacetic acid (TCA; 4 mL) and<br />
0.8% BHT in hexane (2.5 mL) were added. The content of the tube was homogenized at 10000<br />
rpm for 1 min by means of an ultraturrax (IKA T25, Germany- Deutschland). The samples were<br />
centrifuged for 3 min at 3000g, and the top hexane layer was discarded. The bottom aqueous<br />
layer was made to 5-mL volume with 5% TCA plus the whole of the aliquot and a volume (3<br />
mL) of 0.8% aqueous TBA were pipetted into a stoppered test tube. The other stoppered test tube<br />
was prepared as a blank by adding a mixture of of 5 ml distilled water and 5 ml TBA reagent.<br />
The tube was cooled under tap water after a 30-minute incubation at 70 °C in a water-bath. Absorbance<br />
was measured at 521.5 nm aganist the blank (Shiamdzu UV-1208, UV-Vis, Japan). Results<br />
were expressed as milligrams malondialdehyde (MDA)/kg sample, were calculated from<br />
the standard curve of TEP (1,1,3,3-tetraethoxypropane) standard.<br />
171
Experiment 2<br />
Birds and Management:Male chicks (totally 150 day-old-chicks) from same incubational basket,<br />
with an average body weight (BW) of 42.04 g, were randomly allocated to 5 experimental<br />
groups with 5 replicate pens (90 × 80 cm; covered by wood shaving as a litter material) containing<br />
6 birds per each. Birds were housed in a controlled environmental house form day 0 to<br />
day 11. Ambient temperature was gradually decreased from 33-35°C to 28°C. All experimental<br />
procedures were approved by Animal Ethics Committee of Ankara University (2015-4-76).<br />
All treatments were fed on same commercial maize–soybean meal based starter diets from 0 to<br />
11 d of age (Table 1). Diet was formulated to meet or exceed NRC (17)DCNatl.<br />
Acad. Press and Aviagen<br />
(18) nutrient recommendations. Each pen was equipped with a manual plastic feeder and<br />
two automatic nipple drinker. Water and the experimental diet (in crumble form) were provided<br />
ad libitum throughout the experimental period. All chicks were weighted individually and feed<br />
intake (FI) was recorded at the end of 11 d. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) were subsequently<br />
calculated based on the performance values.<br />
Statistical analysis:In Experiment 1, a randomized complete block design was employed during<br />
incubation with each of the tray levels of the setter and each of the hatching basket levels in<br />
the hatcher, and with all treatments being equally represented in each block. Treatments were<br />
viewed as a fixed effect, and blocks as a random effect in the one-way ANOVA. An arcsine<br />
square root transformation was used for hatchability data to obtain normally distributed data.<br />
Repeatedly measured data regarding liver MDA level on d 0 (before and after transport) were<br />
analysed by the mixed model procedure of SAS software. In experiment 2, male hatchlings were<br />
randomly allocated to 5 experimental groups with 5 replicate of 6 birds placed in cage pens<br />
(90×80 cm). Data were analyzed using the 2-way ANOVA using the GLM procedure of the SAS<br />
software, version 9.2 (SAS institute, 2001). Polynomial orthogonal contrasts were individually<br />
carried out for all data to investigate the linear and quadratic trends. In addition, means were<br />
separated by the Tukey’s post hoc test. A probability value of less than 0.05 was considered significant,<br />
unless otherwise noted. All data are shown as mean values with pooled standard error<br />
of the mean (SEM).<br />
Results<br />
Hatchling Performance and Organ Weights:The effects of graded levels of intra-amniotic<br />
CoQ10 administration on hatchability (%), hatching weight, and internal organ and yolk weights<br />
are shown in Table 2. The administration of intra-amniotic CoQ10 to the embryonated eggs on<br />
E17 did not affect hatchability and hatching weight. However, significant quadratic responses<br />
in yolk (P = 0.03) and liver (P = 0.03) weight were observed with increasing level of CoQ10 at<br />
day of hatch.<br />
Fatty Acid Composition of Liver:The effects of graded levels of intra-amniotic CoQ10 administration<br />
on major fatty acid compositions of liver are shown in Table 3. Percentage of C14:0 in<br />
liver significantly decreased linearly (P = 0.002) with the increasing level of CoQ10. Apart from<br />
C14:0, no significant changes were observed for the rest of fatty acid in liver at day of hatch.<br />
172
Malondialdehyde Level of Liver on Day of Hatch :The effects of graded levels of intra-amniotic<br />
CoQ10 administration on MDA level acid compositions of yolk and liver are shown in Table<br />
4. Liver MDA level linearly decreased (P ≤ 0.001) with the increasing level of CoQ10. A lower<br />
MDA level (P ≤ 0.001) were found in hatchlings inoculated 0.5, 1, and 2 mg CoQ10 compared<br />
with those positive and negative control prior to transport.<br />
Posthatch Performance:Birds were in good health throughout the entire experimental period<br />
and there was no mortality during the experiment. The effects of intra-amniotic administration<br />
of CoQ10 on the growth performance of chicks are shown in Table 5. Intra-amniotic CoQ10<br />
inclusion had a positive effect on FCR at d 0 to 11 (P = 0.001) so birds from eggs with 2 mg/0.1<br />
mL (Q20) CoQ10 injection had the lowest FCR in compare other treatments. There was no significant<br />
effect on the growth performance of the birds in terms of BWG.<br />
Discussion<br />
During the normal hatchery practices, day old chicks are kept in hatching baskets between 24<br />
to 48 h until transport which results in some chicks being deprived of feed and water. Broiler<br />
chickens that maintained in intensive production systems are transported at least twice during<br />
their life span. Procedures and practices involved in transportation may influence broiler welfare<br />
status, immune system and performance due to the inevitable stressors that exposed during<br />
transport (10). In addition, growth performance might be affected negatively due to the transportation<br />
stress that exacerbate the depletion of yolk (9,10,19). Current evidence suggested that<br />
chicken embryo has two major antioxidant system that consisting of yolk derived and embryo<br />
synthesised which acting in harmony (20,21). In this context, we hypothesised that intra-amniotic<br />
CoQ10 administration could make a valuable contribution to this integrated antioxidant<br />
system by reducing transport stress and improving early life performance.<br />
In the present study, intra-amniotic CoQ10 administration did not affect hatchability or hatching<br />
weight of the birds. These findings are consistent with those of previous studies that reported<br />
that the inclusion of several nutrients (13,22,23) and active compounds (24,25). According to<br />
our results, inclusion of CoQ10 at up to 2 mg is well tolerated and had no detrimental effect on<br />
affect hatchability or hatching weight.<br />
Malondialdehyde (MDA) is the organic compound and it is a bio-marker of oxidative stress in an<br />
organism and an increase of MDA level demonstrates oxidative stress (26). MDA is a product of<br />
lipid peroxidation and used as an indicative for determination of lipid peroxidation. It has been<br />
shown the serum level of MDA has been decreased by dietary inclusion of the CoQ10 (27). In<br />
addition, the activity of superoxide dismutase was found to increase in CoQ10 supplementation<br />
at 40 mg/kg in broiler diet (28,29). In agreement with the previous studies, our results showed<br />
that intra-amniotic CoQ10 supplementation improved antioxidant status of the transported<br />
chicks and may influence the postpatch performance of the birds.<br />
Broiler hatchlings experience variety of stressors, such as transportation, handling etc., which<br />
affect their early life performance negatively. Our results showed that intra amniotic CoQ10 administration<br />
improved broiler performance in starting period by influencing broiler antioxidant<br />
status. Transportation of one-day old chicks, for 18 hours at 25ºC reduced the rate of subsequent<br />
growth to 45 days of age and some sustained biochemical changes compared with un-transported<br />
chicks (Pijarska et al., 2006). Our results show that intra-amniotic administration of CoQ10 as<br />
an antioxidant reduced transport stress and improved broiler early growth performance.<br />
173
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175
Table 1. Composition of basal diet and fatty acid profile of experimental oive oil 1<br />
Item<br />
Starter 0-11 d Feed composition (calculated and analyzed)<br />
Ingredient, %<br />
Chemical composition (calculated)<br />
Corn 51.81 ME, kcal/kg 3056<br />
Soybean meal (CP, 46%) 26.00 Crude protein, % 23.36<br />
Soybean (Full fat) 11.00 Lysine, % 1.49<br />
Corn gluten meal (CP, 60%) 4.00 Methionine + cysteine, % 1.09<br />
Soybean oil 1.80 Calcium, % 0.99<br />
Limestone 0.60 Available phosphorus, % 0.48<br />
Dicalcium phosphate 2.35 Chemical composition<br />
Methionine (88%) 0.28 (analyzed) Dry matter, % 88.00<br />
Lysine suphate (51%) 0.70 Crude protein, % 23.10<br />
L-Threonine 0.10 Crude fiber, % 3.80<br />
Salt 0.25 Crude fat, % 7.15<br />
Sodium bicarbonate 0.20 Starch, % 33.15<br />
Yeast 0.40 Suger, % 4.05<br />
Vitamin premix 2 0.10 ME, kcal/kg 5 3082<br />
Mineral premix 3 0.10 C14:0 0.53<br />
Organic acid 0.10 C16:0 35.66<br />
Anticoccidial 4 0.06 C18:0 13.33<br />
Enzyme 0.10 C18:1 cis-9 42.07<br />
Choline chloride 0.05 C18:2 7.40<br />
Total 100.00 Other fatty acids 1.01<br />
1<br />
As-fed basis. 2 Provided per kilogram of complete diet: vitamin A, 15,000 IU; vitamin D 3<br />
, 5,000<br />
IU; vitamin E, 100 mg; vitamin K 3<br />
, 3 mg; thiamin, 5 mg; riboflavin, 8 mg; pyridoxine, 5 mg;<br />
pantothenic acid, 16 mg; niacin, 60 mg; folic acid, 2 mg; biotin, 200 µg; vitamin B 12<br />
, 20 µg.<br />
3<br />
Provided per kilogram of complete diet: Cu, 16 mg; I, 1.5 mg, Co, 500 µg; Se, 350 µg; Fe, 60<br />
mg; Zn, 100 mg; Mn, 120 mg; Mo, 1 mg. 4 Sacox - Intervet, Inc., Millsboro, DE<br />
5<br />
Metabolizable energy (ME) content of diets was estimated according to the equation of Carpenter<br />
ve Clegg (30).<br />
Table 2. Effect of graded intra-amniotic CoQ10 administration on hatchability (%), hatching<br />
weight, and internal organ and yolk weights on day of hatch.<br />
Treatment 1 Statistics 2<br />
Item<br />
P-value for trend<br />
NC PC Q5 Q10 Q20 SEM P<br />
L Q<br />
Egg weight (E17), 56.48 56.37 56.35 56.36 56.37 0.09 0.99 0.41 0.40<br />
g Hatchability, % 92.71 91.67 90.62 90.62 91.66 1.21 0.98 0.73 0.63<br />
Chick weight, g 42.86 43.87 43.79 43.52 43.76 0.20 0.52 0.32 0.31<br />
Yolk weight, g 5.53 6.93 6.60 6.22 5.89 0.20 0.17 0.99 0.03<br />
Liver weight, g 0.98 0.93 0.94 0.93 1.01 0.01 0.20 0.53 0.03<br />
Heart weight, g 0.309 0.304 0.303 0.315 0.314 0.003 0.81 0.46 0.57<br />
Gizzard weight, g 1.93 1.82 1.80 1.83 1.92 0.03 0.55 0.97 0.08<br />
1<br />
NC = Negative Control (not injected); PC = Positive Control (injected with 0.1 mL olive oil);<br />
Q5 = 0.5 mg/0.1 mL Coenzyme Q10 in 0.1 mL olive oil; Q10 = 1 mg/0.1 mL Coenzyme Q10<br />
in 0.1 mL olive oil; Q20 = 2 mg/0.1 mL Coenzyme Q10 in 0.1 mL olive oil.<br />
2<br />
Polynomial contrasts: L = linear and Q = quadratic effect of injected Coenzyme Q10.<br />
176
Table 3. Fatty acid profile of experimental olive oil and effect of graded intra-amniotic CoQ10<br />
administration on major fatty acid composition of liver on day of hatch 1<br />
Treatment 2 Statistics 3<br />
Fatty acid<br />
Molecular<br />
P-value for trend<br />
formula Olive oil<br />
NC PC Q5 Q10 Q20 SEM P L Q<br />
Myristic C14:0 - 0.28 a 0.24 a 0.26 a 0.18 ab 0.12 b 0.01 0.008 0.002 0.074<br />
Palmitic<br />
C16:0<br />
11.87 11.41 11.45 10.46 10.92 10.90 0.22 0.24 0.32 0.22<br />
Palmtoleic<br />
C16:1<br />
0.52 1.24 1.14 1.11 1.12 1.06 0.03 0.41 0.08 0.61<br />
Stearic<br />
C18:0<br />
2.85 11.73 11.61 11.15 11.65 11.68 0.15 0.77 0.96 0.34<br />
Oleic<br />
C18:1 cis-9<br />
74.60 55.18 56.31 56.29 56.93 55.44 0.40 0.57 0.72 0.14<br />
Linoleic<br />
C18:2<br />
8.61 19.04 18.15 19.60 18.11 19.55 0.22 0.07 0.53 0.34<br />
Arachidic<br />
C20:0<br />
0.52 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.65 0.50 0.22<br />
Linolenic<br />
C18:3<br />
0.48 0.54 0.50 0.61 0.51 0.59 0.02 0.08 0.26 0.71<br />
-<br />
Others<br />
0.54 0.57 0.60 0.52 0.58 0.66 0.02 0.25 0.22 0.33<br />
1<br />
Data represent mean values of 16 replicates per treatment.<br />
2<br />
NC = Negative Control (not injected); PC = Positive Control (injected with 0.1 mL olive oil);<br />
Q5 = 0.5 mg/0.1 mL Coenzyme Q10 in 0.1 mL olive oil; Q10 = 1 mg/0.1 mL Coenzyme Q10 in<br />
0.1 mL olive oil; Q20 = 2 mg/0.1 mL Coenzyme Q10 in 0.1 mL olive oil.<br />
3<br />
Polynomial contrasts: L = linear and Q = quadratic effect of injected Coenzyme Q10.<br />
Table 4. Effect of graded intra-amniotic CoQ10 administration on liver MDA level on d 0 (before<br />
and after transport)<br />
Treatment 1 Statistics 2<br />
Item<br />
P-value for trend<br />
NC PC Q5 Q10 Q20 SEM P L Q<br />
d 0<br />
Before<br />
43.17 a 43.03 a 37.67 b 34.24 c 33.15 c 0.49
IS 16 Strategic Approaches of Brazil in the<br />
World <strong>Poultry</strong> Production<br />
Fadi Felfeli<br />
Banvit A.Ş. - General Manager / CEO<br />
The world meat consumption in 2015 is estimated to be at about 462 million tons. 38% of it is<br />
represented by fish, 24% by pork, 21,97% by chicken, 12% by beef, and about 5% by the other<br />
meat varieties.<br />
Chicken is the cheapest animal protein growing faster among all other meats. We can mention<br />
totally 97 million tons of consumption in the world. The US is the number one consumer with<br />
15% and China has the ratio of 13%, the EU 10%, Brazil 10%, while Turkey has only 2%. Turkey<br />
ranks number 12 in consumption of chicken in the world but it has a growing rate of CAGR<br />
(Compound Annual Growth Rate) which is faster than the world average. There is a parallel<br />
between per capita income and per capita meat consumption.<br />
When it comes to the world trade, Brazil produces approximately 13 million-ton chicken meat,<br />
consumes approximately 9.8 million tons, and exports 3.8 million tons of it. Brazil’s production<br />
in terms of the world trade has grown exponentially since early 2000. The biggest reason of<br />
Brazil for being the leader in the world trade is cost competitiveness. Sanitary conditions, high<br />
quality products, and products with high added value are the other significant factors.<br />
Brazil is one of the largest countries in the World. It is the 5 th largest country and has 8 million<br />
square kilometers of land. Moreover, Brazil is the second largest soybean producer in the world<br />
and very close to the number one; it ranks 3 rd in corn production. Brazil has the ability to produce<br />
two crops of corn per year while the rest of the world has only one crop. In addition, the fact that<br />
there are spaces between the farms in Brazil and that it is surrounded by trees which represent<br />
a natural barrier to prevent airborne diseases like bird flu constitutes the other issues that render<br />
Brazil advantageous.<br />
It is very interesting to look into Iraq as well. For Brazil, sales for Iraq have been declining in<br />
the past 5 years by 10.6% per year. This ensured that the Turkish poultry sector, which has done<br />
excellent job in Iraq for the last two years, became by far the leading exporter to Iraq. This is due<br />
to the advantage of the proximity of Turkey to Iraq in terms of logistics and the freshness of the<br />
products delivered. Brazil sells frozen products from stock to Iraq and the delivery would take at<br />
least 2 to 3 months. In terms of competitiveness, even the perception of Turkish Products in Iraq<br />
is doing very well and it is possible to sell at higher prices than Brazil with this good perception.<br />
When it comes to the halal market, the biggest import market is the Middle East. If we take<br />
the halal food and beverage expenditure as a segment, it represents 1.2 trillion-USD and it is<br />
bigger than China and the USA. Turkey is the largest market of halal poultry with 1,8 million<br />
ton consumption; Indonesia has the consumption of 1,4 million tons; Saudi Arabia, 1,4 million<br />
tons; Malaysia, 1 million tons; Egypt, 1 million tons; and Pakistan, 1 million tons. Indonesia has<br />
178
6 kilos per capita that is very low but they have 200 million-people population that makes it the<br />
second largest country. We see that in Saudi Arabia, this consumption figure is around 46-47 kg.<br />
Malaysia represents a very big market with 50 kilos per capita consumption and 30 million population.<br />
The consumption per capita in Indonesia is small and that of Malaysia is very big while<br />
Turkey has medium-level per capita. Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, and Kuwait have big consumption<br />
per capita and they depend on import. Saudi Arabia is the second largest market with a very<br />
big consumption per capita but it has only around 45% of local production and it also relays on<br />
import with around 50%.<br />
What brings these countries together here is that all of these countries are large markets and have<br />
potential for growth. The difference between Turkey and these other markets is that Turkey is a<br />
much more structured, modern market. Turkey has a big potential to play a big role on the halal<br />
market and everywhere in the world.<br />
179
IS 17 Management of Precise Broiler Production in Farm Level and<br />
Technology Usage<br />
David Speller<br />
Applied <strong>Poultry</strong>, UK<br />
Summary<br />
Farming broilers today has some very real challenges, namely birds are reaching their kill<br />
weights quicker, the profits from farming chicken are under pressure, technology is developing<br />
faster than the industry can keep up with, recruiting and retaining good farm managers is very<br />
difficult and the industry needs to use less medication whilst maintaining bird welfare and productivity.<br />
A new way of farming that is more focused on precision and technology maybe the answer<br />
but this will require a fresh way of thinking and an adjustment in the way business invest and<br />
operate. There is a possibility to invest in technology, commit time and resources to using data<br />
outputs from technology as a business tool and starting to have ways of reliably forecasting<br />
what the birds require. The potential of this new approach is that we will be aware of things well<br />
before the birds show any actual physical symptoms.<br />
This approach will allow for not only improved productivity but clearly also further improved<br />
bird welfare.<br />
Introduction<br />
Globally chicken meat is fast becoming one of the, if not the, most eaten meat proteins. Consumers<br />
globally like the versatility and consistency of the product. However consumers also like the<br />
cost of the product meaning that it is difficult to add value beyond smaller niche sectors within<br />
the industry. This means that whilst demand for the product is rising and production volumes are<br />
rising the economic returns for the farmer are becoming in real terms less each year. For farming<br />
businesses to survive going forward they need to ensure that they are getting the absolute best<br />
performance from their birds and at the same time meeting the demands of the consumer.<br />
Modern broiler production requires the traditional stockmanship skills of the past but this may<br />
not be enough on its own. Bird performance and bird welfare require attention 24 hours a day, 7<br />
days a week and as technology evolves there is a real possibility of enhancing our current practices<br />
by predicting what is going to happen over the coming days not just watching and seeing<br />
what happens followed by a reaction to the symptoms. The industry has a real opportunity to<br />
become proactive not reactive.<br />
Never has this been more important than today when as all meat protein production is under<br />
real pressure to reduce the usage of antibiotics in the production systems. At present antibiotics<br />
offer one of the few options for reactive intervention when detrimental symptoms are seen in our<br />
birds. Sensible and appropriate antibiotic usage is generally considered good for animal welfare<br />
and good for the farming business however with rising pressures to get usage to an absolute<br />
minimum we must learn more about our birds and learn it quicker to allow us to utilise other<br />
alternatives such as probiotics for animal gut health.<br />
180
Design of a Facility<br />
When considering a fresh approach to farming broiler chickens many things start with the design<br />
of the chicken farm and its environment for the birds. Important aspects to consider include biosecurity<br />
measures. Biosecurity is clearly understood by all to be the first defence in protecting indoor<br />
reared poultry from disease challenges. The best biosecurity designs ensure that staff fulfil<br />
the requirements every time the enter a premises no matter for what they are entering or for how<br />
long they plan to be in there. This requires staff training in awareness but also for the facility to<br />
be designed to make the use of biosecurity measures as simple and straight forward as possible.<br />
Bird Behaviour<br />
In evaluating design features of our broiler units it is also essential that we consider the birds<br />
themselves and understand what they truly desire from their environment. Recent advances in<br />
technology have allowed us as farmers to better understand the specific needs of the birds. For<br />
example evidence on farm has shown that birds will consume more feed and water to the outer<br />
edges of a broiler house than in the middle area. Why then do we evenly space feed and water<br />
access across a house if more want access to the outer areas? Other behavioural data has also<br />
shown a natural digression of bird activity through the 24 hour day and so we need to design<br />
facilities for all levels of activity, those higher levels in the early morning as well as the less<br />
active evenings.<br />
It is essential for the birds to perform commercially to their optimal that at all times and as new<br />
technologies are developed the birds themselves are considered. Recent on farm trials using new<br />
technologies and data analysis are helping to ensure that newly introduced technologies such as<br />
LED lighting is not compromising bird welfare or performance.<br />
Ventilation<br />
A key element of any broiler farm is its ventilation. In simple terms we want to introduce oxygen<br />
for the birds to utilise through respiration whilst removing carbon dioxide, water vapour and<br />
other non beneficial gases such as ammonia. We want to fulfil this process during all weathers<br />
and at all times of day whilst maintaining a static environment for the birds themselves. This is<br />
difficult to achieve when the physical properties of air are considered. Cooler air acts differently<br />
to warm air and the birds feel the effects of the air by way of a mixture of physical factors; the<br />
temperature of the air, the moisture content of the air and the speed at which the air is travelling.<br />
Modern broiler facilities have an array of sensors and technology to monitor and manage these<br />
factors and give consideration to the effects of the specific air properties have on the birds at that<br />
actual moment but it is possible to use various technologies and equipment to assess the environment<br />
manually in all facilities whatever their age, design or state of repair.<br />
Often the biggest causes of problems ae simple to fix and may simply require staff training in<br />
ventilation or some simple maintenance to be completed.<br />
Water<br />
Water consumption is a key area in broiler production requiring analysis and understanding.<br />
Monitoring consumption flow rates as well as daily consumption figures can give great insight<br />
into the birds the growth and their welfare. We are able to consider everything from activity and<br />
potential growth rates through to understanding the intestinal integrity of a bird at any given<br />
moment. Companies supplying drinker equipment now offer precise ways to control the birds<br />
access to water by controlling the water pressure in the drinker lines. Given that water is consumed<br />
at nearly twice the level of feed it is essential to monitor and control its up take. Drinker<br />
181
heights, cleanliness, physical properties as well as flow rates are all essential pieces of information<br />
in managing broilers.<br />
Predictive Management<br />
Given the amount of data and knowledge that it is now possible to gather from a broiler farm<br />
we are now able to not just monitor current information from a broiler house but also to predict,<br />
forecast and establish optimal parameters for each broiler house individually. Previously any<br />
predictive data was established on a genetic type basis, e.g. a bird of this genetic strain has the<br />
potential to grow at a certain rate and will eat and drink predicted amounts to achieve this. All<br />
based on trials conducted by the genetic companies. The great thing now is having the ability to<br />
predict for each farm specifically, in some cases exceeding genetic averages and in others establishing<br />
more achievable targets for their specific scenario.<br />
The Future<br />
Broiler farming requires the control and management of a whole range of parameters and as such<br />
technological advancements are almost unlimited. As sensors develop the industry will be able<br />
to embrace them and use them for its own needs. Some will give more data and information,<br />
more accurately and quicker than we can currently, such as electronic noses detecting disease<br />
days earlier than symptoms are seen by the eye. Other technologies will be about labour saving<br />
and helping to offer a better solution to the current shortage of good reliable labour to work with<br />
the birds, such as robotic technologies.<br />
One significant change maybe the way in which we all purchase and operate these new technologies.<br />
Be it due to the prohibitive capital cost of technologies or the complex operational demands<br />
of the technologies we are likely to see a move towards service based technologies. You won’t,<br />
as a farmer, necessarily own the sensors but instead purchase the information that is gathered by<br />
the sensors. You may not own a robot but instead pay someone to remove your dead birds on a<br />
hourly basis and they in turn will supply a robot to do that at their cost. We are already seeing<br />
these models in the consumer economy with items such as cars and razor blades, effectively<br />
monthly subscriptions.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Broiler farming is an agricultural sector that operates on small margins but large volumes and<br />
so the potential to improve bird welfare and farmers margins is considerable if small improvements<br />
in efficiency can be made. From what is generally globally an efficient sector the best<br />
way to further drive improvements in productivity and welfare is to focus on the precision of<br />
our businesses and one essential prerequisite to precise management has to be the embracing of<br />
technologies and the data generated to give us better, more accurate, information for even better<br />
and faster decision making on farm. All of this requires investment and the cost of some of this<br />
new information will be paid for either by way of capital purchases of equipment or more likely<br />
the purchase of the information on a subscription basis. Future broiler businesses will need to<br />
embrace production partners which is in many ways similar to the integrated production models<br />
that already exist in the broiler sector globally only involving many technology and information<br />
partners rather than one commercial partner.<br />
182
O 33 Live Weight and Body Measurements of Male and Female Native<br />
Ducks of Reared in Different Housing System<br />
Mehmet Sarı 1 , Kadir Önk 2 , İsmayil Safa Gürcan 3 , Serpil Adıgüzel Işık 2 ,<br />
Muammer Tilki 2<br />
Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Science, Burdur<br />
2<br />
nkara University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Science, Department of<br />
Biostatistics, Ankara<br />
3<br />
Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Science, Kars,Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was conducted in order to determine live weight and body measurements on male and<br />
female native ducks raised in different housing system. 120 native ducks (60 males, 60 females)<br />
were used in the study. The ducks were raised in deep litter system (DLS) and Cage system<br />
(CS). Live weight and body measurements were taken every two weeks, until they were 56 days<br />
old. 3-parameter logistic regression and Gompertz model were used to determine growth model<br />
of male and female ducks. Interactions of time-housing system and time-gender in terms of<br />
live weight were found to be statistically significant (P
O 34 Influence of Stunning with AC-pDC Electrical Current with<br />
Square-Chirp Waves Types and Low-High Frequencies on Some Welfare<br />
Parameters and Carcass Defects in Broilers<br />
Ihsan Bülent Helva 1 , Mustafa Akşit 2<br />
1<br />
Adnan Menderes University Cine Vocational School, Aydın, Turkey<br />
2<br />
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Agriculture, Aydın, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Stunning of broilers prior to slaughtering is an important practice, not only because it renders<br />
the bird unconscious, but also because it affects blood loss, feather-release and meat quality.<br />
Combinations of current, frequency and duration of application belonging to square wave type<br />
are prevalently used for rendering broiler chickens unconscious with electrical current prior<br />
to slaughtering. This study was performed to examine the effects of exposing to the electrical<br />
currents of AC and pDC of 120 mA in square and chirp wave types of frequencies of 50 (low)<br />
and 400 Hz (high) to broiler chickens for 5 sec prior to slaughtering on some welfare parameters<br />
and carcass defects. This study was conducted with eight treatment groups with 10 chickens<br />
(5♀:5♂)forty four-days old, weighing on average 2628±333g in each. Wing flapping responses<br />
and jerky movements in feet and wings occurred in birds during apnoea depending on because of<br />
applying electrical current observed and then slaughtered. After slaughtering process of chicken,<br />
amount of bleeding and carcass defects determined. The effects of electrical current applied to<br />
birds prior to slaughtering were found significant on wing flapping responses and jerky movements<br />
in feet and wings (P
IS 18 Efficacy of Vaccination of Broiler Chickens Against Coccidiosis and<br />
Recent Advancements<br />
Hafez Mohamed Hafez<br />
Institute of <strong>Poultry</strong> Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Free University Berlin, Germany<br />
Summary<br />
Coccidiosis is the major parasitic disease of poultry with substantial economic losses. In the<br />
past it has been realized that eradication of coccidia is not realistic and hygienic measures alone<br />
are not able to prevent infections. Today the prevention and control of coccidiosis is based on<br />
chemotherapy, using anticoccidial drugs and /or vaccines along with hygienic measures and<br />
improved farm management. The efficiency of anticoccidial agents can be reduced by drug<br />
resistance and management programmes are designed to prevent this developing. Several different<br />
live vaccines have been commercially developed. Long-term sustainability of coccidiosis<br />
control in poultry in the future may therefore be facilitated by the adoption of rotation programs,<br />
involving the alternate use of a vaccine and drugs in successive flocks. Currently some trails are<br />
being carried out on the efficacy of alternative products with various results. The present paper<br />
review the prevention and control approaches of poultry coccidiosis in past and future<br />
Key words: Coccidiosis, Chickens, Prophylaxis, Vaccination<br />
Introduction<br />
Coccidiosis is the major parasitic disease of poultry with substantial economic losses due to malabsorption,<br />
impaired feed conversion, reduced weight gain and increased mortality. In addition,<br />
the use of anticoccidial drugs and /or vaccines for treatment and prevention, contributes a major<br />
production cost. Coccidia are protozoa, which have the ability to multiply rapidly inside cells<br />
lining of the intestine and/or caeca. The species of coccidia that are infective to poultry belong to<br />
the Eimeria genus. Many of these species can infect poultry and there is no cross-immunity between<br />
them. Most infestations under field conditions are mixed but one species will be dominant<br />
Seven species of Eimeria are known to infect chickens and they show a wide variation in their<br />
pathogenicity (Table 1). In addition, two further species have been described, namely E. hagani<br />
and E. mivati, but further studies on the importance of these species are needed (Conway and<br />
McKenzie, 2007). not all these species are considered to be of real economic importance<br />
The Eimeria cycle includes two distinct phases; (a) the internal phase (schizogony + gamogony)<br />
in which the parasite multiplies in different parts of the intestinal tract and the non- sporulated<br />
oocysts are excreted in the faeces (The part of the intestinal tract and the total duration of the<br />
internal phase of the cycle is dependent on Eimeria species), (b) the external phase (sporogony)<br />
during which the oocyst must undergo a final process called sporulation, before they are again<br />
infective. Sporulation requires warmth (25-30°C), moisture and oxygen (LEVINE, 1982). Eimeria<br />
have a self-limiting life cycle and are characterized by a high tissue and host specificity.<br />
185
The sporulated oocysts are extraordinary resistant to environmental stress and disinfectants,<br />
remaining viable in the litter for many months. Temperatures above 56°C and below 0°C are<br />
lethal, but it seems to be impossible to decontaminate a previously contaminated poultry house<br />
or environment. Sporulated oocysts can be spread mechanically by wild birds, insects or rodents<br />
and via contaminated boots, clothing, equipment or dust. Direct oral transmission is the natural<br />
route of infection (McDOUGALD, 2013).<br />
Table 1: Some characteristics of important Eimeria spp. infecting chickens<br />
Host Eimeria Location Pathogenicity*<br />
Chickens E. acervulina Duodenum, Jejunum ++<br />
E. brunetti Ileum, Rectum +++<br />
E. maxima Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum ++<br />
E. mitis Duodenum, Jejunum +<br />
E. necatrix Jejunum, Caeca +++<br />
E. praecox Duodenum, Jejunum +<br />
E. tenella Caeca +++<br />
* - non-pathogenic; + low pathogenic; ++ moderately pathogenic; +++ highly pathogenic<br />
Clinical Signs and Lesions<br />
Several Eimeria species are able to cause clinical signs in infected and unprotected birds; however<br />
subclinical infections are frequently seen. These are often underestimated but mostly result<br />
in impaired feed conversion and reduced weight gain. Coccidiosis generally occurs more frequently<br />
during the warmer months of the year (SMITH, 1995). Young birds are more susceptible<br />
and more readily display signs of disease, whereas older chickens are relatively resistant<br />
as a result of prior infection. The severity of an infection depends on; the age of birds, Eimeria<br />
species, number of sporulated oocysts ingested, immune status of the flock and environmental<br />
management. Infected birds tend to huddle together, have ruffled feathers and show signs of depression.<br />
The birds consume less feed and water, and droppings are watery to whitish or bloody.<br />
This results in dehydration and poor weight gain as well as mortalities. The lesions of coccidiosis<br />
depend on the degree of inflammation and damage to the intestinal tract. They include thickness<br />
of the intestinal wall, mucoid to blood-tinged exudates, petechial haemorrhages, necrosis,<br />
haemorrhagic enteritis and mucous profuse bleeding in the caeca.<br />
The tissue damage in the intestinal tract may allow secondary colonization by various bacteria,<br />
such as Clostridium perfringens (HELMBOLT and BRYANT, 1971), or Salmonella Typhimurium<br />
(ARAKAWA et al., 1981). Infestation with E. tenella also increases the severity of Histomonas<br />
meleagridis infection in chickens (McDougald and HU, 2001).<br />
Diagnosis<br />
Coccidiosis is often extremely difficult to diagnose on the base of the clinical signs and lesions<br />
and can only be done in the laboratory (CONWAY and McKENZIE, 2007), by counting coccidian<br />
oocysts per gram of faeces and/or examining the intestinal tract to determine the lesion<br />
scores, as described by JOHNSON and REID (1970).<br />
186
Prevention and Control<br />
In the past, it has been realized that eradication of coccidia is not realistic and hygienic measures<br />
alone are not able to prevent infections. However, if an outbreak of coccidiosis occurs, treatment<br />
via the drinking water should start as soon as possible. The most commonly used drugs are sulphonamides,<br />
amprolium and toltrazuril. Today the prevention and control of coccidiosis is based<br />
on chemotherapy, using anticoccidial drugs and /or vaccines along with hygienic measures and<br />
improved farm management.<br />
Anticoccidial Drugs<br />
According to SHIRLEY and CHAPMAN (2005) the most significant study that had the greatest<br />
impact on control of coccidiosis was that of DELAPLANE et al. (1947) which showed that the<br />
administration of low concentrations of sulphaquinoxaline in the feed effectively controlled the<br />
disease.<br />
The rapid development of the broiler industry in the 1950s required the urgent availability of<br />
anticoccidial drugs. This soon led to intensive activities by several companies to produce a range<br />
of chemical products such as amprolium, clopidol decoquinate, halofuginone that were effective<br />
in the control coccidiosis.<br />
A major enhancement in coccidiosis control occurred in the 1970’s with the introduction of<br />
monensin as the first polyether ionophores such as monensin lasalocid, salinomycin, narasin,<br />
and maduramycin. Introduction of ionophores changed the ability to control coccidiosis – an<br />
impact that remains to this day. The effectiveness of ionophore coccidiostats lies in the fact that<br />
whilst they kill the majority of the invading parasites, they permit a small leakage of coccidia<br />
enabling a degree of host immunity to develop. Resistance to ionophores develops very slowly<br />
and there is more of a tendency to increased levels of tolerance. CHAPMAN and HACKER<br />
(1994) as well as MATHIS (1999) observed a marginal to poor effect of different ionophores to<br />
several Eimeria sp.In addition some mixed products consisting of either a synthetic compound<br />
and ionophore (nicarbazin/narasin (Maxiban ® )) or two synthetic compounds (meticlorpindol/<br />
methylbenzoquate (Lerbek ® )), are also used against coccidiosis.<br />
Cross-resistance and multiple resistance to antic- occidial medications has also been noted.<br />
Cross-resistant strains exhibit resistance to compounds sharing a similar mode of action. On the<br />
other hand multiple resistant strains means develop of resistant to compounds having diferent<br />
modes of action (CHAPMAN, 1993).<br />
In recent years, few new drugs have been introduced. All types of drug used for coccidiosis<br />
control are unique; in their mode of action, the way in which parasites are killed or arrested, and<br />
the effects of the drug on the growth and performance of the bird. Very few drugs are equally<br />
efficacious against all Eimeria species (McDOUGALD, 2013).<br />
Since the 1970’s, coccidiostats have been regulated under the Feed Additives Directive 524/70/<br />
EEC (EEC, 1970, 2004), which has now been replaced by Regulation No 1831/2003/ EC (EC,<br />
2003) As such, they have not been subject to veterinary prescription status, since they are required<br />
routinely in the feed of commercial broilers and turkeys.<br />
187
The efficiency of anticoccidial agents can be reduced by drug resistance and management programmes<br />
are designed to prevent this developing, which results in better gut health and feed<br />
utilization by birds. Using a drug rotation, with constant monitoring of the oocysts in the faeces<br />
and in the litter, or shuttle programme (ionophore/ chemical) seems to be of great value. Rotation<br />
involves changing the product used every 4 - 6 months. The alternative to a rotation programme<br />
is a continuous program where the same products are used until a problem develops or until<br />
a new product is introduced on the market. Rotations are only possible if drugs with different<br />
mode of action follow each other. On the other hand, a shuttle programme uses two or more<br />
products during the grow-out period of a flock. The principle is to use the drug most suited to<br />
each phase of the grow-out, so that one drug is used for the starter period, whilst another is used<br />
during the grower and finisher phase. The drug withdrawal period is a very important consideration<br />
for treatments used in finisher feeds (Paeffgen et al., 1988, Smith, 1995, Hafez, 2008). A<br />
‘switch’ system can also be used where the anti-coccidial agent is changed at each restocking<br />
within an operation.<br />
A coccidiosis ‘break’ is often an indication of an immunosuppression problem. Concurrent infection<br />
with immunosuppressive diseases such infectious bursal disease (IBD) may exacerbate<br />
coccidiosis, placing a heavier burden on anticoccidial drugs (McDOUGALD, et al., 1979).<br />
Vaccination<br />
Currently the poultry industry worldwide is facing problems of drug resistance, a lack of new<br />
anticoccidial products as well as the consumer pressure to decrease the use of antibiotics in animal<br />
feed. It is therefore being forced to seek alternative strategies to control coccidiosis, which<br />
has made the use of vaccines more attractive.<br />
Although it has been known for many years that the host exposure to low numbers of coccidia<br />
oocysts allows the development of a protective immunity, live coccidiosis vaccines were not<br />
used in poultry until the 1960’s. There is now a tremendous amount of knowledge about the<br />
immune response of chickens to coccidia infections (DALLOUL and LILLEHOJ, 2005) and the<br />
development and use of vaccines is increasing (Shirley and Chapman, 2005).<br />
Mostly the vaccines composed of either virulent or attenuated parasitic strains (SHARMAN et<br />
al., 2010, PEEK and LANDMAN, 2011, CHAPMAN and JEFFERS, 2014, WITCOMBE and<br />
SMITH, 2014). Vaccines contain live oocysts of non-attenuated or attenuated strains and some<br />
killed antigen (Table 2). Their effectiveness based on the recycling of what are initially very low<br />
doses of oocyst and on the gradual build-up of solid immunity.<br />
Non-attenuated vaccines have been used for many years in the USA. Coccivac ® vaccine (Schering<br />
Plough Animal Health) was developed in the early 1950s. The “B” and “D” types are<br />
different mixtures of Eimeria species; the “T” type is for turkeys and was introduced in 1970`s<br />
(WILLIAMS, 2002, SHIRLEY and CHAPMAN, 2005). In addition, Immucox® and Immuncox<br />
- T® were developed in Canada (Vetech Laboratories). In addition, further live non-attenuated<br />
vaccines have developed; Nobilis® CoxATM (Intervet), ADVENTTM and InovocoxTM.<br />
Nobilis® CoxATM consists of a mixture of wild-type Eimeria spp. that is relatively tolerant to<br />
ionophores (VERMEULEN et al., 2001). AdventTM (Viridus Animal Health, USA) is marketed<br />
as having more viable oocysts (truly sporulated oocysts that can cause immunity) than other vaccines<br />
and InovocoxTM (Embrex) was designed for administration in ovo. Other live vaccines<br />
have been reported to be under development and /or introduced in some countries (WILLIAMS,<br />
188
2002; CONWAY and McKENZIE, 2007).<br />
Towards the end of the 1980’s new live attenuated vaccines came onto the market including;<br />
Paracox ® (Schering-Plough Veterinary Ltd, UK) and Livacox ® (Biopharm, Czech Republic).<br />
They have been characterized, for their short life cycle, as “precocious” and with their reduced<br />
pathogenicity were introduced commercially in the EU (SHIRLEY, 2000).<br />
Furthermore a sub-unit vaccine CoxAbic ® (Abic-Israel) has been introduced, prepared from<br />
purified gametocyte antigen, isolated from E. maxima (Wallach et al., 1995). Broiler breeder<br />
flocks vaccinated, twice intramuscularly, during the rearing period are able to pass maternal antibodies<br />
to their offspring and immunity to infection has been demonstrated with E. acervulina,<br />
E. maxima, E. mitis and E. tenella (FINGER and MICHAEL, 2005).<br />
Commercial use of coccidia vaccines in the EU began in 1992 with the introduction of a vaccine<br />
for replacement breeders and laying pullets, followed in 2000 by a vaccine for commercial broilers.<br />
Currently vaccines are used as the primary method for coccidiosis prevention in breeding<br />
flocks and to some extent in laying hens and broiler chickens. Currently, several vaccines are<br />
available, EU-wide such Livacox ® , Paracox ® -5, Paracox ® -8 and Hipracox®. The use of vaccines<br />
is able to replace drug-resistant field strains of Eimeria with “drug-sensitive” vaccine strains.<br />
This is observed in the restoration of sensitivity to ionophores such as monensin and salinomycin<br />
as well as to the chemical drug diclazuril (CHAPMAN et al., 2002).<br />
Long-term sustainability of coccidiosis control in poultry may therefore be facilitated by the<br />
adoption of rotation programs, involving the alternate use of a vaccine and drugs in successive<br />
flocks. Programs involving the rotation of vaccines with traditional chemotherapy are currently<br />
used by the poultry industry. The highly effective chemical anticoccidials need only be used for<br />
specific cycles, when conditions in the house produce a greater coccidiosis challenge. Chemical<br />
use, limited to a single cycle, will dramatically reduce oocyst levels in the facility. The following<br />
cycles can then use vaccination to repopulate the house with anticoccidial-sensitive oocysts,<br />
which are highly sensitive to both the chemical and ionophore programs. The vaccination cycles<br />
should be followed by the use of an ionophore, which should perform very efficiently in the<br />
vaccine-repopulated house. In addition, several trails were carried out on the efficacy of natural<br />
alternatives to control coccidiosis such as fat, antioxidants, essential oils, herbal extracts and<br />
medicinal plants as well as immune response modulators were published and summarized by<br />
QUIROZ-CASTAÑEDA and DANTÁN-GONZÁLEZ (2015).<br />
Conclusion<br />
Infections with coccidia are often associated with severe economic losses. Currently the prevention<br />
and control of coccidiosis is based on good hygiene, chemotherapy (Coccidiostats) and<br />
immunization. Monitoring programmes are essential for the early recognition strains developing<br />
resistance. Generally, anticoccidial drugs or vaccination alone is of little value, unless they are<br />
accompanied by improvements in all aspects of management. More attention should be given to<br />
improved sanitation and hygiene at the farm level. Including, all parameters which can improve<br />
litter quality such as; appropriate installation and management of watering systems, providing<br />
adequate feeding space, maintaining recommended stocking density and supplying adequate<br />
ventilation.<br />
189
References<br />
Arakawa, A., E. Baba and T. Fukata (1981). Eimeria tenella infection enhances<br />
Salmonella typhimurium infections in chickens. <strong>Poultry</strong> Science 60, 2203-2209.<br />
Chapman, H. D. (1993). Resistance to anticoccidial drugs in fowl. Parasitology Today<br />
9, 159–162.<br />
Chapman, H.D. and A.B. Hacker (1994). Sensitivity of field isolates of Eimeria from<br />
two broiler complexes to anticoccidial drugs in the chicken. <strong>Poultry</strong> Science 73,<br />
1404-1408.<br />
Chapman, H.D., T.E. Cherry, H.D. Danforth, G. Richards, M.W. Shirley and R.B.<br />
Williams (2002). Sustainable coccidiosis control in poultry production: the role<br />
of live vaccines. Inter. J. of Parasitology 32, 617-629.<br />
Chapman, H.D. and T. Jeffers (2014).Vaccination of chickens against coccidiosis<br />
ameliorates drug resistance in commercial poultry production. Inter. J. for<br />
Parasitology: Drugs and Drug Resistance 4:214–217.<br />
Conway, D.P. and M.E. McKenzie (2007): <strong>Poultry</strong> Coccidiosis-Diagnostic and testing<br />
procedure. 3rd ed. Blackwell Publishing.<br />
Dalloul, R.A. and H.S. Lillehoj (2005). Recent advances in immunomodulation and<br />
vaccination strategies against coccidiosis. Avian Diseases 49:1–8.<br />
Delaplane, J.F., R.M. Batchelder and T.C. Higgins (1947). Sulfaquinoxaline in<br />
the prevention of Eimeria tenella infections in chickens. North American<br />
Veterinarian 28, 19-24.<br />
EC (2003) Regulation (EC) No 1831/2003 of the European Union Register of Feed<br />
Additives. Edition 251. Annex I – 13.02.2017.European Union legislation on<br />
feed additives http://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/animal-feed/feed-additives_en<br />
Finger, A. and A. Michael (2005). Maternal protection against Eimeria challenge<br />
of CoxAbic vaccinated chickens. In: Proceedings of the IX <strong>International</strong><br />
Coccidiosis Conference, September 19-23, 2005. Foz do Iguassu, Brazil. pp.<br />
146.<br />
Hafez, H.M. (2008). <strong>Poultry</strong> coccidiosis: prevention and control approaches. Archiv<br />
für Geflügelkunde 72, 2-7.<br />
Helmbolt, C.F. and E.S. Bryant (1971). The pathology of necrotic enteritis in domestic<br />
fowl. Avian Diseases 15, 775-780.<br />
Johnson, J. and W.M. Reid (1970). Anticoccidial drugs: Lesion scoring techniques in<br />
battery and floor-pen experiments with chickens. Experimental Parasitology 28,<br />
30-36.<br />
Levine, N.D. (1982). Taxonomy and life cycles of coccidian, In: Biology of the<br />
Coccidia (ed. Long, P. L.). The, University Park Press, Baltimore. pp. 1-33.<br />
Mathis, G.F. (1999). Anticoccidial sensitivity of recent field isolates of chicken<br />
coccidia. <strong>Poultry</strong> Science 78, (Supplement 1), 116.<br />
McDougald, L.R. (2013): Coccidiosis. In: Swayne, D. E., J.R. Glisson, L.R.<br />
McDougald, L.K. Nolan, D.L. Suarez, and V. Nair.. (Ed). Diseases of <strong>Poultry</strong>.<br />
13th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA. pp??????<br />
McDougald, L.R. and J. Hu (200). Blackhead disease (Histomonas meleagridis)<br />
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aggravated in broiler chickens by concurrent infection with cecal coccidiosis<br />
(Eimeria tenella). Avian Diseases 45, 307-312.<br />
McDougald, L.R., T. Karlsson and W.M. Reid (1979). Interaction of infectious bursal<br />
disease and coccidiosis in layer replacement chickens. Avian Diseases 23, 999-<br />
1005.<br />
Peek, H.W. and W.J.M. Landman (2011) Coccidiosis in poultry: anticoccidial<br />
products, vaccines and other prevention strategies, Veterinary Quarterly, 31:3,<br />
143-161, DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2011.605247.<br />
Quiroz-Castañeda, R.E. and E. Dantán-González (2015). Control of Avian<br />
Coccidiosis: Future and Present Natural Alternatives. BioMed<br />
Research <strong>International</strong>. Article ID 430610, 11 pages http://dx.doi.<br />
org/10.1155/2015/430610<br />
Sharman, P. A., N. C. Smıth, M. G. Wallach and M. Katrıb (2010). Chasing the golden<br />
egg: vaccination against poultry coccidiosis. Parasite Immunology, 2010, 32,<br />
590–598<br />
Shirley, M.W. (2000). Coccidial Parasites from the Chicken: Their Control by<br />
Vaccination and Some new Tools to Examine Their Epidemiology. http://<br />
poultrymed.com/files/index.html<br />
Shirley, M.W. and H.D. Chapman (2005). Eight decades of research on Eimeria<br />
in poultry. In: Proceedings of the IX <strong>International</strong> Coccidiosis Conference,<br />
September 19-23, 2005. Foz do Iguassu, Brazil. pp. 29-35.<br />
Smith, M.W. (1995). Coccidiosis control - shuttle and rotation programs as presented<br />
on behalf of poultry industry. http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/<br />
poultry/facts/coccidiosis.htm<br />
Vermeulen, A.N., D.C. Schaap and T. Schetters (200). Control of coccidiosis in<br />
chickens by vaccination. Veterinary Parasitology 100, 13-20.<br />
Wallach, M., N.C. Smith, M. Petracca, C.M.D. Miller, J. Eckert and R. Braun (1995).<br />
Eimeria maxima gametocyte antigen: potential use in a subunit maternal<br />
vaccine against coccidiosis in chickens. Vaccine 13, 347-354.<br />
Williams, R.B. (2002). Fifty years of anticoccidial vaccines for poultry (1952-2002).<br />
Avian Diseases 46, 775-802.<br />
Wıtcombe D.M. and N. C. Smıth (2014). Strategies for anti-coccidial prophylaxis.<br />
Parasitology (2014), 141, 1379–1389.<br />
191
Table 2. Overview of anticoccidial vaccines that are being used or being registered for use in<br />
chickens (modified from Peek and Lamndmann, 2015)<br />
Vaccine (manufacturer) Eimeria speciesa Attenuated Bird type Administration route First registration<br />
CocciVac ® -D (Schering Plough<br />
Animal Health)<br />
Eac, Ebr, Eha, Emax,<br />
Emiv,Enec,Epra,Eten<br />
No Breeders/<br />
layers<br />
water or feed spray<br />
Ocular, hatchery<br />
spray,<br />
CocciVac ® -B (Schering Eac, Emax, Emiv, Eten No Broilers Ocular, hatchery<br />
spray,<br />
1951 (USA)<br />
1952 (USA)<br />
Immucox ® C1 (Vetech Laboratories) Eac, Emax, Enec, Eten No Broilers Water or gel 1985 (Canada)<br />
Immucox ® C2 (Vetech Laboratories) Eac, Ebr, Emax, Enec, Eten No Breeders/l<br />
ayers<br />
Water or gel 1985 (Canada)<br />
ADVENT ®b (Novus <strong>International</strong>) Eac, Emax, Eten No Broilers Hatchery spray,<br />
water or feed spray<br />
2002 (USA)<br />
Inovocox® (Embrex Inc.<br />
and Pfizer)<br />
Livacox® Q (BioPharm)<br />
precocious,<br />
except Eten (embryo – adapted)<br />
Livacox® T (BioPharm)<br />
precocious,<br />
except Eten (embryo – adapted)<br />
Paracox ® -8 (Schering Plough<br />
Animal Health) precociou<br />
Eac, Emax x2, Eten No Broilers In ovo injection<br />
with the<br />
Eac, Emax, Enec, Eten Yes Breeders/<br />
layers<br />
Inovoject® system<br />
Hatchery spray,<br />
water or feed spray<br />
Eac, Emax,, Eten Yes Broilers Hatchery spray,<br />
water or feed spray<br />
Eac, Ebr, Emax x2, Emit, Enec,<br />
Epra, Eten<br />
Yes Breeders/<br />
layers<br />
2006 (USA)<br />
1992<br />
(Czech Republic)<br />
1992<br />
(Czech Republic)<br />
Water or feed spray 1989 (UK)<br />
Paracox ® -5 (Schering Plough<br />
Animal Health) precociou<br />
Eac, Emax x2, Emit, Eten Yes Broiler Hatchery spray,<br />
water or feed spray<br />
1989 (UK)<br />
192
Table 2 (qunt.):<br />
Vaccine (manufacturer) Eimeria speciesa Attenuated Bird type Administration First registration<br />
Eimeriavax® 4m (precocious)<br />
(Bioproperties Pty)<br />
Inmuner ® Gel-Coc<br />
(Vacunas Inmuner)<br />
Eac, Emax, Enec, Eten Yes Breeders/<br />
layers/<br />
broilers<br />
Eac, Ebr, Emax, Eten Yes Breeders/<br />
layers/<br />
broilers<br />
Eye-drop 2003 (Australia)<br />
Oral 2005 (Argentina)<br />
Hipracox ® Broilers<br />
(Laboratorios Hipra, SA)<br />
Eac, Emax, Emit, Epra,Eten Yes Broilers Drinking water 2007 (Spain)<br />
Eimerivac ® Plus (Guangdong<br />
Academy of Agricultural Sciences)<br />
Eac, Emax, Eten Yes Breeders/<br />
layers/<br />
broilers<br />
Oral Expected (China)<br />
Supercox® (Qilu Animal<br />
Pharmaceutical Company)<br />
Attenuated (precocious: Eten) nonattenuated<br />
(Eac and Emax)<br />
Eac, Emax, Eten Yes+No Broilers Oral 2005 (China)<br />
CoxAbic® (Abic Biological<br />
Laboratories)<br />
Emax gametocytes antigen Killed Breders<br />
(to protect<br />
hatchlings<br />
Intramuscular 2002 (Israel)<br />
Notes: aEac, E. acervulina; Ebr, E. brunetti; Eha, E. hagani; Emax, E. maxima; Emit, E. mitis; Emiv, E. mivati; Enec, E. necatrix; Epra, E. praecox; Eten, E. tenella; and Emax<br />
x2, two antigenically different lines of E. maxima.<br />
b ADVENT® enables in vitro assessment of parasite viability using ViacystSM (non-viable sporocysts stain with ethidium bromide).<br />
193
IS 19 The Latest Situation on Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) in the World and<br />
Ministry Application and Efforts of Turkey<br />
Ümit Zoray<br />
Republic of Turkey Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, General Directorate of Food<br />
and Control, Department of Animal Health and Quarantine<br />
Abstract<br />
Our Ministry has the priority to struggle against poultry animal diseases and primarily Avian<br />
Influenza in order to protect animal health and provide safe food from farm to fork and also to<br />
eliminate any obstacle for poultry meat and product exports. Within the context of the struggle<br />
against diseases including Avian Influenza establishments are subject to inspection according<br />
to the Commercial Broiler and layer <strong>Poultry</strong> Establishments Biosecurity Directive, active and<br />
passive surveys are conducted and annual regular real time practices are realized to improve the<br />
efficiency in the struggle against the disease. Besides <strong>Poultry</strong> Information System became active<br />
and all commercial poultry animal movements could be monitored by this system. In case of<br />
occurrence of Avian Influenza disease, Definition and Announcement of Regions free from notifiable<br />
Bird Flue (Avian Influenza) Disease Directive was published so as to protect public and<br />
animal health, to continue safe animal origin production and especially to provide international<br />
trade. Within the context of this directive 81 provinces have been declared as free of disease<br />
region and these regions were notified to OIE and WTO. Consequently it is vital to struggle<br />
against diseases in order to provide safe food production by protecting animal health and also to<br />
eliminate any challenges that might occur in exports. Therefore cooperation between our Ministry<br />
and the private sector would provide convenience to reach the desired target.<br />
194
O 35 Antimicrobial Effects of Peptide Isolated From Chicken Blood on<br />
Salmonella Serotypes<br />
Tuğçe Yıldırır, Barışhan Doğan, Mehmet Akan, K. Serdar Diker<br />
Ankara University, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In this study, antimicrobial activities of peptides obtained from chicken blood haemoglobin were<br />
investigated. Blood taken from broilers reared in controlled conditions were processed and digested<br />
enzimatically. Antimicrobial activities of crude extracts against Salmonella Enteritidis,<br />
S.Typhimurium and S.Infatis from broiler origin were tested by agar diffusion method. In addition,<br />
the peptides generated by enzymatic digestion were examined in silico. Crude extracts<br />
were found to have antimicrobial activity against Salmonella serotypes, with an equal level of<br />
effect of antibiotics such as beta-lactams, tetracyclines, sulphonamides and phenicols. It was<br />
concluded that processed materials such as chicken blood can be used for antimicrobial purposes,<br />
and that the technologies and products developed in this direction will make a significant<br />
contribution to the broiler industry.<br />
195
IS 20 Protein Nutrition of Breeders to Improve Performance, Hatchability<br />
and Offspring Performance<br />
R.A. Van Emous<br />
Wageningen University & Research, The Netherlands<br />
Summary<br />
Nowadays, management issues in broiler breeders associated with nutrition and reproductive<br />
characteristics, are becoming increasingly challenging. Due to genetic selection on broilers,<br />
body composition of breeders has changed dramatically during the last 50 years to less fat and<br />
more breast muscle. It is postulated that a certain amount of body fat in broiler breeders at the<br />
onset of lay is necessary for maximum performance and offspring quality. Body composition<br />
of breeders can be influenced by different feed allowances during rearing and lay, as well as by<br />
changes in nutrient composition of the diet. It can be concluded that feeding a low protein diet<br />
during rearing decreased breast muscle and increased abdominal fat pad. The higher abdominal<br />
fat pad content resulted in an increased hatchability during the first phase of lay and a larger<br />
number of eggs during the second phase of lay. On the other hand, a low daily protein intake<br />
during the rearing and first phase of lay can lead to a poor feather cover. Feeding a high-energy<br />
diet during the second phase of lay resulted in increased hatchability, decreased embryonic mortality<br />
and more first grade chicks.<br />
Introduction<br />
The last decades, poultry meat is becoming the most important protein sources in human diet and<br />
production is worldwide growing. Global poultry meat production in 2000 was 69 million tons<br />
and this increased to over 97 million tons in 2010 (Windhorst, 2011). This equates to an annual<br />
production of approximately 70 billion broilers originating from approximately 600 million<br />
broiler breeders. So a relatively small number of broiler breeders have a major impact on the<br />
poultry meat chain and optimizing management of breeders will have benefits for the total chain.<br />
Broiler breeders need to produce first class and healthy chicks (Zuidhof et al., 2007). Due to the<br />
continuing increase in the genetic potential of the offspring (e.g., Havenstein et al., 2003a,b;<br />
Renema et al., 2007) this is becoming increasingly challenging.<br />
In the past, obesity, mainly in the second phase of the laying period, was a major problem in<br />
broiler breeder flocks and resulted often in a decreased reproduction rate during the laying period<br />
(Bornstein et al., 1984; Leclercq et al., 1985; Cahanar et al., 1986; Robinson et al., 1993).<br />
Overweight hens have sperm storage problems (due to the fat deposition in the sperm storage<br />
glands) and physical problems during the cloacal contact during natural mating (Mc Daniel et<br />
al., 1981). The body composition of breeders, however, has changed dramatically during the last<br />
196
five to six decades (Havenstein et al., 2003a; De Beer, 2009). In modern broiler breeders, obesity<br />
is not an issue anymore, due to the selection of strains with increased breast muscle and decreased<br />
fat pad deposition characteristics (Havenstein et al., 2003a). The selection for increased<br />
feed efficiency, growth rate and body fat content has not only affected the offspring but also the<br />
parent stock. This was recently confirmed by Eitan et al. (2014) who compared a 1980 to a 2000<br />
breeder strain. The 2000 strain contained 42% more breast meat (21.2 vs. 14.9% of BW) and<br />
50% smaller abdominal fat pad (2.7 vs. 5.4% of BW) compared to the 1980 strain.<br />
Feeding high yield breeders high levels of amino acids (e.g. lysine) will lead to more muscle<br />
production and this extra muscle requires more energy to maintain (De Beer, 2009). Therefore,<br />
during the last decade several researchers have reported that broiler breeders need a certain<br />
proportion of body fat at the onset of lay for subsequent reproductive performance (Sun and<br />
Coon, 2005; De Beer, 2009; Mba et al., 2010). Because tissue growth is directly affected by<br />
dietary nutrient composition, a nutritional approach to this topic is highly relevant. Therefore,<br />
the overall practical objective of the present presentation is to give an overview of the research<br />
on the effect of protein intake during the rearing and laying period on body composition, breeder<br />
performance and offspring.<br />
Effect of protein intake during rear on body composition<br />
Changes in feed allowance or a change in diet composition (energy and/or protein levels) have<br />
been used as generally applied dietary interventions. Several authors have evaluated the use of a<br />
change in feed allowances on body composition during rearing (Fattori et al., 1993; Renema et<br />
al., 2001a; Robinson et al., 2007) or laying (Bornstein et al., 1984; Bowmaker and Gous, 1989;<br />
Renema et al., 2001b). Other studies evaluated the effects of a change in diet composition on<br />
body composition during rearing (Miles et al., 1997; Hudson et al., 2000; Mba et al., 2010) or<br />
laying (Pearson and Herron, 1981; Spratt and Leeson, 1987). The combination of different feed<br />
allocations and different dietary protein levels in a single trial during the rearing period and its<br />
effects on body composition has received limited attention with the exception of a trial by Hocking<br />
et al. (2002). Such an experiment has been the focus of Van Emous et al. (2013), however,<br />
no interactions of the different feeding strategies on body composition were found. Moreover,<br />
differences in dietary protein levels during the rearing period were more effective than modifying<br />
the growth pattern by different feed allocations in changing body composition. This was<br />
probably due to the rather small differences (8%) in BW between treatments at the end of the<br />
rearing period as described in Van Emous et al. (2013). For example, Renema et al. (2001a) did<br />
not find an effect of an 11% higher BW, while a 21% higher BW increased abdominal fat content<br />
at the end of the rearing period. On the other hand, feeding broiler breeders to a 20% higher BW<br />
(2,640 vs. 2,200 g) at the end of rearing is relatively beyond practical conditions.<br />
A, on average, 16% lower dietary CP during the rearing period in the studies reported by Van<br />
Emous et al. (2013, 2015a) resulted in a decreased breast meat and increased abdominal fat pad<br />
content at 10 wk of age and at onset of lay (20 and 22 wk of age). This was in close agreement<br />
197
with Mba et al. (2010) who found the same effects of a 12.5% reduction in crude protein content<br />
of the diet (14 vs. 16%) on body composition at 12 and 23 wk of age. In fact, not the dietary<br />
crude protein or amino acid content influenced body composition, but the differences in daily or<br />
total intake of the macro nutrients. On average, in both experiments of this thesis, the 16% lower<br />
protein diets (low vs. high protein diet) resulted in a 11% higher total energy, 5% lower total<br />
crude protein, and 7% lower total amino acid intake during the rearing period.<br />
Average breast muscle (18.8 vs. 17.2%) and abdominal fat pad (1.0 vs. 0.4%) content at the end<br />
of the rearing period of all birds was relative higher in the study reported by Van Emous et al.<br />
(2015a) than the study by Van Emous et al. (2013). The differences between the experiments in<br />
breast muscle content might be explained by the differences in the higher total dietary protein<br />
and moreover total digestible lysine intake (+4.5%) in the second compared to the first experiment.<br />
Particularly dietary lysine is known as the major essential amino acid for breast muscle<br />
deposition in broilers and thus also for broiler breeders (Leeson and Summers, 2005).<br />
The abdominal fat pad content roughly doubled in the study reported by Van Emous et al.<br />
(2015a) compared to the study reported by Van Emous (2013) could be explained by two different<br />
factors. Firstly, body composition at the end of the rearing period was determined at 20<br />
(Van Emous et al., 2013) and 22 (Van Emous et al., 2015a) wk of age. In this pullet to breeder<br />
transition period, body composition or moreover fat content of the body changes dramatically.<br />
Secondly, the differences could be explained by the, on average, 4.5% higher cumulative energy<br />
intake in the study reported by Van Emous et al. (2015a).<br />
At 15 wk of age, no effects of dietary protein level on abdominal fat pad (% BW) were found<br />
while this was present at wk 10 (Van Emous et al., 2013). This phenomenon was also reported<br />
by Mba et al. (2010) who observed a difference in abdominal fat pad affected by differences in<br />
dietary protein level at wk 12 while this disappeared at 19 wk of age. It seems that abdominal<br />
fat pad and fat contents of the body follows a specific pattern during rearing with ageing. This<br />
pattern in body composition was previously reported by Bennet and Leeson (1990) who found<br />
a decreased total fat content between 2 and 14 wk of age but an increased fat content between<br />
14 and 24 wk of age. Combining the data of different authors yields a quadratic relationship<br />
between age and abdominal fat pad content (% BW) during the rearing and pullet to breeder<br />
transition period (P < 0.001).<br />
The decreased abdominal fat pad weight around 12 wk of age is caused by the severe feed restriction<br />
levels (67 to 75%) between 7 and 16 wk of age, as described by De Jong and Guéméne<br />
(2011). It is likely that due to the severe feed restriction program during the midterm phase of<br />
rearing, pullets are required to use body (fat) reserves to meet energy requirements. This explains<br />
that the fat content of the body decreased during the severe feed restriction period while it<br />
increased again when energy intake increases substantially after 15 wk of age.<br />
Feathers are high in protein and amino acids (Stilborn et al., 1997), especially the sulfur-con-<br />
198
taining amino acids methionine and cysteine which are needed for the synthesis of feather keratin<br />
(Wheeler and Latshaw, 1981). Feather cover development is not well described in broiler<br />
breeder nutrition research. A low protein diet during the rearing period, however, had a negative<br />
effect on feather cover quality (Van Emous et al., 2013; 2015c). In the experiment of Van Emous<br />
et al. (2013), feather cover was inferior on the low protein diet at 6 and 11 wk of age while<br />
this difference disappeared from 16 wk of age onward. In the experiment of Van Emous et al.<br />
(2015c), feather coverage was inferior on the low protein diet during the entire rearing period.<br />
It is, therefore, suggested that the protein and amino acid levels of the diets in the studies here<br />
were critical or deficient, in particular those amino acids needed for feather growth and development.<br />
The effect of daily protein intake on feather growth in broilers was previously reported by<br />
Twining et al. (1976), Aktara et al. (1996), Melo et al. (1999) and Urdaneta-Rincon and Leeson<br />
(2004). The suggestion of protein deficiency was underlined by the malformed cover feathers<br />
on the wings in the current study what might be an indication of amino acids deficiency. Moran<br />
(1984) already showed that marginal dietary deficiencies of sulfur containing amino acids resulted<br />
in abnormal feathering. Data of Van Emous et al. (2013) were used to analyze the linear<br />
relationships between the total crude protein intakes at different phases during the rearing period<br />
on feather cover score. The data show that the effect of a low total CP intake on feather cover<br />
score was much more pronounced between 2 and 6 wk of age (P < 0.001) than between 6 and 15<br />
wk of age (P = 0.182). It is, therefore, important to conclude that total CP (and AA) is a critical<br />
factor in development of feathers cover during rearing till approximately 6 wk of age.<br />
A low daily protein intake during the first phase of the laying period resulted in a poor feather<br />
cover during the entire laying period (Van Emous et al., 2015c). This phenomenon (low CP<br />
intake and poor feather cover) was observed during the rearing period as well. This effect was<br />
more pronounced in the first than in the second phase of lay, potentially because feather cover<br />
during the second phase was already almost completely damaged, thereby, masking treatment<br />
differences.<br />
Effect of protein intake during rear on breeder performance<br />
An interesting significant carryover effect of dietary protein level during rearing on the number<br />
of total and settable egg production during the second phase of lay was observed by Van Emous<br />
et al. (2015a). Pullets fed a low protein diet during rear produced between 45 and 60 wk of age<br />
3.0 more total and 3.6 more settable eggs than pullets fed a high protein diet. The better persistency<br />
of lay of birds fed low-protein diet during lay might be explained by the higher proportion<br />
of abdominal fat and lower proportion of breast muscle at the end of rearing. Breeders with<br />
a higher body fat content are probably more able to mobilize energy reserves in periods of a negative<br />
energy balance (Renema et al., 2013) which probably prevent them for molting. The lower<br />
muscle content of the body may decrease the daily energy requirement for maintenance and<br />
increase the amount of energy that would be available for egg production (Ekmay et al., 2013).<br />
199
Contrary to the study of Van Emous et al. (2015a), Miles et al. (1997) did not find any effects of<br />
a low protein diet during rearing on total egg production. This may be caused by the different<br />
breeds, or moreover the different properties due to 15 years of advances in selection and breeding<br />
resulting in differences in body composition (Renema et al., 2013). On the other hand, when<br />
pullets were fed very low protein diets (approx. 10%) during rearing, total egg production was<br />
negatively affected (Hudson et al., 2000; Hocking et al., 2002).<br />
Data of the experiment of Van Emous et al. (2015a) was used to analyze the relationship between<br />
breast muscle and abdominal fat pad content at 22 wk of age on total number of settable<br />
eggs. It was concluded that the effect of body composition on egg production persistency has to<br />
be refined. The data show that the number of settable eggs during the second phase of lay was<br />
affected by abdominal fat pad content and not by breast muscle content. It also show that either<br />
breast muscle or abdominal fat pad content at the end of the rearing period did not affect the<br />
number of settable eggs during the first phase of lay. Particularly abdominal fat pad is the cause<br />
of this difference while breast muscle content has no effect on persistency of lay. Breeders with<br />
a higher body fat content are probably more able to mobilize energy reserves during periods of<br />
a negative energy balance (Renema et al., 2013) which may prevent them start molting. On the<br />
other hand, breeders with a low body fat content lack energy to meet their energy requirements if<br />
dietary energy intake is limited and, thereby, may lost BW over time that finally initiate molting<br />
as part of a natural process. It is observed that natural molting starts with a voluntary reduction<br />
in food intake resulting in an approximately 20% BW loss (Mrosovsky and Sherry, 1980).<br />
Hocking et al. (2002) indicated that diets with a low CP (10%) content between 15 and 18 wk<br />
of age could result in a doubling of mortality during lay. In line with these results, mortality of<br />
pullets fed the low protein diet during rearing by Van Emous et al. (2015a) showed a tendency to<br />
an increased mortality over the entire laying period (6.3 vs. 8.1%; P = 0.079). It is hypothesized<br />
that feeding low protein levels during the rearing period may negatively affect the immune system<br />
due to the indispensable need for certain amino acids (arginine, glutamine, and cysteine) for<br />
the development of the immune system (Kidd, 2004).<br />
Effect of protein intake during rear on incubation traits<br />
It was postulated by Van Emous et al. (2015a) that differences in late embryonic mortality during<br />
the first phase of lay between birds fed different dietary protein levels during the rearing period<br />
was caused by differences in body composition at the onset of lay. Data of Van Emous et al.<br />
(2015b) were used to analyze the relationship between breast muscle and abdominal fat pad<br />
content of the body at 22 wk of age on embryonic mortality during the first of the laying period.<br />
No effect on embryonic mortality was found during the second phase of lay. These data show<br />
that particularly abdominal fat pad content and not breast muscle content at the end of the rearing<br />
period seems to be an important factor to affect embryonic mortality during the first phase of lay.<br />
Thus a higher abdominal fat pad content at the end of rearing resulted in a decreased embryonic<br />
mortality. A sound explanation for this phenomenon may be that egg composition might be af-<br />
200
fected by the differences in abdominal fat pad content of the body.<br />
Effect of protein intake during rear on offspring<br />
Van Emous et al. (2015b) concluded that the combination of a higher target BW and increased<br />
abdominal fat pad content of the body of pullets at the end of the rearing period was slightly<br />
positive for the offspring BW gain. On the other hand, a changed body composition of pullets at<br />
the end of the rearing period by decreasing dietary protein levels showed no benefits on BW gain<br />
(Van Emous et al., 2015b). No comparable studies in the literature are available with regards<br />
to the effect of a different target BW at the end of the rearing period or different dietary protein<br />
levels fed to breeder pullets on offspring performance.<br />
An interaction effect between sex of the offspring and dietary protein level of the breeder pullets<br />
on offspring breast meat gain was observed (Van Emous et al. 2015b). Male broilers from breeders<br />
fed the low protein diet had higher breast meat gain than male broilers from breeders fed the<br />
high protein diet, while breast meat gain of female broilers was not affected by dietary protein<br />
levels. It was suggested that this effect was caused by differences in protein deposition between<br />
the sexes. Feeding breeders a low protein diet during the rearing period may cause a gene-expression<br />
for maximum protein efficiency which is transferred to the offspring. This suggesting<br />
was underlined by the results of Rao et al. (2009) who found that offspring of Langshan breeders<br />
fed 10 vs. 15% CP diets had higher breast meat content at d 28. This finding and the results on<br />
breast meat gain (% of BW; males and females) of Moraes et al. (2011) who fed breeder pullets<br />
different energy and protein levels all show that feeding different levels of macronutrients to<br />
pullets, resulting in differences in body composition, can alter offspring processing yields.<br />
Although, the underlying mechanisms behind these effects are still unknown, they may be related<br />
to metabolic changes by altering gene expression as suggested by (Rao et al., 2009; Choi<br />
and Friso, 2010). For example, as shown by Heijmans et al. (2008) and Rao et al. (2009), strong<br />
epigenetic effects on the offspring were found when humans or breeders, respectively, where<br />
exposed to suboptimal nutrition. It is therefore recommended that these effects need to be further<br />
studied in order to understand the physiological processes. This also will aid the feed industry in<br />
optimizing pullet and breeder diets for maximum performance of pullets, breeders and broilers,<br />
potentially differentiation to sexes.<br />
Effect of protein intake during lay on breeder performance<br />
The different feeding strategies during the laying period as described by Van Emous et al. (2015)<br />
did not affect breeder performance in the second phase, however, the high and low energy diet<br />
during the first phase resulted in a slightly lower number of eggs. It is not really clear what<br />
caused the difference in egg production during this laying phase. It was observed that a high energy<br />
diet resulted in a decreased feed intake and decreased eating time (Van Emous et al. 2015c).<br />
The most aggressive breeders ate a larger amount of feed resulting in decreased flock uniformity<br />
(Renema et al., 2013). A less uniform flock will reach peak production somewhat later caused<br />
201
y the larger variation in sexual development of individual birds (Laughlin, 2009). However<br />
uniformity during initial lay was not recorded in the study of Van Emous et al. (2015a), the more<br />
than 5 d delayed peak egg production for the birds fed the high energy diet is an indication of a<br />
decreased uniformity.<br />
It could also be hypothesized that a low energy diet (and thus high daily protein intake) resulted<br />
in more breast muscle deposition. This might increase the daily energy requirement for maintenance<br />
and decreases, therefore, the amount of energy that remains for egg production (Ekmay<br />
et al., 2013).<br />
In general, egg weight is affected by daily dietary protein and amino acids intake (Lopez and<br />
Leeson, 1995a; Fisher, 1998; Joseph et al., 2000). More specific, a higher egg weight is caused<br />
by a higher daily intake of sulfur amino acids (effect on albumen and yolk) and/or higher daily<br />
intake of linoleic acid (effect on yolk). This was confirmed in the study of Van Emous et al.<br />
(2015a) in the second phase of the laying period when daily amino acids and linoleic acid were<br />
increased. In the first phase of lay, the higher daily intake of amino acids was compensated by<br />
the lower daily linoleic acid intake potentially resulting in similar egg weights during that phase.<br />
Total mortality during the entire laying period was increased when breeders were fed the high<br />
(9.4%) compared to the standard (6.5%) and low (5.7%) energy diets during the first phase of lay<br />
(Van Emous et al., 2015a). The majority (on average, 67% of the different treatments) of the total<br />
mortality was due to ruptures of the gastrocnemius tendons. It was hypothesised by Van Emous<br />
(2015) that the potential factors below are likely to account for inducing ruptures of the tendons:<br />
1. A lower daily feed intake resulting in a lower daily macro- and micronutrients intake. No<br />
literature is available, however, regarding the effect of a lower nutrient intake on tendon<br />
development during rearing.<br />
2. Lowering the daily amount of feed decreased time spent on feeding behavior (Van Emous<br />
et al., 2015c). It was observed that these birds were aggressive at feeding time resulting in<br />
(hyper)activity like running and jumping, inducing a higher risk of damaging the tendons.<br />
3. Providing less feed leads to more competition at feeding time and a possible decrease in<br />
flock uniformity (unfortunately not recorded) during initial lay. More aggressive birds will<br />
develop higher BW due to the higher feed intake with possible effects on the tendon.<br />
A combination of factor 2 and 3 seems to be the most reasonable explanation of the differences<br />
in mortality caused by ruptures of the tendons.<br />
Effect of protein intake during lay on incubation traits<br />
Feeding a low dietary energy level, resulting in a higher daily protein intake, during the first<br />
as well the second phase of the laying period did not affect fertility (Van Emous et al., 2015a),<br />
202
which is also found by other authors (Whitehead et al., 1985; Mejia et al., 2012b). In other<br />
studies, feeding broiler breeders a high daily protein level during the laying period resulted in<br />
decreased fertility (Lopez and Leeson, 1995a; Ekmay et al., 2013). It is not clear what caused<br />
the differences between the cited studies but probably causative factors are: housing system,<br />
diet, and breed. E.g., birds were individually housed and artificially inseminated (Mejia et al.,<br />
2012b; Ekmay et al., 2013) or group housed with natural mating (Whitehead et al., 1985; Lopez<br />
and Leeson, 1995a; Van Emous et al., 2015a). Besides the different ways of housing birds, also<br />
different dietary treatments were used for changing dietary protein or amino acids levels. For<br />
example, in the study of Lopez and Leeson (1995a) birds received different dietary crude protein<br />
levels while essential amino acids levels were equal. Some researchers used semi-purified<br />
diets (Mejia et al., 2012a,b; Ekmay et al., 2013) and changed specific amino acids levels while<br />
other researchers used more practical diets with reduced levels of crude protein or amino acids<br />
(Whitehead et al., 1985; Van Emous et al., 2015a). In the studies of Pearson and Herron (1982)<br />
and Whitehead et al. (1985), older Ross strains were used, while in the study of Van Emous et<br />
al. (2015a) Ross 308 birds were used. In the studies of Mejia et al. (2012a,b) and Ekmay et al.<br />
(2013) Cobb 500 breeders were used while Lopez and Leeson (1995a) used Hubbard breeders.<br />
The results from Van Emous et al. (2015) showed conclusively that feeding birds a high energy<br />
diet (less daily protein intake) during the second phase of lay improved hatchability of fertilized<br />
eggs. These results are in agreement with Pearson and Herron (1982), Whitehead et al. (1985)<br />
and Lopez and Leeson (1995a). The differences in hatchability of the fertile eggs were caused<br />
by differences in embryonic mortality. A higher or lower embryonic mortality leads to a lower<br />
or higher hatchability of fertile eggs, respectively. This observation supports the earlier work of<br />
Pearson and Herron (1982) who found that lowering daily protein intake (27.0 vs. 21.3 g/bird)<br />
resulted in a decreased mortality and malformation of embryos. The decreased embryonic mortality<br />
in birds fed the high energy diet (low daily protein intake) in the study of Van Emous et<br />
al. (2015) can be explained by the lower egg weight (68.7 vs. 69.1 g). Larger eggs have a higher<br />
eggshell conductance (EC) due to an increased pore density or pore size (Shafey, 2002). A higher<br />
EC increased vital gas exchange and water loss which causes, respectively, an increased early<br />
and late embryonic mortality (Peebles et al., 1987).<br />
The effect of an improved hatchability and decreased embryonic mortality, while feeding the<br />
high energy diet (low daily protein intake), was underlined by the decreased proportion of second<br />
grade chicks in the study of Van Emous et al. (2015a). The relationship between low embryonic<br />
mortality and less second grade chicks was previously found in studies of Reijrink et al.<br />
(2010) and Molenaar et al. (2011).<br />
Effect of protein intake during lay on offspring performance<br />
Relatively few papers are available on the effects of specific protein or amino acids intake of<br />
broiler breeders on offspring performance and processing yields (Wilson and Harms, 1984; Lopez<br />
and Leeson, 1995b; Mejia et al., 2013). In general, little or no effect of a change in maternal<br />
203
daily protein intake on growth and processing yields of the offspring has been reported. This is<br />
in agreement with the results of the two broiler trials obtained of hatching eggs from 28 and 53<br />
wk of age during the study of Van Emous (2015). Breeders fed similar amounts of daily energy,<br />
but 7% more or less protein during the first phase of the laying period showed no difference in<br />
performance and processing yields of offspring from 28 wk old breeders. Moreover, feeding<br />
breeders a 9% lower daily protein intake during the second phase of the laying period did not,<br />
except a decreased mortality, affect broiler performance and processing yields of offspring from<br />
53 wk old breeders as well. The lack of an effect of daily protein intake on offspring performance<br />
and processing yields can be explained by the research of Ekmay et al. (2011). They found that<br />
60 to 70% of egg albumen lysine is derived from skeletal muscle reserves and the remainder<br />
from dietary resources. They suggested that skeletal muscles probably functioned as a transient<br />
protein pool from which lysine can be mobilized.<br />
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O 36 Feed Supplementation Effect of 25-Hydroxycholecalciferol and<br />
Canthaxanthin in Broiler Breeders and Their Progeny<br />
Elisa Folegatti 1 , Mustafa Unal 2<br />
1<br />
DSM Nutritional Products Europe, Italy; 2 DSM Nutritional Products, Istanbul, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Two trials were run to evaluate the effect of a supplemented diet with 25-hydroxycholecalciferol<br />
(25OHD 3<br />
, tradename Rovimix Hy·D ® ) and canthaxanthin (CTX, tradename Carophyll ® Red) on<br />
the performances of broiler breeders and on their progeny. In the first trial, a group of breeders<br />
was fed a control diet supplemented only with vitamin D 3<br />
and the other group was fed a combination<br />
of 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX. Performances parameters were monitored at 30, 45 and 62 weeks<br />
of age. Breeders fed the combination of 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX exhibited higher production, fertility<br />
and hatchability rates compared to the control group. The chicks hatched were further split in<br />
two groups and fed a control diet or a diet with 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX up to 21 days. The broilers<br />
fed the 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX diet exhibited the best performances in term of final weight, feed<br />
conversion and meat yields at the slaughterhouse. The results of this trial are suggesting that the<br />
diet supplemented with 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX enhances the performances of the breeders and of<br />
their progeny up to the slaughter age. In the second trial two groups of breeders fed respectively<br />
a control diet, supplemented only with vitamin D 3<br />
, and a diet supplemented with 25OHD 3<br />
and<br />
CTX were followed. The breeders fed the experimental diet showed better values of fertility<br />
and hatchability. The day old chicks continued to receive according to the maternal diet, either<br />
a diet supplemented with vitamin D 3<br />
or with 25OHD 3<br />
. In the second trial, the expression of the<br />
myogenic markers was determined at hatch and at 6 days after hatch to evaluate the effect of<br />
the vitamin D source on the myogenesis of the embryos and of the chicks. The expression of<br />
the myogenic markers, like the MyoD and IGF-1, measured at hatch and after 6 days, showed a<br />
positive tendency of improvement in the chicks hatched from the breeders fed the 25OHD 3<br />
diet.<br />
These outcomes are suggesting a positive role of the 25OHD 3<br />
in enhancing the myogenesis both<br />
in the embryo phase and in the chicks.<br />
More data are needed to better understand how to improve the quality and the performances of<br />
the broilers through the maternal diet. However, the results of these two trials are strongly suggesting<br />
a positive effect of the combination of the 25-hydroxycholecalciferol and canthaxanthin<br />
on the performances of the breeders and their progeny.<br />
Introduction<br />
The maternal nutrition plays a very important role in the development and health of the progeny.<br />
In the past years, the combined effects of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol and canthaxanthin<br />
as functional nutrients in poultry breeder nutrition have been investigated by several Research<br />
Institutions and DSM. The 25-hydroxycholecalciferol is involved in the bone and eggshell formation.<br />
The canthaxanthin as antioxidant traps the free radicals (saving alpha-tocopherol) and<br />
209
can improve the antioxidant status of the tissues in semen, embryo and one day old chick (Surai,<br />
2012). Both nutrients are transferred by the breeder hen to the egg yolk, and to the embryo. Several<br />
studies were run to evaluate the effect of these nutrients on the performances of the breeders<br />
but very few trials were more focused on the evaluation of the performances of the hatched<br />
chicks. The aim of this short review is to provide more information about the effect of a dietary<br />
supplementation with 25-hydroxycholecalciferol and canthaxanthin to broiler breeders and the<br />
performance of their progeny.<br />
Material and methods<br />
In the first trial run by Araujio et al. (2014) a total of 80 broiler breeders, Cobb 500, were reared<br />
from 25 to 62 weeks in a floor pen facility. The breeder hens were fed either a control diet<br />
supplemented only with vitamin D 3<br />
or the control diet supplemented with 25-hydroxycholecalciferol<br />
(25OHD 3<br />
, tradename Rovimix Hy·D ® ) and canthaxanthin (CTX, tradename Carophyll ®<br />
Red). The hatchings were monitored at 35, 45 and 62 weeks. From each hatchery batch the<br />
chicks were split in a 2x2 factorial design: breeders fed or not 25OHD 3<br />
plus CTX and chicks fed<br />
or not 25OHD 3<br />
plus CTX up to 21 days of age. The parameters evaluated were: egg production,<br />
fertility and hatchability in the breeder hens and the farm and slaughterhouse performances in<br />
the broiler phase. ANOVA of data were performed using GLM procedure of SAS, considering<br />
5% of significance.<br />
The second study was run by Berri et al., (2015). A total of 358 eggs from Ross PM3 were<br />
hatched in INRA facility. The eggs were laid from breeders fed a control diet supplemented with<br />
vitamin D 3<br />
or a treated diet supplemented with 25-hydroxycholecalciferol and canthaxanthin.<br />
The percentage of fertilized eggs and hatched chicks were determined according to the maternal<br />
diet. The day old chicks were fed a control diet supplemented with vitamin D 3<br />
or a treated diet<br />
supplemented with 25-hydroxycholecalciferol. Day old chicks were weighted and sexed and<br />
only the males were kept. At hatch and at 6 days, 12 chicks per treatment were sacrificed and the<br />
Pectoralis mayor muscle were dissected. The breast samples were frozen into liquid nitrogen<br />
for RNA preparation. The level of gene expression was evaluated by real time PCR following<br />
reverse transcription. A total of 11 genes coding for several proteins were analysed: VDR, RXR,<br />
MyoD, Myf5, Myogenin and myogenic regulatory factors (MRF). The analysis of variance were<br />
performed using GLM procedure of SAS. Data on body weight, muscle growth and gene expression<br />
were further analysed by PCA using the SPAD8 software.<br />
Results and discussion<br />
In the first trial, the feed supplementation of 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX to broiler breeders enhanced<br />
their performance parameters compared to the control diet (P < 0.05) as shown in Figure 1. The<br />
egg production, the fertility and the hatchability rates were improved.<br />
210
Fig. 1: performance parameters evaluated in breeders fed a Control diet and a diet supplemented<br />
with 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX at 35, 45 and 62 weeks<br />
Results are in line with previous studies run by Rosa et al. (2010), Santos et al. (2011) and Duarte<br />
et al. (2015) and suggest that the combination of canthaxanthin and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol<br />
enhances the performance of the breeders. The chicks hatch were reared until 42 days of age. At<br />
the end of the rearing period the chicks hatch from the breeders supplemented with 25OHD 3<br />
and<br />
CTX and fed the same diet during the rearing period, exhibited the heaviest weight (P < 0.05)<br />
compared to the control birds (Fig. 2). Moreover the supplementation of 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX in<br />
the maternal diet improved (P < 0.05) the feed conversion of their progeny compared to the<br />
control birds (1,69 vs 1,72 at 35 weeks; 1,66 vs 1,69 at 42 weeks and 1,67 vs 1,75 at 62 weeks) .<br />
Fig. 2: Body weight measured at 42 days in broilers hatched from breeders fed a Control diet<br />
and a diet supplemented with 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX at 35, 45 and 62 weeks<br />
211
At the slaughterhouse the meat yields data were recorded. The highest meat yields were obtained<br />
in the broilers fed a combination of 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX either in the breeders and broilers diet<br />
(P < 0.05). In Figure 3 the data recorded for the carcass yields are presented. Moreover, also<br />
the breast meat yields were improved in broilers fed 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX compared to the birds<br />
fed the control diet. The broilers fed the combination of 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX both in the breeders<br />
phase and in the rearing period reached the higher values of breast meat yields compared to the<br />
birds of the control diet (P
GENE CONTROL 25OHD3 + CTX ORIGIN EFFECT<br />
VDR 0.66 ± 0.18 0.95 ± 0.16 0.24<br />
RXR 0.84 ± 0.08 0.76 ± 0.08 0.48<br />
MYOD 1.38 ± 0.14 1.62 ± 0.14 0.22<br />
MYF5 1.20 ± 0.19 1.40 ± 0.19 0.48<br />
MYOGENIN 0.35 ± 0.05 0.45 ± 0.05 0.18<br />
PAX7 1.47 ± 0.09 1.62 ± 0.09 0.26<br />
PCNA 1.06 ± 0.11 1.26 ± 0.11 0.20<br />
IGF-1 0.43 ± 0.06 0.60 ± 0.06 0.05<br />
MYHC EMBRYONIC 1.35 ± 0.20 1.72 ± 0.2 0.20<br />
MYHC NEONATAL 0.08 ± 0.02 0.11 ± 0.02 0.23<br />
MYHC ADULT 0.011 ± 0.002 0.017 ± 0.002 0.02<br />
Table 1: Relative gene expression levels measured by real time RT-PCR in the Pectoralis mayor<br />
muscle of day old chicks hatched from breeders fed either a control or a 25OHD 3<br />
+ CTX diets<br />
The maternal dietary treatment positively influenced the expression of the IGF-1 (insulin-like<br />
growth factor-1). Chicks hatched from breeders fed 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX had a higher expression<br />
of the IGF-1 compared to the control chicks. IGF-1 plays an important role in the growth of<br />
young animal and have an anabolic effect in adult birds. This growth factor is a fundamental<br />
regulator factor of the muscle growth inducing the proliferation of the satellite cells.<br />
The PCA analysis of the gene expression measured in chicks of 6 days old suggests that providing<br />
the breeders a supplemented diet with 25OHD 3<br />
and CTX stimulates the expression of<br />
most of the genes involved in the muscle growth and differentiation (Fig 4). Moreover, the feed<br />
supplementation to broilers of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol instead of vitamin D 3<br />
enhanced the<br />
expression of the breast weight and quantity.<br />
Fig 4: Graph of the PCA analysis of the gene expression measured in chicks of 6 days old. Maternal<br />
and broilers dietary treatments are indicated<br />
Conclusions<br />
The two studies presented are showing a positive effect of the maternal supplementation of<br />
25-hydroxycholecalciferol and canthaxanthin to enhance the breeders performance, in particular<br />
the fertility and the hatchability rates. Very interestingly the feed supplementation of 25-hy-<br />
213
droxycholecalciferol and canthaxanthin to the broiler breeders improved the chicks performances<br />
in term of myogenic gene expression, body weight, feed conversion and meat yields. These<br />
outcomes are indicating a beneficial effect of the combination of the 25-hydroxycholecalciferol<br />
and canthaxanthin to exploit the breeders and broilers potential.<br />
References<br />
1.Araujio L., Araujio C., Hermes R. and Bittar I. Performance and carcass characteristics of<br />
broiler breeders progeny fed canthaxanthin and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol. PSA meeting, Texas,<br />
USA, 2014<br />
2.Berri C., Praud C., Godet E., Bordeau T. and Duclos M. J. Effect of vitamin D source (25OHD3/<br />
D3) on breast muscle properties of chicks from flock supplemented or not with 25OHD3. Egg<br />
and <strong>Meat</strong> Quality WPSA Symposia, Nantes, France, 2015<br />
3.Duarte V., Minafra C. S., Santos F Ramos dos., Perim, F dos Santos. Inclusion of canthaxanthin<br />
and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol in the diet of broiler breeders on performance and incubation<br />
parameters. Ciencia Rural, v. 45, n. 11, nov, 2015<br />
4.Michalczuk M., Pietrzak D., Niemiec J. and Mroczek J. Effectiveness of vitamin d3 and calcidiol<br />
(25-OH-D3) applicationin feeding broiler chickens – production performance and meat<br />
quality.Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci., Vol. 60, No. 2, pp. 121-126, 2010<br />
5.Rosa A. P., Scher A., Boemo L., Vieira T. N. N., Ferreira J. A. G. and Sorbara J. O. B. Supplementation<br />
of canthaxanthin and 25-OH-D3 to broiler breeders diet on broiler chick hatchery<br />
parameters and egg yolk TBARS. <strong>Poultry</strong> Science 89, Suppl. 1: N 698, 2010<br />
6.Santos C. B., Rosa A. P., Scher A., Alves D. A., Brisi A. and Sorbara J. O.B. Effect of canthaxanthin<br />
and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol on the productive performance from broiler breeders from<br />
25 to 52 weeks of age. PSA meeting, St Louis, USA, 2011<br />
7.Surai P. F. The antioxidant properties of canthaxanthin and its potential effects in the poultry<br />
eggs and on embryonic development of the chick. Part 1. World’s <strong>Poultry</strong> Science Journal,<br />
68:465-476. Part 2. World’s <strong>Poultry</strong> Science Journal, 68:717-726, 2012<br />
8.Vignale K., Greene E. S., Caldas J. V., England J. A., Boonsinchai N., Sodsee P., Pollock E. D.,<br />
Dridi S. and Coon C.N. 25-Hydroxycholecalciferol Enhances Male Broiler Breast <strong>Meat</strong> Yield<br />
through the mTOR Pathway J. Nutr. 145:855–63, 2015<br />
214
O 37 Nutritional Modulation of Antioxidant System In <strong>Poultry</strong>:<br />
New developments with selenium on Hatching and Embriyonic<br />
Developmment<br />
Peter F. Surai 1-5 * and Vladimir .I. Fisinin 5-6<br />
1<br />
Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria, 2 Szent Istvan University, Godollo, Hungary,<br />
3<br />
Sumy National Agrarian University, Sumy, Ukraine, 4 Odessa National Academy of Food<br />
Technologies, Ukraine, 5 Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, Russia, 6 All Russian Institute<br />
of <strong>Poultry</strong> Husbandry, Sergiev Posad, Russia.<br />
Introduction<br />
Commercial poultry production is associated with various stresses leading to decrease of productive<br />
and reproductive performance of growing chickens, parent birds as well as commercial<br />
layers. Growing body of evidence indicates that most of stresses in poultry production at the<br />
cellular level are associated with oxidative stress due to excess of free radical production or<br />
inadequate antioxidant protection. Recently, a concept of the cellular antioxidant defence has<br />
been revised with a special attention paid to cell signalling. Indeed, in animals, redox signaling<br />
pathways use reactive oxygen species (ROS) to transfer signals from different sources to the<br />
nucleus to regulate a number of various functions including growth, differentiation, proliferation<br />
and apoptosis (Surai and Fisinin, 2016b; 2016c;2016d;2016e).<br />
Stresses in poultry production<br />
From a physiological point of view, stress is related to a deviation from optimal internal and<br />
external conditions. Under stressful conditions, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, the autonomic<br />
nervous system and the immune system are responsible for re-establishing homeostasis.<br />
Therefore, a cascade of regulatory mechanisms are involved, resulting in a mobilization of energy<br />
and a shift in metabolism with detrimental effects on growth performance and feed efficiency.<br />
In modern commercial poultry production oxidative stress-related nutritional metabolic diseases<br />
(e.g. encephalomalacia, exudative diathesis, muscular dystrophy, etc.) practically disappeared<br />
(Surai, 2002; 2006), however, various disorders of the biological antioxidant defence system<br />
still causing substantial problems. For example, the amount of a particular nutrient in the diet<br />
may be insufficient to meet the requirements, the diet may contain substances that inactivate<br />
the nutrient or inhibit its absorption/utilisation, or metabolism may be upset by the interaction<br />
of dietary and environmental factors causing oxidative stress. Domestication and genetic<br />
selection based on rapid growth rates, better feed conversion, and heavier BW of broilers has<br />
made domestic birds, including broilers and turkey, particularly susceptible to oxidative stress.<br />
In general, there are four major types of stress in poultry industry: technological, environmental,<br />
nutritional and internal stresses (Surai and Fisinin, 2016b). It seems likely that heat and diet<br />
are among main means causing oxidative stress in domestic birds that may lead to biological<br />
damage, serious health disorders, lower growth rates, and, hence, economic losses. Therefore,<br />
dietary antioxidants are considered to be the main protective means to deal with various stresses<br />
in poultry production<br />
215
Indeed, the antioxidant defence includes several options (Surai, 2002; 2006; Surai and Fisinin,<br />
2016b; 2016c; 2016d; 2016e):<br />
· decrease localized oxygen concentration;<br />
· decrease activity of pro-oxidant enzymes (carnitine, silymarin)<br />
· improve efficiency of electron chain in the mitochondria and decreasing electron leakage<br />
leading to superoxide production (carnitine);<br />
· induction of various transcription factors (e.g., NF-E2-related factor 2 [Nrf2], nuclear<br />
factor-kB [NF-kB] and others) and ARE-related synthesis of AO enzymes (SOD,<br />
GSH-Px, CAT, glutathione reductase [GR], glutathione S-transferase [GST], etc.);<br />
· binding metal ions (metal-binding proteins) and metal chelating;<br />
· decomposition of peroxides by converting them to non-radical, nontoxic products<br />
(Se-GSH-Px);<br />
· chain breaking by scavenging intermediate radicals such as peroxyl and alkoxyl radicals<br />
(vitamins E, C, GSH, uric acid, carnitine, ubiquinol, bilirubin, etc.);<br />
· repair and removal of damaged molecules (methionine sulfoxide reductase, DNA-repair<br />
enzymes, HSPs and other chaperons, etc.);<br />
· redox-signaling and vitagene activation with synthesis and increased expression of<br />
protective molecules (GSH, thioredoxins, SOD, heat shock proteins [HSPs], sirtuins,<br />
etc.);<br />
· antioxidant recycling mechanisms, including vitamin E recycling;<br />
· apoptosis activation and removal terminally damaged cells and restriction of mutagenesis.<br />
As it was shown above all antioxidants in the body are working as a “team” responsible for<br />
antioxidant defence and we call this team the antioxidant system. In this team one member<br />
helps another one working efficiently. In general vitamin E and coenzyme Q are considered to<br />
be a “head-quarter” of the antioxidant defences, while Se is a “chief executive” of antioxidant<br />
defence, since from 25 known selenoproteins, more than half participate in antioxidant defences.<br />
Furthermore, a central role in antioxidant system regulation belongs to vitagene expression<br />
and additional synthesis of protective molecules in stress conditions (“ministry of defence”) to<br />
improve adaptive ability to stress.<br />
Therefore if relationships in this team are effective, which happens only in the case of balanced<br />
diet and sufficient provision of dietary antioxidant nutrients, then even low doses of such antioxidants<br />
as vitamin E could be effective. On the other hand when this team is subjected to high<br />
stress conditions, free radical production is increased dramatically. During these times, without<br />
external help it is difficult to prevent damage to major organs and systems. This ‘external help’<br />
is dietary supplementation with increased concentrations of natural antioxidants. For nutritionist<br />
or feed formulator it is a great challenge to understand when the internal antioxidant team in<br />
the body requires help, how much of this help to provide and what the economic return will<br />
be. Again, it is necessary to remember about essentiality of keeping right balance between free<br />
radical production and antioxidant defence. Indeed, ROS and RNS have another more attractive<br />
face participating in a regulation of varieties of physiological functions.<br />
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Nutritional Modulation of Antioxidant Systems in <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
A major strategy of nutritional modulation of antioxidant defences includes adding antioxidant<br />
into the poultry diet. This includes, vitamin E, selenium, carotenoids, flavonoids (polyphenols)<br />
and some other antioxidants and their role in poultry nutrition was characterised in our previous<br />
work (Surai, 2002; 2014; Surai and Fisinin, 2015a).<br />
Vitamin E<br />
Vitamin E – main chain-breaking antioxidant in the cell, located in biological membranes and<br />
proven to be effective in antioxidant protection. Recently it has been proven that vitamin E<br />
recycling in the cell is a key for its antioxidant activity. Ascorbic acid, selenium, vitamins B1<br />
and B2 are important elements of vitamin E recycling. Therefore, if recycling is effective even<br />
low vitamin E concentration, for example in embryonic brain, can prevent lipid peroxidation in<br />
vivo (Surai et al., 1996). Increased vitamin E supplementation is proven to be effective means of<br />
stress prevention in heat stress and various nutritional stresses.<br />
Carotenoids<br />
Carotenoids are important elements of antioxidant system, possessing antioxidant activities and<br />
participating directly or indirectly (for example, by recycling vitamin E or regulating expression<br />
of various genes) in antioxidant defences. There are more than 750 carotenoids in nature and<br />
their efficiency vary considerably. Recently, an important role of canthaxanthin in breeder nutrition<br />
has been described (Surai, 2012a; 2012b).<br />
Ascorbic Acid<br />
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is an important antioxidant synthesized in chickens and its dietary<br />
supplementation is shown to be effective only in stress conditions, when its requirement substantially<br />
increased. The role of vitamin C in vitamin E recycling is a topic of great interest.<br />
Polyphenolic Compounds, Including Flavonoids<br />
Polyphenolic compounds comprise a group of various plant-derived compounds consisting of<br />
more than 8,000 various compounds possessing antioxidant and pro-oxidant properties in various<br />
conditions. The main problem with polyphenols, including flavonoids, is their low bio-availability.<br />
Their concentration in the diet could be very high, but their levels in blood is low and<br />
their concentration in target tissues (liver, muscles, egg yolk) usually is negligible. Therefore<br />
direct antioxidant properties of flavonoids were questioned (Surai, 2014) and it seems likely that<br />
main site of flavonoid action is the gut where they can have health-promoting properties participating<br />
in the maintaining antioxidant-prooxidant balance (Surai and Fisinin, 2015a).<br />
Specific Role for Selenium<br />
Antioxidant system of poultry includes three major levels of defence. The first line is based on<br />
antioxidant enzymes, including SOD, Se-dependent GSH-Px and Catalase. The second level of<br />
defence is built by natural antioxidants, including vitamin E, but they perform only first part of<br />
the job detoxifying peroxyl radical (ROO*) and producing hydroperoxide ROOH which is still<br />
toxic and must be detoxifying by Se-GSH-Px. The third level of antioxidant defence is based<br />
217
on specific enzymes involved in repairing various molecules damaged by free radicals. A selenoprotein<br />
MsrB is one of such enzymes dealing with oxidised Met molecules inside the protein<br />
structure. Therefore, Se is involved in all three levels of antioxidant defence in the cell/body.<br />
Indeed, from 25 known selenoproteins in avian species more than half (about 18) are shown or<br />
suggested to have antioxidant-related properties, including direct AO activities (GSH-Px and<br />
TrxRx) as well as maintaining redox balance of the cell and participating in cell signaling.<br />
Analysis of research data on modulation of antioxidant defences by increasing levels of antioxidants<br />
in poultry diets indicates that Se has a special role, since its efficacy depends on the form of<br />
Se (organic vs inorganic) used in the supplement. Indeed, it has been proven that major effect of<br />
dietary Se is related to building Se reserves in the body in the form of SeMet which can be used<br />
in stress conditions when Se requirement increases but feed consumption is usually goes down.<br />
Therefore, stresses increase proteasome activities dealing with protein catabolism releasing Se-<br />
Met which is an additional source of Se for selenoprotein synthesis. This gives an additional<br />
protection in stress conditions. The main dietary strategy is to transfer as much as possible Se<br />
to the muscles (building Se reserves in breeders, layers and broilers) and to the egg, improving<br />
antioxidant defences of the developing embryo at time of hatching, a stressful period in chicken<br />
life. Therefore, a comparison of efficacy of different forms of Se in the maternal diet as well as<br />
in chicken diet is an important point to be addressed.<br />
Selenium Sources for <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
It has been shown that Se content of feed and food ingredients greatly varies depending on many<br />
different factors. For example, Se concentration in corn and rice grown in normal and high Se<br />
areas can vary 100-500–fold. Indeed average data on Se content in feedstuffs presented in<br />
various tables are not suitable for diet balancing and Se supplementation is a routing practice in<br />
commercial animal and poultry production. In fact, FDA approved Se supplements for poultry<br />
and swine in 1974 in the form of selenite or selenate (Surai, 2006).<br />
While Se form was not rigorously considered in the initial research into Se nutrition, for the last<br />
40 years information has accumulated indicating that the natural form of Se in plant-based feed<br />
ingredients consists of various selenoanimo acids with SeMet being major form of Se in grains,<br />
oil seeds and other important feed ingredients. Therefore, organic Se is the natural form of Se<br />
to include in feed formulations (Surai and Fisinin, 2016a). However, sodium selenite remains in<br />
use in many animal feeds. The limitations of using inorganic Se are well known and include toxicity,<br />
interactions with other minerals and vitamins, low efficiency of transfer to milk, meat and<br />
eggs and an inability to build and maintain Se reserves in the body. As a result, a high proportion<br />
of the element consumed in inorganic form is simply excreted. Further, a pro-oxidant effect of<br />
the selenite ion is a great disadvantage as well, particularly when shelf life of food animal products<br />
is considered. Furthermore, recently it has been found that sodium selenite at 0.3 ppm can<br />
cause damages to the gut structure. In fact, duodenum of a chicken fed 0.3 ppm sodium selenite<br />
showed vacuolar and hydropic degeneration of the epithelial cells lining the intestinal crypts,<br />
while ileum of the same chickens was characterised by an excess of mononuclear cell infiltration<br />
and aggregation in between degenerated and necrotic intestinal glands (Attia et al., 2010). Thus,<br />
the use of sodium selenite in animal diets has recently been questioned (Surai, 2006; Surai and<br />
Fisinin, 2016a). Therefore, the simplest idea was to use Se forms produced by plants.<br />
218
Selenium-Enriched Yeast: Pluses And Minuses<br />
It is well known that chemical and physical properties of Se and sulphur are very similar, reflecting<br />
similar outer-valence-shell electronic configurations and atomic sizes (Surai, 2006). Therefore<br />
plants cannot distinguish between these two elements when synthesizing amino acids. As a<br />
result they can synthesize SeMet when Se is available. This biological feature was the basis for<br />
development of the commercial technology of organic Se production from yeast. Indeed, various<br />
commercial forms of Se-Yeast found their way to the market place and shown to be effective<br />
sources of Se for poultry and animal production (for review see Surai, 2006; Surai and Fisinin,<br />
2014; 2015; 2016; 2016a ).<br />
However, there are several points to be addressed in relation to commercial usage of Se-Yeast.<br />
First of all, it is necessary to mention that yeast is a live organism and its composition will<br />
depend on the genetics and conditions of growing, including temperature, pH, oxygen concentration,<br />
etc. It seems likely that selenoamino acid composition of the yeast depends on various<br />
factors, including yeast species, growth conditions as well as analytical techniques used. In fact,<br />
Se-yeast has been reported to contain over 60 unique selenium species (Arnaudguilhem et al.,<br />
2012) and it is well established that SeMet is the major selenocompound in Se-enriched yeast.<br />
However, its proportion greatly varies, usually from 50 to 70% (Surai and Fisinin, 2014; 2015;<br />
2016; 2016a). Indeed the presented data depend not only on the technology of Se-Yeast production<br />
(strain of yeast, source of Se, temperature, oxygen concentration, etc.), but also are dependent<br />
on the extraction efficiency of the technique used by the analytical laboratory. Recently, a<br />
considerable incorporation of selenocysteine (SeCys) in proteins of the yeast proteome despite<br />
the absence of the UGA codon was demonstrated (Bierla et al., 2013). The authors concluded<br />
that 10–15% of selenium present in Se-enriched yeast is in the form of selenocysteine. This<br />
means, that if all Se in Se-Yeast is accounted for, the maximum SeMet proportion would not exceed<br />
85%, but in many cases will be lower than that. There is also a difficulty in chemical detection<br />
of SeMet in yeast products and only few labs in the world can do such an analysis properly.<br />
SeMet and OH-SeMet<br />
Another option to improve Se status of poultry and farm animals would be to use pure SeMet<br />
as a dietary supplement. There are some respectable publications showing beneficial effect of<br />
organic Se in the form of SeMet in the poultry diets. However, SeMet in purified form is unstable<br />
and easily oxidised (For review and references see Surai and Fisinin, 2014; 2015; 2016; 2016a).<br />
Recently a new stable organic Se source called Selisseo®(SO) has been developed which is<br />
a selenomethionine hydroxyanalogue, 2-hydroxy-4-methylselenobutanoic acid or HMSeBA<br />
(Briens et al., 2013, 2014). Two experiments were conducted on broiler chickens to compare<br />
the effect of HMSeBA (SO), with two practical Se additives, SS and Se-Yeast. The different Se<br />
sources and levels improved muscle Se concentration compared with the NC, with a significant<br />
source effect in the following order: SS, Se-Yeast and SO (P
pared with Se-Yeast for muscle Se enrichment. In particular, the authors showed that Se muscle<br />
concentrations significantly improve with SO, increasing the relative bioavailability for total Se<br />
by 39% compared with SY. From one hand this could be a reflection of higher SeMet level in<br />
the diet (almost 100% SeMet in SO vs 60–70% SeMet in Se-Yeast). On the other hand, there<br />
could be other biochemical differences in the Se metabolism, since SO increased SeCys level<br />
in the muscle. Since this review mainly concerns breeder nutrition, it would be interesting to<br />
note that hens fed the diet with HMSeBA-0.2 accumulated more Se in their eggs (+28.8%) and<br />
muscles (+28%) than those fed the diet supplemented with SY-0.2 (Jlali et al., 2013). After 21<br />
days, organic Se sources maintained (Se-Yeast) or increased (Hydroxy-SeMet) breast muscle Se<br />
concentration compared to hatch value whereas inorganic source (Sodium selenite) or non-supplemented<br />
group (NC) showed a significant decrease in tissue Se concentration (Couloinger eta<br />
l., 2015). Furthermore, HMSeBA in turkey diet improved GSH-Px activity in thigh muscles and<br />
decreased lipid peroxidation (Briens et al., 2016). These results showed the greater ability of<br />
HMSeBA to increase Se deposition in eggs and breast muscle of laying hens, which could be of<br />
great importance for breeding birds and newly developing chicks. Recently, EU decided to limit<br />
the maximum supplementation with selenised yeast to 0.2 mg Se/kg complete feed for reasons of<br />
consumer safety (Commission Implementing Regulation No. 427/2013 of 8 May 2013). At this<br />
comparatively low level of supplementation advantages of organic Se in the form of Se-Yeast<br />
will be less pronounced, and alternative effective sources of organic selenium with higher efficiency<br />
of transfer to the egg and animal tissues would play bigger role in poultry reproduction.<br />
Therefore, aforementioned results indicated that a new source of organic selenium in the form<br />
of 2-hydroxy-4-methylselenobutanoic acid supplied in the same dose as Se-Yeast in the chicken<br />
diet could provide additional benefit in terms of Se reserves in the muscles as well as Se transfer<br />
to the egg and probably to the developing embryo. This potentially can be translated into better<br />
antioxidant protection in stress conditions of commercial poultry production.<br />
Chelated Se Products<br />
There is a range of products on the market claiming to contain chelated Se (Se-glycinates,<br />
Se-proteinates, Se-amino acids complexes, etc.), however, chemical position of Se in the Periodic<br />
table of elements indicates that Se is not a true metal and therefore its chelating ability is in<br />
question. Indeed, attempts to determine chelated Se in such products ended up with a detection<br />
of only inorganic Se (selenite and selenate, Kubachka et al., 2017). Indeed, chelated Se products<br />
are not related to SeMet and, probably, should not be included into organic Se category.<br />
Nano-Se Products<br />
Recently selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs, nano-Se) have received substantial attention as possible<br />
novel nutritional supplements because of their lower toxicity and ability to gradually release<br />
selenium after ingestion (Skalickova et al., 2016). In many cases low nano-Se toxicity is considered<br />
as its main advantage. However, one should also realise that Se toxicity is not a major problem<br />
in poultry industry and Se in the form of sodium selenite or organic Se (SeMet, Se-Yeast<br />
or other preparations) is an essential part of premixes produced worldwide. It seems likely that<br />
nano-Se nutritional value as a feed supplement for poultry industry is questionable.<br />
Conclusions<br />
In conclusion, a choice of an optimal form of Se with other available effective antioxidants is<br />
the most important step in building antioxidant defence program for poultry. However, some<br />
220
well-advertised natural antioxidants based on plant extracts are not proven to be antioxidants in<br />
biological systems. Therefore, there is a lot of food for thoughts for a poultry nutritionist.<br />
References<br />
Attia, Y.A., Abdalah, A.A., Zeweil, H.S., Bovera, F., Tag El-Din, A.A. and Araft, M.A. (2010).<br />
Effect of inorganic or organic selenium supplementation on productive performance,<br />
egg quality and some physiological traits of dual-purpose breeding hens. Czech J. Anim.<br />
Sci., 11: 505–519.<br />
Arnaudguilhem, C., Bierla, K., Ouerdane, L., Preud’homme, H., Yiannikouris, A., & Lobinski,<br />
R. (2012). Selenium metabolomics in yeast using complementary reversed-phase/hydrophilic<br />
ion interaction (HILIC) liquid chromatography– electrospray hybrid quadrupole<br />
trap/Orbitrap mass spectrometry. Analytica Chimica Acta, 757: 26–38.<br />
Briens, M., Mercier, Y., Rouffineau, F., Vacchina, V., Geraert, P.A. (2013). Comparative study<br />
of a new organic selenium source v. seleno-yeast and mineral selenium sources on muscle<br />
selenium enrichment and selenium digestibility in broiler chickens. British Journal<br />
of Nutrition 110: 617–624.<br />
Briens, M., Mercier, Y., Rouffineau, F., Geraert, P.A. (2014). 2-Hydroxy-4-methylselenobutanoic<br />
acid induces additional tissue selenium enrichment in broiler chicken compared to<br />
other selenium sources. <strong>Poultry</strong> Science 93: 85–93.<br />
Couloigner F, Jlali M, Briens M, Rouffineau F, Geraert PA, Mercier Y. (2015). Selenium deposition<br />
kinetics of different selenium sources in muscle and feathers of broilers. <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
Science 94: 2708-14.<br />
Jlali, M., Briens, M., Rouffineau, F., Mercerand, F., Geraert, P.A., Mercier, Y. (2013). Effect of<br />
2-hydroxy-4-methylselenobutanoic acid as a dietary selenium supplement to improve<br />
the selenium concentration of table eggs. Journal of Animal Science 91: 1745–1752.<br />
Kubachka KM, Hanley T, Mantha M, Wilson RA, Falconer TM, Kassa Z, Oliveira A, Landero<br />
J, Caruso J. (2017). Evaluation of selenium in dietary supplements using elemental speciation.<br />
Food Chem. 218: 313-320.<br />
Skalickova, S., Milosavljevic, V., Cihalova, K., Horky, P., Richtera, L. and Adam, V. (2016).<br />
Selenium nanoparticles as a nutritional supplement. Nutrition (In Press)<br />
Surai, P.F. (2002). Natural Antioxidants in Avian Nutrition and Reproduction. Nottingham University<br />
Press, Nottingham<br />
Surai, P.F. (2006). Selenium in Nutrition and Health. Nottingham University Press, Nottingham<br />
Surai, P.F., 2012a. The antioxidant properties of canthaxanthin and its potential effects in the<br />
poultry eggs and on embryonic development of the chick. Part 1. Worlds <strong>Poultry</strong> Science<br />
Journal 68: 465–475.<br />
Surai, P.F., 2012b. The antioxidant properties of canthaxanthin and its potential effects in the<br />
poultry eggs and on embryonic development of the chick. Part 2. Worlds <strong>Poultry</strong> Science<br />
Journal 68: 717–726.<br />
Surai PF. (2014). Polyphenol compounds in the chicken/animal diet: from the past to the future.<br />
J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl). 98: 19-31.<br />
Surai PF, Fisinin VI. (2014). Selenium in poultry breeder nutrition: An update. Animal Feed<br />
Science and Technology 191: 1–15.<br />
Surai PF, Fisinin VI. (2015). Selenium in pig nutrition and reproduction: boars and semen<br />
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quality-a review. Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 28: 730-746.<br />
Surai PF, Fisinin VI. (2015a). Antioxidant-prooxidant balance in the intestine: applications in<br />
chick placement and pig weaning. J Vet Sci Med 3:1e16<br />
Surai PF, Fisinin VI. (2016). Selenium in sow nutrition. Animal Feed Science and Technology<br />
211: 18–30.<br />
Surai PF, Fisinin VI. (2016a). Selenium in Livestock and Other Domestic Animals. In: Selenium.<br />
Its Molecular Biology and Role in Human Health. Eds. Dolph L. Hatfield , Ulrich<br />
Schweizer, Petra A. Tsuji and Vadim N. Gladyshev. Springer <strong>International</strong> Publishing,<br />
pp.595-606.<br />
Surai, P.F. and Fisinin, V.I. (2016b). Antioxidant system regulation: from vitamins to vitagenes.<br />
In: Handbook of Cholesterol (Ronald Ross Watson, Fabien De Meester, Eds.). Wageningen<br />
Academic Publishers, Wageningen, pp. 451-481.<br />
Surai, P.F. and Fisinin, V.I. (2016c) Vitagenes in poultry production. Part 1. Technological and<br />
environmental stresses. World’s <strong>Poultry</strong> Science Journal 72: 721-733.<br />
Surai, P.F. and Fisinin, V.I. (2016d) Vitagenes in poultry production. Part 2. Nutritional and<br />
internal stresses. World’s <strong>Poultry</strong> Science Journal 72: 761- 772.<br />
Surai, P.F. and Fisinin, V.I. (2016e) Vitagenes in poultry production. Part 3. Vitagene concept<br />
development. World’s <strong>Poultry</strong> Science Journal 72: 793- 804.<br />
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IS 21 Microbial Control Strategies in <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Production and Future<br />
Approaches<br />
Muammer Göncüoğlu<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Food Hygiene and<br />
Technology, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The safety of poultry meat has been digressed between the official authority and poultry meat<br />
producers/industry and becoming the social concern of the public in recent years. It is obvious<br />
that there will be many studies on this subject in the future also. The main issue covered in this<br />
context is poultry meat can be contaminated with different microorganisms, mainly pathogens<br />
and spoilages, and this situation is being mainly concentrated on the control of these bugs. Due<br />
to its production model poultry meat can be easily contaminated with microorganisms likely<br />
other foods of animal origin. However, when considering the chemical structure of poultry meat,<br />
the inadequate processing and storage stages after contamination also pose significant risks for<br />
public health. Particularly, as virulence characteristics of pathogens increase-differentiation,<br />
gaining lower infectious dose characteristics, antimicrobial and production-related (heat, cold,<br />
disinfectant etc.) stress resistance changes, as well as entry of new pathogens into the food chain<br />
are the most important risks in this sense. In addition, the development of new products and<br />
distribution chain, differences in production models, enhancement in the international trade,<br />
consumer expectations and knowledge levels, the increase in meat consumption in the world and<br />
the increase in curiosity and interest in the media and society and also the related misinformation<br />
about the facts are increasing the importance of the poultry meat safety issues. In this manner<br />
the routine control strategies are sometimes becoming inadequate and this may require the use<br />
of new strategies.<br />
223
O 38 Contamination Sources of Listeria monocytogenes in <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
Processing Plants<br />
Kadir Emre Girgin, Özgür Çadırcı<br />
Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Food Hygiene and<br />
Technology, Samsun, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In this study, 252 samples (144 from production process, 36 whole chicken, 72 chicken part<br />
samples) collected from 4 different poultry processing plants were investigated for the presence<br />
of L. monocytogenes. During the analysis these steps were followed: i) The presence of L.<br />
monocytogenes was detected by conventional culture techniques and IMS, ii) Isolates were<br />
confirmed and serotyped by PCR. According to the results 24 [24/252, (9,5%)] samples were<br />
found as L. monocytogenes positive. 51 isolates belonging to 24 samples were identified as<br />
L. monocytogenes. The presence of hlyA gene was visualized in all of the isolates by PCR.<br />
L. monocytogenes serotype 1/2a was the dominant serotype (47/51, 92,1%) while 4 isolate<br />
were serotype 1/2c. As a result, isolation of the pathogen from poultry processing plants and<br />
contamination of products pose risks to public health. Assuring food safety from primary<br />
production to consumption gains importance to reduce the risk of listeriosis.<br />
224
O 39 Effects of Antimicrobial Usage on the Sensory Properties of <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
<strong>Meat</strong><br />
Şeyma Yenioğlu Demiralp, Betül Karslıoğlu Özen, Eda Demirok Soncu, Nuray Kolsarıcı<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Natural or chemical antimicrobials have been used in poultry meats for many years due to prevent<br />
microbial growth and deterioration, increase the shelf life, and protect the consumers’ health.<br />
Antimicrobials should be used at high concentrations to show their effectiveness. However,<br />
limited number of studies reported that their usage in high quantities may adversely affect<br />
the organoleptic characteristics of the product desired by consumers. With that said, studies<br />
regarding the impact of antimicrobials on quality characteristics of poultry meat such as color,<br />
odor-flavor and taste should be conducted and findings should be observed to meet consumers’<br />
expectations.<br />
225
O 40 Determination of Lytic Effect Profiles of Listeria Phages Isolated from<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> Slaughterhouse Wastewaters<br />
Gizem Çufaoğlu , Naim Deniz Ayaz<br />
Kırıkkale University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Food Hygiene and<br />
Technology, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Bacteriophages are biological destructors of bacteria, also known as bacteria-eater viruses. Due<br />
to their presence in a very wide environment and their high selective toxicity without harming live<br />
tissue compared to antibiotics and antiseptics make bacteriophages advantageous and functional<br />
in combating pathogens. Today, there are many studies on biocontrol of bacterial pathogens in<br />
foods. Especially in the last decade, the use of commercial bacteriophage preparations in foods<br />
has increased and has become legally applicable in several countries around the world. In this<br />
study, it was aimed to isolate Listeria phages from poultry slaughterhouses wastewaters and<br />
prepare a cocktail from bacteriophages that are lytic to L. monocytogenes. At the end of the<br />
study, three listeriophages were isolated from 60 slaughterhouse wastewater that collected in 12<br />
months. Two out of the three bacteriophages that were isolated in this study showed litic activity<br />
to all of the L. monocytogenes serotypes and most of isolates used in this study. By this study<br />
two bacteriophages that showed broad lytic spectrum activity to LM and have potential to be a<br />
biocontrol agent have been detected.<br />
226
O 41 Effects of Acorns Extracts of Oak Trees on The Physicochemical and<br />
Antioxidative Properties of Chicken Thigh <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Ramazan Gökçe, Haluk Ergezer, Orhan Özünlü<br />
Pamukkale University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering, Denizli,<br />
Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In this study, it has been the fact that the effects of the extracts obtained from the acorns of<br />
different oak trees on the physicochemical and antioxidative properties of chicken thigh meat.<br />
For this purpose, the chicken thigh(skinless and boneless) meats have been dipped for 5 minutes<br />
in the solution of 1000 ppm concentration prepared from the extracts of ordinary oak, valonia<br />
oak and holy oak acorns. Moreover, a group without including extracts by treating with distilled<br />
water under the same conditions have been obtained from total of four study groups (control,<br />
ordinary, valonia and holy). After the chickens which take from the solution was drained and<br />
put into polystyrene trays by covering with polyethylene film packaged and stored at ±2 0 C for 7<br />
days. During storage, chickens were subjected to pH, color, total phenolic substance, antiradical<br />
activity, lipid oxidation, protein oxidation and sensory test analyzes on 0, 1, 4 and 7 th days.<br />
According to the results, the pH value did not change significantly (P>0,05). While use of extract<br />
decreased the L* value of chicken samples during storage, it didn’t show a significant effect on<br />
a* values. In addition, acorn extracts were found to be effective in preventing lipid and protein<br />
oxidation when it compared to the control group. In addition, regardless to the results of sensory<br />
analysis, acorn extracts was effective on samples which flavor and overall acceptability points<br />
positively and the added concentration showed no effect on sensory properties. As a result, the<br />
extracts obtained from different oak trees are thought to be the extend the shelf life of chicken<br />
thigh meat.<br />
Keywords: Oak acorn extract, antioxidant, oxidation, chicken meat<br />
227
IS 22 Predisposing Factors of Necrotic Enteritis (NE) in Broiler Chicks and<br />
Securing Broiler Flocks from NE<br />
Vasilious Tsiouris<br />
Unit of Avian Medicine, Clinic of Farm Animals, School of Veterinary Medicine, Aristotle<br />
University of Thessaloniki, Greece<br />
Abstract<br />
The increasing public health concerns, due to the spread of antimicrobial resistance from<br />
animals to human pathogens and the concomitant reduction in therapeutic efficacy have led<br />
to the ban of antimicrobial growth promoters in farm animals in European countries. This ban<br />
has significantly contributed to the emergence of economically important diseases of enteric<br />
origin in poultry, such as necrotic enteritis. It is one of the most widespread diseases in broilers,<br />
imposing a significant economic burden on the poultry industry worldwide.<br />
Despite the identification of Clostridium perfringens as the etiological agent of the necrotic<br />
enteritis, the predisposing factors that lead to over proliferation of C. perfringens and the<br />
subsequent progression to disease are poorly understood. It is well accepted that necrotic enteritis<br />
is a multi-factorial disease process, in which a number of co-factors are required to precipitate an<br />
outbreak of the disease. These predisposing factors are numerous, but many are ill-defined and<br />
experimental results have been contradictory.<br />
The ban of antimicrobials and the financial impact of necrotic enteritis in modern broiler industry<br />
have led to the development of new strategies for its control. The identification of C. perfringens<br />
virulence factors and the control of predisposing environmental factors are strategies of major<br />
importance. In addition, better farm management, including biosecurity measures, optimization<br />
of feed quality and nutriceutical alternatives (probiotics, prebiotics, organic acids, enzymes,<br />
herbs and so on) have become more relevant. The past decade was characterized by great<br />
progress in understanding the etiology and pathogenesis of necrotic enteritis in the gut of chicks.<br />
New research should focus on reducing the risk of the disease by controlling the C. perfringens<br />
in the intestine and by enhancing the immune system and the intestinal microbiota of chicks<br />
without the use of antibiotics.<br />
Introduction<br />
The increasing public health concerns, due to the spread of antimicrobial resistance from animals<br />
to human pathogens and the concomitant reduction in therapeutic efficacy have led to the ban<br />
of antimicrobial agent growth promoters in farm animals in European countries. This ban has<br />
significantly contributed to the emergence of economically important diseases of enteric origin<br />
in poultry, such as necrotic enteritis. It is one of the most common and economically devastating<br />
bacterial diseases in modern broiler flocks in terms of performance, mortality and welfare.<br />
228
Necrotic enteritis is caused by Clostridium perfringens toxinotype A strains expressing the<br />
b-pore-forming NetB toxin. It is one of the most widespread diseases in broilers, imposing a<br />
significant economic burden on the poultry industry worldwide. Its total global economic loss<br />
is estimated to be over $2 billion annually, while its occurrence is estimated to result in a 12%<br />
reduction in body weight and a 11% increase in feed conversion ratio compared to healthy birds<br />
(McDevitt et al., 2006; Graham et al., 2007; Keyburn et al., 2008; Skinner et al., 2010; Tsiouris,<br />
2010) .<br />
Despite our present understanding of the disease, and the identification of C. perfringens as the<br />
etiological agent, the predisposing factors which are essential for the outbreak of the disease are<br />
not fully understood. These factors can influence the intestinal ecosystem and disrupt its balance,<br />
leading to the outbreak of the disease (Williams, 2005; McDevitt et al., 2006; Tsiouris, 2010).<br />
They are divided in three categories: nutritional, infectious and managerial factors (Table 1).<br />
Nutrition<br />
The chemical composition and physical form of poultry feed and feed ingredients are one of the<br />
most important factors affecting the pathogenesis of necrotic enteritis in broiler chicks. They<br />
can alter the intestinal microbiota and create an intestinal environment that favors the growth of<br />
C. perfringens, which is key risk factor to the outbreak of necrotic enteritis (Palliyeguru et al.,<br />
2010; Barekatain et al., 2013). Cereals, such as wheat, rye, oats and barley, contain high levels<br />
of indigestible, water-soluble, non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), and predispose to necrotic<br />
enteritis, whereas maize is not (Kaldhusdal & Skjerve, 1996; Timbermont et al., 2011). Animal<br />
proteins, such as fishmeal, are favorable substrates for clostridial growth, and high concentrations<br />
in broiler feeds are often associated with necrotic enteritis. Glycine and methionine levels in<br />
fish-meal are higher than in soya concentrate, and these amino acids are known to stimulate<br />
C. perfringens growth in vitro (Drew et al., 2004; Wilkie et al., 2005). The dietary fat source<br />
may also have an effect on the C. perfringens population. Animal fat (lard or tallow) increases<br />
C. perfringens ileal counts compared with vegetable oil (Knarreborg et al., 2002). The physical<br />
form of feed particles may influence the incidence of necrotic enteritis and evidence shows that<br />
diets that have been hammer-milled as opposed to roller-milled are less likely to induce necrotic<br />
enteritis (McDevitt et al., 2006). Programmed alterations in the feeding regime (moving from<br />
starter diets to grower diets) are frequently associated with necrotic enteritis (Ross Tech, 1999).<br />
The use of enzymes in diets is now ubiquitous in intensively produced poultry systems. They<br />
can affect the nutrient availability for the chick and the intestinal microbiota, simultaneously.<br />
Increased mortality, due to phytase supplementation, was also likely secondary to an increase in<br />
nutrient availability for C. perfringens (Acamovic, 2001; Paiva et al., 2014).<br />
Infectious agents<br />
The best-known predisposing factor for necrotic enteritis is the mucosal damage caused by<br />
coccidial infection (Williams, 2005). Intestinal damage results in the release of plasma proteins<br />
into the lumen of the intestinal tract and provides a necessary growth substrate for extensive<br />
proliferation of C. perfringens. Moreover, coccidial infection induces a T-cell-mediated<br />
inflammatory response that enhances intestinal mucogenesis. This enhanced mucin production<br />
provides a growth advantage to C. perfringens, due to its mucolytic ability (Collier et al., 2008).<br />
On the contrary, attenuated anticoccidial vaccination, which also causes mild intestinal lesions,<br />
showed a significant protective effect against subclinical experimental necrotic enteritis in<br />
229
oiler chicks (Tsiouris et al., 2013). Exposure to immunosuppressive agents, such as infectious<br />
bursal disease, chick infectious anaemia virus and Marek’s disease, as well as non-specific<br />
stress, reduce the of chicks resistance to gut infections and could predispose birds to necrotic<br />
enteritis (McReynolds et al., 2004). Mycotoxins are one of the most common contaminants<br />
in poultry feed, worldwide. In an experimental necrotic enteritis model, broiler chicks fed a<br />
diet contaminated with 5 mg Deoxynivalenol/kg of feed were more prone to develop necrotic<br />
enteritis lesions compared to chicks on a control diet (Antonissen et al., 2014; Murugesan et al.<br />
2015).<br />
Management factors<br />
Any factor that causes stress in broiler chicks could suppress the immune system and disturb<br />
the balance of the intestinal ecosystem in such a way that the risk of necrotic enteritis outbreak<br />
increases. Stocking density is a management factor with critical implications for the poultry<br />
industry since it can negatively affect the performance, welfare and health of birds. As far as<br />
necrotic enteritis is concerned, high stocking density increased the incidence and severity of<br />
necrotic enteritis significantly and liver lesions as well as the pH and C. perfringens counts in<br />
caecum in an experimental necrotic enteritis model (McDevitt et al., 2006; Tsiouris, 2015a).<br />
Feed restriction constitutes a feed management strategy in poultry industry and is applied in<br />
order to control the growth rate and to prevent metabolic disorders. The reduction of nutrients<br />
in the intestinal tract alters the intestinal microbiota, changes the physico-chemical properties<br />
of the intestinal digesta and disturbs the balance of the intestinal ecosystem. The results of<br />
experimental study showed that feed restriction of broiler chicks limited the severity of necrotic<br />
enteritis lesion and reduced the C. perfringens population in the caecum in a necrotic enteritis<br />
experimental model (Zhan et al., 2007; Thompson et al., 2008; Tsiouris et al. 2014).<br />
Temperature is one of the most important physical environmental stressors, which could<br />
significantly affect the performance, health and welfare of poultry as well as the profit for the<br />
producer. According to the results of the experimental study, cold stress predisposes birds to<br />
develop necrotic enteritis lesions, as a result of the immunosuppression of birds, when exposed<br />
to low temperatures. Similarly, heat stress was associated with the outbreak of necrotic enteritis<br />
in not challenged birds and increased severity of necrotic enteritis lesions in experimentally<br />
infected broiler chicks (Mashaly et al., 2004; Burkholder et al., 2008; Tsiouris et al., 2009;<br />
Tsiouris et al., 2015b).<br />
Conclusion<br />
The ban of antimicrobials and the financial impact of necrotic enteritis in modern broiler industry<br />
have led to the development of new strategies for its control. The identification of C. perfringens<br />
virulence factors and the control of predisposing environmental factors are strategies of major<br />
importance. In addition, better farm management, including biosecurity measures, optimization<br />
of feed quality and nutriceutical alternatives (probiotics, prebiotics, organic acids, enzymes,<br />
herbs and so on) have become more relevant. The past decade was characterized by great<br />
progress in understanding the etiology and pathogenesis of necrotic enteritis in the gut of chicks.<br />
New research should focus on reducing the risk of the disease by controlling the C. perfringens<br />
in the intestine and by enhancing the immune system and the intestinal microbiota of chicks<br />
without the use of antibiotics.<br />
230
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232
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60.<br />
Table 1. The effect of various factors on the pathogenesis of necrotic enteritis in broiler chicks.<br />
FACTOR EFFECT PATHOGENESIS REFERENCE<br />
Indigestible, water-soluble,<br />
non-starch polysaccharides<br />
(NSPs)<br />
Fishmeal (glycine and<br />
methionine amino acids)<br />
Predispose<br />
Predispose<br />
NUTRITIONAL FACTORS<br />
Acts as substrates for the intestinal microbiota, Kaldhusdal<br />
increases the viscosity of intestinal content, decreases<br />
nutrient digestibility, increases intestinal transit time,<br />
diarrhea and wet litter<br />
2013<br />
Stimulate C. perfringens proliferation and a-toxin<br />
production<br />
&<br />
Skjerve, 1996;<br />
Barekatain et al.,<br />
Drew et al., 2004;<br />
Rodgers et al., 2015<br />
High concentrations of<br />
protein, imbalanced profiles<br />
of amino acids<br />
Predispose<br />
Acts as substrate for the intestinal microbiota, raises<br />
the pH of the lower intestine, enhances proliferation<br />
of C. perfringens<br />
Animal fat (lard or tallow) Predispose Increases the viscosity of intestinal content, decreases<br />
nutrient digestibility, increases intestinal transit time,<br />
diarrhea<br />
Physical form of feed particles Predispose Small feed particles move more rapidly through the<br />
intestine, reduce C. perfringens’ adhesion to the gut<br />
epithelium<br />
Programmed alterations in<br />
the feeding regime<br />
Enzymes<br />
Organic acids (OA)<br />
Predispose Changes in pH, diet composition, enzyme<br />
supplementation, host immune status<br />
Partially<br />
protect<br />
Partially<br />
protect<br />
Increases nutrient availability for the bird, reduces<br />
substrate availability for the intestinal microbiota<br />
OA with high pKa values reduce the pH of the<br />
intestine, OA with low pKa values are absorbed by<br />
the bacteria and disrupt the biochemical pathways<br />
Wilkie et al., 2005;<br />
McDevitt et al.,<br />
2006; Palliyeguru et<br />
al., 2010;<br />
Knarreborg et al.,<br />
2002<br />
Engberg et al., 2002<br />
Ross Tech, 1999<br />
Acamovic, 2001;<br />
Barekatain et al.,<br />
2013; Paiva et al.,<br />
2014<br />
Van Immerseel et<br />
al., 2006<br />
INFECTIOUS FACTORS<br />
Eimeria spp. infection Predispose Damage of intestinal mucosa, release of plasma Williams, 2005;<br />
proteins into the lumen of the intestinal tract, growth Collier et al., 2008<br />
substrate for proliferation of C. perfringens, T-cellmediated<br />
inflammatory, enhance intestinal<br />
mucogenesis, provides a growth advantage to<br />
C. perfringens<br />
Tsiouris et al., 2013<br />
Attenuated anticoccidial<br />
vaccination<br />
Partially<br />
protect<br />
Stimulation of nonspecific and specific immunity<br />
mechanisms, prevention of coccidiosis, discourages<br />
the attachment of C. perfringens to epithelium, its<br />
colonization and toxinogenesis<br />
Immunosuppressive agents Predispose Reduce resistance to gut infections McReynolds et al.,<br />
2004<br />
MANAGEMENT FACTORS<br />
Stocking density Predispose Increased build-up of C. perfringens spores in the<br />
litter, poor litter quality and increased risk of spread<br />
by contact or by aerosol<br />
Starvation<br />
Partially<br />
protect<br />
Neuroendocrine and immune effects, beneficial<br />
effects on the cardiovascular system, stimulation of<br />
blood circulation to the intestinal mucosa and<br />
chemotaxis of immune cells<br />
McDevitt et al.,<br />
2006;<br />
Tsiouris et al., 2015a<br />
Tsiouris et al. 2014<br />
Cold stress Predispose Immunosuppression, increased feed consumption Tsiouris et al. 2015b<br />
Heat stress Predispose Immunosuppression, alteration of synthesis of<br />
intestinal microbiota, increased heat shock proteins,<br />
hemodynamic changes and particularly the reduction<br />
in blood flow to the intestinal mucosa<br />
Mashaly et al., 2004;<br />
Burkholder et al.,<br />
2008;<br />
Tsiouris et al., 2009<br />
233
O 42 Metagenomic Analysis of Gut Microbiome Associated with Early<br />
Chick Mortality<br />
Mehmet Akan, İnci Başak Kaya, Seyyide Sarıçam, K.Serdar Diker<br />
Ankara University, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
To determine the microbiome associated with early chick mortality, gut microbiomes of dead and<br />
healthy chicks were compared in this study. Bacterial 16S rDNA sequences in ceca of chicks were<br />
read by Ion Torrent next generation sequencing system and subjected to metagenomic analysis.<br />
While relative abundance of class Clostridia reduced from 65% in healthy to 5% in dead chicks,<br />
class Proteobacteria increased from 26% in healthy to 94%in dead chicks. Major differences<br />
were detected in Lachnospiraceae family of class Clostridia and Gammaproteobacteria family<br />
of class Proteobacteria. It was concluded that there were considerable differences between<br />
major taxons of microbiomes of dead and healthy chicks, and this microbiome can be associted<br />
with early chick mortality.<br />
234
O 43 Metagenomic Analysis of Cecal Microbiome Associated with Growth<br />
Retardation in Broiler<br />
İnci Başak Kaya 1 , K. Serdar Diker 1 , Okan Elibol 2 , Mehmet Akan 1<br />
1<br />
Ankara University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Department of Microbiology, 2 Ankara<br />
University Faculty of Agricalture Deparment of Animal Science, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Cecal microbiome of an experimental broiler flock with 4 days retard in the mean-live<br />
weight gain at day 14 was determined by using 16S metagenomics kit with next generation<br />
sequencing (Ion Torrent). According to the consensus results of metagenomics analysis, 7 phyla,<br />
13 classes, 18 orders, 40 families, 32 genera and 30 species were detected. Firmicutes and<br />
Proteobacteria constituted 99 and 0.9% of consensus, respectively; remaining was distributed<br />
into Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Cyanobacteria, Synergistetes and Tenericutes phylum. In<br />
phylum Firmicutes, classes of Clostridia (51%), Erysipelotrichia (42%), Negativicutes (4%) and<br />
Bacilli (2%) were identified. Most abundant species within all prokaryotes and Firmicutes were<br />
Clostridium spiroforme (28%), Faecalibacterium prausnitzii (9%) and Ruminococcus torques<br />
(3%). Six species of Lactobacillus, known as probiotics were also detected in very low numbers.<br />
It was suggested that this dysbiosis might be originated from iota-toxin producing C.spirofirme,<br />
and bacteria such as F.prausnitzii and Lactobacillus might regulate the microbiota. When<br />
ingredients responsible for dysbiosis were removed from ration and ingredients promoting the<br />
beneficial bacteria were added to it, animals regained the normal development parameters.<br />
Key words: broiler, cecum, microbiome, metagenomics<br />
235
O 44 Investigation of Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles and Significant<br />
Serotypes of Chicken E. Coli Isolates<br />
Fethiye Çöven 1 , Fulya Ocak 2 , Ercüment Ertunç 1 , Süheyla Türkyılmaz 3<br />
1<br />
Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Bornova Veterinary Control Institute, İzmir,<br />
Turkey<br />
2<br />
Manisa Celal Bayar University, Department of Biology, Fundamental and Industrial<br />
Microbiology, Manisa, Turkey<br />
3<br />
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Microbiology,<br />
Aydın, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In this study, the isolation of E. coli from chickens infected by colibacillosis, the investigation of<br />
the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of the these isolates, the determination of the distribution<br />
of most important antibiotic resistance genes in resistant isolates and the incidence of frequent<br />
serotypes (O1, O2, O18, O78) in poultry were aimed. One hundred-fifty isolates obtained from<br />
internal organs of chickens infected with colibacillosis were consisted the material of this<br />
study. The resistance status of these isolates to 12 antimicrobial agents that belongs to seven<br />
antimicrobial families was examined by antibiotic disk diffusion method. Twenty-three the most<br />
important resistance genes in antibiotic-resistant strains and the most common APEC serotypes<br />
were investigated with polymerase chain reaction (PCR). While the 6.7% of the isolates were<br />
susceptible for all antimicrobials, the 66.7% of these were multidrug resistant. It was determined<br />
that 150 isolates of E. coli were resistant at a rate of 73.3%, 68.7%, 63.4%, and 60.7% to<br />
amoxicillin/ampicillin, tetracycline, enrofloxacin, trimethoprim/ sulfamethoxazole, respectively.<br />
The bla tem<br />
, bla cmy<br />
, bla shv<br />
, bla ctx<br />
, bla oxa<br />
resistant genes in beta-lactam-resistant isolates, the tetA,<br />
tetB resistant genes in tetracycline-resistant isolate, the qnrA in quinolone-resistant strains, the<br />
drfA1, drfA7,17 in trimethoprim-resistant isolates, the sulII gene in sulfamethoxazole-resistance<br />
isolates were detected as resistant genes. It was determined that 18.0% of isolates were O78,<br />
10.0% were O2, 2.7% were O1, and 2.0% were O18. The high resistance to antimicrobials and<br />
multiple drug resistance in APEC isolates showed that there was a significant resistance problem<br />
in the region. The zoonotic potential of the identified serotypes was also important. It is thought<br />
that more epidemiological studies should be designed to investigate the virulence properties and<br />
clonal groups of APEC.<br />
Key Words: Avian pathogenic E. coli, antibiotic resistance, serotype<br />
236
IS 23 Alternative Feed Resources for Sustainable Broiler Production-Insect<br />
Meals<br />
Damian Józefiak<br />
Poznan University of Life Sciences Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science<br />
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
IS 24 Updates in Ca and P Requirements of Broiler Chickens<br />
Necmettin Ceylan 1 , Sait Koca 2<br />
1<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Animal Science, Ankara, Turkey<br />
2<br />
Beypiliç Inc. Bolu, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
3 consecutive large scale broiler trials were conducted in Beypiliç Broiler Research Development<br />
Facilities with 12000 broilers. 7 dietary treatments were tested including current 2014 Ca and P<br />
recomendation for Ross 308 broilers. The average Ca and P level as % of Ross recomendadtion<br />
were 93.39, 90.83, 89,80, 87.16, 87.16 and 85.63 for 2, 3, 4, 5 6 and 7th treatments respectively.<br />
In the 2nd and 3 rd experiment the number of treatments was reduced to 5 by removing 2<br />
treatments closest to Ross recommendation and the left 5 including Ross control were tested.<br />
Each treatments has 8 replicates in the 1 st experiment and 12 in the 2 nd and 3 rd experiment<br />
with 200 broiler chicks. Growth performance and tibia parameters were explored to evaluate<br />
the dietary level of Ca and P by comparing the control treatment received Ross Ca and P<br />
recommendations. Body weight (BW), feed conversion (FCR), feed intake and mortality results<br />
of the first experiment showed that the birds received low Ca and P diets as low as 10 % reduced<br />
minerals did not cause any growth depression, besides average of Ross recommendation had<br />
almost same growth without any impairment. Besides it is interesting that all groups received<br />
reduced Ca and P diets had better BW and FCR than the birds fed Ross Ca and P recommended<br />
diets. (P>0.05). There was also no significant differences among the groups in ash and phosphorus<br />
content of tibia(P>0.05). The tibia ash level was between 35.07 to 36.59% and tibia P 17.31 to<br />
17.36% respectively. The results of the 3 broiler experiments showed that the current Ca and P<br />
recomendation of Ross 308 broilers are higher than real requirement and needs to be updated. It<br />
can be concluded that at least 10% reduction is possible and would not cause any impairment in<br />
broiler growth and bone development.<br />
Key words:Ca, P, requirement, tibia, growth, broilers<br />
Introduction<br />
Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are the most important minerals in poultry diets because of<br />
being involved skeletal development and celular metabolism. Therefore, accurate estimation of<br />
their requirement is essential to maximize poultry productivity. However, the requirement of<br />
both minerals have not been optimised because of changes in broiler growth, phytate presence in<br />
vegetable feeds, and the interaction between Ca and P. Selected fast-growing strains have shown<br />
lower bone-ash content than slow-growing strains (Williams et al., 2000), which suggest that<br />
optimum requirement for broilers needs to be adjusted properly. Current recommendations [10<br />
g Ca/kg and 4.5 g nonphytate P (NPP)/kg at ages 1 to 21 d (NRC, 1994) seems to be higher for<br />
modern broilers. Although commercial broiler companies has chanced Ca and P recomendations,<br />
it has not still been optimised. For example Ca and P recomendation for Ross 308 broilers were<br />
reduced 6.3% and 4.4% respectively from 2009 to 2014, while Cobb company decreased higher<br />
244
level as 14.1% and 12.7% respectively from 2006 to 2012. The reason behind these assumption<br />
is interaction of Ca with many nutrients in the gut. High dietary Ca has been implicated in<br />
reduced animal performance (Sebastian et al., 1996) and interference with macromineral<br />
absorption (Simpson and Wise, 1990). Calcium may form soap precipitates with free saturated<br />
fatty acids, thus decreasing the dietary energy digestibility (Pepper et al., 1955; Edwards et al.,<br />
1960), and has the capacity to interact with inorganic P in the gut (Hurwitz and Bar, 1971) as<br />
well as to form a mineral–phytate complex in excess of pH 5.0. The Ca–phytate complex may<br />
reduce Ca absorption (Lonnerdal et al., 1989) but may also reduce the activity of endogenous<br />
and exogenous phytase (Tamim et al., 2004). Decreasing dietary Ca may improve P utilization,<br />
while an excess of Ca may aggravate a P deficiency for ash criteria (L´etourneau–Montminy et<br />
al., 2008). Other factors, such as the high acid-binding capacity of limestone, have also been<br />
related to significant decreases in the protein and P solubility in the gizzard, and may affect<br />
N and P digestibility (Tamim and Angel, 2003; Selle et al., 2009; Walk et al., 2012). Hamdi et<br />
al., (2015) showed significant reduction in fractional retention of Ca from 74% to 46% at 0.50<br />
dietary Ca compared to 0.90%.<br />
Therefore, it was aimed to evaluate the Ca and P requirements of the modern broilers by<br />
conducting 3 consecutive large scale broiler experiment.<br />
Materials and Methods<br />
3 consecutive large scale broiler trials were conducted in Beypiliç Broiler Research Development<br />
Facilities which has 12000 broiler capacity. Each treatment was consisted of at least 8 replicates<br />
with 200 Ross 308 broilers<br />
All basal diets based on corn and soybean but also contained wheat, sunflower meal , corn gluten<br />
meal and poultry meal depending on feedstuff availability. DCP, MDCP and Calcium Carbonate<br />
were used as Ca and P sources. In the 1st experiment 7 dietary treatments were tested including<br />
current 2014 Ca and P recomendation for Ross 308 broilers. The average Ca and P level as % of<br />
Ross recomendadtion were 93.39, 90.83, 89,80, 87.16, 87.16 and 85.63 for 2, 3, 4, 5 6 and 7th<br />
treatments respectively. All feeds were pelletted and served as adlibitum. Body weight, and feed<br />
consumption were measured at the beginning and end of starter and finisher periods thereafter.<br />
Mortality was defined daily. At the end of the experiment 1 male and 1 female birds close to<br />
average pen weights from each replicates were obtained for bone and carcasse measurements<br />
in all 3 trials. Left tibia were used to determine the ash, and P content. At the end of 6 weeks<br />
of age 1 male and 1 female birds from each replication were killed by cervical dislocation and<br />
their left tibia was removed for ash and P analysis. The tibias were kept in -20 o C until they<br />
analyzed for ash and P. When tibias used to mineral analysis, fat and meat on the bones were<br />
cleaned. The bones were burned at 550 o C in the oven to define the ash content. The ash for each<br />
tibia then further analyzed for phosphorus according to the procedures stated in AOAC, 2005(<br />
Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 2005). The data for all response variables were<br />
analyzed by ANOVA using the GLM procedure of Minitab 13..When significant differences (P<br />
< 0.05) among groups were found, means were separated using the Tukey HSD test.<br />
Results and Discussion<br />
Body weight (BW) and feed conversion (FCR) results of the first experiment are summarized in<br />
the figures 1 and 2 respectively. The figures clearly showed that BW and FCR of the birds fed<br />
as low as around 82% average of Ross recommendation had almost same growth without any<br />
245
impairment(P>0.05). Besides it is interesting that all groups received reduced Ca and P diets had<br />
better BW and FCR than the birds fed Ross Ca and P recommended diets. There was also no<br />
significant differences among the groups in tibia ash and tibia phosphorus (P>0.05). This means<br />
that even bone development was not significantly influenced by the reduction in dietary Ca and<br />
P level (P>0.05). The tibia ash level was between 35.07 to 36.59% and tibia P 17.31 to 17.36%<br />
respectively. In the 2 nd and 3 rd experiment the number of treatments was reduced to 5 where the 2<br />
treatments closest to Ross recommendation were removed and the left 5 including Ross control<br />
were applied. The results of the 1 st experiment were confirmed in the 2 nd and 3 rd experiment. So<br />
the results of the 3 consecutive experiment showed very interesting results which updates the<br />
Ca and P requirements of modern broilers. Many reason can be speculated for these assumption.<br />
One of the important explanation about successful reduction in Ca and P level is the problematic<br />
structure and making insoluble complex of Ca with other nutrients. Because of understanding<br />
of Ca less or wrong way on bone development in the past, the level of dietary Ca in broiler diets<br />
kept higher by ignoring it’s reaction capacity with especially P. So as Ca level kept higher the<br />
level of P was increased consequently. Some of below reports supported the above assumption.<br />
As high dietary Ca has been implicated in reduced animal performance (Sebastian et al., 1996)<br />
and interference with macromineral absorption (Simpson and Wise, 1990) and calcium could<br />
form soap precipitates with free saturated fatty acids, (Pepper et al., 1955; Edwards et al., 1960),<br />
and has the capacity to interact with inorganic P in the gut (Hurwitz and Bar, 1971) as well<br />
as to form a mineral–phytate complex in excess of pH 5.0, the net results of higher Ca would<br />
limit the growth performance of broilers. Also because of Ca–phytate complex could reduce Ca<br />
absorption (Lonnerdal et al., 1989), we need to have more work on Ca requirements of modern<br />
broilers. Without understanding the exact Ca requirement of broilers, it isnot possible to obtain<br />
best growth and FCR and also cheaper diets. This would also leed to keep environment more<br />
clean as P excretion via manure was reduced also.<br />
Fiure 1:Effects of Ca and P level on body weight of broilers obtained in the 1st experiment<br />
246
Fiure 2:Effects of dietary Ca and P level on FCR of broilers obtained in the 1st experiment<br />
Conclusion<br />
The results of the 3 broiler experiments showed that the current Ca and P recomendation of<br />
Ross 308 broilers are higher than real requirement and needs to be updated. It can be concluded<br />
that at least 10% reduction is possible and would not cause any impairment in broiler growth<br />
and bone development. However the reduction level is not same in each growth phase and can<br />
be significantly different. So total Ca and P intake should be carefully studied and then decided<br />
before any level of reduction applied, because no updated Ca and P recomendation from Ross<br />
has not reported. It is also recomended for Ross focuse on the Ca and P minerals and to meet the<br />
requirement of modern Ross 308 broilers soon.<br />
References<br />
AOAC, 1995. Official Methods of Analysis, 18th ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemists<br />
<strong>International</strong>, Maryland, USA.,<br />
Edwards, H. M., W. S. Dunahoo, J. L. Carmon, and H. L. Fuller.1960. Effect of protein, energy<br />
and fat content of the ration on calcium utilization. Poult. Sci. 39:1389–1394.<br />
Hamdi, M., L´opez-Verg´e,L., Manzanilla,E.G., ABarroeta, A.C. J. F. P´erez, J.F.2015.Effect of<br />
different levels of calcium and phosphorus and their interaction on the performance of<br />
young broilers. Poult.Sci. 94:2144–2151<br />
Hurwitz, S., and A. Bar, 1971. Calcium and phosphorus interrelationshipsin the intestine of the<br />
fowl. J. Nutr. 101:677–686.<br />
L´etourneau–Montminy, M. P., P. Lescoat, A. Narcy, D. Sauvant, J. F. Bernier, M. Magnin, C.<br />
Pomar, Y. Nys, and C. Jondreville.2008. Effects of reduced dietary calcium and phytase<br />
supplementation on calcium and phosphorus utilization in broilers with modified mineral<br />
247
status. Br. Poult. Sci. 49:705–715.<br />
Lonnerdal, B., A. S. Sandberg, B. Sandstrom, and C. Kunz. 1989. Inhibitory effects of phytic<br />
acid and other inositol phosphates on zinc and calcium absorption in suckling rats. J.<br />
Nutr. 119:211–214.<br />
NRC, 1994. Nutrient Requirements of <strong>Poultry</strong>. Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, DC 9th Rev. ed<br />
Pepper, W. F., S. J. Slinger, and I. Motzok. 1955. Effect of animalfat on the calcium and<br />
phosphorus requirements of chicks. Poult.Sci. 34:1216. (Abstr.)<br />
Sebastian, S., Touchburn, S.P., Chavez, E.R., Lague, P.C., 1996. Efficacy of supplemental<br />
microbial phytase at different dietary calcium levels on growth performance and mineral<br />
utilization of broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 75, 1516–1523.<br />
Selle, P.H., Cowieson, A.J., Ravindran, V., 2009. Consequences of calcium interactions with<br />
phytate and phytase for poultry and pigs. Livest. Prod. Sci. 124, 126–141.<br />
Simpson, C. J., and A. Wise. 1990. Binding of zinc and calciumto inositol phosphates (phytate)<br />
in vitro. Br. J. Nutr. 64:225– 232.<br />
Tamim, N. M., and R. Angel. 2003. Phytate phosphorus hydrolysis as influenced by dietary<br />
calcium and micro-mineral source in broiler diets. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51:4687–4693.<br />
Tamim, N.M., Angel, R., Christman, M., 2004. Influence of dietary calcium and phytase on<br />
phytae phosphorus hydrolysis in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci. 83,1358–1367.<br />
Walk, C.L., Bedford, M.R., McElroy, A.P., 2012. Influence of limestone and phytase on broiler<br />
performance, gastrointestinal pH, and apparent ileal nutrient digestibility. Poult. Sci. 91,<br />
1371–1378.<br />
Williams, B., D. Waddington, S. Solomon, and C. Farquharson.2000. Dietary effects on bone<br />
quality and turnover and Ca and P metabolism in chickens. Res. Vet. Sci. 69:81–87.<br />
248
O 45 A Commercial Blend of Plant-Derived Compounds Increases<br />
Production Performance of Broilers in a Commercial Broiler Farm<br />
Feyaerts, J.*, Van de Mierop, K. and Goderis, A.<br />
Nutrex NV, R&D Departement, Lille, Belgium<br />
Introduction<br />
Plant-derived bio-active compounds are very promising alternatives for in-feed<br />
antibiotics in poultry nutrition to promote general health of the birds. Based on their<br />
antioxidant and immunomodulating capacities, phytogenic substances are proposed to<br />
have a beneficial effect on liver, kidney and gut health. In this research, the efficacy of a<br />
commercial phytogenic feed additive, to improve production performance was studied<br />
in a commercial broiler farm.<br />
Material and Methods<br />
An experiment was setup in a commercial broiler farm in Belgium in which 36,500<br />
1-day old broilers (provided by Lafaut, Belgium) were divided over two poultry houses.<br />
On day 1, a vaccine against coccidiosis and on day 17, vaccines against Gumboro and<br />
Newcastle disease were added to the drinking water and water was available ad libitum.<br />
Two dietary treatments were tested: a commercial wheat-based diet (Joosen-Luyckx,<br />
Belgium), which served as control diet and the same diet supplemented with 350 ppm<br />
plant-derived compounds, from day 5 until day 42, provided in 5 dietary phases. In one<br />
of the two poultry houses, chickens received the control diet, whereas chickens in the<br />
other house received the plant-derived compounds supplemented diet. After one cycle,<br />
the allocation of the treatment groups to the two houses was switched and the same<br />
protocol was repeated. Final average body weight was determined by calculation of the<br />
total weight per house and the number of birds at the end of the trial as registered by the<br />
slaughterhouse (Belki, Belgium).<br />
Results<br />
Supplementation of plant-derived compounds increased the body weight in both cycles.<br />
Body weight increased from 2.597 kg to 2.701 kg, and from 2.332 kg to 2.660 kg, this<br />
is an improvement of 104 g and 328 g compared to the control group, respectively. The<br />
average final body weight of the broilers increased from 2.465 kg to 2.681 kg or an<br />
average difference in weight gain of 216 g per broiler during a 6-week cycle (Figure 1).<br />
249
Figure 1: The final bodyweight (kg) of broilers at day 42 receiving a control diet and a<br />
diet with plant-derived compounds.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Continuous supplementing PhytoStar to the diet improved broiler performance,<br />
indicating a potential beneficial effect on general health. The underlying mode of action<br />
needs further investigation.<br />
250
POSTERS<br />
251
P 01 Effect of Dietary Sodium Butyrate Supplementation on Performance,<br />
Intestinal Microflora, and Intestinal Morphology<br />
Umair Ahsan, Aybala Kübra Önal, Eren Kuter, Özcan Cengiz, Ifrah Raza<br />
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Nutrition<br />
and Nutritional Diseases, Aydın, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The effect of sodium butyrate on various bodily parameters of broilers such as performance, gut<br />
microflora, gut morphology, is reviewed in order to highlight its importance as an alternative to<br />
antibiotic growth promoters. Sodium butyrate is used as a source of butyric acid, which is known<br />
for its beneficial effects in the gut in monogastrics. Sodium butyrate is available in uncoated<br />
and entericcoated forms protected with fat or fatty acid salts. Varying results in productive<br />
performance, gut microbes, and gut morphology have been reported in the literature in response<br />
to supplementation of broiler diets with uncoated and fatcoated types of sodium butyrate.<br />
Although there are contrasting results of sodium butyrate in chicken, further research is needed<br />
using the sodium butyrate coated with the salts of fatty acids.<br />
252
P 02 Eubiotics in Broiler Nutrition<br />
Mukaddes Merve Efil, Gülay Deniz<br />
Uludağ Adnan University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Nutrition<br />
and Nutritional Diseases, Bursa, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The purpose of this review is to declare the term of eubiotic that is supposed as alternative to<br />
antibiotics for the purpose of protecting the gut health following prohibition of antibiotics and to<br />
show the effects of eubiotics on performance in poultries.<br />
253
P 03 The Effect of Animal Welfare on <strong>Meat</strong> Quality in <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
Hatice Berna Poçan 1 Mustafa Karakaya 2<br />
1<br />
Selçuk University, Çumra Vocatıonal School, Department of Food Processıng, Konya<br />
2<br />
Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture Department of Food Engineering, Konya, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Healthy living, continuity of physical and mental activities, growth and development are only<br />
possible with adequate and balanced nutrition. The level of nutrition is accepted as one of the<br />
important criteria of social development. Today, the impact of adequate and balanced nutrition<br />
on community health has been seen in many studies. Animal products come first in meeting<br />
energy, protein, vitamins and minerals needs that are necessary for adequate and balanced<br />
nutrition of humans. <strong>Meat</strong> is among animal foods; High quality protein, rich in vitamins and<br />
minerals, delicious, satisfying and easy to digest food materials. The poultry meat has all these<br />
features and it is also favorite for consumers because of the low production cost. There are many<br />
factors that affect poultry meat quality. All factors are taken into account, from the genotypes of<br />
the animals to the way they are raised and to the pre-slaughter treatments. The fact that animals<br />
are physically and psychologically healthy, which is called animal welfare, is one of the issues<br />
that have attracted attention in recent years. If animal welfare is not provided, both physical<br />
and psychological problems arise in living things. This causes some biochemical changes in the<br />
body’s living organism, which is reflected negatively in meat quality. It is important to serve<br />
quality meat to the consumer considering all the factors that affect carcass and meat quality<br />
in poultry. For this purpose, European Union animal welfare work is being done and it is very<br />
extensive. In our country, studies on animal welfare are fairly new and open to development. In<br />
this review, the factors affecting meat quality in poultry and the effect of animal welfare on meat<br />
quality were tried to be explained.<br />
Keywords: <strong>Poultry</strong> meat, Animal welfare, <strong>Meat</strong> quality.<br />
254
P 04 Use of Coriender (Coriendrum sativum L.) Seed in Broiler Nutrition<br />
Figen Kırkpınar 1 , Selim Mert 1 , Özgün Işık 2<br />
1<br />
Ege University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture, Feeds and Animal<br />
Nutrition, İzmir,<br />
2<br />
Ege University, Ödemiş Vocatıonal School, Dairy and Beef Cattle Husbandry, İzmir, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Broiler production has the largest cut in animal production types for meets the needs of white<br />
meat of societies. The prohibition of antibiotics in the broiler nutrition; some medicinal and<br />
aromatic plants have attracted great interest as an alternative with for the antibiotics. One of<br />
these is coriander. The active ingredients of coriander seed are come into prominence with some<br />
specialities like performance improver, intestinal microflora and morphology developer for<br />
broilers. In this review, some researches about the use of coriander seed in broiler nutrition.<br />
Key words: Coriander seed, broiler, performance.<br />
255
P 05 Use of Cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) in Broiler Nutrition<br />
Figen Kırkpınar 1 , Özgün Işık 2 , Selim Mert 1<br />
1<br />
Ege University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture, Feeds and Animal<br />
Nutrition, İzmir,<br />
2<br />
Ege University, Ödemiş Vocatıonal School, Dairy and Beef Cattle Husbandry, İzmir, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The use of antibiotics is banned as a growth promoter in broiler production, which is aimed to<br />
fast and high weight gain. However, especially aromatic plants have been seen as an important<br />
alternative to antibiotics. Cinnamon species (Cinnamomum spp.) are also these aromatic<br />
plants. Cinnamon is used as a spice and also medical plant, it’s seems that cinnamon can be<br />
used in broiler feeds for performance and carcass quality improving effects. In this review, it’s<br />
investigated that researches about using of cinnamon in broiler nutrition.<br />
Key words: Cinnamon, broiler, performance, carcass.<br />
256
P 06 Use of Pulsed Electric Fields on <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Industry and Effects On<br />
Oxidation, Color, Texture and Sensory Propertıes<br />
Ceren Ateş, Gülsün Akdemir Evrendilek<br />
Abant İzzet Baysal University Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Food<br />
Engineering, Bolu, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Recent demand for fresh-like products, has caused alternative methods to be a priority in the<br />
protection of food products. Pasteurization of food by heat application is the oldest and the most<br />
common method for food in preservation with the objective of safe food production with longer<br />
shelf life by enzyme and microbial inactivation. However, heat treatment causes some unwanted<br />
changes in the physical and chemical features of food (such as browning, loss of texture, loss<br />
of vitamins and volatile compounds or decrease in the nutritional value etc). Therefore, it is the<br />
objective of food industry to inactivate both enzymes and microorganisms by using different<br />
forms of energy by the non-thermal food preservation methods are currently of foods. In this<br />
regards, alternative non-thermal food preservation methods such as pulsed electric fields (PEF)<br />
are at the forefront. However, it is possible that PEF causes physical degeneration in the muscle<br />
tissue and it can affect the sensorial features of the meat both positively (increased softening)<br />
and negatively (closed-flavor development). For this reason, effect of PEF on poultry meat and<br />
studies regarding processing of poultry meat by PEF are summarized in this article.<br />
Keywords: Pulsed electric fields (PEF), poultry meat, sensorial features, oxidation<br />
257
P 07 The Use of Electrlyzed Water in <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Industry<br />
Şahin Bakay, Gülsün Akdemir Evrendilek<br />
Abant İzzet Baysal University Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Food<br />
Engineering, Bolu, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The basis of food safety depends on both hygiene and sanitation. For this reason, cleaning<br />
and disinfection process as well as the used disinfectant substances must not present health<br />
risks. Electrolyzed oxidizing (EO) water has been regarded as a new sanitizer in recent years.<br />
Electrolyzed water has certain important advantages to other conventional agents of cleaning,<br />
such as effective disinfection, user-friendly, relatively low cost, and being environment-friendly.<br />
Studies have been carried out on the use of EO as a sanitizer for fruits, utensils, and cutting<br />
boards. It can also be used as a fungicide during postharvest processing of fruits and vegetables,<br />
and as a sanitizer for washing the carcasses of meat and poultry. Therefore, the aim of this review<br />
is to inform about electrolyzed water and its use in poultry meat industry.<br />
Key words: Disinfection, electrolyzed water, poultry meat<br />
258
P 08 Ozone Applications in <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Industry<br />
Merve Demiray, Gülsün Akdemir Evrendilek<br />
Abant İzzet Baysal University Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Food<br />
Engineering, Bolu, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Even though high hygiene and sanitation practices are applied in modern poultry processing<br />
plants, infections and intoxications related to poultry meat is one of the biggest public health<br />
issues. Ozone having antimicrobial properties finds a place to itself in primarily in food industry<br />
and especially in poultry processing plants. Production and potential applications of ozone and<br />
its potential as an alternative to classic disinfection agents in poultry industry as well as recent<br />
development were discussed in this review.<br />
Key Words: Ozone, disinfection, shelf life, poultry meat<br />
259
P 09 Biogen Amins in Poutry <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Berna Karataş, Gülsün Akdemir Evrendilek<br />
Abant İzzet Baysal University Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Food<br />
Engineering, Bolu, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Biogenic amines are compound formed by decarboxylation of free-amino acids or amination or<br />
transamination of aldehydes and ketones in the food. Histamine, cadaverine, putrescine, tyramine,<br />
spermidine and spermine are biogenic amines that often found in food. Biogenic amineformation<br />
is accelerated by various factors such as poor hygiene, contamination, microbial load of the raw<br />
materials and temperature. Cold storage is the most effective method to preventing the formation<br />
biogenic amine. Therefore, formation of biogenic amines and their impact on poultry meat need<br />
to be pronounced.<br />
Key words: biogenic amine, decarboxylation, poultry meat, meat quality<br />
260
P 10 Influences of Vegetable Oil (Sun Flower Oil) Usage on Some<br />
Physico-Chemical Features in the Production of Turkey <strong>Meat</strong> Salami<br />
Ahmet Akköse, Canan Çelik<br />
Ataturk University, Department of Food Engineering, Erzurum, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Influences of vegetable oil (sun flower oil) usage on some physico-chemical features in the<br />
production of turkey meat salami was studied in this research. For that purpose, the rates of pH,<br />
colour, dry matter and TBARS on salami were determined with the using of turkey’s brisket and<br />
sunflower oil. The impacts of using different sun flower oil ratios on the average pH and dry<br />
matter ratios that were established on salami was observed in the content of this research. Within<br />
the scope of the research, there was an observation that the TBARS values are more elevated at<br />
the groups in which sun flower oil was used by the researchers than the control groups (%100<br />
meat fat) Nonetheless, there was a different observation that the L* values increase, a* values<br />
decrease and the b* values haven’t important changes when the using of sun flower oil increase<br />
in the production of salami.<br />
Key words: Hindi eti, salam, ayçiçek yağı, TBARS, renk.<br />
261
P 11 Importance of <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> in Human Nutrition<br />
Şenay Burçin Alkan 1 , Yasemin Durduran 2 , Serpil Koygun 3 , Mehmet Uyar 2<br />
1<br />
Necmettin Erbakan University Faculty of Health Sciences Department of Nutrition And<br />
Dietetics<br />
2<br />
Necmettin Erbakan University Meram Faculty of Medicine, Department of Public Health<br />
3<br />
Necmettin Erbakan University, Meram Faculty of Medicine Hospital, Nutrition And Dietetics<br />
Unit<br />
Abstract<br />
<strong>Meat</strong> has an important role in human growth and development. <strong>Meat</strong>s are usually divided into<br />
two groups as red and white meat. The most commonly consumed meat type in the white meat<br />
group is chicken. Energy and fat value of chicken meat varies in the chest, wing and thigh. The<br />
skin increases energy value of chicken meat by 25-30% due to fat content. Protein content of<br />
chicken meat varies between 20.30-24.04% and is regarded as high quality protein. It is easily<br />
digested due to low collagen content. Chicken meat is a good source of water-soluble B group<br />
vitamins (especially niacin). It is stated that chicken meat is a good source for iron, zinc and<br />
selenium. By evaluating energy and protein requirements and physiological status of individuals,<br />
chicken meat can be recommended in appropriate quantities. It is important to use appropriate<br />
methods in preparing and cooking. Chicken meat should be consumed without skin. During<br />
preparation sauces containing sodium and fat should not be used. Instead of frying and roasting,<br />
more healthy cooking methods such as baking in the oven or grilling should be preferred. It is<br />
also important consumption of adequate amounts of other groups for optimal health protection<br />
and development.<br />
Key words: Chicken meat, nutrition, nutrients<br />
262
P 12 The Importance of the <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Sector in Terms of Food Security<br />
in Benin and Suggestions for the Development of the Sector<br />
Oscar Akouegnonho, Nevin Demirbaş<br />
Ege University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Agricultural Economics, İzmir, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Located in the centre of West Africa, Benin is one of the poorest countries in the world with<br />
about 10.322 million inhabitants. Poverty affects about two out five people at national level.<br />
At the national level, 11% of households face severe (
The main objective of this study is to determine the contribution of the poultry sector to food<br />
security in Benin, to identify the challenges that impede the development of the poultry meat<br />
sector and to make suggestions for its effective development. These suggestions will generate<br />
interest and increased involvement of decision-makers and stakeholders in reducing food and<br />
nutrition insecurity in Benin. In this context, the study points out the place and importance of<br />
poultry meat in alleviation of food insecurity in Benin, the current problems encountered by<br />
the poultry meat sector and suggest solutions to solve these problems in order to permit a rapid<br />
development of poultry meat sector in Benin.<br />
This study is a literature research made with the help of secondary sources. To achieve this study,<br />
collected data cover from 2004 to 2011.<br />
The importance of poultry meat sector in terms of food security in Benin and problems<br />
With a population of nearly 10.322 million, Benin offers a very good market for food distribution<br />
channels. However, 32% of imports concern food. Local production accounts for only 23% of<br />
the poultry market (5).<br />
At the national level, in 2013, the poultry meat sector counted three main incubators with a total<br />
capacity of two million chicks per year, 28producers of feed with a capacity of 50000ton offered<br />
per year, about 520 poultry producers (3).Domestic production of poultry meat has evolved. It<br />
has increased from 14828 ton in 2004 to 23485 ton in 2011 (Table 1). Despite this evolution<br />
of poultry production, it is not sufficient to satisfy domestic demand. As poultry meat is now<br />
consumed by most of Benin people, its consumption is becoming more and more important.<br />
Consumed amount of poultry meat in Benin is around 12.4 kg / capita / year in 2011 (Table<br />
1).This evolution of poultry meat consumption is explained by the low price of poultry meat<br />
compared to other meats such as beef meat, the purchasing power of Benin people which is<br />
low. In this case, the population, especially the rural one whose purchasing power remains the<br />
lowest, to ensure food security, especially the supply of animal proteins at low cost, prefer the<br />
consumption of poultry meat. Since poultry meat is also rich in protein and good for health, the<br />
choice of the population must be encouraged in order to ensure their good health.<br />
The poultry sector, thanks to its rapid development capacities and the possibilities of<br />
diversifying its production, can sustainably contribute to the supply of animal protein at lower<br />
cost. However, the development of the poultry sector in Benin encounters many problems. One<br />
of these problems is related to the importation of poultry meat from countries of European<br />
Union, Brazil and others. Importation amount from these countries affects negatively domestic<br />
production. In order to fulfill the national poultry production deficit and satisfy the growing<br />
demand of the population, the government gives the right to import and finance individuals or<br />
companies to achieve these importations. Some companies quickly extinguished the evolution<br />
of domestic production of poultry meat by abusive importation of low-quality poultry meat<br />
highly financed by the government. These importations increased from 30.759 thousand tons in<br />
2004 to 104.160thousand tons in 2011 (Table 1).<br />
The exponential increase in the importation can be explained not only from the reasons listed<br />
above but also from the geographical position of Benin which makes it a re-exporter of poultry<br />
meat. About 80% of the importation of poultry meat is re-exported and 90% of this re-exportation<br />
is destined for Nigeria (6).<br />
264
The poultry meat sector in Benin uses many actors with important incomes in particular modern<br />
producers, suppliers of veterinary inputs and poultry equipment, suppliers of raw materials,<br />
traders of poultry and processors of poultry products. Each of these actors constitutes a link in<br />
the inter-linked sector. A positive or negative change in a subsector affects the other systems<br />
and vice versa. The major changes observed in Benin in recent years are due to the sub-sectors<br />
of production, imports and supply of raw materials. There are some problems in the sector<br />
as well as developments. Especially, traditional livestock farming encounter health problems.<br />
The actors in class 1 to 3 according to the type of producers according to the FAO concerning<br />
commercial poultry farming respect the prophylaxis but are confronted with the import problems<br />
of the poultry and of poultry meat. In additional, the increase in maize prices resulted in a 60%<br />
decrease in commercial production. Decrease in livestock numbers lead to lower demand for<br />
poultry inputs and consequently reduced poultry activities. This affects negatively animal protein<br />
supplies and food security of the population is threatened. Once, because of avian flu, producers<br />
were no longer able to market their products due to the behavior of consumers who refused the<br />
consumption of poultry meat following the spread of the H5N1 virus in neighboring countries<br />
such as Nigeria, Niger, and Burkina Faso. The refusal of consumers to buy local poultry products<br />
affects negatively domestic production.<br />
Table 1. Domestic production, availability and importation of poultry meat in Benin<br />
Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011<br />
<strong>Meat</strong> production(tons) 14828 15382 15870 16253 20846 21360 22235 23485<br />
Food availability of 9,0 7,9 7,7 8,1 12,8 10,7 8,9 12,4<br />
poultry meat<br />
(kg/capita/year)<br />
Imports of poultry meat<br />
(1000 tons)<br />
30.759 29.949 28.875 35.270 60.602 75.791 78.070 104.160<br />
Source: 7<br />
Conclusion and suggestions for the development of poultry meat sector<br />
Benin has many advantages for the development of poultry sector. However the current<br />
environment does not allow its development. The poultry meat sector in Benin occupies the<br />
second place after the cattle meat sector. It provides between 10% and 22% of the total meat<br />
production of the country. However the current problems of the sector restrict its benefit in terms<br />
of food safety in Benin. Among the problems that are impeding poultry meat sector in Benin<br />
the most important problem remains importation of poultry meat from countries of European<br />
Union and Brazil. Since the importation of poultry meat cannot be entirely stopped because<br />
it provides an important currency for country economy through re-exportation, to develop the<br />
poultry meat sector, it will be preferable to impose charges on importation which will bring<br />
the cost of imported poultry meat to almost the same level as that produced locally. Stopping<br />
importation could impede the industrialization of the poultry meat sector (8).However, the<br />
funds obtained from the imposed charges on importation will be used for the implementation of<br />
projects in poultry meat sector and will facilitate access to credits at adequate rates by poultry<br />
meat producer in order to revive poultry sector in Benin. According to current economic situation<br />
of Benin, access to credits by farmers, mainly smallholder farmers from banks is very difficult.<br />
Farmers used to go to microfinance institutions, where conditions are not always appropriate:<br />
265
high interest rate (from 12 to 24% per year) and requirement of important guarantees. In 2007,<br />
among 355 poultry farmers surveyed only, 136 had been financed including 12 by the banks<br />
(9). But research showed that importation of poultry meat can be removed. A removal of all<br />
imports of 30 000 tons of poultry meat would require domestic production of about 22 million<br />
broilers of 1.3 kg carcass weight per year. What would represent an income of approximately<br />
22 billion francs CFA for the poultry sector in Benin by considering an average selling price<br />
of 1000 francs CFA /chicken (10). Moreover, the poultry meat sector needs to be organized by<br />
creating professional and inter-professional associations, to defend the different actors and to<br />
promote the sector. The government should promote technical support and training of poultry<br />
meat producer in order to improve zoo-technical performance and productivity.<br />
The scientific researches oriented towards the problems of poultry nutrition according to the<br />
country climate should be encouraged and promoted by government.The development of the<br />
poultry meat sector also depends on the regulation of input and seed prices (maize, soybeans,<br />
chicks,veterinary products,etc.). The quantitative and qualitative availability of inputs at stable<br />
prices allows a rapid evolution of poultry production (11).Consequently, the poultry meat sector’s<br />
contribution to food security will be improved. This depends on solving the sector’s problems.<br />
References<br />
1-PAM. (2014). République du Bénin. Analyse Globale de la Vulnérabilité et de la Sécurité<br />
Alimentaire(AGVSA).<br />
2-FAO. (2015). Secteur Avicole Bénin. Revues nationales de l’élevage de la division de la<br />
production et de la santé animales de la FAO. No. 10. Rome.<br />
3-D. E. ( 2011). Elevage-Bénin. RAPPORT NATIONAL.<br />
4-GBAGUIDI L. (2013). Production des œufs de table et de la viande de volaille au Bénin,<br />
1–46.<br />
5-Agrisatch, L. (2014). Augmenter les capacités de production agroalimentaire béninoises sans<br />
faire l ’ économie de la qualité Le marché alimentaire et la filière avicole au Bénin, 1–4.<br />
6-INSAE. (2013). Bénin. Résultats Provisoires du RGPH4<br />
7-FAOSTAT. (2015)<br />
8-Duteurtre, G., DIEYE, P. N., & Dia, D. (2005). L’impact des importations de volailles<br />
et de produits laitiers sur la production locale au Sénégal, 8. Retrieved from fil<br />
es/1432/11988_20070406122030244.pdf<br />
9-Grain de sel. (2009). Contraintes et défis de l’aviculture en Afrique de l’Ouest : Cas du<br />
Bénin, nº 46–47.<br />
10-GBAGUIDI L.(2001). . Etude de la filière avicole au Bénin : Situation actuelle et<br />
perspectives de développement, 179<br />
11-Rapport aviculture. (2013). Rapport général de la table ronde des acteurs de la filière<br />
avicole du Bénin.<br />
266
P 13 Sustainability in Broiler <strong>Meat</strong> Production<br />
Neslihan Kalkan, Servet Yalçın<br />
Ege University Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences Institute, Department of<br />
Sustainable Agriculture-Food Systems, İzmir, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The purpose of this article was to evaluate poultry meat production systems within the scope<br />
of sustainability criteria. Recently, as a result of animal welfare and environmental perception<br />
increase, all meat production systems including poultry meat production are being questioned<br />
by consumers. Using sustainable production methods would positively affect both consumers’<br />
perceptions and the influence of the sector on the environment. Considering the previous<br />
findings, the existing rearing methods do not seem to carry the basic criteria for sustainability.<br />
Searching the new methods for the sustainable production systems should be continued.<br />
267
P 14 Influence of Different Levels of Phytogenic Feed Additive on Intestinal<br />
Microbiota and Intestinal Morphology on Broilers<br />
Umair Ahsan 1 , Eren Kuter 1 , Bekir Hakan Köksal 1 , Özay Güleş 2 , Ifrah Raza 1 , Pelin Koçak<br />
Kızanlık 3 , , Devrim Beyaz 3 , Özcan Cengiz 1<br />
1<br />
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal<br />
Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases, Aydın,<br />
2<br />
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Histology and<br />
Embryology, Aydın,<br />
3<br />
Menderes University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Food and Food Hygiene, Technology<br />
Department, Aydın, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The present study was conducted to investigate the influence of different levels of dietary<br />
phytogenic feed additive on intestinal microbiota and intestinal morphology of broilers. A total<br />
of 480 ROSS 308 one-day-old male broiler chicks were randomly assigned to 32 replicate pens<br />
of four experimental groups (each consisting of 8 replicate pens, each replicate pen consisting of<br />
15 chicks). A basal diet was formulated based on corn and soybean meal that was fed to control<br />
group. Other dietary treatments received a commercial phytogenic feed additive at 100 mg/kg<br />
(PFA 100), 125 mg/kg (PFA 125) and 150 mg/kg (PFA 150) in basal diet. Body weight gain,<br />
feed intake and feed conversation rate of broilers were recorded on 1-21, 22-42 and 1-42 days<br />
of age. one bird from each replicate was slaugthered on 21 and 42 days. Total aerobic bacteria,<br />
coliforms, Escherichia coli and Lactobacilli were counted in the caecal contents. Villus height,<br />
villus diameter, crypt depth, muscular thickness and goblet cell number per villus were recorded.<br />
There was no difference among the dietary treatments for growth performance and gut microbe<br />
populations at any phase. However, the dietary phytogenic feed additive supplementation<br />
affected the gut morphology in broilers compared to those fed control diets. Based on the results,<br />
it can be concluded that the dietary inclusion levels for improving the growth performance and<br />
gut microbiota might be different from levels required for improving the gut morphology of<br />
broilers.<br />
268
P 15 Effect of Englightenment in Quails on Performance Parameters<br />
Ömer Görgülü, Tülin Çiçek Rathert<br />
Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> consumption, which fulfill people’s need for animal protein because economic and<br />
nutritional value is high, is at the top of the list. Production of poultry meat consits of chick,<br />
turkey, goose, duck, ostrich and quail meat. There are many important advantages compared to<br />
other poultry sectors due to the availability to production of small and large family type, return<br />
of the circulating capital of the management in short time because quail breeding doesn’t need<br />
big investment since production can be done in narrow area and it is a durable poultry, there is<br />
high yield in short time, more products can be got from unit area, it doesn’t require much cost<br />
during the operation, installation and transition to production.<br />
The continuity of quail production that bred commercially as in chicken breeding is intrinsic.<br />
This can only be achieved by the application of the technological systems as in techniques of<br />
another poultry production.<br />
The production that produced commercially in quail breeding should be done in closed or semi-open<br />
coops. As in other poultry breeding systems that are produced, quail is also affected by environmental<br />
factors in extreme quantities. These environmental factors are factors such as temperature of shelter<br />
and nematode, program of feeding, source of environment lighting and program of lighting,<br />
frequency of in-cage settlement, air circulation, male-female ratio in cage and disease. Together with<br />
all of the mentioned environmental conditions directly affect the yield poultry, the most important<br />
environmental factors are light and temperature. For this reason, the provision of the optimal<br />
conditions for these two elements in cages of poultry production is also a prerequisite.<br />
Both the duration and intensity of the enlightenment and color of light have different interactions<br />
on the welfare and yield of the animals. There aren’t enough studies on sources of light and<br />
color of light in quails although there are a lot of studies especially in egg chickens in duration<br />
of lighting and sources of light. The poultries by sensing the light through their eyes (retinal<br />
photoreceptors) and light-sensitive cells in brain (extra retinal photoreceptors); light, was<br />
taken from around, stimulates, a large part of the body secretion hormones controlling growth,<br />
maturation and propagation. As a result of research on the poultry, while the red light raises<br />
gaggling, the blue light has a calming effect. It has been, detected that while the green light<br />
stimulates growing, the yellow light has a trigger effect of uremia.<br />
It has been proven that different lighting programs affect many important events such as live<br />
weight, rate of benefit from feed, behavioral movements, yield of egg, time of reaching to sexual<br />
maturity and consumption of feed in quails.<br />
Key Words: Quail, Source of Light, Lighting, Live Weight, Benefit from Feed<br />
269
P 16 A Research of Knowledge, Attitude of Medical Faculty Hospital Kitchen<br />
Workers About Consumption of Chicken <strong>Meat</strong> And Products<br />
Yasemin Durduran 1 , Lütfi Saltuk Demir 1 , Şenay Burçin Alkan 2 , Mehmet Uyar 1 , Serpil<br />
Koygun 3 , Özlen Tekin 1 , Seda Cazur 1 , Zehra Diker 1 , Tahir Kemal Şahin 1<br />
1<br />
Necmettin Erbakan University Meram Faculty of Medicine, Department of Public Health<br />
2<br />
Necmettin Erbakan Faculty of Health Sciences Department of Nutrition and Dietetics<br />
3<br />
Necmettin Erbakan University, Meram Faculty of Medicine Hospital, Nutrition and Dietetics Unit<br />
Abstract<br />
Chicken meat has an important role in adequate and balanced nutrition. For this reason, it is<br />
important that the information on consumption, preparation and storage conditions of poultry and<br />
products are correct. Kitchen workers of hospital prepare and distribute meals to all hospital staff<br />
and inpatient. Therefore, it is valuable to have adequate and accurate knowledge about chicken<br />
meat and its products as well as to practice them, like every nutrient prepared in the kitchen.<br />
This study was carried out with the application of a questionnaire prepared by researchers for<br />
the kitchen staff of a Medical Faculty Hospital. According to the consumption frequency of the<br />
employees, chicken meat came first with 68.6% in consumption of meat. 28.5% of the employees<br />
had some concerns about chicken meat preferences. The first choice for consumption of chicken<br />
meat was organic chicken with 57.1%. Before cooking the chicken, 82.9% of employees state<br />
that they washed it. They pointed out that while making frozen chicken ready to cook, 62.9%<br />
of employees took down on the bottom of the refrigerator. 58.6% of the employees found that<br />
chicken meat to be reliable for them. 70.0% of participants stated that they were careful to wash<br />
eggs before cooking. 18.6% of the employees stated that working in a kitchen of hospital has a<br />
change in knowledge and behavior related to chicken consumption.<br />
270
P 17 Some Slaughter and Carcass Traits of Ducks Reared in Free-Range<br />
and Barn Conditions<br />
Umut Sami Yamak 1 Mehmet Akif Boz 2 Musa Sarıca 1 Kadir Erensoy 1<br />
1<br />
Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Samsun,<br />
Turkey<br />
2<br />
Bozok University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Yozgat, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The purpose of this research was to study the determination of some slaughtering and carcass<br />
characteristics that ducks grown in free range and closed system and it sustained for 14 weeks.<br />
The study started with 240 daily ducks and all environmental requirements of them are provided<br />
until slaughtering. Prior to slaughtering, body weight of ducks were determined with 0.1<br />
accuracy scale. A total of 32 ducks were slaughtered by randomly choosing 1 female and 1 male<br />
close to average at each 1<strong>4th</strong> week. After slaughtering, hot carcass, edible internal organs (heart,<br />
liver, gizzard) and abdominal fat weights and ratios were determined. As a result, the breeding<br />
system and gender have no significant effect on the ratio of the live weight, hot and cold carcass<br />
weight (P>0.05). In male ducks, liver weight was significantly higher than females (P
P 18 Effect of Selection Applied according to Breeding Values of the Fifth<br />
Week Live Weight on Growth Traits in Japanese Quails<br />
Mehmet Sarı 1 , Kadir Önk 2 , Mustafa Saatcı 1<br />
1<br />
Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal<br />
Science, Burdur, Turkey<br />
2<br />
Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Science, Kars, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Effects of selection applied 5 generations according to breeding values of 5 th week live weight<br />
on growth traits in Japanese quails were determined. Fifteen years pedigree records (n= 6400)<br />
of the population were used in this study. The research was carried out in two groups as control<br />
(K) and selection (S). The quails in the control group were randomly mated. The quails in the<br />
selection group were selected according to the breeding value of live weight of the 5 th week. The<br />
REML-BLUP methods were used to estimate the breeding values of fifth week live weight. The<br />
effect of group according to the 5 th generations was found significant on 1-5 week live weights<br />
and S group was heavier than the K group (P
P 19 Isolation and Characterization of Listeria monocytogenes from Chicken<br />
Neck Skin Samples<br />
Gizem Çufaoğlu, Naim Deniz Ayaz<br />
Kırıkkale University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Food Hygiene and Technology<br />
Department, Kırıkkale, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Listeria monocytogenes is a foodborne zoonotic bacteria that causes listeriososis in humans. The<br />
bacteria take place on top among foodborne pathogens due to its high mortality rate up to 30%,<br />
particularly in the people of risk group. Its widespread availability in nature and capablity of<br />
reproduce even under inconvenience environmental conditions make L. monocytogenes difficult<br />
to control. Besides, poultry meat play an important role in dissemination of L. monocytogenes<br />
because of pathogenic microorganisms for humans are being found in poultry, they spread<br />
rapidly in animal stock and poultry slaughtering technique is open to cross contamination.<br />
For these reasons, determining the potential risks and development combat strategies for<br />
foodborne pathogens are only possible with good characterization. In this study, 121 chicken<br />
neck samples were collected from different poultry slaughterhouses in a one-year period and it<br />
was determined that 10 (8.5%) of the samples were contaminated with L. monocytogenes. Out<br />
of 18 L. monocytogenes isolated from 10 sampless, 15 (83.3%) and 3 (16.7%) were identified<br />
as serotype 1/2a (3a) and 1/2b (3b), respectively. In addition, fingerprint analysis and clonal<br />
relationship between L. monocytogenes isolates were determined by ERIC-PCR. Results were<br />
subjected to cluster analysis and dendrogram was prepared. According to these findings 10 L.<br />
monocytogenes isolates had a total of 5 different DNA profiles.<br />
273
P 20 Examination of Probiotics Effects on Intestinal Microbita of <strong>Poultry</strong> by<br />
Monitoring Feces<br />
Şems Yonsel 1 , Miray Sevim 2 , Tülay Şahin 2<br />
1<br />
Okan University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering İstanbul,<br />
2<br />
Simbiyotek Biological Products Industry and Trade, Istanbul, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Effects of probiotics on microbita of poultry intestinal system is monitored by excrement analysis.<br />
Broiler are separated in 4 cages with independent water and feed supply. Probiyotic strains,<br />
Bacillus subtilis DSM 24443 (Bs), Bacillus cereus DSM 24442 (Bc) ve Pediococcus acidilactici<br />
KUEN 1584 (Pa) are dosed into drinking water by 1x10 6 CFU/ mL and control group without<br />
any additive in drinking water. On day 7 of the test, fresh excrement samples are collected and<br />
odor, pH, acidity, and microbial analysis are conducted. The results of probiotic samples in<br />
comparison to control are decreasing pH and odor, increasing acidity, decreasing number of<br />
Total Aerobic Mezofilic and Coliform bacteria and Mould-Yeast groups and increasing number<br />
of Lactic Acid bacteria. These results indicate a healthier environment, better feed conversion<br />
and protection against intestinal pathogens by use of probiotics in poutry rearing.<br />
Key words: feed additive probiotics, poultry GI system, excrement analysis<br />
274
P 21 An Application of Genome Wide Meta Analyses for Mendeliean<br />
Chicken Phenotypes<br />
Burak Karacaören<br />
Akdeniz University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Anial Science, Biometry and<br />
Genetics, Antalya, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Genome Wide Association Studies (GWASs) could be used to detect Single Nucleotide<br />
Polymorphism (SNP) related with complex traits in poultry. Molecular breeding tools could<br />
be employed to obtain optimal genetic achievements for the next generations. Recently meta<br />
analyses has described for GWAS. This study investigated how the results of the GWAS could<br />
change when we combine mendelian phenotypes and genotypes of multiple chicken breeds<br />
using meta analyses. We used three different breeds and associated mendelian phenotypes to<br />
conduct meta GWAS. We detected genomic signals from chromosome 3 (GGaluGA209654,<br />
=13.25) for the duplex comb, and chromosome 7 (GGaluGA315264, =24.07) for the rose comb.<br />
This study showed that genomic signals become more strong when we combine phenotypes and<br />
genotypes of multiple chicken breeds using meta analyses.<br />
275
P 22 Comparison of Susceptibility Level and 16S rDNA Regions in The<br />
Metagenomics Analysis of Chicken Cecum Microbiome<br />
İnci Başak Kaya, Yörük Divanoğlu, Mehmet Akan, K. Serdar Diker<br />
Ankara University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Department of Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In the metagenomic analysis of poultry cecal microbiome with Next Generation Sequencing<br />
(IonTorrent), the role of 6 different variable regions and homology threshold of 16S rDNA in<br />
the bacterial identification were investigated. Basically, metagenomic analysis was based on<br />
minimal 10 copies of readings, 150 base-pair cut off, and homology thresholds at 99% for<br />
species and 97% for genus. Of valid readouts from six 16S rDNA variable regions, 60% was<br />
obtained from v3, 13% from each v2 and v8, %7 from each v4 and v67 regions. These primers<br />
also gave results at same order but lower levels for mapped, unmapped and low copy number<br />
readouts. According to the result of consensus of metagenomics analysis, 39 OTUs (operational<br />
taxonomic unite) at the family level, 35 OTUs at the genus level and 30 OTUs at the species<br />
level were determined. When readouts closest to 0.2% homology level were considered, 3 new<br />
OTUs at the family,68 OTUs at the genus and 143 OTUs at the species level were added to<br />
bacterial identification. While these all new OTU’s were in consensus phyla, 3 new orders and 1<br />
new class were added to taxonomy.<br />
Key words: 16S variable region, metagenomics, cecum, microbiome, chicken<br />
276
P 23 Evaluation of Discrimination Level of 16S rDNA Variable Regions in<br />
Aerobic Bacteria Taxons Originated from <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
K. Serdar Diker, Yörük Divanoğlu, Tuğçe Yıldırır, H. Kaan Müştak<br />
Ankara University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Department of Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The role of 16S rDNA variable regions in the metagenomic analysis of next generation<br />
sequencing (IonTorrent) for the identification of bacteria isolated from poultry origin was<br />
investigated in a mixed bacterial culture. For this purpose, a culture mix was prepared containing<br />
different concentrations of various bacterial taxons isolated from chicken visceral organs and<br />
base material between 2001-2015 at the routine diagnostic laboratory. Metagenomic analysis<br />
was based on minimal 10 copies of readings, 150 base-pair cutoff, and homology thresholds at<br />
99% for species and 97% for genus level. At the taxonomic level, 3 phyla, 4 classes, 9 orders,<br />
14 families, 25 genera and 34 species were determined according to the consensus results. All<br />
spiked bacterial genera were identified in the metagenomic analysis. v2, v3, v4, v67, v8 and v9<br />
variable regions involved in the identification of 13, 16, 3, 9, 5 and 5 species, and 8, 13, 3, 6, 5<br />
and 5 genera, respectively. The ratios of v2, v3, v4, v67, v8 and v9 variable regions in the valid<br />
reads of sequencing were found as %8.9, %34.7, %11.8, %12.6, %14.2 and %17.5, respectively.<br />
In addition, the detection level of each individual taxon by different 16S rDNA regions was<br />
analyzed.<br />
277
P 24 Effects of the Usage of Sepiolite with Water in Broiler Grower Feed on<br />
Pellet Quality and Pellet Production Parameters<br />
Sakine Yalçın 1 , İlyas Onbaşılar 2 , Fernando Escrıbano 3 , Muhammad Shazaib Ramay 1 ,<br />
Mahlagha Pirpanahi 4<br />
1<br />
Ankara University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Animal Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases<br />
Department, Ankara<br />
2<br />
Hacettepe University Transgenic Animal Technologies Application and Research Center, Ankara<br />
3<br />
Tolsa, SA, Department of Marketing and Development, Tolsa SA, ES-28031-Madrid-Spain<br />
4<br />
Ankara University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The aim of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of sepiolite with water on pellet quality<br />
and pellet production parameters for broiler grower feed under regular industrial conditions.<br />
For this purpose 12 mt pellet feeds for control and treatment groups with 6 batch were produced<br />
in a commercial feed factory. Each batch was 2 mt. For the treatment group 1% sepiolite<br />
(Exal T) and 1% water was used ‘on top’ in the mixer. Energy consumption and pelleting duration<br />
was increased at the level of 0.87% and 2.5%, respectively. The inclusion of sepiolite in<br />
the diet increased the pellet durability index significantly (P
P 25 Effects of Post-Chilling Peroxyacetic Acid (PAA) Applicationon<br />
Chicken Carcasses to Extend the Storage Time<br />
Görkem Ozansoy 1 , Bahar Onaran 1 , Muammer Göncüoğlu 1 , K. Serdar Diker 2<br />
1<br />
Ankara University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Food Hygiene and Technology Department,<br />
Ankara, Turkey<br />
2<br />
Ankara University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was conducted to investigate the effects of peroxyacetic acid (PAA) on the storage<br />
time of chicken carcasses. In the study, daily fresh chicken carcasses were washed with 230<br />
and 690 ppm PAA in two different times (15 and 30 seconds). The control group (not applied<br />
PAA) and the experimental groups were maintained at 4 ° C for 7 days. In the experimental<br />
groups, the carcasses washed with a solution of 230 ppm for 15 seconds were labeled as “A”,<br />
while the carcasses treated for 30 seconds marked with “B”. Likewise, samples washed with<br />
690 ppm solution for 15 seconds were grouped as “C”, while samples kept for 30 seconds were<br />
tagged with “D”. The samples were analyzed in terms of Aerobic Mesophilic Bacteria, Aerobic<br />
Psychrophilic Bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae and Coliform group microorganisms on the 0th, 1st,<br />
3rd, 5th and 7th days and pH analyzes were also performed on the same days. Taking into<br />
account the results of the analysis, it was determined that the PAA application, especially 690<br />
ppm for 30 seconds, reduced at least 1 log cfu/g. While the initial count of Aerobic Mesophilic<br />
Bacteria was 4.25 log cfu/g in the control group, this count was found to be 2.6 log cfu/g after<br />
washing for 30 seconds with 690 ppm PAA. Similarly, while the count of Aerobic Psychrophilic<br />
Bacteria in the control group was 3.6 log cfu/g, this count decreased to under 2.3 log cfu/g<br />
with the application of 690 ppm PAA for 30 seconds. According to the 7th day results, in the<br />
control group the count of Aerobic Mesophilic Bacteria, Enterobacteriaceace, Coliform bacteria<br />
and Aerobic Psychrophilic Bacteria were determined as 5.92 log cfu/g, 4.79 log cfu/g, 4.7 log<br />
cfu/g and 4.78 cfu/g, respectively. When the same day values were taken into account, the<br />
count of Aerobic Mesophilic Bacteria, Enterobacteriaceace, Coliform bacteria and Aerobic<br />
Psychrophilic Bacteria were determined as 3.44 log cfu/g, 2.53 log cfu/g, 2.0 log cfu/g and 3.0<br />
cfu/g, respectively, in group D where PAA effect was most observed. In general, a decrease<br />
of 2 logarithm was found in all values of group D at the end of the 7th day. As a result, it was<br />
determined that PAA is highly effective on microbiological quality of poultry carcasses even at<br />
very low concentration and time.<br />
Keywords: Chicken carcass, peroxyacetic acid, storage time<br />
279
P 26 The Effects of Different Monochromatic Lighting Applications during<br />
Embryogenesis on Some Hatching Characteristics<br />
Kübra Melis Sabuncuoğlu 1 , Doğan Narinç 2 , Firdevs Korkmaz 1 , Hasan Ersin Şamlı 1<br />
1<br />
Namık Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Animal Science, Tekirdağ<br />
2<br />
Namık Kemal University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Science and<br />
Animal Feeding, Tekirdağ<br />
Abstract<br />
Lighting in poultry is very important environmental factor and researchers have focused on light<br />
intensity, light source, lighting period and light color for many years. There have been intensive<br />
studies in recent years about monochromatic lighting with LED lamps in different wave lengths.<br />
The aim of this study is to determine the effects of dark (control group), green (560 nm) and<br />
blue (480 nm) monochromatic lighting on chick weight, hatchability and embryonic mortality<br />
(early, late, total) in the entire incubation period for Japanese quail eggs. In the study, total of<br />
328 fertile eggs in control group, 204 fertile eggs in blue LED group and 204 fertile eggs in<br />
green LED group were used. There was no statistically significant difference (P>0.05) between<br />
the experimental groups in terms of live weight, hatchability and total embryonic mortality.<br />
However, the lowest early mortality mean (12.37%) was found in green LED lighting group<br />
(P
P 27 Oxidative Deterioration in <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> and Its Prevention by Using<br />
Antioxidants<br />
Şeyma Yenioğlu Demiralp, Eda Demirok Soncu, Betül Karslıoğlu Özen, Nuray Kolsarıcı<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
From production to consumption in every stages, poultry meats are exposed to oxidative<br />
deteriorations due to some factors. Oxidative deteriorations are defined in two ways: lipid<br />
oxidation and protein oxidation. Rancid taste and flavor, changes in protein functionality and<br />
sensory quality, and decrease in shelf life are the main results of oxidative deteriorations.<br />
Additionally, that results affect the consumers’ health. With that said, it is crucial to minize or<br />
prevent the oxidative reactions in every stages of animal feeding, slaughtering, production and<br />
consumption process. In that case, the usage of antioxidants is one of the popular strategies and<br />
studies regarding the mitigation or prevention of oxidative reactions in poultry using antioxidants<br />
have been still conducting in nowadays.<br />
281
P 28 Effect of High Eggshell Temperature During The First Week of<br />
Incubation on Hatchability, Hatch Time and Chick Organ Development<br />
Kardelen Oya Avşar, Ahmet Uçar, Serdar Özlü, Okan Elibol<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was conducted to investigate the effect of increased eggshell temperature (EST)<br />
during the first week of incubation on hatchability, hatch time, chick organ development on day<br />
of hatch. A total of 1680 eggs were collected from Ross 308 commercial broiler breeder flocks at<br />
37 wk of age. Higher (38.6 ˚C) eggshell temperature (EST) exposed between days 0-3 (A), 4-6<br />
(B), or 0-6 (C) of incubation. A control group was incubated at an EST of 37.8 °C during first 6d<br />
of incubation. EST was maintained at 37.8 °C except the periods of groups. Hatching time was<br />
determined in each group by counting all chicks that hatched at 480 h (Early), 492 h (Middle),<br />
and 510 h (Late) of incubation. Fertile hatchability was significantly better for the Control and<br />
A compared to B and C (P
P 29 Potantial Use of Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy in<br />
Charaterization of Turkish Salami Produced from Turkey <strong>Meat</strong> or Beef<br />
Ebru Deniz 1 , Naşit İğci 2 , Duygu Özel Demiralp 3 , Kezban Candogan 1 *<br />
1<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering, Ankara<br />
2<br />
Nevşehir Haci Bektaş Veli University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Molecular<br />
Biology and Genetics, Nevşehir, 3 Ankara University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of<br />
Biomedical Engineering, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In the current study, salami of different brands produced with turkey meat and beef were<br />
characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy. When the spectra were<br />
evaluated with naked eyes, bands from all samples appeared to be verysimilar. However, when<br />
the zoomed view of obtained spectra were examined in detail, four regions (2980-2800 cm -1 ,<br />
1760-1710 cm -1 , 1210-1140 cm -1 , 1140-1000 cm -1 ) exhibiting visible spectral differences were<br />
determined in salami samples produced from 100% beef and 100% turkey meat. The FTIR<br />
spectra demonstrate differences according to both raw materials (beef and turkey meat) and<br />
brands. After assessing zoomed view spectra by naked eyes, salami products were classified<br />
successfully with hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA)<br />
by using the absorbance values from spectra. Score plots from PCA and dendograms from HCA<br />
showed that salami products were grouped according to both raw materials (beef and turkey<br />
meat) and brands. The commercial product-specific spectra determined by this study have<br />
potential to be used to determine purity and authenticity.<br />
283
P 30 An Investigation on Possible Use of Myofibrillar and Sarcoplasmic<br />
Protein Fractions in Differantiating Pork and Turkey <strong>Meat</strong>s by FTIR<br />
Spectroscopy<br />
Ebru Deniz 1 , Evrim Güneş Altuntaş 2 Öznur Özbey Subaşı 1 , Beycan Ayhan 2 , Duygu Özel<br />
Demiralp 3 , Kezban Candogan 1<br />
1<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering, Ankara<br />
2 Ankara University, Institute of Biotechnology, Ankara<br />
3<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In this study, sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins were extracted from raw meat mixtures<br />
prepared using turkey and pork.FTIR spectroscopy was used to obtain spectra specific to protein<br />
extracts.The spectra of sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar protein fractions were quite different from<br />
each other due to the differences in proteins present in each fraction. The peaks in the spectra<br />
exhibited differences in terms of peak positions and peak intensities.Amide B, amide I, amide<br />
II and amide III bands were found in sarcoplasmic protein fractions while the amideA, amide<br />
B, amide I, amide II bands were observed in myofibrillar protein fractions.But these bands, like<br />
other bands, differed in terms of their position in the spectra and signal heights.<br />
284
P 31 Effect of Eggshell Temperature during Hatching Phase on Hatchability<br />
and Broiler Live Performance<br />
Tülay Can 1 , Rana Dişa 1 , Serdar Özlü 2 , Ahmet Uçar 2 , Uğur Can 1, Nejla Kahraman 1 , İsmail<br />
Ertonga 1 Okan Elibol 2<br />
1<br />
BEYPI Beypazarı Agricultural Production and Marketing Industry and Trade Inc. Bolu, Turkey<br />
2<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This experiment was conducted to determine the effect of eggshell temperatures (EST) during<br />
the hatching phase (18.5-21 day) on hatchability of fertile eggs and broiler performance. Eggs<br />
were collected from Ross 308 commercial broiler breeder flocks at 40 weeks old. Eggs were<br />
incubated at an EST of 37.7°C until d of incubation 18.5. Last 3 d of incubation, embryos were<br />
incubated at low (36.7°C), normal (37.7°C) or high (39.0°C) EST. Hatchability of fertile eggs<br />
was not affected by EST during hatching phase. European production efficiency index (EPEI)<br />
was 352.2, 350.4 and 360.7 in high, normal and low EST groups, respectively. Low EST group<br />
had numerically higher EPEI however the differences were not significant among groups. Result<br />
of this study emphasized that EST treatment during hatching phase had no effect on fertile<br />
hatchability and broiler performance (P>0.05).<br />
285
P 32 Effects of Battering Chicken Nuggets With A Dough Contains<br />
Corn Flour, Corn Starch and Different Hydrocolloids on Some Quality<br />
Characteristics<br />
Ramazan Gökçe, Ali Aytaç Akgün, Haluk Ergezer<br />
Pamukkale University Faculty of Engineering Department of Food Engineering Denizli,<br />
Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Chicken nuggets were battered with a dough which contains corn flour (30%), corn starch (5%),<br />
and 1% different hydrocolloids (xanthan gum, Na- carboxymethyl cellulose, carrageenan) and<br />
deep fried at 180°C for 5 min in sunflower oil. After frying nuggets were subjected to moisture<br />
content (%), oil content (%), coating pick up (%), cooking yield (%), coating thickness (mm),<br />
penetrometer values (10 -1 mm), color and sensory properties analyses. Type of hydrocolloids were<br />
affected significantly (P0.05). Due to the sensory analysis the highest overall acceptability point was<br />
obtained from Na-CMC sample wit 5.16 points.<br />
Keywords: Chicken nugget, hydrocolloid, quality, deep fat frying<br />
286
P 33 Metagenomic Analysis of Butyrate-Producing Bacteria in the Gut<br />
Microbiome of Broilers<br />
K.Serdar Diker, Tuğçe Yıldırır, Barışhan Doğan, Mehmet Akan<br />
Ankara University, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Taxonomic units and relative abundance of butyrate-producing bacteria in broiler gut were<br />
investigated by 16S metagenomic analysis were investigated in this study. Five, 22 and 47<br />
OTUs at the level of family, genus and species level, respectively. The total abundance of<br />
butyrate producers in whole microbiome were 29.31%. Clostridiaceae, Eubacteriaceae,<br />
Lachnospiraceae and Ruminococcaceae families covered almost all of butyrate producing<br />
bacteria. The most abundant genus was Faecalibacterium (13.6%) and the most abundant species<br />
was Faecalibacterium prausnitzii (%13.6). It was conluded that butyrate producing bacteria are<br />
common in healthy broiler, and sustainability of this colonization is important for poultry health.<br />
287
P 34 Development of Gut Microbiome in Broiler Chickens<br />
K.Serdar Diker, Seyyide Sarıçam, Tuğçe Yıldırır, Mehmet Akan<br />
Ankara University, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In this study temporal changes within gut microbiome of broilers were monitored, and<br />
establihment time of almost conctant microbiome were detected. Bacterial 16S rDNA sequences<br />
in ceca of chickens were read by Ion Torrent next generation sequencing system and subjected<br />
to metagenomic analysis. A total of 67 OTUs were found in 2 day old chicks, 316 OTUs in 14<br />
day old broilers and 322 OTUs in 21 day old broilers at family, genus and species level. Fifteen<br />
new family, 81 new genus and 138 new species joined to cecum microbiome within 2 to 14 days.<br />
Between 1<strong>4th</strong> and 21th days 2 family and 2 genus were disappeared, however 10 new species<br />
were seen. It was conluded that almost complete microbiome of broiler cecum was established<br />
at the end of 14 days.<br />
288
P 35 Effect of Organic Material on Antibacterial Activiy of Chlorine<br />
Against Salmonella Enteritidis, S.Typhimurium ve S.Infantis Serotypes<br />
Tuğçe Yıldırır, Barışhan Doğan, K. Serdar Diker<br />
Ankara University, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The role of organic material on the chlorine effect has been studied. In this experimental model<br />
Salmonella Enteritidis, S.Typhimurium, S.Infantis serotypes where exposed to gradual consantration<br />
of chlorine and viable cell counts were performed at intervals. All serotypes were killed by<br />
10 -6 diluted chlorine within five minutes. In environment containing organic material was shown<br />
to reduce antibacterial activty of chlorine against Salmonella between 4-7 log10. This results<br />
showed that it must be kept in mined the notralized effect of organic material on antibacterial<br />
activity of chlorine in the field conditions.<br />
289
P 36 Differences in the Gut Microbiome of Conventional Broiler and<br />
Free-Range Chickens<br />
K.Serdar Diker, İnci Başak Kaya, Ebru Torun, Mehmet Akan<br />
Ankara University, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was performed to compare the gut microbiome of broiler and free-range chickens and<br />
evaluate health effects of each one. While Firmicutes was found as dominant phylum (with 95%<br />
relative abundance) within six in broilers in, three major phyla (Firmicutes 31.9%, Bacteroidetes<br />
29.8%, Proteobacteria 25.8%) were found in free-range chickens. At a threshold bigger than<br />
0.1% of relatif abundance, 27 genus were detected only in broilers, 17 only in free-range<br />
chickens and 6 in both. It was concluded while bacteria with beneficial metabolic and health<br />
effects are dominant in broiler microbiome, free-range chickens have unhealthy microbiome.<br />
290
P 37 Effects of Clinoptilolite Added as Top-Dressed on Performance and<br />
Some Blood Parameters in Broilers<br />
Muhammed Shazaib Ramay 1 , Sakine Yalçin 1 , Yavuz Yener 2 , Oğuz Berk Güntürkün 3 ,<br />
Emre Sunay Gebeş 1 , Suzan Yalçin 4 , Mahlagha Pirpanahi 1<br />
1<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Nutrition and<br />
Nutritional Diseases, Ankara<br />
2<br />
Republic of Turkey Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock, Internal Audit Unit, Ankara<br />
3<br />
DuPont Turkey Industrial Products Ltd., Department of Industrial Biosciences, İstanbul<br />
4<br />
Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Food Hygiene and<br />
Technology, Konya, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The purpose of this experiment was to determine the effects of clinoptilolite supplementation as<br />
top-dressed on the performance and some blood parameters in broilers. A total of 72 Ross 308<br />
broiler day-old male chicks were used and divided into one control group and two treatment groups<br />
each containing 24 chicks. These groups were further divided into four replicates as subgroups,<br />
each comprising 6 chicks. Diet of control group had no added clinoptilolite while at the age<br />
of one week animals from treatment groups were supplemented with 0.5 and 1% clinoptilolite<br />
(Natmin 9000, particle size of 0-1mm) till slaughtering. The experiment lasted for 38 days. The<br />
results showed that clinoptilolite supplementation didn’t affect the live weight, live weight gain,<br />
feed intake and feed conversion ratio. Carcass yield, the relative weight percentages of liver,<br />
spleen, heart, bursa Fabricius and abdominal fat were also not affected, however, the relative<br />
weight percentage of gizzard in the group fed 1% clinoptilolite was significantly higher (P
and agricultural fields (5,6) and particularly in animal nutrition (7). Different studies showed that<br />
zeolites have favorable effects on the growth and performance of different species of animals<br />
including poultry (6,8,9,10). Clinoptilolite as a feed additive has resulted in positive effects on<br />
broiler performance (11,12). The supplementation of diets with clinoptilolite also helps to prevent<br />
some diseases and improves the general health of animals (13). The objective of this study was<br />
to evaluate the effects of 0-1 mm particle-sized clinoptilolite (Natmin 9000 – Gordes Zeolit<br />
Madencilik Sanayi ve Ticaret A.Ş.) on performance and some blood parameters in male broiler<br />
chicks when added to their diets as top dressed starting at the age of one week till slaughtering.<br />
Material and Methods<br />
A total of 72 one day-old male broiler (Ross 308) chicks were obtained from a commercial<br />
hatchery and equally divided into 3 groups including one control and two treatment groups.<br />
These groups were further divided into four replicates, each comprising 6 chicks. The trial lasted<br />
for 38 days. All diets were formulated according to the primary breeder management guidelines<br />
of broiler chickens (Aviagen Inc., 2014) for starter and grower periods. Group 1 was the control<br />
group in which the chicks were fed a diet without clinoptilolite (0%) supplementation. Treatment<br />
1 and Treatment 2 were supplemented with clinoptilolite with a particle size of 0-1 mm (Natmin<br />
9000 – Gordes Zeolit Madencilik Sanayi Ticaret A.Ş.) as top-dressed on the diets at the rates of<br />
0.5% and 1%, respectively and, this supplementation started at the age of one week of age and<br />
lasted till slaughtering. Chicks were weighed individually at the beginning of the experimental<br />
period and weekly to determine the body weight and body weight gain. Feed consumption was<br />
recorded weekly and expressed as grams per bird per week and the feed conversion ratio was<br />
calculated as kg feed per kg body weight gain. At 38th day of the experiment, 12 broilers from<br />
each group (3 from each replicate) were randomly selected, weighed and then slaughtered. Hot<br />
carcass, abdominal fat, liver, heart, spleen, gizzard and bursa of Fabricius were weighed and<br />
expressed as percentage of slaughter weight. Blood samples were taken in the tubes with no<br />
anticoagulant and then centrifuged. Serum was collected and stored at -20 o C for determination<br />
of total protein, albumin, total cholesterol and triglyceride using suitable commercial kits.<br />
Statistical Analyses:Data were analyzed as a completely randomized block design, with 3<br />
dietary treatments and 4 replicates using the ANOVA procedure of the SPSS. The effect of<br />
graded levels of clinoptilolite on different variables analyzed using polynomial contrasts.<br />
Statistical differences were considered significant at P≤ 0.05 (14).<br />
Results and Discussion<br />
Dietary clinoptilolite (Natmin 9000) supplementation at the levels of 0%, 0.5% and 1% as top<br />
dressed starting at the age of one week till slaughtering (38 th day of age) had no significant effect<br />
on body weight, body weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratios (Table 1). These results<br />
coincided with other researches (15,16). Clinoptilolite supplementation did not affect the carcass<br />
yield and relative percentages of bursa Fabricius, heart, spleen and liver and abdominal fat (Table<br />
2). However, gizzard weight in 1% clinoptilolite supplemented groups was significantly higher<br />
(P
al. (19) reported that clinoptilolite supplementation to the quail diets did not affect blood total<br />
protein, triglyceride and total cholesterol levels.<br />
Table 1. Effects of Clinoptilolite (Natmin 9000) Supplementation as Top-Dressed on<br />
Performance in Broiler<br />
Clinoptilolite, %<br />
Pooled Significance<br />
0 0.5 1<br />
standard<br />
error of<br />
Linear Quadratic<br />
mean<br />
Body Weight, g (day 43.98 43.88 43.96 0.192 0.926 0.854<br />
0)<br />
Body Weight, g (day 2574.50 2663.13 2611.83 16.266 0.091 0.081<br />
38)<br />
Body Weight gain, g 2530.52 2619.25 2567.87 16.249 0.090 0.079<br />
(day 0-38)<br />
Feed Intake, g (day 4064.11 4094.23 4060.22 13.657 0.814 0.325<br />
0-38)<br />
FCR, g/g (day 0-38) 1.606 1.564 1.581 0.010 0.151 0.301<br />
n=4, No significant differences among groups.<br />
Table 2. Effects of Clinoptilolite (Natmin 9000) Supplementation as Top-Dressed on Carcass<br />
Yield and Internal Organ Weight Percentages in Broilers<br />
Clinoptilolite, %<br />
Pooled<br />
Significance<br />
standard<br />
0 0.5 1 error of<br />
Linear Quadratic<br />
mean<br />
Carcass Yield, % 70.35 70.71 70.63 0.168 0.409 0.731<br />
Liver Weight, % 1.959 1.922 1.944 0.030 0.736 0.714<br />
Spleen Weight, % 0.107 0.111 0.110 0.003 0.643 0.745<br />
Heart Weight, % 0.473 0.457 0.478 0.008 0.928 0.266<br />
Bursa Fabricius<br />
0.006 0.766 0.883<br />
0.208 0.210 0.213<br />
Weight, %<br />
Abdominal Fat<br />
0.029 0.141 0.926<br />
1.018 0.939 0.912<br />
Weight, %<br />
Gizzard Weight, % 1.337b 1.420ab 1.451a 0.018 0.006 0.817<br />
n=12, a,b: Means within a row followed by the different superscripts differ significantly<br />
(p
Table 3. Effects of Clinoptilolite (Natmin 9000) Supplementation as Top-Dressed on Some<br />
Blood Parameters in Broilers<br />
Clinoptilolite, % Pooled<br />
Significance<br />
standard<br />
0 0.5 1 error of<br />
Linear Quadratic<br />
mean<br />
Total protein, g/dl 2.917 2.900 2.900 0.060 0.902 0.981<br />
Albumin, g/dl 0.992 1.108 1.009 0.047 0.628 0.338<br />
Total cholesterol, mg/dl 97.17 97.42 96.58 1.063 0.898 0.772<br />
Triglyceride, mg/dl 46.08 46.67 50.75 1.188 0.200 0.239<br />
n=12, No significant differences among groups.<br />
Conclusion<br />
In conclusion, clinoptilolite (Natmin 9000) supplementation as top-dressed at the levels 0.5%<br />
and 1% starting at the age of one week till slaughtering (38 th day of age) had no effect on<br />
performance and blood parameters. However, it can be used as a suitable feed additive in broiler<br />
diets due to the positive effects on broiler health and performance in suboptimal conditions in the<br />
field. It should be noted that, in the current study the environmental conditions were optimum<br />
and nutrient requirements of the birds were met adequately. Further research is needed using<br />
different particle sizes and higher doses of clinoptilolite than used in this experiment.<br />
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13. Papaioannou DS, Katsoulos PD, Panousis N, Karatzias H. The role of natural and synthetic<br />
zeolites as feed additives on the prevention and/or the treatment of certain farm animal<br />
diseases: A review: Microporous Mesoporous Mat 2005; 84: 161-170.<br />
14. Dawson B, Trapp RG. Basic and Clinical Biostatistics. 2001; 3 rd ed., Lange Medical Books/<br />
McGraw Hill Medical Publishing Division New York.<br />
15. Saçaklı P, Çalık A, Bayraktaroğlu AG, Ergün A, Şahan Ö, Özaydın S. Effect of clinoptilolite<br />
and/or phytase on broiler growth performance, carcass characteristics, intestinal<br />
histomorphology and tibia calcium and phosphorus levels. Kafkas Üniv Vet Fak Derg.<br />
2015; 21: 729-737.<br />
16. Wu QJ, Wang QY, Wang T, Zhou YM. Effects of clinoptilolite (zeolite) on attenuation of<br />
lipopolysaccharide-induced stress, growth and immune response in broiler chickens. Ann<br />
Anim Sci 2015; 15: 681-697.<br />
17. Schneider AF, De Almeida DS, Yuri FM, Zimmermann OF, Gerber MW, Gewehr CE.<br />
Natural zeolites in diet or litter of broilers. Brit <strong>Poultry</strong> Sci 2016; 57: 257-263.<br />
18. Wu Y, Wu Q, Zhou Y, Ahmad H, Wang T. Effects of clinoptilolite on growth performance<br />
and antioxidant status in broilers. Biol Trace Elem Res., 2013; 155: 228-235.<br />
19. Tufan T, Arslan C, Sarı M. Japon bıldırcını rasyonlarına farklı oranlarda klinoptilolit<br />
ilavesinin besi performansı, karkas verim özellikleri ve bazı kan parametrelerine etkisi.<br />
Lalahan Hay Araşt Derg 2014; 54: 21-27.<br />
295
P 38 Evaluation of Worms as A Source of Protein in <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
Bülent Köse¹, Ergin Öztürk²<br />
¹S.S. Hazelnut Agricultural Sales Cooperatives Association, Espiye Cooperative, Giresun, Turkey<br />
²Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Samsun, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Continuous improvement of the genetic potential through breeding studies in poultry has led to<br />
an increase in the nutrient density of the feed rations given to these animals. In poultry farming,<br />
approximately 70% to 75% of the operating costs constitute feeding costs, of which about 15%<br />
are animal proteins. The protein requirement of poultry is provided by feed stuff rations and<br />
usually by soy bean meal or fish meal. Limited production opportunities and price increases<br />
have led to the need to use alternative feed additives that can be substituted for these products.<br />
Research conducted to date suggests that worms, rich in essential amino acids and a high<br />
digestible protein source can be used as substitutes. As a source of alternative protein, worms<br />
are consumed by their poultry in their natural habitat, while intensive and extensive studies<br />
are needed to be used as a sustainable feed additive. In this review, research on the usability of<br />
worms as an alternative protein source in poultry diets has been compiled and evaluated.<br />
Key words: <strong>Poultry</strong>, worm, protein, feed value, nutrition<br />
296
P 39 Effects of Ultrasound Pre-Treatment on Rehydration Properties of<br />
Dried Chicken Breast <strong>Meat</strong><br />
Özlem Zambak, Sami Gökhan Özkal<br />
Pamukkale University, Faculty of Engineering Department of Food Engineering, Kınıklı,<br />
Denizli, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of ultrasound pre-treatment on some<br />
physical properties such as, color (L*, a*, b* and Browning index) porosity and apperent density<br />
of dried chicken breast meat. For this purpose, ultrasonic probe with 20 kHz frequency was<br />
used for pre-treatment. Ultrasound pre-treatment applications were made in distilled water with<br />
100 % amplitude during 5 and 10 minutes to the vacuum packed cubes of chicken breast meat.<br />
After ultrasound pre-treatment drying was performed by hot air at 0.3 m/s air velocity and at two<br />
different air temperatures of 50°C and 80°C. Ultrasound pre-treatment caused changes in L*,<br />
a*, b* and browning index values of the samples dried at both of the temperatures. The sample<br />
with highest apparent density was found as the sample dried at 80 o C after 5 min ultrasound pretreatment<br />
with 1.15 kg/m 3 density value. Ultrasound pre-treatment caused decrease in porosity<br />
values of the samples dried at 50 °C, however it caused increase in porosity values the samples<br />
dried at 80 °C.<br />
297
P 40 Evaluation of Turkish <strong>Poultry</strong> <strong>Meat</strong> Export Performance within the<br />
Case of Brazil<br />
Harun Daysal, Nevin Demirbaş<br />
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Economics, İzmir, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
With increasing world population, the amount for nutritional needs and especially animal protein<br />
needs has been increased. <strong>Poultry</strong> meat has an important place in animal protein sources. For<br />
this reason, poultry meat trade has a large share in the world meat trade. In this study, the poultry<br />
meat production, consumption and export performance of Turkey has been evaluated in the<br />
last decade (2005-2014) regarding the poultry meat sector and with (1990-2014), the future<br />
production and export trend is estimated. The obtained data is compared to Brazil which is<br />
one of the developing countries in world poultry meat exports and which is a priority exporter<br />
for some of Turkey’s potential markets. At the same time has an economic structure similar to<br />
Turkey. In addition, in the light of this knowledge solutions for increasing the share of Turkey in<br />
poultry meat exports were also searched.<br />
298
P 41 Comparison of Some <strong>Meat</strong> Quality Traits of Slow and Fast Grown<br />
Male Broiler Chickens Raised in Slat Floor Housing System<br />
İsmail Çetin 1 Ece Çetin 2 Enver Çavuşoğlu 3 Derya Yeşilbağ 1 Melahat Özbek 3, İbrahima<br />
M.Abdourhamane 3 Metin Petek 3<br />
1<br />
Uludağ University, Faculty of Veterinary,Animal Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases, Bursa<br />
2<br />
Uludağ University, Faculty of Veterinary, Food Hygiene and Technology, Bursa<br />
3<br />
Uludağ University, Faculty of Veterinary, Animal Sience, Bursa, Turkey,<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was made to evaluate quality traits of meat from slow and fast growing broilers raised<br />
in slat floor housing systems. Both genotypes were divided into five replicates. Chickens of each<br />
genotype were raised in standard conditions until 56 d of age. After slaughtering, 8 carcasses of<br />
each genotype group were randomly selected and used to assess quality properties and chemical<br />
composition. All quality analysis were carried out on breast meat of broiler. Compared with fastgrowing,<br />
slower-growing chickens were had a higher protein content and a lower fat content of<br />
breast meat (P
P 42 Effects of Dietary Clinoptilolite Supplementation on Intestinal<br />
Histomorphology and Caecum Volatile Fatty Acids in Broilers<br />
Şule Yurdagül Özsoy 1 , Sakine Yalçın 2 , Gültekin Yıldız 2 , Ali Çalık 2 ,<br />
Emre Sunay Gebeş 2 , Muhammad Shazaib Ramay 2<br />
1<br />
Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Veterinary, Department of Pathology, Hatay, Turkey<br />
2<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Veterinary, Department of Animal Nutrition and Nutritional<br />
Diseases, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of adding clinoptilolite as topdressed on<br />
intestinal histomorphology and caecum volatile fatty acids in broilers. One control group and<br />
two treatment groups each containing 48 broiler male chicks were organized. Diets of groups<br />
were supplemented with 0, 1 and 2% clinoptilolite (Natmin 9000, particule size of 0-1mm). The<br />
experimental period lasred 42 days. Clinoptilolite addition at 2% as topdressed to the broiler<br />
diets increased villus height and the ratio of villus height to crypt depth in duodenum. Numerical<br />
improvements both in caecum volatile fatty acids and villus height and the ratio of villus height<br />
to crypt depth in jejunum and ileum were observed in groups fed clinoptilolite as topdressed.<br />
Therefore as a conclusion clinoptilolite supplementation can improve intestinal development,<br />
nutrient digestibility and thus performance in broilers.<br />
Keywords: Broiler, clinoptilolite, intestinal histomorphology, caecum volatile fatty acids<br />
300
P 43 <strong>Meat</strong> Quality Characteristics in Geese<br />
Mehmet Akif Boz 1 , Ahmet Uçar 2 , Musa Sarıca 3 , Umut Sami Yamak 3<br />
1<br />
Bozok University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Yozgat<br />
2<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Ankara<br />
3<br />
Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Samsun, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This review about goose, one of the alternative poultry species, was created to describe meat<br />
quality characteristics. Geese are usually grown in extensive and semi-intensive systems for<br />
meat, liver, feather and eggs. And is a poultry species that is resistant to cold climates and diseases,<br />
does not require expensive equipment and shelter, can consume high feeds of cellulose<br />
content and has high fattening ability. The geese are known for delicious and high calorie meats.<br />
High energy value due to quite fatty of meat. Knowing meat quality characteristics of geese,<br />
which are a traditional production and consumption habit in our country, is important for sustainable<br />
production. Because goose meat is an alternative product for consumers and the demand of<br />
consumers has increased recently. In this study, the quality characteristics of goose were determined<br />
according to consumer demands. As a result, it has been observed that the consumption<br />
of animal meats has an important place in terms of quality characteristics.<br />
Keywords: Geese, color, pH, fatty acid, amino acid<br />
301
P 44 Evaluation of Slow-Growing Broiler in Three Rearing Systems:<br />
Growth Performance and Animal Welfare<br />
İbrahima Mahamane Abdourhamane, Melahat Özbek, Enver Çavuşoğlu, Metin Petek<br />
Uludağ University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Science, Bursa,<br />
Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The assessment of welfare in poultry under different rearing systems has gained an increasing<br />
importance. At worldwide scale, the organic or free-range rearing systems are examined in<br />
relation to improving poultry welfare and the quality of poultry production. In several developed<br />
countries the demand for meat from these rearing systems is continually increasing. In this study,<br />
an experiment with three rearing systems was conducted to evaluate growth performance and<br />
animal welfare of slow growing broiler. In total, 150 one-day-old Hubbar JA-57 slow-growing<br />
broilers were randomly placed in indoor system without access to outdoor, indoor with free<br />
range access to grassland (free range) and in slatted floor. Each rearing system was represented<br />
by 5 replicates containing 10 chickens (50 chickens per rearing system). Rearing system did not<br />
affect final body weight, weight gain and feed conversion ratio but did influence feeding intake<br />
(P=0.08).The free range and the indoor system had significantly more footpad dermatitis (FPD)<br />
than slatted system (P=0.001). However the slatted floor system had significantly more hock<br />
burn (P=0.008).Significantly more clean chickens was observed (P=0.03) in slatted floor and<br />
free range system. It was revealed that the production system had no impact on the fearfulness<br />
(P>0.05).These results demonstrated the free range as the suitable condition of rearing of slowgrowing<br />
broiler.<br />
Key words: slatted floor, slow growing broiler, welfare, growth performance.<br />
302
P 45 The Effect of Nutrients on Gene Expression Levels of <strong>Poultry</strong><br />
Hasan Hüseyin İpçak 1 , Sema Özüretmen 1 , Nurşen Alpagut Keskin 2 , Ahmet Alçiçek 1<br />
1<br />
Ege University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Izmir<br />
2<br />
Ege University Faculty of Science Department of Biology, Department of Zoology, Izmir,<br />
Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Scientists working on the feeding of farm animals have begun to utilize high-throughput<br />
technologies that will provide cell-level information on the role of nutrients in the continuation<br />
of animal health and performance, widening the boundaries of classical research methods over<br />
the last 10 years. An image of cell metabolism is attempted to be generated based on the level of<br />
mRNA expression of genes in a cell or tissue versus a specific nutrient. Through these obtained<br />
data, the understanding of complex biological functions and interactions in the main organs<br />
will be developed and nutritionists will be able to provide information on how the genes in<br />
the middle and long term of feeding experts control the interactions with the organism’s feed<br />
consumption, metabolism, immune system, liver, fat tissue, muscle and digestive tract. In this<br />
review, it is aimed to explain the mechanisms of how the nutrient composition can change the<br />
mRNA expression level and to present examples from some studies published in the field of<br />
poultry nutrition.<br />
Key words: mRNA expression level, mechanism, nutrients, poultry nutrition<br />
303
P 46 Effect of Litter Material on Broiler Performance, Slaughtering<br />
Characteristics and House Ammonia Levels<br />
Seher Küçükersan, Sakine Yalçin, Emre Sunay Gebeş, Özge Sizmaz, Özlem Aydin,<br />
Najwa Omar Haiaba, Maglagha Pirpanahi<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases<br />
Department, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was aimed to determine the effects of the usage of wood shavings, rice husk and zeolite<br />
(ZETA) as a litter material on the performance, carcass yield, relative internal organ weights,<br />
intestinal pH and house ammonia levels in broilers. In this trial, 320 one-day old Ross 308 male<br />
broiler chicks were used. Chicks were divided into 4 groups each containing 80 chicks. Each<br />
group was placed in one room. Each room was further divided into 4 compartments, containing<br />
20 chicks each. Each compartment was 95 cm wide and 144 cm length. Experimental period<br />
was 42 day. The usage of ZETA as a litter material instead of wood shavings or rice husk as a<br />
litter material improved the live weight, live weight gain, feed conversion ratio and European<br />
Production Efficiency Factor numerically. Different litter materials didn’t affect carcass yield<br />
and intestinal pH significantly. ZETA as a litter material is very effective in reducing ammonia<br />
gas concentrations when compared to conventional litter materials such as wood shavings and<br />
rice husks. Therefore, using 6 kg/m 2 of ZETA would be sufficient for the reduction of ammonia<br />
and to improve the health and welfare of broilers.<br />
Key Words: Litter, wood shavings, rice husks, zeolite<br />
304
P 47 Effects of Carob Products With Β-1,4 Mannanase Suplementation on<br />
Performance, Carcass Characteristics, Intestinal Histomorphology and<br />
Caecal Short Chain Fatty Acids in Broiler Diets<br />
Seher Küçükersan, Sakine Yalçin, M. Kemal Küçükersan, Ali Çalik,<br />
Muhammad Shazaib Ramay, Ozan Ahlat, Oğuz Berk Güntürkün<br />
Ankara University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Animal Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases<br />
Department, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
The present study was initiated to determine the effects of supplemental carob products and<br />
β-1,4 mannanase in diets having on live weight, live weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion<br />
ratio, carcass yield, relative internal organ weights, intestinal histomorphology, small intestine<br />
pH and caecal short chain fatty acids in broiler diets. In this study 300 one-day old Ross 308<br />
male broiler chicks were used. Chicks were divided into 5 groups each containing 60 chicks.<br />
Each group was divided into 5 replicate subgroups containing 12 chicks. Additives having carob<br />
products (gum+embrio pieces) and/or β-1,4 mannanase were added to the diets at 0.5%. At<br />
the end of the experiment live weight, live weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratio<br />
were not different among groups significantly. There were no significant differences in carcass<br />
yield, relative internal organ weights, intestinal histomorphology and duodenum pH among<br />
groups. Mannanase supplementation to carob products increased ph value of jejenum and ileum<br />
(P
P 48 Developments in Broiler Breeder Rearing<br />
Ahmet Uçar, Serdar Özlü, Mesut Türkoğlu<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Progress in broiler breeder rearing is due to the continuation of both genetic breeding and environmental<br />
remediation. Especially when selecting breeding animals to obtain progeny groups<br />
in which body weight and feed conversion are desired to be sufficient; based on their phenotype<br />
for such traits as skeletal integrity, body conformation and condition, morbidity etc. The negative<br />
correlation between growth and reproductive characteristics limits the progression to be<br />
achieved with a certain level of improvement. Although the work on chicken breeding has been<br />
based on a past of about 150 years, the performance increases in production run up over the past<br />
75 years. When we evaluate chicken breeding in terms of genomic selection, it is seen that the<br />
first species chicken in the farm animals is genomic sequence.<br />
In this review, the characteristics of rooster and chicken behavior, as well as the reproductive<br />
characteristics of sperm and egg quality and breeding methods are discussed in different aspects.<br />
306
P 49 Sectoral Structure in The Scope of Contracted Breeding and Broiler<br />
Integration Relations in Chicken <strong>Meat</strong> Production<br />
Arzu Gökdai, Tuğba Sarihan Şahin, Yılmaz Aral<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Veterinary, Department of Animal Health Economics and<br />
Business Administration, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Today the world population is approximately 7.4 billion and it is increasing rapidly. One of the<br />
main needs of the population is consumption of sufficient and safe food. It is hard to find a safe<br />
and cheap food particularly in underdeveloped and developing countries. In order to tackle this<br />
problem, alternatives have been sought for red meat, which is expensive and important source of<br />
protein, and as a result of this, the production and consumption of poultry meat have emerged.<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> meat is one of the most preferred products of animal origin for its low fat content, in<br />
addition to being cheaper compared to red meat. It is estimated that poultry meat production<br />
in our country was approximately 2 million metric tones and domestic consumption of poultry<br />
meat per capita was 22,83 kg in 2015. Turkey has increased its exports and production of poultry<br />
meat for the foreign markets in the last period, as well as production of poultry meat placed on<br />
the domestic market. In 2015, Turkish poultry meat export was 359.223 metric tones. However,<br />
contracted production model is mostly used in broiler breeding. It is clearly seen that this system<br />
has advantages both contracted firms and independent producers. When poultry enterprises in our<br />
country are examined, it is evaluated that, the numbers of enterprises is especially concentrated<br />
in Black Sea and Marmara Regions. The concentration ratio of these regions are calculated as<br />
64% of total enterprises in Turkey. In this study, our aim was investigate the certain status of<br />
broiler sector and producer-integration relations with regarding actual data.<br />
Key words: Broiler meat, production, integration, contracted breeding.<br />
307
P 50 Weapons of Immune System: Antimicrobial Peptides-Bacteriocins<br />
İmge Duru, Pınar Saçaklı<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Nutrition and<br />
Nutritional Diseases, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Antimicrobial peptides are small biological molecules having activity against bacteria, fungi,<br />
protozoa, and some viruses. Found in all organisms, from prokaryotes to human beings, AMPs<br />
play an essential role in the innate immunity. Because of their broad spectrum of antimicrobial<br />
activity AMP’s such as bacteriocins produced from bacteria, have been proposed as alternative<br />
to classical antibiotics. In addition, AMPs can be suggested as an alternative for antibiotic<br />
growth promotor because of their beneficial effect on maintaining the normal intestinal structure<br />
and immun system.<br />
308
P 51 Lipoic Acid and It’s Antioxidan Capacity<br />
Pınar Özdemir 1 , Hatice Basmacıoğlu-Malayoğlu 2<br />
1<br />
Directorate of <strong>International</strong> Livestock Research and Education Center, Ankara, Turkey<br />
2<br />
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Feeds and Animal Nutrition, İzmir, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Lipoic acid (LA), which can be synthesized in many cells and a compound consisting of 8<br />
carbons containing 2 sulfur atoms in the dithiol ring structure. There are two forms of alphalipoic<br />
acid: oxidized (alpha-lipoic acid, ALA) and reduced (dihydrolipoic acid, DHLA). LA<br />
is an antioxidants with feature of solubility in both lipid and water. The antioxidant properties<br />
of it is achieved by scavenging free radicals, chelating with metals, regenerating vitamin E,<br />
ascorbic acid and glutathione and repairing oxidative damage. In last two decades, LA has<br />
been used for prevention and treatment of oxidative stress-related diseases as an antioxidant in<br />
food supplements, recently it has drawn attention due to the usage of LA in the field of animal<br />
nutrition.<br />
Key words: lipoic acid, dihydrolipoic acid, antioxidant, animal nutrition<br />
309
P 52 Effects of Dietary Levels and Sources of Fiber in Broiler Diets<br />
A. Anıl Çenesiz<br />
Ankara University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Dietary fibers cannot be broken down by the endogenous enzymes in poultry. Furthermore,<br />
it has already been known that water soluble dietary fibers impaired nutrient utilization and<br />
animal health through increasing digesta viscosity in the intestines of poultry. Thus, dietary fiber<br />
has been considered a diluent of the diet and an anti-nutritional factor. However, it has been<br />
demonstrated, based on research conducted in recent years, that poultry require a certain amount<br />
of dietary fiber in diets for proper functioning of the digestive organs and preventing behavioral<br />
disorders like feather pecking and cannibalism. Enhancing dietary fiber content in broiler diets<br />
may increase digestive secretions and promote gastrointestinal refluxes as a consequence of<br />
improving gizzard development. Therefore, feeding diets with increasing level of dietary fibers<br />
enhance nutrient utilization resulting in improved growth performance and intestinal health in<br />
broilers. On the other hand, the effects of dietary fiber on the development of digestive system,<br />
nutrient utilization and intestinal health may vary depending on the inclusion level and source<br />
of dietary fiber in the diets.<br />
Key words: dietary fiber, digestive system, nutrient utilization, intestinal health<br />
310
P 53 Effects of Olive Leaf Supplementation to Broiler Diets on Lipid<br />
Oxidation of Breast <strong>Meat</strong>s<br />
Hatice Basmacıoğlu Malayoğlu 1 , İsmail Yavaş 2<br />
1<br />
Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Department of Feeds<br />
and Animal Feeding, Izmir. 2 Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal<br />
Science, Department of Feeds and Animal Nutrition, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In this study, we investigated the effects of different levels (0, 5, 10, 20 g/kg) olive leaf<br />
supplementation to broiler diets, on lipid oxidation of breast meats which were stored at +4°C<br />
during the 11-day storage period. For this purpose 320 one-day-old broiler chicks randomly<br />
assigned to four treatment groups (80 birds/each group) each consisting five replicates (16 birds/<br />
each replicate). In trial, treatment groups were formed: corn-soy diet without or with 5, 10 and<br />
20 g/kg olive leaf (Control, OL5, OL10 and OL20), respectively. At the end of trial, the lipid<br />
oxidation of breast meat was significantly (P
P 54 Prevention of Broiler Feed Mill from Salmonella Contamination<br />
Şevket Özlü, Anıl Çenesiz<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Department of<br />
Feeds and Animal Nutrition, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Salmonella is an important microbial hazard in broiler feed. Salmonella can sustain its longterm<br />
efficacy in a wide range of materials. Due to the variable nature of salmonellas and the<br />
difficulty of examining the products present in large quantities, it is difficult to accurately assess<br />
the contamination rates. Salmonella can be transmitted in many ways to poultry feeds. Some of<br />
these are wild birds, rodents, contaminated additives, inadequate cleanliness within the plant<br />
and inadequate biosecurity levels of the operator. Salmonella control guidelines can be divided<br />
into three main categories: studies to prevent contamination from entering, studies to reduce<br />
microbial growth in the environment, and processes designed to kill pathogens. Prevention of<br />
contamination, dust control, control of equipment and human flow, reduction of rodent infestation,<br />
prevention of contamination from wild birds, and hygiene of transport vehicles. Reducing<br />
Salmonella multiplication in feed production facilities, detecting microbial proliferation points<br />
and reducing conditions that cause proliferation. Decontamination of Salmonella from feeds<br />
may require heat treatment (pelletizing) or the use of chemical substances. Pelletization has<br />
been reported to reduce the rate of Salmonella due to the limited duration of heat treatment and<br />
risk of recontamination, but not enough to completely remove it. It has been reported that in<br />
pelletizing systems, Salmonella infection is reduced by 105-106 cfu by applying expanaders<br />
with 239-257 F ° temperature and 82 atm pressure for 10-12 seconds with different opinions.<br />
The chemical compounds used to control Salmonella in the feed primarily include the use of<br />
products containing organic acid, formaldehyde or a combination of these compounds. It has<br />
been reported that 0.2-2% of the organic acid products used in feeds show the ability to inhibit<br />
Salmonella.<br />
Key words: Salmonella, broiler feed, feed production facilty, contamination, decontamination.<br />
312
P 55 Effects of Pellet Quality on Broiler Nutrition<br />
H. Ozan Taşkesen, Necmettin Ceylan<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Feed processing has a potential to improve broiler performance. Therefore improving nutrient<br />
values of feed by processing feeds prior to broiler intake is a major area of research. Although<br />
there are many strategies in order to improve feed processing, each of them should be considered<br />
thorougly to determine negative effects on animals. Peletting is one of the major heat processing<br />
method in poultry feed production. Offering feed to broilers in pelleted form, improves<br />
productivity by improving feed intake, growth performance and feed conversion. On the other<br />
hand, pelleted diets may also have negative effects on production due to physical and chemical<br />
changes which occurs during peletting process. In this review, effects of peletting and pelet<br />
quality on broiler performance and nutrients are considered based on recent studies.<br />
Key words:Broilers, pellet quality, starch, pellet conditioning, pellet durability, feed intake,<br />
feed conversion<br />
313
P 56 Effects of Vitamin Nutrition in Broiler Breeders on Fertility and Chick<br />
Quality<br />
İsmail Yavaş, Emine Yücesoy Yavaş<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Department of<br />
Feeds and Animal Nutrition, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Broiler breeders are grandparents of broilers which producers of fowl meat. Feeding management<br />
of broiler breeders affected chick amount, welfare and quality directly. The vitamins, trace<br />
amounts in feed take critical role on animal health, act as a coenzyme and take a role on basic<br />
function. The provision of vitamins in broiler breeder’s feeds is important for the sustainability of<br />
metabolic and physiological processes such as growth, development, health and reproduction of<br />
breeders and offspring to be obtained because of the duties they have in organism. In this study,<br />
the effects of vitamin nutrition to broiler breeders on fertility and chick quality was investigated<br />
Key Words: Broiler breeders, vitamin nutrition, fertility, offspring performance<br />
314
P 57 Effects of Mycotoxins on Nutrient Digestibility and Feed Passage<br />
Esra Evrenkaya, Necmettin Ceylan<br />
Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Department of<br />
Feeds and Animal Nutrition, Ankara, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
Mycotoxins are structurally diverse low-molecular weight metabolites produced by various<br />
molds such as Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium genera and, when the presence of suitable<br />
nutrient, moisture, heat and oxygen molds proliferate to produce these metabolites. It has been<br />
well known and concerning issue of mycotoxins are causing serious performance, yield, health<br />
problems and economic losses in broilers. However, although the digestive system especially the<br />
intestinal epitelium is first exposed to mycotoxins when birds eat mycotoxin contamined feeds,<br />
effects of different mycotoxins and relationship between toxins and epithelial tissue has not been<br />
studied much. Whereas mycotoxins could affect the intestines by causing some morphological<br />
changes and reduced of nutrient digestibilty. While aflatoxins can be absorbed at high rates<br />
(80%), absorption of other mycotoxins, such as trichothecenes ochratoxins or fumonisins may<br />
vary from 1% to 60%. In the case of fuminisin, it’s poor intestinal absorption, ranging from 1%<br />
to 6% in non-ruminant species, implies that gut epithelium is exposed to a very high proportion<br />
of the toxin ingested. On the other hand mycotoxins inhibit protein synthesis and reduce enegy<br />
utilisation. Besides nutrient digestion and absorption function of the gastrointestinal tract, it is<br />
estimated that up to 70% of the immune defenses of the organism are located in the intestine.<br />
Though it is well accepted that mycotoxins are able to modulate immune responses of broilers.<br />
Key words: mycotoxins, gut health, nutrient digestibility, immune systems, broilers<br />
315
P 58 Is There A Benefit of Using an Endotoxin Solution in Broiler Feed That<br />
Already Contains a Mycotoxin Binder ?<br />
A. Goderis 1 , K. Van de Mierop 1 , W. Merckx 2<br />
1<br />
Nutrex nv, Lille, Belgium; 2 Zootechnical Centre, Catholic University of Leuven, Lovenjoel,<br />
Belgium<br />
Introduction<br />
Mycotoxins are known to suppress the immune system and some of them (DON, T-2) negatively<br />
affect gut barrier function. Other stress factors are also reported to increase gut permeability.<br />
Together, these stressful events promote leakage of endotoxins into the bloodstream where they<br />
provoke strong inflammatory reactions. Therefore, chronic consumption of feed contaminated<br />
with mycotoxins, even if it is only slightly, can result in decreased performance. Feed additives<br />
containing mycotoxin adsorbents, such as Free-Tox, are often added to the feed to prevent<br />
or reduce the negative effects induced by mycotoxins. It was hypothesized that broilers will<br />
benefit by consuming Endotoxin in a diet that already contains a mycotoxin binder, knowing that<br />
different other stress factors, not related to mycotoxins, can increase gut permeability.<br />
Materials and Methods<br />
In total, three hundred fifty-two 1-d-old male Ross 308 broilers with an average body weight<br />
(BW) of 44 g were grown over a 42-day experimental period. Broiler chickens were kept in an<br />
environmentally controlled poultry house at the research facility of the Zootechnical Centre<br />
(ZTC, Lovenjoel, Belgium). The experiment was carried out in sixteen pens (100 × 150 cm) with<br />
twenty two broilers per pen. On d 14, vaccines against Gumboro and Newcastle disease were<br />
added to the drinking water and water was available ad libitum. A commercial corn based diet<br />
was formulated to meet all nutrient requirements recommended by Aviagen EPI (Aviagen 2009)<br />
for starter (1-14 d of age), grower (15 to 28 d of age) and finisher (28 to 42 d of age) periods.<br />
The diet was slightly contaminated with mycotoxins (385 ppm FUM B1+B2 and 1.6 ppb OTA).<br />
Two dietary treatments, each with 8 replicates, were tested in a completely randomized design:<br />
1) Control<br />
2) Control diet + 500 mg EndoBan / kg feed<br />
All diets were offered ad libitum, and contained an endo-xylanase (Nutrase Xyla), a mycotoxin<br />
binder (Free-Tox), a coccidiostat (salinomycine) and a phytase but no growth factors or<br />
antibiotics. Body weight (BW) and feed intake (FI) were recorded on d 14, and 42 with pen as<br />
the experimental unit. Average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed<br />
conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated to determine growth performance.<br />
Results<br />
Supplementation of endotoxin to the feed improved final body weight by 2.1% and FCRc by<br />
2.7% (p > 0.05, graph). There were no significant differences between the treatments considering<br />
mortality.<br />
316
Conclusion<br />
Endotoxin improved broiler performance when supplemented to feed that already contained a<br />
mycotoxin binder. It is hypothesized that this effect can be due to a reduced transfer of endotoxins<br />
from the gut lumen to the bloodstreamduring stressful periods such as transport, handling and<br />
changes in dietary composition and improved liver function, in case potential negative effects of<br />
mycotoxins were alleviated by using toxin binder.<br />
317
P 59 Searching and Optimizing of Chicken Gelatin Production Conditions<br />
by Chicken Mechanically Deboned <strong>Meat</strong> (MDM) Residues in Acidic<br />
Mediums<br />
Aydın Erge, Ömer Zorba<br />
Abant İzzet Baysal University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Food<br />
Engineering, Bolu, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In this research, it was aimed to obtain gelatin from the chicken MDM (Mechanically<br />
Deboned <strong>Meat</strong>) residue, which is a by-product in chicken slaughterhouses, and to optimize<br />
the conditions of the production. The optimization was performed by analysing the yield and<br />
some physicochemical properties of gelatins obtained by some chemical (acidic) extraction<br />
methods and some thermal processes by using Central Composite Design of Response Surface<br />
Methodology. In conclusion, related to the acidic extraction procedure, the optimum extraction<br />
conditions was found as 5.5-7.1% HCl concentration, 76-82°C extraction temperature and 194-<br />
237 minutes as extraction period. Espacially, the effects of extraction temperature on the yield<br />
and some rheological properties as gel strenght (bloom), gelling and melting temperatures were<br />
found to be significant (P
P 60 Effects of Black Cumin and Flaxseed on Various Physical, Chemical,<br />
Technological, Sensorial and Textural Properties of Spent Hen Patties and<br />
Modelling These Effects with Response Surface Methodology<br />
Fatime Demir, Gülşah Arslan, Nursel Söylemez Milli*, Ömer Zorba<br />
Abant İzzet Baysal University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Food<br />
Engineering, Bolu, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was done to determine effects of black cumin and flaxseed on various physical,<br />
chemical, technological, sensorial and textural properties of spent hen patties and to model these<br />
effects with Response Surface Methodology by using Central Composit Design Model.<br />
In this research, chicken patties were prepared by using 64-week-old spent hen meat as raw<br />
material and combinations of spices, black cumin (0-4%) and flaxseed (0-4%). Various physicalchemical,<br />
technological, sensorial and textural analysis were before cooking, after cooking and<br />
after 2 months storage made on these chicken patties.<br />
It was found that the usage of flaxseed power was effective on pH, moisture, TBA and colours<br />
parameters values (L*, a*, b*) for producing chicken patties. It was found that L*, a*, b* had<br />
crucial effects on the physical-chemical properties such as pH, moisture, peroxide, TBA and<br />
lipolysis, on the sensorial properties such as appearance, elasticity, juiciness, flavor and on the<br />
color parameters of the black cumin powder which were used as additive on the manufacturing<br />
of the chicken patties.<br />
Keywords: Spent Hens, Chicken Patties, Black Cumin Flour, Flaxseed Flour, Response Surface<br />
Methodology.<br />
319
P 61 Consumer Opinions for Processed <strong>Meat</strong> Products Consumption: Bolu<br />
Example<br />
Burak Mumay 1 , Enes Özkaya 1 , Muhammed Yavuz 1 , Seda Gülçek 1 , Şerife Yıldız 1 , Şeyma<br />
Şahin 1 , Tolga Sak 1 , Ahmet Yaman 2<br />
1<br />
Abant Izzet Baysal University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Food<br />
Engineering, Bolu<br />
2<br />
Abant İzzet Baysal University, Faculty of Agronomy and Natural Sciences, Department of<br />
<strong>Poultry</strong> Science, Bolu, Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
In this study, consumption habits of processed meat products of consumers, living in Bolu and<br />
between 15-50 years age, were investigated. The survey sample consisted of 1397 participants<br />
in 2015 and 2016. As a result of the study, 827 female and 570 male consumers stated 50 grams<br />
and over of consuming of fermented and/or emulsion products once a week mostly. While the<br />
preferences of the respondents were mainly red meat in fermented and emulsified products, the<br />
percentage of those who prefer white meat was around 33%. Women specified to prefer poultry<br />
meat more than men for both fermented and emulsified product groups. 66% of the respondents<br />
indicated that they prefer the brand they always buy whatever the price, while 34% stated that<br />
they prefer whichever is economical in buying.<br />
Key words: processed meat products, poultry meat, consumption preferences<br />
320
P 62 Effect of An Algae-Clay Mix on the Use By Broiler Chickens of a Diet<br />
Containing Corn DDGS<br />
Maria Garcia Suarez, Marie Gallissot, Piotr Cierpinski<br />
Olmix SA, Brehan, France<br />
Abstract<br />
This study was set up to evaluate the effect of supplementing an algae-clay mix on zootechnical<br />
performance of broiler chickens fed with corn DDGS.<br />
414 day-old chicks were randomly distributed to eighteen pens, allocated to one of three groups<br />
receiving different diets: the standard diet (C-), the test diet (T-), containing corn DDGS at the<br />
level of 10%, and the test diet supplemented with 0.1% of algae-clay mix (T+). Three different<br />
feeds were distributed from D0-D9, D9-D18 and D18-D31. Group weighing of the animals (D0,<br />
D9, D18 and D31) and litter quality scoring (D18) were performed. Results were submitted to<br />
analysis of variance.<br />
Results show a significant decrease of ADWG in the finishing period (-8.61%, P = 0.04) and<br />
the total period (-7%, P = 0.02) in the T- group compared to the control. In finishing and total<br />
periods, the ADWG of the T+ group is significantly higher than in the T- group (respectively<br />
+11.72%, P = 0.02 and +7.13%, P = 0.03) and is similar to the control. On the other hand, in the<br />
starter period, C- and T- groups show a significantly higher ADWG than the T+ group. Mortality<br />
was non-significantly lower in the T+ group than in C- and T- groups. No visible impact was<br />
observed on litter quality.<br />
In the end, this study shows a positive effect of the algae-clay mix on growth performance of<br />
broiler chickens fed with the test diet, raising the interest of its use in the utilization of such diets.<br />
Introduction<br />
With an increasing competition worldwide, the poultry industry is more than ever pushed<br />
to improve its productivity. Meanwhile, the supply of raw materials is changing, both from<br />
an economic point of view (high prices volatility) and a quality point of view (emergence of<br />
new raw materials and by-products, which use is not always optimized). In this context, feed<br />
supplementation with specific additives or premixes can contribute to improve the use of diets<br />
containing low digestible ingredients (Shalash et al, 2009; Ouhida et al, 2000), while maintaining<br />
high levels of performance and productivity. In the last years, several studies highlighted the<br />
ability of clays to improve feed digestibility (Tauquir and Nawaz, 2001; Reichardt, 2008;<br />
Habold et al, 2009). This way, Olmix developed a product associating algae extracts (Ulva sp<br />
and Solieria chordalis) and clay (bentonite), which aims at the better use of diets containing<br />
by-products. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of this algae-clay mix<br />
(MFeed+) on the growth performance of broiler chickens fed a diet containing by-products and<br />
raised under field conditions.<br />
321
Materials and methods<br />
The study was conducted in a commercial broiler farm in Brittany, France. A total of 414 dayold<br />
chicks (ROSS PM3) were selected and randomly distributed to 18 pens of 1.03 m² lined up<br />
along the building. Randomization was done per block of 3 pens taking into account broilers<br />
initial weight. Pens were randomly allocated to one of the three groups, differing by their diet<br />
composition (Table 1): the standard diet (C-), the test diet (T-), containing corn DDGS at the level<br />
of 10%, and the test diet supplemented with 0.1% of algae-clay mix (T+). All broilers received<br />
three successive feeds: a starter feed (D0-D9), a grower feed (D9-D18) and a finisher feed (18-<br />
D31), manufactured specifically for the trial. The standard diet and the test diet were formulated<br />
to be isoenergetic and iso-digestible amino acids for each stage. Feed was distributed ad libitum<br />
manually by the farmer (one feeder per pen) and water was distributed via the usual drinking<br />
system. Housing system was a Colorado type with concrete floor and dynamic ventilation. Litter<br />
was composed of straw during the trial. Chicks were vaccinated with a coccidiostat at one dayold,<br />
by spraying on the feed, prior to their allocation to the different groups. The rest of the<br />
building was used to raise chickens of the same age, following the standard management of the<br />
farm.<br />
Table 1. Composition of the diets<br />
Starter D0-D9 Grower D9-D18 Finisher D18-D31<br />
Standard Test Standard Test Standard Test<br />
Composition (%)<br />
Corn 32.00 33.52 36.70 51.21 40.20 59.82<br />
Wheat 25.00 18.60 26.50 5.60 26.50 -<br />
Corn DDGS - 10.00 - 10.00 - 10.00<br />
Sodium bicarbonate 0.20 - 0.20 - 0.10 -<br />
Soyabean meal 36.00 30.70 30.00 25.10 26.50 21.90<br />
Dibasic calcium phosphate 1.65 1.58 1.20 1.25 1.15 1.20<br />
Sepiolite - - 0.50 0.50 1.00 0.99<br />
Sodium chloride 0.20 0.27 0.20 0.26 0.25 0.26<br />
Crude soy oil 2.00 2.83 2.20 3.50 2.00 3.41<br />
DL-Methionine 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.20 0.15 0.20<br />
Lysine HCl 0.10 0.18 0.20 0.28 0.10 0.17<br />
Choline 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30<br />
Mineral premix 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00<br />
Vitamins premix 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.75 0.80<br />
Theoretical nutritional value (%)<br />
Crude fat 4.50 4.50 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00<br />
Crude fiber 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.00 3.00<br />
Crude protein 21.50 21.50 19.00 19.00 18.00 18.00<br />
Methionine 0.56 0.56 0.50 0.50 0.45 0.45<br />
Lysine 1.24 1.24 1.15 1.15 1.00 1.00<br />
Ash 6.50 6.50 6.00 6.00 6.50 6.50<br />
Calcium 1.00 1.00 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90<br />
Phosphorus 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.50<br />
Sodium 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14<br />
Metabolizable energy (kcal/kg) 2849 2849 2981 2981 3049 3049<br />
322
Animals were group weighed (per pen) at day 0 and at the end of each feeding period (D9, D18<br />
and D31). Refused feed was weighed at the end of each feeding period to measure the feed<br />
intake (FI) and calculate the feed conversion ratio (FCR) for each period (D0-D9, D9-D18,<br />
D18-D31 and D0-D31). Calculation of the Average Daily Weight Gain (ADWG) was also made<br />
for each period for the different groups. Mortality was taken into account: date of deaths was<br />
used to assess an average number of present birds per period and weight of dead birds was used<br />
to adjust the ADWG per pen and per period. A qualitative scoring was given to the litter at day<br />
18 for each pen, using the scoring system described by Aubert et al., (2011):<br />
- score 1: dry and crumbly,<br />
- score 2: crumbly but slightly damp,<br />
- score 3: crumbly but partly caking,<br />
- score 4: caking with crumbly litter when digging,<br />
- score 5: completely caking or damp.<br />
FI, FCR and ADWG were submitted to an analysis of variance. Mortality data were compared<br />
with Pearson Chi-2 test. Systat® software was used to conduct all statistical analyses with a<br />
significance level of 5%.<br />
Results<br />
Average initial weight of the animals did not differ among the groups (P=0.771) and so the<br />
groups are comparable at the start of the trial.<br />
Feed intake, feed efficiency and growth rate performance are displayed in table 2. Results show a<br />
significant decrease of FI and ADWG in the finishing and total periods in the T- group compared<br />
to the control. In finishing and total periods, FI of the T+ group is significantly higher than in<br />
the T- group (respectively +8.1%, P < 0.01 and +5.5%, P < 0.01) and is similar to the control.<br />
ADWG follows the same evolution: +11.6% (P = 0.03) in finisher and +7.1% (P = 0.04) in total<br />
period in favor of the T+ group compared to T-, and similar values between C- and T+ groups.<br />
On the other hand, in the starter period, C- and T- groups show a significantly higher ADWG<br />
than the T+ group. The FCR is higher in the starter period in T+ group compared to C- and<br />
T- groups (P < 0.01). However, it tends to be lower in the other phases. In the total period, the<br />
lowest FCR is obtained with the supplemented test diet (T+).<br />
Cumulated mortality over 31 days varies between 1.5 and 5.1% among the three groups, with<br />
the lowest value for the supplemented group (T+). Main causes of mortality were associated<br />
with sudden death and regular sorting by the farmer of broilers with late growth or locomotive<br />
troubles. No visible impact on litter quality was observed.<br />
323
Table 2. Zootechnical performance of the animals.<br />
C- T- T+ Effect 1<br />
Average feed intake (g/chicken)<br />
Starter 301.6 289.1 289.3<br />
Grower 726.7 693.2 704.3<br />
Finisher 1821.4 b 1661.1 a 1796 b D**, S**<br />
D0-D31 2849.5 b 2645.1 a 2790.5 b D**, S*<br />
Average Daily Weight Gain (g/chicken)<br />
Starter 27.8 b 26.8 b 25.6 a S*<br />
Grower 51.9 49.0 51.4<br />
Finisher 74.3 b 67.9 a 75.8 b D*, S*<br />
D0-D31 54.3 b 50.5 a 54.1 b D*, S*<br />
Feed conversion ratio<br />
Starter 1.21 a 1.20 a 1.26 b S**<br />
Grower 1.56 1.58 1.52<br />
Finisher 1.89 1.88 1.82<br />
D0-D31 1.69 1.69 1.66<br />
1<br />
From the analysis of variance, taking into account the effect of the diet (D) and the<br />
effect of the supplementation (S). *P≤0.05; **P≤0.01. a, b On a same line, different<br />
letters indicate a significant difference.<br />
Discussion<br />
The study shows a negative effect of the incorporation of corn DDGS in the diet on zootechnical<br />
performance of the birds. The lower feed intake and growth rate observed with this test diet<br />
are compensated by the supplementation with the algae-clay mix. This positive effect could be<br />
explained by the incorporation of the algae-clay mix in the diet. Indeed, Reichardt (2008) and<br />
Habold et al. (2009) mention the ability of clays to enhance the contact between enzymes and<br />
nutrients and highlight the presence of enzymatic cofactors in clays, through the presence of<br />
metallic ions, allowing an increased activity of enzymes. Metallic ions such as zinc and copper<br />
actually have the capacity to activate some enzymes (Niederhoffer, 2000; Jondreville et al, 2002;<br />
Williams, 1960). This way, the presence of Montmorillonite and Ulva sp and Solieria chordalis<br />
macroalgae in the tested mix, significant sources of metallic ions (Kim, 2012), may have favored<br />
the activity of some digestive enzymes and thus contributed to the increased performance of the<br />
broilers fed the supplemented diet.<br />
Conclusion<br />
This study shows the zootechnical efficacy of the algae-clay mix in diets of broilers raised up to<br />
31 days, at 0.1% in a corn-wheat diet containing 10% of corn DDGS, and highlights its interest<br />
for the valorization of such diets. In a context where the high volatility of cereals prices pushes<br />
towards the use of alternative ingredients, this algae-clay mix may be used to reduce the feed<br />
cost while maintaining a standard level of performance.<br />
324
References<br />
Aubert C., Rousset N., Allain E., Ponchant A., 2011. TeMA., (18), 12-16.<br />
Habold C., Reichardt F., Le Maho Y., Angel F., Liewig N., Lignot J.H., Oudar H., 2009. Brit J<br />
Nutr, (102), 249-257.<br />
Jondreville C., Revy P.S., Jaffrezic A., Dourmad J.Y., 2002. INRA Prod. Anim., 15 (4), 247-<br />
265.<br />
Kim S.K., 2012. In : Handbook of marine macroalgae. (Wiley-Blackwell) John Wiley and<br />
Sons.<br />
Niederhoffer E.C., 2000. Southern Illinois Univ.<br />
Ouhida I., Perez J.F., Piedrafita J., Gasa J., 2000. Anim Feed Sci Tech, (85), 183-194.<br />
Reichardt F., 2008. In : thesis (Université Louis Pasteur Strasbourg).<br />
Shalash S.M.M., Ali M.N., Sayed M.A.M., El-Gharby H.E., Shabaan M. 2009. Int. J. Poult.<br />
Sci., (8), 545-552.<br />
Tauquir N.A., Nawaz H, 2001. Int J Agri Biol, (3), 149-150.<br />
Williams R.J.P., 1960. Nature, (188), 322.<br />
i<br />
https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/is-organic-agriculture-really-better-forthe-environment/2016/05/14/e9996dce-17be-11e6-924d-838753295f9a_story.html?utm_<br />
term=.602589c92d2f<br />
325
P 63 Influence of Algae-Based Complex on Broilers Performances<br />
Cierpinski Piotr 1 , Quéro Benoît 2 , Bussy Frédérick 1 , Le Goff Matthieu 1<br />
1<br />
OLMIX, Brehan, France<br />
2<br />
Blavet Animal Health Group Plumeliau, France<br />
Abstract<br />
During the first week of life, immune depression and stress are very challenging for the<br />
development of chicks. The aim of this trial is to test the efficacy of two algae-based complexes<br />
(ABC) developed by Olmix, on broilers performance. The study was carried out on 450,202 dayold<br />
chicks distributed in eight farms. In each farm, one house was used as control and one house<br />
was used as test using algae-based complexes. The test houses received the first algae-based<br />
complex (ABC1) between 24 or 36 hours of setting up and the second algae-based complex<br />
(ABC2) the day before and two days after Gumboro vaccine. Daily weight gain (DWG), feed<br />
conversion ratio (FCR), mortality and condemnation rates were recorded to measure the efficacy<br />
of ABC on performance. Blood samples were collected in 6 farms on 20 broilers per group, to<br />
measure the efficacy of ABC2 on vaccine response. The combined use of ABC1 and ABC2 tends<br />
to reduce mortality and condemnation rate comparing to control group (4.36 % versus 3.39 % and<br />
0.65% versus 0.56% respectively). No differences were observed for FCR and DWG. Coefficients<br />
of variation of Gumboro titers were significantly improved in 3 farms and tend to improve in 1 farm.<br />
This trial illustrates the potential of algae based complexes in reducing mortality. This reduction in<br />
mortality may be explained by the immunomodulatory ability of this complex, allowing a better<br />
vaccine protection, this hypothesis needs to be validated with further experiments.<br />
Introduction<br />
During the first two weeks of life, the maternal immunity of day-old chicks (DOC) decreases<br />
progressively and the animals are subjected to various challenges that alter their health and<br />
performance. In this context, Olmix has developed two algae-based complexes (ABC) mainly<br />
composed of Marine Sulfated Polysaccharides selected for their biological properties. Both<br />
ABC were distributed through drinking water. The first algae-based complex (ABC1) was<br />
selected for its capacity to reduce digestive troubles by increasing mucin production by goblet<br />
cells, as described by Barceló et al. (2000). ABC1 is used in a final product developed by Olmix<br />
and called SeaLyt. The second algae-based complex (ABC2) was selected for its capacity to<br />
reinforce natural defenses as demonstrated by Berri et al. (2016). ABC2 is used in a final product<br />
developed by Olmix and called Searup. The aim of this study is to measure the efficacy of the<br />
simultaneous use of ABC1 and ABC2 on broilers performance, in commercial conditions.<br />
Material and methods<br />
Experimental design :Eights farms were used in this study. In each farm, one house was used<br />
as control group and one house was used as trial group. ABC1 and ABC2 were used only in<br />
the trial group in addition to the standard prophylaxis applied in the control group. In each<br />
326
farm control and trial groups were started on the same date, all conditions were identical apart<br />
from the ABC supplementation. A total of 452,202 day-old chicks (DOC) were involved in the<br />
study. In the trial group, ABC1 was distributed at day one at 45g/500 liters of drinking water,<br />
and ABC2 was distributed 1 day before and 2 days after Gumboro vaccination (day 14) at<br />
80g/1000 liters of drinking water.<br />
Measurements :Daily weight gain (DWG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), mortality and<br />
condemnation rates were recorded for each group. Blood samples were collected in 6 farms<br />
on 20 broilers per group, to measure the efficacy of ABC2 on vaccine response. Gumboro<br />
antibody titers were quantified on each blood sample thanks to the kit biocheck, IBD.<br />
Coefficients of variation were calculated per group per farm.<br />
Statistics:Variation due to the different treatments in performance and coefficients of variation<br />
were calculated using Mann-Whitney test test. R software was used to conduct all statistical<br />
analyses with a significant level of 5%.<br />
Results<br />
Performance :Figure 1 shows that the combined use of ABC1 and ABC2 tends to reduce<br />
mortality and condemnation rate comparing to control group (4.36 % versus 3.39 % and 0.65%<br />
versus 0.56% respectively). No differences were observed for FCR and DWG, as shown<br />
Figure 2.<br />
Figure 1. Average mortality and condemnation rate at slaughtering, of the eight farms<br />
Figure 2. Average daily weight gain (DWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) at slaughtering,<br />
of the eight farms<br />
327
Gumboro antibody titers<br />
The average coefficient of variation of Gumboro titers was significantly improved in 3 farms<br />
and tended to improve in one farm when using ABC2 (Figure 3).<br />
Figure 3. Average Gumboro antibody titers coefficients of variation per group per farm<br />
Discussion and Conclusion<br />
The biological activity of marine sulfated polysaccharides used in algae-based complexes<br />
shows interest to improve broilers performance. In fact, the ability of specific MSP to increase<br />
mucin production by goblet cells, permits to obtain a thicker mucus layer. The thicker mucus<br />
layer participates to reduce digestive problems caused by the degradation of the intestinal<br />
mucosa integrity (Barceló et al., 2000). The effect of marine sulfated polysaccharides on mucin<br />
production may participate to the tendency to reduce mortality and condemnation when using<br />
ABC1. The immune-modulating action of MSP composing ABC2 contributes to a better immune<br />
response thanks to the activation of specific receptors of the innate immune system (Berri et<br />
al., 2016). Out of 6 farms, 3 farms showed a significant reduction of the average Gumboro<br />
antibody titers coefficients of variation, which illustrates the potential of ABC to provide a more<br />
homogeneous vaccine response in the trial group compared to the control group. The immunomodulation<br />
obtained with ABC2 may also participate to reduce mortality and condemnation<br />
rates. The low number of houses, eight per group, didn’t permit to obtain a significant difference<br />
in mortality and condemnation (P < 0.2). Another study with a higher number of houses would<br />
permit to confirm the impact of ABC on mortality and condemnation. Improvement of DWG<br />
and FCR were obtained in the trial group but it was not significant. On the contrary to the control<br />
group, none of the trial groups needed antibiotic treatment. The combined used of ABC1 and<br />
ABC2 tends to reduce mortality and condemnation rate with no reduction of DWG and FCR and<br />
without antibiotic treatments in comparison to control group.<br />
Algae-based complexes show good potential to improve broilers performance in a restricted<br />
experimental design. Further studies will permit to confirm these promising results.<br />
References<br />
1. Barceló 2000<br />
2. Berri 2016<br />
328
P 64 Effects of Dietary Amino Acid Density on Broiler Chickens<br />
A. Anıl Çenesiz<br />
Ankara Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Zootekni Bölümü 06110 Dışkapı/Ankara<br />
Abstract<br />
In poultry, 22 amino acids are needed to form body protein which referred to as essential<br />
and non essential. Essential amino acids can not be synthesised or synthesised sufficiently in<br />
animal tissues and must be supplied by diet. Non essential amino acids must be also supplied<br />
by diet to meet N requirements for amino acid synthesises and prevent essential amino acid<br />
deficiency. Amino acid requirements must be provided adequately and in proper ratio in order<br />
to get maximum performance from broiler chickens. Broiler chicken performances have been<br />
improved every year by genetic selection. Modern broiler chickens grow faster, consume<br />
less feed for body weight gain, and have higher breast meat yield. Because of these genetical<br />
improvements, dietary amino acid density should be set properly to get maximum performance<br />
from broiler chickens. Dietary amino acid density have significant effects on meat quality and<br />
intestinal development. Environmental pollution related to N excretion can be reduced by proper<br />
dietary amino acid density and amino acid balance. Moreover, economical production can be<br />
achieved by proper dietary amino acid density for different growth periods.<br />
Key words: amino acid density, genetic selection, meat yield<br />
329
P 65 The Situation of Egg and Chicken <strong>Meat</strong> Consumption Among Students<br />
at the Veterinary Medicine<br />
Pınar Ayvazoğlu Demir, Erol Aydın<br />
Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal Health Economics<br />
and Management, Kars-Turkey<br />
Abstract<br />
This research has been made in order to exhibit the consumption of poultry meat and egg the<br />
preferences of the students training at the Kafkas University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. A<br />
survey has been carried out over 448 students who were the material of the research conducted<br />
in the education period of 2016-2017. The analysis of the obtained data was made through<br />
SPSS for Windows 16 software. 33,9 % of the average monthly spent (income) is found as<br />
300-500 TL. There are the following findings in this study: 31,3% consume more than 8 eggs<br />
weekly and 34,2% consume 250-500 g chicken meat. On the other hand, the total yearly<br />
consumption of chicken meat and egg are determined as 19,5 kg and 260 eggs, respectively. In<br />
terms of consumption preferences, first, second and third place are brisket, hip, wing.<br />
Key words: chicken meat and egss, survey , consumption, perception, students<br />
330
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