The Phonology of Dutch
The Phonology of Dutch
The Phonology of Dutch
Create successful ePaper yourself
Turn your PDF publications into a flip-book with our unique Google optimized e-Paper software.
Illl<br />
PHONOLOGY OF THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES<br />
Series Editor: Jacques Durand, University <strong>of</strong> Salford<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>
THE PHONOLOGY OF THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES<br />
<strong>The</strong> phonology <strong>of</strong> most languages has until now been available only in a fragmented<br />
way, through unpublished theses, or articles scattered in more or less accessible<br />
journals. Each volume in this series will <strong>of</strong>fer an extensive treatment <strong>of</strong> the phonology<br />
<strong>of</strong> one language within a modern theoretical perspective, and will provide comprehensive<br />
references to recent and more classical studies <strong>of</strong> the language. <strong>The</strong> following will<br />
normally be included: an introduction situating the language geographically and<br />
typologically, an overview <strong>of</strong> the theoretical assumptions made by the author, a<br />
description <strong>of</strong> the segmental system and <strong>of</strong> the rules or parameters characterizing the<br />
language, an outline <strong>of</strong> syllable structure and domains above the syllable, a discussion<br />
<strong>of</strong> lexical and postlexical phonology, an account <strong>of</strong> stress and prominence, and, if space<br />
allows, some overview <strong>of</strong> the intonational structure <strong>of</strong> the language.<br />
While it is assumed that every volume will be cast in a modern non-linear framework,<br />
there will be scope for a diversity <strong>of</strong> approach which reflects variations between<br />
languages and in the methodologies and theoretical preoccupations <strong>of</strong> the individual<br />
authors.<br />
Published in the series:<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> English<br />
Michael Hammond<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> Armenian<br />
Bert Vaux<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> German<br />
Richard Wiese<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> and Morphology <strong>of</strong> Kimatuumbi<br />
David Odden<br />
<strong>The</strong> Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> Slovak<br />
Jerzy Rubach
THE<br />
PHONOLOGY<br />
OF<br />
DUTCH<br />
Geert Booij<br />
OXTORD<br />
UNIVERSITY PRESS
OXPORD<br />
UNIVERSITY PRESS<br />
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6op<br />
Oxford University Press is a department <strong>of</strong> the University <strong>of</strong> Oxford.<br />
It furthers the University's objective <strong>of</strong> excellence in research, scholarship,<br />
and education by publishing worldwide in<br />
Oxford New York<br />
Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogota Buenos Aires Calcutta<br />
Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul<br />
Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbat<br />
Nairobi Paris Sào Paulo Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw<br />
with associated companies in Berlin Ibadan<br />
Oxford is a registered trade mark <strong>of</strong> Oxford University Press<br />
in the UK and in certain other countries<br />
Published in the United States<br />
by Oxford University Press Inc., New York<br />
© Geert Booij 1995<br />
<strong>The</strong> moral rights <strong>of</strong> the author have been asserted<br />
First published in paperback 1999<br />
All rights reserved. No part <strong>of</strong> this publication may be reproduced,<br />
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,<br />
without the prior permission in writing <strong>of</strong> Oxford University Press,<br />
or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate<br />
reprographics rights organisation. Enquiries concerning reproduction<br />
outside the scope <strong>of</strong> the above should be sent to the Rights Department,<br />
Oxford University Press, at the address above<br />
You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover<br />
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer<br />
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data<br />
Data available<br />
Library <strong>of</strong> Congress Cataloging in Publication Data<br />
<strong>The</strong> phonology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> / Geert Booij.<br />
(<strong>The</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> the world's languages)<br />
Includes bibliographical references.<br />
I. <strong>Dutch</strong> language <strong>Phonology</strong>. I. Title. II. Series.<br />
PF13I.B67 1995 439.3'I15—dc20 94-34547<br />
ISBN 0 19 823869 X<br />
13579 108642<br />
Typeset in Times<br />
by J&L Composition Ltd, Filey, North Yorkshire<br />
Printed in Great Britain<br />
on acid-free paper by<br />
Biddies Ltd., Guildford and King's Lynn
PREFACE<br />
This book presents a survey <strong>of</strong> the phonological system <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>. Its primary<br />
aim is providing insight into that system as a whole, based on a considerable<br />
number <strong>of</strong> studies in the phonology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>. Thus, this book can function as a<br />
reference work that provides access to more detailed studies <strong>of</strong> aspects <strong>of</strong> the<br />
phonology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> that are available in the linguistic literature.<br />
<strong>The</strong> analyses proposed are couched in terms <strong>of</strong> present-day generative<br />
phonology, in accordance with the saying that 'description without theory is<br />
blind'. Although the book is not primarily meant as an original contribution to<br />
phonological theory, the analyses will appear to be relevant for a number <strong>of</strong><br />
current issues in phonological theory. Moreover, a comprehensive analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
the phonological system <strong>of</strong> one language can keep us from too hasty generalizations<br />
and theoretical conclusions based on the analysis <strong>of</strong> just a few<br />
phenomena.<br />
A substantial part <strong>of</strong> the first draft <strong>of</strong> this book was written while I was a<br />
visiting scholar in the Department <strong>of</strong> Linguistics <strong>of</strong> the University <strong>of</strong><br />
Massachusetts in Amherst, from May to July 1992. I would like to express<br />
my sincere thanks to all the staff members <strong>of</strong> the department who made my<br />
stay there pleasant and fruitful. In particular, 1 thank my 'hostess', Lisa<br />
Selkirk, and the other two phonologists <strong>of</strong> the department, John Kingston<br />
and John McCarthy, for the inspiring and fruitful discussions I had with<br />
them and for their hospitality and helpfulness in practical matters. I also<br />
thank the Faculty <strong>of</strong> Letters <strong>of</strong> the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam for making<br />
my stay in Amherst possible.<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> colleagues were so kind as to comment on a previous version<br />
<strong>of</strong> the manuscript: Renée van Bezooijen, Jacques Durand, Carlos Gussenhoven,<br />
Ben Hermans, Daan de Jong, René Kager, and Richard Wiese. <strong>The</strong>ir questions<br />
and criticisms were very useful.<br />
This hook is dedicated to my wife, Herry, and our children, Su/.anne,<br />
Rebecca, and Indriaas.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
My thanks are due to Cambridge University Press and to the authors for their<br />
kind permission to reproduce figures from Van den Berg, Gussenhoven, and<br />
Rietveld (1992).
CONTENTS<br />
List <strong>of</strong> Tables<br />
Abbreviations and Symbols<br />
x<br />
xi<br />
1. INTRODUCTION 1<br />
2. THE SOUNDS OF DUTCH: PHONETIC<br />
CHARACTERIZATION AND PHONOLOGICAL<br />
REPRESENTATION 4<br />
2.1. Introduction 4<br />
2.2. <strong>The</strong> vowel system 4<br />
2.2.1. Allophonic variation 6<br />
2.3. <strong>The</strong> consonant system 7<br />
2.4. Phonological features 9<br />
2.4.1. Laryngeal features 10<br />
2.4.2. Supralaryngeal features 10<br />
2.4.3. Underspecih'cation 12<br />
2.5. <strong>The</strong> representation <strong>of</strong> vowels and diphthongs 13<br />
2.5.1. Vowel length 13<br />
2.5.2. Vowel height 16<br />
2.5.3. Diphthongs 18<br />
2.5.4. <strong>The</strong> representation <strong>of</strong> the schwa 19<br />
2.6. Feature charts for vowels and consonants 20<br />
3. THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS 22<br />
3.1. Introduction 22<br />
3.2. <strong>The</strong> representation <strong>of</strong> syllable structure 23<br />
3.3. <strong>The</strong> syllable template <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> 24<br />
3.3.1. Appendices 26<br />
3.4. Syllabification 29<br />
3.4.1. <strong>The</strong> domains <strong>of</strong> syllabification 29<br />
3.4.2. Maximal Onset and Minimal Rhyme 30<br />
3.5. Co-occurrence constraints 33<br />
3.5.1. Rhyme constraints 33<br />
3.5.2. Onset constraints 35<br />
3.5.3. Coda constraints 40<br />
3.5.4. Pansyllabic constraints 42<br />
3.5.5. Sequential constraints 43<br />
3.6. <strong>The</strong> relation between morphological and prosodie structure 47
Vlll<br />
CONTENTS<br />
4. WORD PHONOLOGY 53<br />
4.1. Introduction: the organization <strong>of</strong> the grammar 53<br />
4.2. Phonological rules 57<br />
4.2.1. Devoicing and voice assimilation 58<br />
4.2.2. Nasal assimilation 64<br />
4.2.3. Hiatus rules 65<br />
4.2.4. Degemination 68<br />
4.3. Morpholexical rules 69<br />
4.3.1. Diminutive allomorphy 69<br />
4.3.2. -er- allomorphy 73<br />
4.4. Allomorphy in the non-native lexicon 75<br />
4.4.1. Affixal allomorphy 77<br />
4.4.2. Root alternations 78<br />
4.4.3. Alternations in velar nasal clusters 80<br />
4.4.4. Vowel lengthening 80<br />
4.4.5. Other cases <strong>of</strong> allomorphy 83<br />
4.5. Allomorphy in the native lexicon 86<br />
4.5.1. Vowel lengthening 87<br />
4.5.2. /da/-0 alternations and /o/-0 alternations 88<br />
4.5.3. /d/-deletion and /d/-weakening 90<br />
4.5.4. 0-/k/ alternations 92<br />
4.5.5. F-ricative devoicing 92<br />
4.6. Allophonic rules 93<br />
5. WORD STRESS 96<br />
5.1. Introduction 96<br />
5.2. Main stress patterns 99<br />
5.2.1. Secondary stress 105<br />
5.2.2. Cyclicity <strong>of</strong> stress assignment 109<br />
5.3. Word stress and native suffixation l K)<br />
5.3.1. Stress-neutral suffixes 111<br />
5.3.2. Stress-bearing suffixes 113<br />
5.3.3. Stress-shifting suffixes 114<br />
5.4. Compound stress 115<br />
5.5. Stress in prefixed words 119<br />
5.5.1. Non-native prefixes 119<br />
5.5.2. Nativized and native prefixes 120<br />
5.6. Bracketing paradoxe-s 123<br />
6. CONNECTED SPEECH I: WORD PHONOLOGY 125<br />
6.1. Introduction 125<br />
6.2. Schwa epenthesis 127<br />
6.3. Schwa deletion 128<br />
6.4. Vowel reduction 130<br />
6.5. Vowel shortening 136<br />
6.6. Intrusive stops 137
CONTENTS<br />
ix<br />
6.7. /i/-deletion 138<br />
6.8. /n/-deletion 139<br />
6.9. Conclusions 141<br />
7. CONNECTED SPEECH II: SENTENCE PHONOLOGY 143<br />
7.1. Introduction 143<br />
7.2. <strong>Phonology</strong> above the word level 145<br />
7.2.1. Voice Assimilation 146<br />
7.2.2. Nasal Assimilation 147<br />
7.2.3. Hiatus rules 150<br />
7.2.4. Degemination 151<br />
7.2.5. Palatalization 151<br />
7.2.6. /t/-deletion 152<br />
7.3. Sentence accent 154<br />
7.4. Rhythmic rules 161<br />
X. CONNECTED SPEECH III: CLITICIZATION 165<br />
8.1. Introduction 165<br />
8.2. Pronominal and adverbial clitics 166<br />
8.2.1. Prosodie integration 169<br />
8.2.2. Clitici/.ution and Final Devoicing 174<br />
8.3. ('litici/ation <strong>of</strong> other function words 176<br />
8.4. Contraction 178<br />
9. ORTHOGRAPHY 181<br />
9.1. Introduction 181<br />
9.2. <strong>The</strong> correspondence between sounds and letters 181<br />
9.3. Degrees ol ahstractness in spelling 185<br />
9.4. Spelling and higher-order linguistic structure 187<br />
References 189<br />
Index 203
LIST OF TABLES<br />
2.1. <strong>The</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> vowels 4<br />
2.2. <strong>The</strong> consonants <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> 7<br />
2.3. Vowel height features 17<br />
2.4. Feature chart for <strong>Dutch</strong> vowels 20<br />
2.5. Feature chart for <strong>Dutch</strong> consonants 21<br />
3.1. Sonority Ranking Hierarchy 25<br />
3.2. <strong>The</strong> phonological forms <strong>of</strong> grammatical morphemes 48<br />
8.1. <strong>The</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> personal pronouns 167<br />
8.2. <strong>Dutch</strong> singular possessive pronouns 169<br />
8.3. <strong>Dutch</strong> adverbial clitics 169<br />
9.1. <strong>The</strong> spelling <strong>of</strong> consonants 182<br />
9.2. <strong>The</strong> spelling <strong>of</strong> short vowels 183<br />
9.3. <strong>The</strong> spelling <strong>of</strong> long vowels 184<br />
9.4. <strong>The</strong> spelling <strong>of</strong> diphthongs IK5<br />
9.5. Survey <strong>of</strong> orthographical representation <strong>of</strong> P-rule effects 187
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS<br />
A Adjective or argument part,<br />
adj. adjective pej.<br />
ant anterior pert',<br />
appr approximant pers.<br />
asp. aspirated pi.<br />
attr. attributive poss.<br />
C Clitic Group or Coda or PP<br />
consonant<br />
pres.<br />
cont continuant pron.<br />
cons consonant PVA<br />
Cor Coronal node<br />
CSR Compound Stress Rule R<br />
def. definitive rnd<br />
denom. de-nominal RVA<br />
dimin. diminutive SAAR<br />
dist distributed<br />
Dors Dorsal node sg.<br />
FM cxtrametrical son<br />
F foot or French SSC<br />
fem. feminine SSG<br />
G Germanic<br />
H high (tone) subj.<br />
HGI Homorganic Glide Insertion suft',<br />
inf. infinitive u<br />
IP Intonational Phrase U<br />
L low (tone) UAC<br />
Lab Labial node<br />
lat lateral V<br />
M modifier voc<br />
MP-ruIe morpholexical rule a<br />
MSC morpheme structure condition<br />
MSR Main Stress Rule<br />
masc. masculine c<br />
n. neuter q><br />
N Noun or Nucleus w<br />
NP Noun Phrase 0<br />
NSR Noun Phrase Stress Rule / /<br />
O Onset I ]<br />
obj. object<br />
OCP Obligatory Contour Principle<br />
P predicate or Preposition ll'/i<br />
P-rule phonological rule L%<br />
particle<br />
pejorative<br />
perfect<br />
person or personal<br />
plural<br />
possessive<br />
Prepositional Phrase<br />
present<br />
pronoun<br />
Progressive Voice<br />
Assimilation<br />
Rhyme<br />
round<br />
Regressive Voice Assimilation<br />
Sentence Accent Assignment<br />
Rule<br />
singular<br />
sonorant<br />
Syllable Structure Condition<br />
Sonority Sequencing<br />
Generalization<br />
subject<br />
suffix<br />
unstressable<br />
Utterance<br />
Uniform Applicability<br />
Condition<br />
Verb or vowel<br />
vocoid<br />
variable ranging over + and -<br />
(showing agreement in these<br />
values)<br />
syllable<br />
Phonological Phrase<br />
Prosodie Word<br />
zero<br />
phonemic representation<br />
phonetic representation<br />
main stress<br />
secondary stress<br />
High boundary tone<br />
Low boundary tone
NTRODUCTION<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> is the native language <strong>of</strong> most inhabitants <strong>of</strong> the Netherlands, which<br />
means that it has about 14 million native speakers in this country. <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
belongs to the West Germanic branch <strong>of</strong> the Germanic languages. <strong>The</strong> West<br />
Germanic languages can be divided into two subgroups, <strong>Dutch</strong> and German<br />
versus Frisian and English.<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> is indeed similar to German. As far as syntax is concerned, both have<br />
two basic word orders, SVO in main clauses, and SOV in embedded clauses;<br />
also, both languages exhibit the phenomenon <strong>of</strong> Verb Raising (raising <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
or verbal projection from an embedded clause to the dominating clause). On<br />
ilk' oilier hand, <strong>Dutch</strong> is different from German in that it does not have such a<br />
rich inflectional morphology; there is no morphological expression <strong>of</strong> case<br />
except for pronouns that have spécifie object forms, and it has only two<br />
genders, neutral and non-neutral.<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> name for <strong>Dutch</strong> is Nederlands.* It is the <strong>of</strong>ficial language <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Netherlands, but, in Friesland, Frisian is the second <strong>of</strong>ficial language, which<br />
has certain rights in education and local government. <strong>Dutch</strong> is also one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
three <strong>of</strong>ficial languages <strong>of</strong> Belgium, besides French and German. <strong>Dutch</strong> is<br />
spoken in the northern part <strong>of</strong> Belgium, in the provinces <strong>of</strong> West Vlaanderen<br />
and Oost Vlaanderen, Antwerpen, Limburg, and Brabant (that is bilingual) and<br />
it has about 6 million speakers there. <strong>The</strong> capital <strong>of</strong> Belgium, Brussels, is<br />
bilingual (<strong>Dutch</strong> and French). This means that there are about 20 million native<br />
speakers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> in Europe.<br />
Standard <strong>Dutch</strong> is used both in the Netherlands and in Belgium in the media,<br />
in government, and in education. However, Belgian native speakers differ in the<br />
extent to which their <strong>Dutch</strong> differs from the standard Northern <strong>Dutch</strong> as spoken<br />
in the Netherlands. Some <strong>of</strong> them speak a variety that is almost identical to<br />
Northern <strong>Dutch</strong>, but most <strong>of</strong> them speak a kind <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> that is rather different<br />
from standard Northern <strong>Dutch</strong> in its syntax, morphology, phonology, and<br />
vocabulary. This variety is called Southern <strong>Dutch</strong> (Zuid-Nederlands)?<br />
1<br />
<strong>The</strong> word llnllanih is also used, because <strong>The</strong> Netherlands is also referred to as Holland, but<br />
strictly speaking the word llnlliiihl refers to two western pun inces ol' Holland, Noord-Holland and<br />
/.uid-Holland. which are economically and culturally dominant, and where one linds most speakers<br />
ol standard <strong>Dutch</strong>.<br />
' Southern <strong>Dutch</strong> is sometimes called Hemish (l'/
2 INTRODUCTION<br />
In one <strong>of</strong> the twelve provinces <strong>of</strong> the Netherlands, Friesland, about 400,000<br />
people (73 per cent <strong>of</strong> the population) speak Frisian, 1 but these Frisians also<br />
speak <strong>Dutch</strong>, i.e. they are bilingual. A substantial number <strong>of</strong> speakers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
are bilingual in that they also speak a local dialect. In Belgium we lind<br />
Flemish, Brabantish, and Limburgian. <strong>The</strong>re is also a great variety <strong>of</strong> dialects<br />
in the Netherlands, some <strong>of</strong> which are similar to High German (for example,<br />
Limburgian as spoken in the southern part <strong>of</strong> the province <strong>of</strong> Limburg), or to<br />
Low German (for example, the north-eastern dialects near the German border).<br />
For many speakers, their <strong>Dutch</strong> is coloured to some extent by the rural or<br />
urban dialect that they speak. <strong>The</strong>se regional variants <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> are called<br />
regiolects, and they must be seen as intermediate language varieties, in<br />
between standard <strong>Dutch</strong> and specific dialects. Nowadays, younger people<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten appear to speak only such regiolects rather than specific dialects, in<br />
particular in the cities.<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> is also spoken in former colonies <strong>of</strong> the Netherlands, Surinam and the<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> Antilles, where it is the language <strong>of</strong> the government, and also used in<br />
education. However, there are only very few people in these countries for<br />
whom <strong>Dutch</strong> is their native language. As may be expected, there are specific<br />
Surinamese and Antillian varieties <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>. In Indonesia, another former<br />
colony <strong>of</strong> the Netherlands, <strong>Dutch</strong> only plays a role in that some law codes<br />
are still only available in <strong>Dutch</strong>. Remnants <strong>of</strong> spoken <strong>Dutch</strong> are found among<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> immigrants in the USA (American <strong>Dutch</strong>), Canada, New Zealand, and<br />
Australia.<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> also has a daughter language, Afrikaans, spoken in South Africa, both<br />
as a native and as a second language. It is also spoken in Botswana, Namibia,<br />
and Zimbabwe, and has about 5 million native speakers. Afrikaans derives<br />
from seventeenth-century urban dialects <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>, as spoken by the lust<br />
settlers in Cape Town, but was also influenced by Malay-Portuguese, and<br />
English. 4<br />
<strong>The</strong> phonology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> presented in this book is the phonology <strong>of</strong> standard<br />
Northern <strong>Dutch</strong>.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first detailed twentieth-century study <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Dutch</strong> sound system is a<br />
traditional handbook on the phonetics <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>, Zwaardemaker and Hijkman<br />
(1928). In the 1930s, structuralists like N. van Wijk and A. W. de (iroot<br />
contributed to the study <strong>of</strong> the phonology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> (for instance, Van Wijk<br />
1939). <strong>The</strong> only monograph-si/e structuralist phonology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> is Cohen 1-1<br />
al. (1959). An <strong>of</strong>ten reprinted textbook is Van den Berg (195X).<br />
<strong>The</strong> study <strong>of</strong> the phonology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> was boosted enormously through the<br />
rise <strong>of</strong> generative phonology, as will be clear from the references given in this<br />
book (cf. Booij 1990/j for a historical survey). Two introductions to the<br />
I I 'I'iorsma ( 19X5) lor a survey <strong>of</strong> the phonology and syntax ot l-'risian.<br />
1<br />
I .»ex unions ot i In- phonology <strong>of</strong> Afrikaans can he found in Wissin^! ( 14X2) ami ('omhrink anil<br />
IX' Sladler (19X7).
INTRODUCTION 3<br />
generative phonology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> have appeared. Trommelen and Zonneveld<br />
(1979) and Booij (1981«). Zonneveld et al. (1980) is a collection <strong>of</strong> papers<br />
on <strong>Dutch</strong> phonology with the explicit aim <strong>of</strong> showing that <strong>Dutch</strong> is an<br />
interesting object language for theoretical controversies. Nevertheless, a<br />
generative phonology-oriented monograph on the phonological system <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> written in English was still lacking. s This book is meant to fill this gap.<br />
In the tirsl hall <strong>of</strong> this century Mime linguists were able to read <strong>Dutch</strong>. For instance, Edward<br />
Sapir reviewed publications by C. C. Uhlenbeck on Amerindian languages written in <strong>Dutch</strong> in the<br />
first volume <strong>of</strong> liitrrnaliunal Journal <strong>of</strong> American Liiif!iii\lic.'i (Sapir 1917). and Van Wijk, in his<br />
preface to Van Wijk ( 19.W), just presupposed that the fact that this book was written in <strong>Dutch</strong> did<br />
not impede its being read by his colleagues. Bloomlield wrote a short grammar <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> for the US<br />
army.
THE SOUNDS OF DUTCH: PHONETIC<br />
CHARACTERIZATION AND PHONOLOGICAL<br />
REPRESENTATION<br />
2.1. INTRODUCTION<br />
In this chapter I will first present a survey <strong>of</strong> the vowels and consonants <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Dutch</strong>, and a phonetic characteri/.ation <strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> them.' Subsequently, I will<br />
discuss some crucial insights <strong>of</strong> present-day generative phonology as to<br />
phonological features and multi-tiered phonological structure, and use these<br />
insights in proposing phonological representations for the sounds <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>,<br />
which will form the basis for the analysis <strong>of</strong> the phonological processes <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> in the following chapters.<br />
2.2. THE VOWEL SYSTEM<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> has sixteen vowels, which can be classified as in Table 2.1.<br />
TAHIJ 2.1. '/'//c <strong>Dutch</strong> vowels<br />
Short vowels i, c, 3, Y, u<br />
Long vowels<br />
i, y, u, e, 0, o, a<br />
Schwa 3<br />
Diphthongs<br />
ci, œy, DU<br />
I-ig. 2.1 represents the positions <strong>of</strong> the non-diphthongal (= steady-state)<br />
vowels in the stylized vowel space. <strong>The</strong> vowels are usually distinguished<br />
from each other in terms <strong>of</strong> their place <strong>of</strong> articulation (as shown in Fig.<br />
2.1). roundedness, and length. Length, however, is not a purely phonetic<br />
property: the main reason for distinguishing seven long vowels is a phonological<br />
one: the long vowels behave as two 'units', whereas the short vowels<br />
behave as one unit (cf. Moulton 1962 and Section 2.5.1). In particular, whereas<br />
' A systematic comparison between the phonetics <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> and the phonetics <strong>of</strong> English is given<br />
in (iussenhoven and Broeders (1976). Gussenhoven (IW2c) is an illustration ot the International<br />
Phonetic Alphabet lor <strong>Dutch</strong>.
2.2. ÏHI-: vowi-:i. svs 11 M<br />
front central hack<br />
close<br />
half close<br />
half' open<br />
open \ a, u<br />
FK;. 2.1. <strong>The</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> vowel space<br />
the non-close long vowels have an average duration <strong>of</strong> about 200 msec., the<br />
short vowels and the high long vowels /i,y,u/ have an average duration <strong>of</strong> about<br />
100 msec. (Nooteboom 1972: 45-7). On the other hand, before /r/ the high<br />
vowels do have the same (extra) length as the other long vowels. Thus, we<br />
seem to have a 'clash' here between the phonetic and the phonological<br />
classification <strong>of</strong> speech sounds. Below I will make a proposal as to how to<br />
account for this.<br />
<strong>The</strong> long vowels /e/ and /o/ are not only longer than their short phonological<br />
counterparts /e/ and /o/, but they also differ with respect to height: the long<br />
vowels are higher. Phonetically, the short counterpart <strong>of</strong>/e/ is III. <strong>The</strong> /Y/ is the<br />
short counterpart <strong>of</strong> 101. Finally, the /a/ is more central than the /u/.<br />
<strong>The</strong> schwa occupies the central place in the vowel space. It is similar to<br />
the /Y/ but pronounced more centrally and without rounding. <strong>The</strong> defining<br />
characteristics <strong>of</strong> the schwa are again primarily phonological ones: for<br />
instance, it can occur in word-final position, unlike the (other) short vowels,<br />
and it never bears stress (except in cases where function words such as Je /da/<br />
'the' are emphatically stressed). 2<br />
<strong>The</strong> three diphthongs are characteri/.ed by the transition <strong>of</strong> a lower position<br />
in the vowel space to a higher position. That is, the two constituents only differ<br />
with respect to height. <strong>The</strong>ir position in the vowel space is represented in Fig.<br />
2.2. 1<br />
In standard <strong>Dutch</strong> the long mid vowels /e, 0, o/ also receive a slightly<br />
diphthongal reali/.ation: at the end <strong>of</strong> their articulation there is a transition<br />
to the positions <strong>of</strong> /i/, /y/, /u/ respectively. 4<br />
In addition to the vowels discussed so far, <strong>Dutch</strong> also has marginal vowels,<br />
occurring in loan-words. <strong>The</strong> first set comprises phonetically long counterparts<br />
~ Cf. Stulterheiin ( 147S) lor .1 survey <strong>of</strong> the discussion between <strong>Dutch</strong> phonologiits concerning<br />
Ihe status <strong>of</strong> the schwa.<br />
1<br />
( 'I. 'l Marl ( l%y) and Koopmans-van Beinum ( 1964) for detailed phonetic information about<br />
these three diphthongs.<br />
4 In non-standard variants we do lind Ihe purely monophlhongal realisations <strong>of</strong> these vowels.
TKK SOUNDS OF DUTCH<br />
Fronl Central Back<br />
Close \ i y<br />
Hall close \ î Î<br />
Halt open<br />
Open<br />
f<br />
œ<br />
Fie;. 2.2. <strong>The</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> diphthongs<br />
<strong>of</strong> native phonetically (but not always phonologically!) short vowels, as<br />
illustrated in (1). <strong>The</strong>y only occur in stressed syllables:<br />
(1) [i:] analyse 'analysis'<br />
[y:] centrifwge 'spinner'<br />
[u:| rouge 'blusher'<br />
[c:| enquête 'inquiry'<br />
[ce:] oeuvre 'id.'<br />
[D:| zone 'id.'<br />
[u:] basketball 'id.'<br />
<strong>The</strong> second set <strong>of</strong> marginal vowels consists <strong>of</strong> nasal vowels that occur in some<br />
words borrowed from French:<br />
(2) |c) enfin 'anyway'<br />
|ti| parfum 'perfume'<br />
[5| chanson 'id.'<br />
[u] restaura/n 'id.'<br />
2.2.1. Allo/ihonic variation<br />
All long steady-state vowels are lengthened before /r/, if the vowel and the<br />
following consonant belong to the same (prosodie) word. In addition, the /r/<br />
also has a centrali/.ing effect. In other words, long vowels tend to end in a<br />
schwa-like sound in this position. <strong>The</strong> lengthening effect is particularly strong<br />
for the high vowels: before the /r/ they have the same length as the non-high<br />
long vowels. 5 This centralizing effect opposes the diphthongal realization<br />
(raising in the last stage <strong>of</strong> articulation) <strong>of</strong> the long mid vowels, and hence<br />
the difference in 'colour' between the normal realization <strong>of</strong> the long mid<br />
vowels and that before /r/ is rather strong. This centralizing effect <strong>of</strong> the /r/<br />
also explains why diphthongs cannot be followed by a tautosyllabic /r/: the<br />
realization <strong>of</strong> diphthongs requires raising in their second phase as opposed to<br />
s <strong>The</strong> only exceptions are the past-tense forms <strong>of</strong> a few verbs, in which the /i/ remains short,<br />
e.g., wierp [wirpl 'threw', stierf|stirf| 'died', zwierf |/.wirt'| 'wandered', /«•
2.3- TUI-: CONSONANT SYSTEM 7<br />
centrali/ation. After vowels followed by /j/ or /u/ we get the transitional<br />
vowels |i| and |u| respectively, which is sometimes reflected in <strong>Dutch</strong> spelling,<br />
as in Booij /boj/ 'id.' and nieuw /niu/ 'new'.<br />
<strong>The</strong> diphthongs /ci/ and /ivy/ cannot be followed by a /u/ in the same<br />
syllable, nor /DU/ by a tautosyllabic /j/, probably because the final stage <strong>of</strong><br />
the diphthong requires an articulatory gesture with respect to backness which<br />
is the opposite <strong>of</strong> that <strong>of</strong> the next glide.<br />
Before the nasal consonants, the vowel /o/ is closer and more centralized<br />
than in other positions, i.e. it is pronounced as [o] in that position. We also find<br />
this realization <strong>of</strong> /.">/ in some other words, for example, op [up| 'on' versus<br />
mop [mop] 'joke'. <strong>The</strong>re is, however, geographical and individual variation<br />
with respect to this phonetic variation. 6<br />
2.3. THE CONSONANT SYSTEM<br />
<strong>The</strong> consonants <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> are given in Table 2.2.<br />
TABU. 2.2. '/'/«• i-ntmniiiiiix nf <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
Bilabial<br />
Lahio<br />
denial<br />
Alveolar<br />
Palatal<br />
Velar<br />
Glottal<br />
Plosives<br />
Fricatives<br />
Nasals<br />
Liquids<br />
Glides<br />
p, h<br />
ni<br />
f. v<br />
i'<br />
1, d<br />
s, /<br />
n<br />
l.r<br />
j<br />
k, (9)<br />
x, v<br />
D<br />
h<br />
<strong>The</strong> [y| is put in parentheses because it only occurs in non-native words such<br />
as youl 'id.' (football term), and as the contextual allophone <strong>of</strong>/k/ before a<br />
voiced plosive, as in zukiloek |/ugduk] 'handkerchief'. <strong>The</strong> alveolar consonants<br />
/s, /, t, n/ are palatali/ed before /j/, and then reali/ed as the postalveolur<br />
or prepalatal sounds [ƒ, 3, c, ji| respectively. <strong>The</strong> postalveolar fricatives also<br />
occur in loan-words, as in chique [Jik| ami jury l3y:ri|, but phonologically<br />
they can also be considered as combinations <strong>of</strong>/s, /./ and /j/, with the fricatives<br />
predictably being reali/ed as the postalveolar allophones. 7<br />
For many speakers <strong>of</strong> standard <strong>Dutch</strong>, in particular in the western part <strong>of</strong><br />
Holland, the voiced-voicelessness distinction between/f/and/v/and/x/and/v/<br />
is neutrali/eil at the beginning <strong>of</strong> a word, and sometimes also intervocalic-ally<br />
6 Cf. Schoulcn ( 198 I ) lor u discussion <strong>of</strong> Ihis phenomenon.<br />
l'ui 11 us & Mecs ( I'M I ) also consider /d.V and AJ7 as in /
8 THE SOUNDS OF Dl I ( M<br />
(word-finally, obstruents are always voiceless). In these cases, the voiceless<br />
variants are used.* Note, however, that even for these speakers there must be<br />
an underlying distinction between voiced and voiceless fricatives, at least<br />
morpheme-finally, because this distinction still plays a role in the selection<br />
<strong>of</strong> the proper past tense suffix <strong>of</strong> verbs: /do/ after voiced segments, /ID/ after<br />
voiceless obstruents, for example, legde (Icvda] 'laid' versus lachte [luxto]<br />
'laughed', and draafde |dravdo] 'raced' versus mafic |mufto| 'slept'.''<br />
<strong>The</strong> /h/ is a voiced consonant, articulated with glottal friction, with the same<br />
shape <strong>of</strong> the vocal tract as that <strong>of</strong> the following vowel."'<br />
<strong>The</strong> articulation <strong>of</strong> the velar fricatives varies from postvelar to postpalatal.<br />
<strong>The</strong> latter variant is characteristic for speakers from the southern parts <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Netherlands and the <strong>Dutch</strong> speaking area <strong>of</strong> Belgium. <strong>The</strong> /x/ is <strong>of</strong>ten also<br />
palatali/.ed before /j/ as in wiegje |wiçjo| 'cradle'. Speakers <strong>of</strong> the Western<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> also reali/e it us a uvular fricative [x|.<br />
<strong>The</strong> /!/ is usually reali/ed as a rather clear |l| before vowels in word-initial<br />
position, with an alveolar contact, and as a dark (velari/.ed) [l| in syllable<br />
rhymes and intervocalically. Some speakers even reali/,e the /I/ as a vocoid in<br />
that position.' '<br />
<strong>The</strong> /r/ may be reali/ed as an alveolar roll |r) (in particular in utteranceinitial<br />
position), as an alveolar flap |r|, as a uvular roll [R|, as a uvular fricative<br />
|XK or as a uvular approximant |K|. In postvocalic position /r/ may also be<br />
realized as a palatal approximant similar to [j|. This is a matter <strong>of</strong> individual<br />
and regional variation. 12<br />
<strong>The</strong> /u/ is a labiodental approximant. In coda position, it is reali/.ed as a<br />
bilabial vocoid, without contact between the two articulators, as in nieuw<br />
|niu) 'new', leeuw [leu| 'lion', and ruw |ryu] 'rough'. As we will see in<br />
Chapter 3, it forms indeed a natural class with the vocoid /']/ in that position.<br />
After back vowels before a next vowel we get insertion <strong>of</strong> a homorganic glide<br />
|Ul, as in gnoeen [vnuuon| 'gnus'. In other positions it is a labiodental<br />
approximant, for example, in water /uatar/ 'id.' and wreed /ured/ 'cruel'. In<br />
the south <strong>of</strong> the Netherlands and in Belgium, the bilabial apprimant [ß| is used<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> the labiodental approximant (cf. Zwaardemaker and Eijkman 192X:<br />
154-5, Gussenhoven and Broeders 1976: 54-5).<br />
<strong>The</strong> /j/ is a palatal vocoid, with the same phonetic properties as the [i] except<br />
I hi-- varialion is discussed in dusscnhoven and Urcmmer (19X3). It may he llial Ihc<br />
distinctive role <strong>of</strong> voice is taken over by the opposition lortis lenis (l)elnock I97X). 'I Indistinctive<br />
role <strong>of</strong> voice lor fricatives is also discussed in Slis and Van Hcugtcn ( 19X4). Historical<br />
aspects aie discussed in Dekeyser ( 197X). Information on the phonetic icali/alion <strong>of</strong> voiced slops is<br />
given in Slis and Cohen (1969).<br />
9 This argument was given in Kagcr ( 14X9: 221 ).<br />
" <strong>The</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> /h/ differs honi the English /h/ in that il is voiced whereas the linglish /h/ is<br />
voiceless, cf. Anderson (19X6). Phonetically, however, it may have a partially voiceless reali/alion<br />
(Rietveld and l.oman 19X5).<br />
1 1<br />
('I. Van Reenen (19X6) toi some more information on the vocoid reali/alion ol Ihc /I/.<br />
12<br />
A survey <strong>of</strong> the dillerenl pronunciations <strong>of</strong> the /r/ is given in Gussenhoven and Hn<br />
(1976: 127) and in Collins and Mees (19X1: I6X 71).
2.4. PHONOLOGICAL FEATURES 9<br />
that it occurs in consonantal positions in the syllable; it has a shorter duration<br />
than the Iil.<br />
2.4. PHONOLOGICAL FEATURES<br />
A fundamental insight <strong>of</strong> present-day generative phonology is that the sounds <strong>of</strong><br />
a language are not atomic, indivisible units, but should be decomposed into sets<br />
<strong>of</strong> phonological features (Chomsky and Halle 1968, Halle 1991). In Chomsky<br />
and Halle (1968) each segment is represented as a simple set <strong>of</strong> co-occurrent<br />
binary phonological features such as [ -voice], [+nusal|. However, in Clements<br />
( 19X51 and subsequent work, it has been argued that the set <strong>of</strong> phonological<br />
features should be internally structured. For instance, place features must be<br />
assumed to form a subunit <strong>of</strong> features since cross-linguistically they behave as<br />
a unit in assimilation processes such as the assimilation <strong>of</strong> nasal consonants to<br />
the following consonant with respect to place <strong>of</strong> articulation.<br />
In this book I assume the feature geometry for <strong>Dutch</strong> given in Fig. 2.3, based<br />
on proposals by Clements (1985), Sagey (1986), McCarthy (1988), Halle and<br />
Ladefoged (1988), and Halle (1991).<br />
Root (cons, son]<br />
Larynpeal |cont] |nasal) [lateral] |Place|<br />
|asp| (voice)<br />
Labial<br />
[round] |ant| (hack) |high| |niicl|<br />
I-ui. 2 A <strong>The</strong> feature geometry <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> root node represents the phonological unity <strong>of</strong> the features that form<br />
together a phonological segment. <strong>The</strong> root node is annotated with the binary<br />
features [consonant) and [sonorant), the so-called major class features that<br />
divide the segments <strong>of</strong> a language into three classes:<br />
(3) [+cons, —son) obstruents<br />
|+cons, +son| sonorant consonants<br />
|-cons, +son| vowels
10 THE SOUNDS OF' DI K II<br />
Moreover, the feature [consonant] divides the segments into consonants versus<br />
vowels, and the feature [sonorant] divides them into obstruents and nonobstruents.<br />
<strong>The</strong> feature [consonant] specifies the difference in the degree <strong>of</strong><br />
stricture <strong>of</strong> the vocal tract between vowels and consonants. Segments with the<br />
feature [+consonant| are consonants, segments with the feature [-consonant]<br />
are vowels. <strong>The</strong> latter have a free escape <strong>of</strong> the airstream. <strong>The</strong> feature<br />
[sonorant] also pertains lo the degree <strong>of</strong> stricture in the vocal tract, and<br />
distinguishes stops and fricatives from the other consonants and the<br />
vowels. 11 In addition to these major class features we also need the feature<br />
[approximant), as will be made clear in Section 3.3: obstruents and nasal<br />
consonants are [-approximant), the other segments are [+approximant|.<br />
2.4.1. Laryngealfeatures<br />
Laryngeal is a so-called class node, which unites features with respect to the<br />
ways in which the larynx is used in articulation. <strong>The</strong> basic laryngeal distinction<br />
for <strong>Dutch</strong> is that between voiced and voiceless segments. <strong>The</strong> feature [voice) is<br />
only distinctive with respect to obstruents: vowels and sonorant consonants arcalways<br />
voiced in <strong>Dutch</strong>. In this book I will take the conservative position that<br />
the terminal nodes in feature geometry are binary features, and therefore<br />
voiced segments are described as |+voice|, and voiceless segments are<br />
[ — voice). 14<br />
<strong>The</strong> feature [aspirated] can be used to characteri/e the /h/, a voiced glottal<br />
fricative. Aspirated sounds are produced with the vocal cords drawn apart,<br />
which gives a non-periodic (noise) component in the acoustic signal. <strong>The</strong> /h/<br />
does not have supralaryngeal properties <strong>of</strong> its own, the shape <strong>of</strong> the vocal tract<br />
being determined by that <strong>of</strong> the following vowel. <strong>The</strong>refore, the phonological<br />
representation <strong>of</strong> the /h/ consists <strong>of</strong> a root node that only dominates Laryngeal<br />
specified as [+aspirated|. All other segments are |-aspirated). 15<br />
2.4.2. Supralaryngeal features<br />
Supralaryngeal features are traditionally divided into manner features and<br />
place features. <strong>The</strong> manner features comprise (continuant], [nasal], and<br />
[lateral]. <strong>The</strong> feature [continuant] applies as follows: nasals, oral stops, and<br />
laterals are [—continuant], the other consonants and vowels are [-(-continuant].<br />
'Sonoranl soumis aie produced with a vocal Iracl configuration sufficiently open that Ihe air<br />
pressure inside and outside Ihe mouth is approximately equal. Obstruent sounds are produced with<br />
a vocal tract constriction sufficient to increase the air pressure inside Ihe mouth significantly ovei<br />
that <strong>of</strong> the ambient air.' (Halle and Clements I U X.V ft.)<br />
' 4 Alternatively, one may assume that some features are privative or monovalent. 1-or instance.<br />
Mester and llo ( I9X U ) and Lombard! ( I'Ml ) proposed Ihal the feature |voice| is a privative feature.<br />
This makes Ihe prediction that phonological rules can only refer lo Ihe properly <strong>of</strong> voicedness, nol<br />
to voicelessness. Whether ilns prediction can he upheld, is a mailer for further rescnu h<br />
I Ins suggests that [aspirated! may he interpreted as a privalive feature.
2.4- PHONOLOGICAL FEATURES II<br />
In the production <strong>of</strong> continuants the vocal tract has such a form that the airflow<br />
through the midsagittal region <strong>of</strong> the oral tract is not interrupted. In the<br />
production <strong>of</strong> nasals, the nasal cavity is opened during the production. 16<br />
Although 'supralaryngeal' is a convenient term, this does not mean that it is<br />
a class node: sufficient evidence for the supralaryngeal features behaving as a<br />
unit is lacking (McCarthy 19X8).<br />
On the other hand, Place clearly is a class node because the cluster <strong>of</strong> place<br />
features may behave as a unit in phonological processes, tor instance in place<br />
assimilation for nasal consonants.<br />
In <strong>Dutch</strong>, three articulators play a role with respect to the place <strong>of</strong> articulation,<br />
the lips (labia), the tongue blade (corona), and the tongue body (dorsum).<br />
<strong>The</strong> relevant Place features are privative by nature.<br />
<strong>The</strong> lips play an essential role in the articulation <strong>of</strong> the labiodental consonants<br />
/f, v, u/. and the bilabial consonants /p, b, m/. <strong>The</strong> phonetic difference<br />
between labiodentals and bilabials does not play a phonological role, and this<br />
differente can therefore be spelled out by a phonetic detail rule.<br />
<strong>The</strong> class node Coronal refers to constrictions made with the corona, the<br />
tongue blade, as the active articulator. <strong>The</strong> alveolar consonants are furthermore<br />
|+anterior| whereas the postalveolar consonants are [— anterior]. Non-anterior<br />
sounds are produced with a constriction behind the alveolar ridge. <strong>The</strong>re is no<br />
distinctive class <strong>of</strong> [-anterior] coronal consonants in <strong>Dutch</strong>, they are allophones<br />
<strong>of</strong> [+anterior| consonants before /j/, and the specifications for this<br />
feature are therefore predictable. Another binary feature that is dependent on<br />
the class node Coronal is [distributed]. <strong>The</strong> postalveolar coronal consonants <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> are predictably [+distributed| which means that they 'are produced with<br />
a constriction that extends for a considerable distance along the midsagittal<br />
axis <strong>of</strong> the oral tract; nondistributed sounds are produced with a constriction<br />
that extends for only a short distance in this direction' (Halle and Clements<br />
1983: 6). So [—distributed] correlates with the phonetic feature 'apical', and<br />
[+distributed| with the notion 'laminai'. Such specifications do not belong to<br />
the phonological representations <strong>of</strong> these sounds, but are to be predicted by<br />
redundancy rules.<br />
Palatal and velar consonants are produced by means <strong>of</strong> a constriction at the<br />
dorsum. <strong>The</strong> palatal glide /j/ is [ -back], 17 the velar consonants and the uvular<br />
"' As far as <strong>Dutch</strong> is concerned, it is possible ID consider the feature |nasal| as privative. This<br />
concclly predicts thai there are no rules <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> that crucially refer to the class <strong>of</strong> non-nasal<br />
segments. <strong>The</strong> same holds for the feature |lateral| that uniquely characteii/es the /!/, in ihe<br />
production <strong>of</strong> which the air stream does not pass through Ihe centre <strong>of</strong> the mouth hut at both sides<br />
<strong>of</strong> thé longue. However. Slenade ( 1987) argues in favour <strong>of</strong> a binary interpretation <strong>of</strong> (lateral).<br />
17<br />
In qualiKing the III as a dorsal glide we follow Chomsky and Halle (1968). Halle (1991)<br />
assumes that the glide |j| can be arliculaled by either Ihe ('oional or ihe Dorsal articulator. Both<br />
Keating (1991) and Lahm and l-vers ( 1991 ) argue that Ihe |j| should he represented as a coronal<br />
glide, which would also explain the allophonic effect <strong>of</strong> the /j/ on preceding coronal obstruents<br />
more straightforwardly. Since Ihe /j/ is identical to ihe vowel /i/ as to its phonetic properties, this<br />
would have Ihe consequence Ilial from vowels are also Coronal, as indeed proposed by l.ahiri and<br />
hivers (1991). I leave Ibis issue open heie.
12 im SOUNDS OF Dl U II<br />
[R] are [+back|. Both palatals and velars are |+high], the uvular [R| can be<br />
characteri/ed as [+back, —high). In the lexical forms, there is no need to<br />
specify Dorsal consonants for [back] since this is predictable: they are all<br />
[+back|. Also, we do not need a phonological feature for uvular |R| because it<br />
is an allophone <strong>of</strong> the alveolar [r|.<br />
<strong>The</strong> dorsum is the main articulator for vowels. <strong>The</strong> feature [back] distinguishes<br />
between front and back vowels, and the features [high] and [mid|<br />
account for vowel height. <strong>The</strong> issue <strong>of</strong> how to account for vowel height will be<br />
discussed in more detail in Section 2.5.2.<br />
Vowels also have to be qualified as either [+round| or [ -round). Since in the<br />
articulation <strong>of</strong> vowels the lips are also involved, these vowels will also be<br />
specified for the class node Labial, with the feature [round] dependent on this<br />
class node (Sagey 1986).'"<br />
2.4.3. Underspei•//) [-i-son]<br />
[+son] -» |-t-voice, +cont]<br />
[+nas| —> |+cons, +son, -appr, -cont]<br />
[-son] —> [+cons, -appr]<br />
|+asp| —» [+cons]<br />
[-Hat] —» [+cons, -(-son, + appr]<br />
Rules that predict major class features are crucial for the proper application <strong>of</strong><br />
syllabification rules. <strong>The</strong>refore, it is clear that such rules have to apply before<br />
the phonological derivation starts. I will assume that rules apply as soon as<br />
possible, unless stated otherwise.<br />
Another case <strong>of</strong> redundancy is that <strong>of</strong> the feature |+voice], which is<br />
predictable for sonorants. Yet, it must be available before the end <strong>of</strong> the<br />
phonological derivation, for instance because there is a postlexical rule in<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> that Voices word-final fricatives before vocoids (cf. section 7.2.1).<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is also a lexical rule that spreads the feature |+voice| <strong>of</strong> sonorants to<br />
the initial consonant <strong>of</strong> the past-tense suffix (cf. Section 4.2). In other words,<br />
'* For critical comments on Ihis po.silion, see Odden (1991).
2.5- THE REPRESENTATION OF VOWELS AND DIPHTHONC1S 13<br />
underspecification cannot always be interpreted as 'the perseverance <strong>of</strong> underspecified<br />
segments during the course <strong>of</strong> a derivation' (Archangeli 1984: 189),<br />
and as the filling in <strong>of</strong> the relevant specifications at the end <strong>of</strong> the phonological<br />
derivation.''' In this book, 1 will assume that predictable features are specified<br />
before the application <strong>of</strong> the phonological rules <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>, unless explicitly<br />
stated otherwise.<br />
Underspecification is also relevant in specifying the /v/. It suffices to specify<br />
it as a labiodental approximant at the underlying level. It is predictable that it<br />
is a vocoid after vowels, as in nieuw /niu/ 'new', and the feature [+vocoid] (cf.<br />
Section 3.3) will be filled in immediately, because certain syllable-structure<br />
constraints refer to [vocoid]. Moreover, as observed by Gussenhoven and<br />
Broeders (1976: 55), the /v/ remains vocoid after the addition <strong>of</strong> an inflectional<br />
schwa, as in nieuwe /niua/ 'new' as follows from filling in the value<br />
|+vocoid] as soon as possible, i.e., before the addition <strong>of</strong> the inflectional<br />
schwa. In all other positions, the /u/ will be specified as [ — vocoid].<br />
Certain consonants bear specifications that make it possible to uniquely<br />
identify them by means <strong>of</strong> one or two features. For instance, [-(-lateral]<br />
uniquely identities the /I/, [+aspirated| the /h/, and each nasal consonant is<br />
uniquely identified by |+nasal| plus its Place feature.<br />
In Section 2.6 I will give a survey <strong>of</strong> the phonological specifications for<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> consonants at the lexical level.<br />
2.5. THE REPRESENTATION OF VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS<br />
In this section I will discuss the phonological representation <strong>of</strong> vowels and<br />
diphthongs on the basis <strong>of</strong> the feature system introduced in Section 2.4.<br />
2.5.1. Vowel length<br />
Although <strong>Dutch</strong> has a systematic opposition between short and long vowels<br />
(except for high vowels), the feature system introduced above does not contain<br />
a feature for length. <strong>The</strong> reason for this is that there are good arguments for<br />
representing length in structural terms rather than by means <strong>of</strong> a binary feature.<br />
It is generally accepted that <strong>Dutch</strong> short vowels count as one 'unit', and long<br />
vowels as two (Moulton 1962). In a syllable, a short vowel can be followed by<br />
at most two consonants, but after a long vowel only one consonant can occur.<br />
For instance, damp [dump) is a possible syllable, whereas daamp [damp] is<br />
not. To account for this difference, it has been proposed that long vowels are<br />
represented as sequences <strong>of</strong> two identical [—consonant] segments (Zonneveld<br />
and Trommelen 1980).<br />
|g Cl. Mester and 110(1989), Mohanan ( 1991). McCarthy and Taub (1992), and Hall (1993) for<br />
a critical evaluation <strong>of</strong> ihcoiies <strong>of</strong> underspecification.
14 THE SOUNDS OF DUTCH<br />
In non-linear phonology as developed in McCarthy (1981), Clements and<br />
Keyser (1983), and Levin (1985) it has been argued that phonological representations<br />
consist <strong>of</strong> at least two tiers, a skeletal tier and a melodic tier. <strong>The</strong><br />
skeletal tier represents the abstract units to which the units at the melodic tier<br />
are linked, not necessarily in a one-to-one fashion. <strong>The</strong> phonological representations<br />
<strong>of</strong> the words kap |kup| 'cap' and kaap |kap| 'cape' will then be as<br />
follows (where the letters at the melodic tier stand for the feature bundle <strong>of</strong> ;i<br />
segment):<br />
(5) skeletal tier XXX X X X X<br />
I I I I V I<br />
melodic tier k a p k a p<br />
In other words, vowel length is represented as the linking <strong>of</strong> two elements on<br />
the skeletal or X-tier to one element on the melodic tier. A representation <strong>of</strong><br />
long vowels as in (6):<br />
(6) X X<br />
I I<br />
a a<br />
is forbidden by the Obligatory Contour Principle (OCP) (McCarthy 1986),<br />
which says that identical adjacent elements on the melodic tier are prohibited.<br />
In other words, the OCP requires us to represent long vowels as doubly linked<br />
melodic elements.<br />
A desirable consequence <strong>of</strong> excluding representations like (6) is that at the<br />
melodic level long vowels are still represented as a unit. This is confirmed by<br />
the behaviour <strong>of</strong> long vowels with respect to certain phonological processes.<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> vowels in unstressed syllables can be reduced to schwa. For instance,<br />
the word banaan /banan/ 'banana', with stress on the second syllable, can be<br />
pronounced as (bonanj. This reduction process always affects the whole long<br />
vowel, not only part <strong>of</strong> it. So we do have reduction <strong>of</strong> long |a| to schwa, but not<br />
to something like [uo|. <strong>The</strong> reduction process can now be straightforwardly<br />
characteri/.ed as delinking <strong>of</strong> the Place specification <strong>of</strong> the vowel as represented<br />
in (7), and subsequent filling in <strong>of</strong> the Place features <strong>of</strong> the schwa by a<br />
default rule:<br />
(7) Vowel Reduction [— cons]<br />
Place<br />
(in unstressed syllables)<br />
<strong>The</strong> hori/.ontal lines through the association line indicate delinking. That is, the<br />
Place features are removed from the vowel, which is now unspecified for<br />
Place.<br />
If we assumed long vowels to consist <strong>of</strong> two identical vowels, we would<br />
have to add a special proviso to the rule <strong>of</strong> Vowel Reduction that once one <strong>of</strong>
2.5. THE REPRESENTATION OF VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS 15<br />
the vocalic segments has been reduced, the other one has to be reduced as well.<br />
Moreover, note that the reduction always results in one schwa, not in two.<br />
<strong>The</strong> representation <strong>of</strong> long vowels as one melodic unit linked to two X-<br />
positions thus nicely accounts for the dual nature <strong>of</strong> long vowels. It also<br />
enables us to give an adequate characterization <strong>of</strong> diphthongi/ation processes.<br />
It has long been noted that diphthongs normally arise out <strong>of</strong> long<br />
vowels (Hayes 1990). In the framework used here this is readily interprétable:<br />
in diphthongization the two Xs, which first shared all features, get<br />
different features for a certain dimension, <strong>of</strong>ten height, and therefore, the<br />
long vowel splits up into two melodic units, each linked to an X-position<br />
(Sluyters 1992).<br />
Another logical possibility is representing the length distinction by means <strong>of</strong><br />
a binary feature [length). However, such an approach does not explain why<br />
long vowels behave like two units in co-occurrence restrictions, and why it is<br />
long vowels that diphthongi/.e.<br />
<strong>The</strong> lexical distinction between short and long vowels will therefore be<br />
expressed in the lexicon as in (8):<br />
(8) [u] X [u| X X<br />
I<br />
I<br />
a a<br />
<strong>The</strong> vowels /i, y, u/ have two X-positions, although they are phonetically<br />
short, except before /r/. Phonologically they behave like long vowels. First,<br />
like (other) long vowels, they allow for only one consonant to follow them in<br />
the same syllable: syllables such as the following are ill-formed:<br />
(9) */kimp/, */kymp/, */kump/, */kilm/. */kyIm/, */kulm/<br />
Second, unlike short vowels, they can occur in word-final position. Third,<br />
when they occur in the word-final syllable, they select the same allomorph<br />
<strong>of</strong> the diminutive suffix as words with a long vowel in their word-final syllable<br />
(see Chapter 4):-°<br />
(10) traan 'tear'-traantje, schoen 'shoe'-sch[u]ntje versus pan 'pan'-<br />
p|u|nnetje<br />
raam 'window'-raampje, riem 'belt'-r[i]mpje versus bom 'bomb'-<br />
b|o]mmetje<br />
meer 'lake'—meertje, buur 'neighbour'-b[y:|rtje versus ster 'star'-<br />
it[e]rretje<br />
A question that remains to be answered in this connection is how we account<br />
for the difference in length between the 'normal' and the marginal high<br />
: " However, there arc a lew exceptional cases in which nouns with /i/ or /u/ in the word-final<br />
syllable select the allomorph that mutually occurs with short vowels, such as hlaciiiflji' 'hunch <strong>of</strong><br />
Mowers' (cf. Van ll.icrmgcn 1 1 >5X, Heeroma 1959). Trommelen (1987) mentions some other<br />
marginal phenomena in which high vowels, in pailicular in non-native words, seem to behave<br />
as short vowels. Historically, the long and the short /i/ have merged in standard <strong>Dutch</strong>. In some<br />
dialects <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>, there is still a length difference for /i/ and /u/ with a distinctive function.
16 THE SOUNDS OF DUTCH<br />
vowels. For instance, in the loan-word team 'team' |ti:m] the vowel is<br />
phonetically long, in contrast to the vowel <strong>of</strong> tien 'ten' [tin]. Following a<br />
proposal by Smith et al. (1989) and Hermans (1992), I will represent the<br />
difference between [i| and [i:] as a difference in linking:<br />
(11) [i] XX [i:] XX<br />
I \/<br />
i<br />
i<br />
Both vowels will function as branching nuclei, but the second X <strong>of</strong>/i/ does not<br />
receive a phonetic interpretation, because it is not linked to the melodic tier.<br />
Hence, the /i/ surfaces as a short vowel, except before /r/. In non-high vowels,<br />
which are phonetically long, the segment will be linked to the second X by a<br />
rule (cf. Section 2.5.2).<br />
Interestingly, there is a length alternation in pairs <strong>of</strong> related words such as<br />
(12) analyse [ana'li:/o] 'analysis'<br />
analyseer |anali'ze:r] 'to analyse'<br />
centrifuge [sentri'fyizja] 'spinner'<br />
centrifugeer [sentrify'v.e:r] 'to spin-dry'<br />
A related alternation is to be observed for non-high marginal vowels, as in<br />
(13) gene ['zjeinaj 'shame' geneer [2ja'ne:r) 'to feel ashamed'<br />
zone ['zD:na] 'id.' zonéer [zo'ne:r] 'to divide into zones'<br />
In the latter case, the marginal vowels turn into their native counterparts in<br />
unstressed position. It is now possible to account for these alternations by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> a rule (14) that delinks the second X from the melodic tier in<br />
unstressed position.<br />
(14) X X<br />
\?<br />
(-cons) in unstressed syllables<br />
In the next section (2.5.2) it will be shown how delinking implies raising rather<br />
than shortening for non-high vowels.<br />
2.5.2. Vowel height<br />
Chomsky and Halle (1968) used the binary features (highJ and [low] for vowel<br />
height. Thus they can distinguish between three degrees <strong>of</strong> vowel height, since<br />
the combination (+high, +low| is logically impossible. Wang (1968) pointed<br />
out, however, that there are languages for which four degrees <strong>of</strong> vowel height<br />
have to be distinguished. 21 <strong>Dutch</strong> clearly requires four degrees <strong>of</strong> vowel height<br />
21 <strong>The</strong> same poinl is made by Kiparsky (1986), Lindau (1978), Clements (1989), and Hayes<br />
(1990).
2.5. THF. REPRESENTATION OF VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS<br />
TABLE 2.3. Vowel height features<br />
+high, —mid<br />
+ high, +mid<br />
-high, +mid<br />
-high, -mid<br />
-back<br />
i- i:, y, y:<br />
i, e, Y, 0<br />
e, e:, œ, ce:<br />
+ back<br />
u, u:<br />
o<br />
D, o:<br />
u, a<br />
at the phonological level if we want to be able to give a proper characterization<br />
<strong>of</strong> the marginal vowels as well. This is possible by using the feature [mid]<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> the feature [low] (Table 2.3).<br />
<strong>The</strong> /œ/ only occurs as the first half <strong>of</strong> the diphthong /œy/. An allophonic<br />
rule will specify that /o/ is realized as [+high] before nasals.<br />
Certain redundancy rules hold for the system. For instance, low vowels are<br />
always [+back], and unrounded back vowels are always low. This can be<br />
expressed by the following rules:<br />
(15) a. [-cons, -high, -mid] -> [+back]<br />
b. [-cons, -round, +back| —» [-high, -mid]<br />
Clearly, the rule system should not contain both rules (15a) and (I5b) because<br />
they presuppose different lexical specifications: rule (15a) presumes that the<br />
height features are lexically specified, and [+back] predictable, whereas rule<br />
(15/>) presupposes the inverse. This is the case, <strong>of</strong> course, because feature<br />
specifications are mutually dependent. Below I will show that the choice<br />
between (15a) and (\5b) can be made on empirical grounds, and that (\5h)<br />
is to be preferred. By contraposition ('p -> q' is equivalent to 'not-q —» not-p')<br />
we can derive a second rule from rule<br />
(15) b' [-cons, +back] -» [+round] /<br />
I +high<br />
I +mid<br />
It is also predictable that |+high, -mid] vowels are always long, that is, have<br />
two Xs on the skeletal tier.<br />
Furthermore, except for loan-words, it is predictable that long mid vowels<br />
are [+high]:<br />
(16) [-cons, +mid] -> [+high] / X X<br />
This rule has a dual function: it predicts redundant features, but can also be<br />
applied in a feature-changing fashion in derived environments. <strong>Dutch</strong> has an<br />
unproductive rule <strong>of</strong> vowel lengthening in open syllables (cf. Chapter 4), as<br />
illustrated in (17):
l8<br />
THE SOUNDS OF DUTCH<br />
(17) g[D]d-g[o]den 'god'-'gods'<br />
sch[i)p-sch[e]pen 'ship'-'ships'<br />
w|c]g-w|e]gen 'road'-'roads'<br />
Note that /i/ and /e/ both change into /e/. This follows from rule (16) which<br />
will turn the lengthened low /e/ into the mid vowel /e/. This rule also accounts<br />
for the change <strong>of</strong> the marginal half-open vowels to half-close vowels in<br />
unstressed position. <strong>The</strong> delinking rule (14) creates a derived environment,<br />
in which rule (16) can apply, changing the melodic elements |e:| and |D:) into<br />
[e] and [o]. In order to account for the phonetic interpretation <strong>of</strong> non-high<br />
vowels with two Xs as long, I assume, with Hermans (1992), the linking rule<br />
(18) for non-high vowels that links the melodic element to the second, empty<br />
X. 22<br />
(18) X X<br />
/<br />
I /<br />
i +mid i<br />
I-high)<br />
<strong>The</strong> regularity expressed in (\5b) also plays a role in phonological alternations,<br />
and therefore this rule must be preferred above rule (15a). <strong>Dutch</strong> has a<br />
rule <strong>of</strong> Learned Vowel Backing (cf. Chapter 4) that backs vowels in non-native<br />
morphemes followed by a non-native suffix:<br />
(19) fundament[e]l 'fundamental' fundament[a]lisme 'fundamentalism'<br />
milit[e:]r 'military'<br />
milit[a]risme 'militarism'<br />
direkt[0:]r 'director'<br />
direkt[o]raat 'directorate'<br />
Note now that |o] is indeed the back counterpart <strong>of</strong> the |0|, but that |e] and |c:]<br />
not only differ from [a] with respect to the feature [back], but also with respect<br />
to vowel height since the backed vowel is low. This is exactly predicted by rule<br />
(\5h), and therefore we must consider this rule as the correct generalization<br />
with respect to the relation between backness and roundness for low vowels.<br />
A chart <strong>of</strong> the underlying feature specifications for vowels is given in<br />
Section 2.6 (Table 2.4).<br />
2.5.3. Diphthongs<br />
<strong>The</strong> three <strong>Dutch</strong> diphthongs /ci/, /œy/ and /DU/ can be defined as sequences <strong>of</strong><br />
non-identical vowels that form the (complex) nucleus <strong>of</strong> a syllable. <strong>The</strong> three<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> diphthongs indeed behave distributionally as long vowels in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
co-occurrence restrictions. <strong>The</strong>y must be distinguished from vowel + glide<br />
combinations such as /a'}/ and /oj/ that occur in a few <strong>Dutch</strong> words such as mais<br />
/mqjs/ 'corn' and hoi /hoj/ 'hi'. Diphthongs can be followed by the same<br />
2 This linking rule also makes it possible to represent all native long vowels as having a second<br />
empty X-slot to which the vocalic segment on the melodic tier is not linked underlyingly (cf.<br />
Hermans 1992 for arguments in favour <strong>of</strong> this assumption).
2.5- THE REPRESENTATION OF VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS 1C<br />
consonants as the long vowels (i.e., all consonants except /h/ and /rj/), whereas<br />
glides cannot be followed by other consonants (except alveolar obstruents).<br />
For instance, /tip/ is fine, but /ajp/ is impossible (Booij 1989a).<br />
<strong>The</strong> characteristic property <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> diphthongs is that the two halves only<br />
differ with respect to height. <strong>The</strong>y are identical with respect to [back] and<br />
[round]. In other words, two short vowels can only form a complex nucleus in<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> if the first one is a half-open vowel, and the second one a close vowel. I<br />
will therefore represent the three diphthongs as sequences <strong>of</strong> two short vowels,<br />
each linked to one X-position. <strong>The</strong>ir diphthongal nature is then defined by<br />
template (20) for proper syllable nuclei (cf. Chapter 3).<br />
(20) N<br />
X<br />
—cons<br />
-high<br />
+ mid<br />
a F<br />
— cons<br />
+ high<br />
-mid<br />
aF<br />
In other words, a sequence <strong>of</strong> two short vowels forms a complex nucleus if the<br />
vowels are identical with respect to backness and roundness, and differ in<br />
height in the way indicated.<br />
2.5.4. <strong>The</strong> representation <strong>of</strong> the schwa<br />
<strong>The</strong> schwa, although phonetically short, behaves distributionally as a long<br />
vowel. Like long vowels, the schwa cannot be followed by a cluster <strong>of</strong> two<br />
consonants in the same syllable, and it can occur in word-final position, which<br />
is impossible for short vowels. Hence, we have to assign two skeletal positions<br />
to the schwa. 21 Just like the high long vowels, the schwa is phonetically short,<br />
and therefore the features <strong>of</strong> the schwa will only be linked to the first X.<br />
What is the underlying representation <strong>of</strong> the schwa in terms <strong>of</strong> features? As<br />
pointed out by Trommelen (1984: 77) the schwa does require an underlying<br />
representation since its occurrence is not completely predictable by rule on the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> certain consonantal configurations. <strong>The</strong> following examples from<br />
Trommelen (1984: 77) illustrate this:<br />
(21) a. lamp 'id.' b. henn[a[p 'hemp'<br />
bank 'bench' monn[a]k 'monk'<br />
kans 'chance' Jann[a]s 'John'<br />
hemd 'shirt' lemm[3]t 'blade'<br />
" A similar proposal was made in Trommelen (1984). In Kager (1989) the hypothesis is<br />
pursued that the schwa is not linked to an X-slot at the underlying level.
20 THE SOUNDS OF DUTCH<br />
Yet, the schwa can be considered as the unmarked, the default vowel <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Dutch</strong>: it is the vowel that occupies the central position in the vowel space, it is<br />
the vowel to which full vowels can be reduced in unstressed position, and it is<br />
the vowel that is optionally inserted in non-homorganic consonant clusters.<br />
Phonetically, it is an unrounded central vowel, that is, neither front, back, high,<br />
nor low. This cannot be expressed by assuming a feature [+central| for the<br />
schwa, since this feature does not play any role in the vowel system <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>.<br />
In other words, the schwa may not have any phonological specification other<br />
than (—consonant).<br />
Note, however, that we have to be able to identify the schwa as such, since<br />
there are certain rules that crucially have to identify the schwa, for instance the<br />
rule <strong>of</strong> Prevocalic Schwa Deletion that only applies to schwa. Also, the schwa<br />
must be identifiable for stress rules since a syllable with a schwa never bears<br />
stress, and the template for well-formed prosodie words <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> also refers to<br />
the schwa. <strong>The</strong>refore, I will represent the <strong>Dutch</strong> schwa as an empty vowel with<br />
the diacritic feature [unstressable], |uj for short, specified on the root. This will<br />
make it possible to identify the schwa for the proper application <strong>of</strong> phonological<br />
rules. <strong>The</strong>refore, the lexical phonological representation <strong>of</strong> the schwa<br />
will be as follows:<br />
(22) X X<br />
I<br />
2.6. FEATURE CHARTS FOR VOWELS AND CONSONANTS<br />
<strong>The</strong> discussion <strong>of</strong> the phonological representation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> vowels and consonants<br />
is summarized by the feature charts (Tables 2.4, 2.5). In these charts,<br />
the predictable features are circled. <strong>The</strong> uncircled feature specifications suffice<br />
to distinguish between the different consonants. In this chart, the glide /j/ is not<br />
mentioned because it has the same phonological properties as the /i/ except<br />
that it has only one position on the X-tier. Features that are either completely<br />
predictable or concern allophones, such as [anterior|, [distributed], [high], and<br />
[back] are omitted.<br />
TABLE 2.4. Feature chart for <strong>Dutch</strong> vowels<br />
i y u i e Y 0 o 3 e o e a a<br />
cons<br />
high + + + + e + © e ee<br />
mid + + + + -»- + + + 0 ©<br />
back +<br />
rnd - + © -
-<br />
2.6. FEATURE CHARTS FOR VOWELS AND CONSONANTS<br />
TABLE 2.5. Feature chart for <strong>Dutch</strong> consonants<br />
21<br />
p b t<br />
d k f v s z x y m n r j l r u h<br />
cons<br />
® vu ®<br />
appr eeeeeeeeeeeeee® +<br />
com + + + + + + © 0 © © f f i<br />
B ffi ffi ffi<br />
nasal 90900900060+ + + 0©<br />
lat © © © © © © © © 0 0 Ö 0 0 9 + 9<br />
asp © © © © © © 0 9 9 9 9 0 © © © ©<br />
Lab \ \ v \ v<br />
Cor v v v v v v v<br />
Dors v v v v<br />
© ©<br />
© ©<br />
© +<br />
v<br />
Note. A 'v' indicates that a privative feature is present.
THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
3.1. INTRODUCTION<br />
Words are not just sequences <strong>of</strong> sounds, like beads on a string; rather, they are<br />
organized into higher order phonological constituents such as the syllable and<br />
the prosodie word (also called the phonological word), two fundamental units<br />
<strong>of</strong> prosodie structure that will be discussed in this chapter.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are three basic roles for the syllable as a phonological unit:<br />
(a) <strong>The</strong> syllable is the most important domain <strong>of</strong> phonotactic restrictions,<br />
that is, a crucial domain for constraints on the co-occurrence <strong>of</strong> segments. For<br />
instance, we cannot determine whether the consonant sequence /pm/ is wellformed<br />
without taking the domain <strong>of</strong> the syllable into account: the sequence<br />
/pm/ is impossible if it belongs to one syllable (is tautosyllabic), whereas it is<br />
possible if there is a syllable boundary between the /p/ and the /m/ (i.e., /pm/ is<br />
heterosyllabic), as in the <strong>Dutch</strong> family name Ahma [upma| that consists <strong>of</strong> the<br />
syllables (up) a and (ma) 0 .<br />
(h) <strong>The</strong> syllable functions as a domain <strong>of</strong> phonological rules. <strong>The</strong> classical<br />
example from <strong>Dutch</strong> is the rule <strong>of</strong> final devoicing (traditionally called<br />
Auslautverhaerturitf) that devoices obstruents at the end <strong>of</strong> a syllable, which<br />
is usually formalized as follows:<br />
(I) [-son] -> [-voice] / —)„<br />
<strong>The</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> this rule is demonstrated by the word pair hoed |hut] 'hat'-<br />
hoeden |hudon| 'hats'. In the singular form the morpheme-final /d/ occurs at<br />
the end <strong>of</strong> a syllable, since the singular form consists <strong>of</strong> the syllable (hud) CT ,<br />
and hence it is devoiced. In the plural form, on the other hand, which consists<br />
<strong>of</strong> the syllables (hu) a (d3n) 0 , the /d/ is syllable-initial, and therefore it remains<br />
voiced. This example also illustrates that morphological structure and syllable<br />
structure do not coincide, because the morphological division <strong>of</strong> hoeden is<br />
hoed-en, -en being the plural suffix. This issue will be discussed in greater<br />
detail in Section 3.6.<br />
In early generative phonological publications on <strong>Dutch</strong>, final devoicing was<br />
sometimes formulated as a word-final rule, because we only find alternations<br />
between voiced and voiceless obstruents in word-final position. Yet, it can be<br />
shown that the rule also applies word-internally. First, it applies to acronyms<br />
such as ABVA (Algemene Bond van Ambtenaren 'General Union <strong>of</strong> Civil<br />
Servants'), which is syllabified as (ub) CT (va) a , and pronounced as [apfa],
3-2. THE REPRESENTATION OF SYLLABLE STRUCTURE 23<br />
with devoicing <strong>of</strong> the /b/. Second, foreign geographical names are also subjected<br />
to this rule, resulting in pronunciations such as |sitni] for Sidney. Thus,<br />
these facts support the claim that the correct generalization concerning the<br />
pronunciation <strong>of</strong> obstruents can only be made in terms <strong>of</strong> syllable structure.<br />
(r) <strong>The</strong> third role <strong>of</strong> the syllable is that it functions as the bearer <strong>of</strong> stress<br />
properties. Moreover, the location <strong>of</strong> stress in a word is dependent on the length<br />
('quantity') <strong>of</strong> the syllables <strong>of</strong> that word. This will be dealt with in Chapter 5.<br />
Syllables are concatenated into prosodie words, if possible. In simple cases,<br />
each word (in the morphological/syntactic sense) corresponds to one prosodie<br />
word. For instance, the word hoed-en 'hats' consists <strong>of</strong> two syllables that form<br />
one prosodie word. A compound like hoedenwinkel 'hat shop', on the other<br />
hand, consists <strong>of</strong> two prosodie words, which each form a domain <strong>of</strong> syllabification,<br />
hoeden and winkel, as will be explained in Section 3.6.<br />
3.2. THE REPRESENTATION OF SYLLABLE STRUCTURE<br />
Each syllable consists <strong>of</strong> an obligatory nucleus (either a vowel or—in some<br />
languages—a syllabic consonant), preceded by zero or more consonants (the<br />
onset), and followed by zero or more consonants (the coda). Nucleus and coda<br />
form the rhyme. In sum, the internal structure <strong>of</strong> the syllable is traditionally<br />
assumed to be as in (2).'<br />
(2) o<br />
Onset<br />
Rhyme<br />
Nucleus Coda<br />
For instance, the syllabic representation <strong>of</strong> a word like heen /ben/ 'leg' will be<br />
as m<br />
given in (3).<br />
A<br />
O R<br />
/ \<br />
N C<br />
l\ I<br />
X X X X<br />
1<br />
This representation <strong>of</strong> syllable structure is only used in order to present the descriptive<br />
generali/ations concerning <strong>Dutch</strong> syllables as clearly as possible. No theoretical status is claimed<br />
for this particular model <strong>of</strong> syllable structure. Other models can be found in Clements and Kcyser<br />
( I'M Î) (Hat syllable with only a nucleus). Levin ( 1985) (syllable as X-bar projection <strong>of</strong> nucleus),<br />
and in Hyrnan (1985), Zee (1988), and Hayes (1989) (syllables consisting <strong>of</strong> morae).
24 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
As (3) shows, syllable structure is not erected directly on the segments <strong>of</strong> the<br />
melodic tier, but on the X-tier. This is crucial for a proper account <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
syllable structure since long vowels, which correspond to two X-positions, are<br />
indeed to count as two positions in syllable structure. <strong>The</strong> relevant generalization<br />
is that <strong>Dutch</strong> rhymes contain at most three positions at the X-tier, that<br />
is, they contain either a short vowel and at most two consonants, or a long<br />
vowel or diphthong and at most one consonant. This restriction is illustrated in<br />
(4), with long vowels represented orthographically by a sequence <strong>of</strong> two<br />
identical letters:<br />
(4) aam, eim, amp, *aamp, *eimp, *almp, *ermp<br />
Since the schwa also has two X-positions (Section 2.5.4), it is correctly<br />
predicted to combine with at most one consonant in a rhyme.<br />
3.3. THE SYLLABLE TEMPLATE OF DUTCH<br />
<strong>The</strong> notion 'possible syllable <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>' will be defined by the following set <strong>of</strong><br />
constraints: 2<br />
(a) <strong>The</strong> universal principle that is referred to as the Sonority Sequencing<br />
Generalization (Selkirk 1982). 1 will assume the following version, based on<br />
Zee (1988) and Clements (1990):<br />
(5) Sonority Sequencing Generalization (SSG)<br />
<strong>The</strong> sonority <strong>of</strong> consonants must decrease towards the edges <strong>of</strong> a syllable,<br />
where the sonority <strong>of</strong> consonants is defined by the following scale <strong>of</strong><br />
decreasing sonority:<br />
Glide-Liquid-Nasal-Obstruent<br />
decreasing sonority<br />
This principle restricts the co-occurrence <strong>of</strong> segments in onsets and codas, and<br />
also explains the mirror image effects in these constraints, as illustrated in (6):<br />
(6) klem 'grip', *lkem melk 'milk', *mekl<br />
slop 'slum', *lsop pols 'wrist', *posl<br />
(h) <strong>The</strong> parameter <strong>of</strong> syllabicity. Universally, vowels can function as nuclei,<br />
but languages differ with respect to the syllabicity <strong>of</strong> consonants. Standard<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> only has vowels as nuclei, whereas some non-standard dialects also<br />
allow for syllabic nasals. Note that this shows that the parameter is independent<br />
from the SSG because in these dialects liquids do not function as nuclei<br />
although they rank higher in the sonority hierarchy than nasals. 3<br />
Detailed studies <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> syllable structure can be found in Booij (1981«. ch. 6), Trommelen<br />
(1984). Van der Hulst (1984), and Kager (1989).<br />
' This point is also made by Clements 11990: 294), who refers to the findings <strong>of</strong> Alan Bell in this<br />
respect.
3-3- THE SYLLABLE TEMPLATE OF DUTCH 25<br />
(r) Language-specific restrictions on the number <strong>of</strong> X-positions in the<br />
different syllable constituents. As already stated above, the <strong>Dutch</strong> rhyme<br />
consists <strong>of</strong> at most three positions, and minimally two positions. <strong>The</strong> nucleus<br />
consists <strong>of</strong> at most two positions. 4 <strong>The</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> onset contains at most three<br />
positions.<br />
(d) Language-specific constraints on the possible combinations <strong>of</strong> segments.<br />
For instance, <strong>Dutch</strong> does not allow for the onset /tl/ although this cluster does<br />
not violate the SSG. <strong>The</strong>se constraints will be discussed in detail in Section<br />
3.5.<br />
<strong>The</strong> SSG refers crucially to classes <strong>of</strong> segments such as glides, liquids, etc.<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, our system <strong>of</strong> phonological features must be able to identify them<br />
as such. Moreover, as will be shown in Section 3.5, language-specific constraints<br />
also require the availability <strong>of</strong> features that can single out classes <strong>of</strong><br />
segments such as glides and liquids. As proposed by Clements (1990), we can<br />
identify the relevant classes, and also derive the sonority ranking required, by<br />
making use <strong>of</strong> the major class features [vocoid], [approximant], and [sonorant|.<br />
<strong>The</strong> feature [vocoidl characterizes vowels and glides, and the feature<br />
[approximant] stands for 'an articulation in which one articulator is close to<br />
another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a<br />
turbulent airstream is produced' (Ladefoged 1982: 10)."''<br />
<strong>The</strong> Sonority Ranking Hierarchy can now be derived from the number <strong>of</strong><br />
positive specifications for the major class features as shown in Table 3.1. 6<br />
Nuclei consist <strong>of</strong> either one or two segments, with at least one <strong>of</strong> them linked<br />
to a [—consonant] root. <strong>The</strong> nucleus (N) may contain two (short) vowels, that<br />
is, a complex nucleus, if they form one <strong>of</strong> the three <strong>Dutch</strong> diphthongs. <strong>The</strong><br />
template for admissible complex nuclei has already been defined in Section<br />
2.5.3.<br />
TABI.K 3.1. Sonoritv Ranking Hierarchy<br />
Obstruent < Nasal < Liquid < Glide<br />
| voc | +<br />
|appr| + +<br />
|son| + + +<br />
Sonority Ranking 0 1 2 3<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> nuclei containing only one short vowel, the nucleus must be<br />
followed by at least one consonant. In other words, a syllable cannot end in a<br />
short vowel. This is expressed in the Minimal Rhyme Constraint:<br />
1<br />
This np|H-:ns 10 he a universal tendency, cf. Kenslowicv and Rubach ( 1987), Booij ( 1989o) and<br />
the references given there.<br />
5 Cited after Clements (1990: 293).<br />
6 <strong>The</strong> variant I use here is that argued for in Zee ( I98X: 83).
26 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
(7) Minimal Rhyme Constraint<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> rhymes consist <strong>of</strong> at least two X-positions.<br />
Hence, we find the types <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> rhyme (R) given in (8).<br />
"'K<br />
N<br />
X<br />
C<br />
X<br />
R<br />
N<br />
l\<br />
X X<br />
R<br />
i\<br />
l\ \<br />
N c r<br />
l\<br />
xxx :<br />
"I C<br />
l\<br />
3-3- THE SYLLABLE TEMPLATE OF DUTCH 2J<br />
Evert /evar-t/ 'id.' (Christian name)<br />
kaars /kar-s/ 'candle'<br />
Evers /evar-s/ 'id.' (family name)<br />
laars /lar-z/ 'boot'<br />
h. Appendix <strong>of</strong> two segments<br />
koorts /kor-ts/ 'fever'<br />
Everts /evar-ts 'id.' (family name)<br />
ernst /ern-st/ 'seriousness'<br />
herfst /herf-st/ 'autumn'<br />
eerst /er-st/ 'first'<br />
aardigst /arday-st/ 'nicest'<br />
c. Appendix <strong>of</strong> three segments<br />
bedaardst /badar-dst/ 'calmest'<br />
vermoeidst /vermuj-dst/ 'most tired'<br />
promptst /promp-tst/ 'most prompt'<br />
It should be noted that an appendix with three coronal consonants, phonetically<br />
always the sequence [tst], is hard to pronounce; usually, the first |t] is not<br />
pronounced.<br />
We thus conclude that a well-formed prosodie word <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> consists <strong>of</strong> one<br />
or more syllables followed by an appendix <strong>of</strong> up to three coronal obstruents. y<br />
<strong>The</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> 'appendix' also explains why we can combine two or more<br />
obstruents with the same degree <strong>of</strong> sonority: the SSG does not pertain to<br />
appendices. 10 This also applies to words like gips 'plaster' and straks<br />
'soon'. Here, the final /s/ can be interpreted as an appendix even though the<br />
rhymes /ip/ and /ak/ do not have their maximal length.<br />
In Section 6.2 it will be argued that consonants are prosodified as appendix<br />
consonants if possible."<br />
A relevant observation in this connection is that <strong>Dutch</strong> vowelless suffixes<br />
always consist <strong>of</strong> one or more coronal obstruents, which makes it possible to<br />
always attach them to a stem without violating prosodie well-formedness<br />
conditions.<br />
Similar appendix phenomena seem to occur at the left edges <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> words:<br />
a <strong>Dutch</strong> onset consists <strong>of</strong> two positions, possibly preceded by /s/. <strong>The</strong> following<br />
word-initial clusters <strong>of</strong> three consonants occur:<br />
(11) spl- split 'id.'<br />
spr- spreeuw 'starling'<br />
9 II may be that the limit on the number <strong>of</strong> appendix consonants need not be slated as part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
phonology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> since it may be assumed to follow from the fact that longer strings <strong>of</strong> coronal<br />
obstruents are simply unpronounceable.<br />
" This does not mean, however, that the selection <strong>of</strong> appendix consonants is completely<br />
arbitrary in terms <strong>of</strong> the SSG, since only obstruents can occur in that position.<br />
1 ' Hall ( 1992: 123), on the other hand, proposes for German that coronal obstruents are adjoined<br />
to the preceding syllable by a rule <strong>of</strong> Stray Consonant Adjunction, which implies that only those<br />
consonants are interpreted as appendices which cannot be lilted inlo the normal syllable template.
28 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
strskrskisxr-<br />
stroom 'stream'<br />
skriba 'scribe'<br />
sklerose 'sclerosis'<br />
schreeuw 'cry'<br />
Trommelen (1984) suggested that we should interpret the word-initial /s/ as an<br />
appendix. This would explain why only the /s/ occurs in clusters <strong>of</strong> three<br />
consonants. Moreover, the SSG violations in /sC-/ clusters would also be<br />
explained. However, as Van der Hulst (1984: 66) has pointed out, an appendix<br />
interpretation <strong>of</strong> the /s/ predicts that it freely co-occurs with all possible onsets,<br />
which is incorrect. For instance, although tw-, xl-,fl-, and fr- are correct onsets,<br />
the clusters stw-, sxl-, sfi-, and xfr- are impossible.<br />
Another problematical aspect <strong>of</strong> the appendix interpretation <strong>of</strong> the wordinitial<br />
/s/ is that it implies that sC- and sCC- clusters do not occur in wordinternal<br />
syllables, which is incorrect (Booij 1984), given syllabifications such<br />
as the following:<br />
(12) got-spe 'chutzpah'<br />
En-sche-de 'id.' (place-name)<br />
ka-ta-stro-fe 'catastrophe'<br />
ek-stra 'extra'<br />
ven-ster 'window'<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, I will assume the onset template (9) for <strong>Dutch</strong>.<br />
<strong>The</strong> claim that coronal appendices are only allowed at the right edges <strong>of</strong><br />
words seems to be contradicted by the following words with a seemingly wordinternal<br />
appendix:<br />
(13) aartsbisschop 'archbishop'<br />
herf.v/kleuren 'autumn colours'<br />
koorttachtig 'feverish'<br />
However, the relevant notion 'word' to be used here is that <strong>of</strong> 'prosodie word',<br />
not 'grammatical word'. As will be shown below, the prefix acirts-, the<br />
compound constituent herfst, and the suffix -achtig form independent<br />
prosodie words. <strong>The</strong>refore, a coronal appendix can appear in such cases.<br />
In sum, we have arrived at the templates (14) for <strong>Dutch</strong> syllables and<br />
prosodie words.<br />
<strong>The</strong> role <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word as a domain <strong>of</strong> phonotactic constraints is not<br />
restricted to the distribution <strong>of</strong> appendices. Other conditions on prosodie words<br />
will be discussed in Section 3.6, where it is shown that a prosodie word cannot<br />
begin with a schwa, and that it has to contain at least one syllable with a full<br />
vowel.<br />
Furthermore, <strong>Dutch</strong> does not allow for geminate consonants within prosodie<br />
words, unlike languages such as Finnish, Icelandic, and Italian. In other words,<br />
although, for example, the syllables /buk/ and /kur/ are both well-formed, they<br />
cannot be combined into the prosodie word /bukkur/. If a sequence <strong>of</strong> identical
(14) a. Syllable:<br />
3.4. SYLLABIFICATION<br />
a<br />
x\<br />
O R<br />
/l\ /l\<br />
(X) (X) (X) X X (X)<br />
29<br />
b. Prosodie word co<br />
\<br />
a" Appendix<br />
-son]"<br />
CorJ n > l, m < 3<br />
consonants arises within a prosodie word due to some morphological operation,<br />
as in grootte /yrot+to/ 'size', an obligatory rule <strong>of</strong> Degemination applies,<br />
resulting in this case in the phonetic form [yrota]. Since there is a phonological<br />
rule (P-rule) expressing this constraint, the prohibition on geminates need not<br />
be part <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word template. This shows that the phonotactic<br />
constraints on the possible words <strong>of</strong> a language are not expressed by just<br />
one type <strong>of</strong> constraint: these constraints are defined by an array <strong>of</strong> different<br />
types <strong>of</strong> rules: syllable-structure conditions, prosodie word conditions, sequential<br />
constraints (Section 3.5.5), and phonological rules (P-rules, Section 4.2). 12<br />
Together, they define the notion 'possible prosodie word <strong>of</strong> language L'.<br />
3.4. SYLLABIFICATION<br />
<strong>The</strong> syllabification <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> words is predictable on the basis <strong>of</strong> the syllable<br />
template given above (14a). Before syllabifying a word, we will have to<br />
determine the domains <strong>of</strong> syllabification.<br />
3.4.1. <strong>The</strong> domains <strong>of</strong> syllabification<br />
In Section 3.3.1 I pointed out that we have to distinguish between the grammatical<br />
word and the prosodie word, and that the appendix appears on the right<br />
periphery <strong>of</strong> prosodie words. Crucially, a prosodie word does not always<br />
correspond to a grammatical word. This also explains why in a compound<br />
such as handappel '(lit.) hand apple', 'eating apple' with the morphological<br />
structure \[hand\^\appel\^\ N , the final /d/ <strong>of</strong> hand is not syllabified with the/a/<br />
2 <strong>The</strong> point thai phonetic constraints arc the effects <strong>of</strong> both siatic constraints and phonological<br />
rules is made in Postal (iy6S). Morpholexical rules, i.e. phonological rules conditioned by<br />
morphological or diacritic properties, do not form part <strong>of</strong> the definition <strong>of</strong> 'possible prosodie<br />
word <strong>of</strong> a language'.
30 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
<strong>of</strong> appel in conformity with the universal principle that a consonant is syllabified<br />
with a following adjacent vowel: hand and appel form two different<br />
domains <strong>of</strong> prosodification, and hence each corresponds with a prosodie word<br />
because the syllables in a domain <strong>of</strong> syllabification form one prosodie word. 11<br />
<strong>The</strong> following mapping rules define the relation between morphological<br />
structure and syllabification domains for <strong>Dutch</strong> (Booij 1977, 1981«, 1985«):<br />
(15) a. In compounds, each constituent that can form a grammatical word <strong>of</strong><br />
its own is an independent domain <strong>of</strong> syllabification. (For instance, in<br />
handappel the two constituents hand and appel are syllabified separately,<br />
and hence the /d/ <strong>of</strong> hand devoices: (huntupol).)<br />
h. Prefixes form independent domains <strong>of</strong> syllabification, as is clear from<br />
the syllabification <strong>of</strong> prefixed words: there is always a syllable<br />
boundary coinciding with the prefix boundary (for instance ontaard<br />
'degenerate' with the syllabification pattern (Dnt) 0 (ard) n ). 14<br />
c. Most suffixes do not form an independent domain <strong>of</strong> syllabification,<br />
but form a prosodie word with the preceding material, as illustrated in<br />
Section 3.1. <strong>The</strong>re are, however, a number <strong>of</strong> suffixes with at least one<br />
full vowel, such as -achtig '-ish', -baar '-able', -dom 'the set <strong>of</strong>', -held<br />
'-ness', -ling '-ling', -loos '-less', -schap '-ship', and -zaam 'inclined<br />
to', that do form independent domains <strong>of</strong> syllabification, and thus<br />
form prosodie words <strong>of</strong> their own. <strong>The</strong>y are all consonant-initial<br />
except for -achti^.<br />
<strong>The</strong> fact that word-internal compound boundaries and prefix boundaries<br />
always form edges <strong>of</strong> a syllabification domain seems to be a universal<br />
tendency (Rubach and Booij 19907?). It can be expressed as follows:<br />
'Lexical syllabification does not apply across |'<br />
(where '|' is a left morphological bracket).<br />
3.4.2. Maximal Onset and Minimal Rhyme<br />
Syllabification can be seen as the matching <strong>of</strong> the syllable template <strong>of</strong> a<br />
language with the segmental string <strong>of</strong> a word in such a way that a maximal<br />
number <strong>of</strong> segments is syllabified into a minimal number <strong>of</strong> syllables (Itô<br />
1989). Furthermore, syllabification is subject to the universal principle that a<br />
consonant before a syllabic segment always forms a syllable with that syllabic<br />
segment, the universal CV-rule.<br />
Syllable template matching can in principle take place from left to right or<br />
from right to left. If it takes place from right to left, the result is that, in a<br />
11 As pointed oui in Booij ( I''XK/)). we eannol assume thai the prosodie word ilsell is the domain<br />
ol syllabification since this would lead to a paradox: the prosodie word presupposes the presence ol<br />
syllables.<br />
4 This does not necessarily imply that prefixes arc always prosodie words <strong>of</strong> their own. as will<br />
be shown in Section 3.6.
3-4- SYLLABIFICATION 3!<br />
sequence <strong>of</strong> consonants between two syllabic segments, as many consonants as<br />
possible are assigned to the onset. In other words, right-to-left syllabification<br />
gives us the Maximal Onset effect. <strong>Dutch</strong>, like many other Indo-European<br />
languages, appears to require maximal onsets. 15<br />
If we conceive <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word template as comprising the syllable<br />
template, as proposed in (\4b), the prosodie word template also has to be<br />
matched from right to left. This correctly implies that word-final coronal<br />
obstruents will be matched with the Appendix position, even if they could<br />
also have filled a rhyme position, as in gans 'goose' (cf. Section 6.2).<br />
A <strong>Dutch</strong> rhyme consists <strong>of</strong> at least two X-positions, the Minimal Rhyme<br />
Constraint. This correctly predicts that word-final syllables cannot end in a<br />
short vowel. (Exceptions are some exclamations such as he [he], joh [ja], bah<br />
[buI, and goh [va], and French loan-words such as cachet [kaj"jt| 'id.' and<br />
bidet [bide] 'id.'.) On the other hand, word-internal rhymes ending in a short<br />
vowel seem to be admissible:<br />
(16) adder [udar] 'snake', letter [letar] 'id.', opper [spar] 'upper'<br />
Nevertheless, I will assume, with Van der Hulst (1984) and Kager (1989), that<br />
the Minimal Rhyme Constraint applies word-internally. This explains why we<br />
do not find words with a word-internal short vowel followed immediately by<br />
another vowel, for instance /hiat/ (compare /hiat/ 'hiatus'): after a short vowel<br />
a consonant is required in order to get a minimal rhyme.<br />
<strong>The</strong> question now is how the universal CV-rule and the Minimal Rhyme<br />
Constraint can be reconciled in the syllabification <strong>of</strong> a word like adder [udor|<br />
'snake'. <strong>The</strong> Maximal Onset effect <strong>of</strong> right-to-left syllabification will <strong>of</strong> course<br />
be overruled by the absolute Minimal Rhyme Constraint" 1 as the following<br />
examples show (the hyphen indicates the relevant syllabification):<br />
(17) as-ter 'id.'<br />
as-pect 'id.'<br />
vis-[k]ose 'viscose'<br />
Pas-[x|a 'Pesach'<br />
a|k|-ne 'acne'<br />
Note that although st-, sp-, sk-, sx-, and kn- are possible onsets <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>, these<br />
clusters are nevertheless heterosyllabic in these words, in order to comply with<br />
the Minimal Rhyme requirement. 17<br />
n Instead <strong>of</strong> assuming iliivrlionality <strong>of</strong> syllahilicalion, the Maximal Onset effect may also be<br />
derived from the requirement that syllable contacts are optimal (cf. Clements 1990) which implies<br />
that, lor instance, hi is better than h-l since in the latter case we get a had syllable contact:<br />
obstruent before sonorant, whereas in an optimal syllable contact the more sonorous consonant<br />
comes lirsl.<br />
6 <strong>The</strong> priority <strong>of</strong> language specilic minimal rhyme constraints in matching syllabic templates<br />
with strings is also argued for Archangeli (1991).<br />
1<br />
Intuitions as to the syllahilicalion <strong>of</strong> intervocalic /si/ appear to vary, as shown in Rietveld<br />
(1983). It may be that at (he surface level the /s/ in. e.g. aster is also ambisyllabic. Evidence other<br />
than intuitions on syllabification seems to be lacking here.
32 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OK WORDS<br />
<strong>The</strong> only way in which a word like adder can be syllabified without<br />
violating the universal CV-rule and the <strong>Dutch</strong> Minimal Rhyme Constraint is<br />
by assigning the intervocalic /d/ to both syllables. In other words, the /d/ is<br />
ambisyllabic (see (18)). 18<br />
(18) o<br />
rX X X X X<br />
<strong>The</strong> ambisyllabicity <strong>of</strong> the /d/ will block its devoicing in syllable-final<br />
position. To see this, rule (I) should be reformulated as delinking rule (19).<br />
(19) Coda<br />
I<br />
X<br />
I<br />
[-son]<br />
[+voicej<br />
After delinking, the consonant no longer bears the feature l+voice], and hence<br />
it will be realized as a voiceless consonant.<br />
Note that the /d/ <strong>of</strong> adder does not satisfy the structural description <strong>of</strong> this<br />
rule, because the /d/ is also linked to the onset <strong>of</strong> a second a. <strong>The</strong> required<br />
blocking <strong>of</strong> the application <strong>of</strong> the devoicing rule can be achieved by the socalled<br />
Uniform Applicability Condition (UAC) from Schein and Steriade<br />
(1986: 727):<br />
(20) Uniform Applicability Condition (UAC)<br />
Given a node n, a set S consisting <strong>of</strong> all nodes linked to n on some tier T,<br />
and a rule R that alters the content <strong>of</strong> n: a condition in the structural<br />
description <strong>of</strong> R on any member <strong>of</strong> S is a condition on every member <strong>of</strong> S.<br />
<strong>The</strong> relevant node is [— sonorant) which does not lose (+voice) when it is<br />
ambisyllabic because in that case one <strong>of</strong> the nodes to which the X-slot is<br />
linked, is not a coda, as required by the rule. 19<br />
This description <strong>of</strong> final devoicing, however, does not account for the fact<br />
that final devoicing also applies to voiced obstruents in Appendix positions,<br />
such as the /z/ <strong>of</strong> laars /laarz/ 'boot' that is pronounced as [s]. Lombard!<br />
'* When the internal structure <strong>of</strong> the syllable is irrelevant, it will not be represented.<br />
|g Note that in this case the Linking Constraint proposed by Hayes (1986): 'Association linos in<br />
structural descriptions are interpreted as exhaustive', also makes the correct prediction, as is<br />
pointed out by Van der Hulst (1985). However, as we will see in Chapter 4. the Linking Constraint<br />
also incorrectly blocks the application <strong>of</strong> Final Devoicing to voiced obstruent clusters—which<br />
share the feature |+voice]—in coda position.
3-5- CO-OCCURRENCE CONSTRAINTS 33<br />
(1991) therefore proposed to assign a different interpretation to final de voicing:<br />
the (in her theory, privative) feature [voice] is only licensed in <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
onsets. <strong>The</strong>refore, it must (by convention) be delinked from any other position.<br />
This results in final devoicing <strong>of</strong> obstruents in both Coda and Appendix<br />
positions. <strong>The</strong> condition that [voice] is only licensed in onsets should be<br />
taken to apply at a particular level <strong>of</strong> phonological derivation: not at the<br />
underlying level, but at the word level (cf. Chapter 4). In this analysis, we<br />
do not have to invoke the UAC to explain why the /d/ <strong>of</strong> adder is not devoiced:<br />
its feature [voice] is licensed by its being linked to the onset <strong>of</strong> the second<br />
syllable.<br />
<strong>The</strong> nucleus <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> syllables contains either one or two X-positions, and<br />
the first has to be linked to [-consonant]. Thus we get the possible nuclei in<br />
(21).<br />
(21) N N N<br />
I l\ l\<br />
X X X X X<br />
[—cons] [-cons] -cons'<br />
-high<br />
+mid<br />
ccF<br />
'—cons'<br />
+high<br />
-mid<br />
aF<br />
short vowels long vowels diphthongs<br />
Given this set <strong>of</strong> possible nuclei, the glide [j] which is a short /i/ in underlying<br />
forms will always be assigned to an onset or a coda position, as required, except<br />
when it is preceded by the Id in which case it will be interpreted as the second<br />
part <strong>of</strong> a diphthong. For instance, in the word aai /ai/ 'to caress' it is impossible<br />
to interpret the vocoid sequence as a complex nucleus. Hence, the only possible<br />
solution is to assign /i/ to the coda. Similarly, the postvocalic vocoid Ivl will<br />
automatically be interpreted as a glide when the syllable template is matched<br />
with the phonological string <strong>of</strong> a word, as in nieuw Imvl 'new'.<br />
3.5. CO-OCCURRENCE CONSTRAINTS<br />
3.5.1. Rhyme constraints<br />
As stated above, <strong>Dutch</strong> rhymes consist <strong>of</strong> at most three positions. Trommelen<br />
(1984: 121) observed that word-internal three-positional rhymes tend to end in<br />
an obstruent rather than a sonorant consonant. 20 This restriction accounts for<br />
20 Kager and Zonneveld (1986) proposed the even stronger constrain! that word-internal rhymes<br />
<strong>of</strong> simplex words consist <strong>of</strong> at most two positions. As Kager (1989: 205-7) points out, there is a<br />
substantial number <strong>of</strong> exceptions/counterexamples to this constraint.
34 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
the opposition between the unacceptable words in (22a) and the existing words<br />
in (22b,c):<br />
(22) a. *teem-po b. tem-po 'id.' c. bauk-siet 'bauxite'<br />
*oom-nibus om-nibus 'id.' buus-te 'bust'<br />
*terrn-po tem-po 'id.' kloos-ter 'cloister'<br />
*marn-darijn man-darijn 'mandarin' hyp-nose 'hypnosis'<br />
However, as pointed out by Booij (1984) and Kager (1989), this rhyme<br />
constraint has quite a number <strong>of</strong> exceptions, some <strong>of</strong> which are listed here:<br />
(23) aal-moes 'alms', pien-ter 'smart', Maar-ten 'id.' (proper name), aar-de<br />
'earth', vaan-del 'banner'<br />
Moreover, the constraint does not hold for morphologically complex words:<br />
(24) Plural nouns with the suffix -en Past-tense forms <strong>of</strong> verbs<br />
maan-den 'months'<br />
talm-de 'hesitated'<br />
beem-den 'meadows'<br />
kerm-de 'moaned'<br />
baar-den 'beards'<br />
naal-den 'needles'<br />
Conceptually, it is not attractive to propose syllable templates that only hold<br />
for simplex words. It is a basic insight that words are structured in two ways, in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> a morphological and a prosodie hierarchy, which need not be<br />
isomorphic. <strong>The</strong>refore, I interpret Trommelen's observation as a (prosodie)<br />
Morpheme Structure Condition (cf. Section 3.5.5): morpheme-internal<br />
syllables with three-positional rhymes tend to end in an obstruent consonant.<br />
Within rhymes, diphthongs cannot be followed by a glide or by /r/:<br />
sequences such as /civ/, /ceyu/, /ouj/, and /eir/ are ill-formed. 21 /eir/, /ceyr/<br />
and /our/ are only pronounceable by inserting a schwa before the /r/. This<br />
constraint may be explained in terms <strong>of</strong> co-articulation: the phonetic realization<br />
<strong>of</strong> a diphthong requires a movement <strong>of</strong> the tongue in the direction <strong>of</strong> the<br />
position <strong>of</strong> the high vowels, whereas the /r/ has a centralizing effect, and<br />
requires a movement <strong>of</strong> the tongue into the direction <strong>of</strong> the centre <strong>of</strong> the<br />
vowel space (cf. Koopmans-van Beinum 1969).<br />
This constraint also shows the importance <strong>of</strong> the syllable and its constituents<br />
as domains <strong>of</strong> phonotactic restrictions since the <strong>Dutch</strong> diphthongs do occur<br />
before a heterosyllabic /r/, as in Beira [bcira] 'id.' (place-name), neuron<br />
[nœyron] 'id.', and Laura [loura] 'id.'.<br />
!l<br />
An exception is the loan-word reveil /raveij/ 'revival'.<br />
In <strong>Dutch</strong> orthography we find spellings like ouw and auw in words such as jouw 'your' and rauw<br />
'raw', suggesting that in these words a /u/ follows the back diphthong. However, these letter<br />
sequences should be taken as standing for just the back diphthong. This is also proven by the quite<br />
frequent spelling mistake <strong>of</strong> usingyou. which is the correct spelling for the personal pronoun, 2 sg.<br />
'you', as the spelling for the possessive pronoun 2 sg. 'your', which is phonetically undistinguishable<br />
from the 2 sg personal pronoun Similar pairs <strong>of</strong> homophones which are distinguished in the<br />
spelling are hou 'hold' (I sg. pres.) vs. Iwuw 'hew' (l sg. pres.), hui 'cold' vs. kauw 'chew' (1 sg.<br />
pres ), and nou 'now' vs. nauw 'narrow'.
(25) Diphthong-r Constraint<br />
*([-cons][-cons] +cons )RHYME<br />
+appr<br />
+cont<br />
3-5- CO-OCCURRENCE CONSTRAINTS 35<br />
<strong>The</strong> next constraint to be discussed is that short vowels cannot be followed<br />
by /v/ or /z/, except in the loan-words razzia [razija] 'raid', puzzel [pvzal]<br />
'puzzle', and mazzel (muzal] 'good luck'. This restriction is illustrated in (26):<br />
(26) a. kaas /kaz/ 'cheese', kazen /kazan/ 'cheeses', Pasen /pasan/ 'Easter',<br />
passen /pasan/ 'to fit'; but */kaz/, */pazan/<br />
h. graaf /yraf/ 'graph', grafen /yrafan/ 'graphs', graaf/yrav/ 'earl',<br />
graven /yravan/ 'earls', maf /maf/ 'mad', maffe /mafa/ 'mad',<br />
(inflected form); but: */muv/, */mava/<br />
We therefore have to assume the constraint (27):<br />
(27) /V/-/Z/ Constraint *R<br />
N<br />
— son<br />
+cont<br />
+voice<br />
(Lab)<br />
I Cor I<br />
<strong>The</strong> /V/-/Z/ Constraint explains why native speakers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> are inclined to<br />
pronounce puzzel as [pyzal|, with a long vowel before the /z/. It can be<br />
formulated as a rhyme constraint because it concerns short vowels, which<br />
always require a following tautosyllabic consonant. In other words, it will<br />
alsoexclude the sequence short vowel +/v/or/z/+ vowel in polysyllabic words.<br />
Another rhyme constraint is that the /rj/ cannot be preceded by long vowels<br />
or diphthongs: -eng, *-eeng, *-eing. It will be discussed in Section 3.5.5<br />
because it can also be interpreted as a sequential constraint.<br />
3.5.2. Onset Constraints<br />
All <strong>Dutch</strong> consonants except the velar nasal can appear in syllable-initial<br />
position. 23 This is expressed by constraint (28).<br />
u In Kager (1989: 196) it is indeed analysed as a rhyme constraint.<br />
M Kager (1989) suggested that this follows from assuming the underlying representation /Ng/<br />
for velar nasals, in combinalion with the SSG. However, both Booij (1980) and Trommelen (1983)<br />
have argued that this analysis is untenable.
36 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
(28) Velar Nasal Constraint *O<br />
I<br />
X<br />
I<br />
l+nas 1<br />
L Dors]<br />
Interestingly, the velar nasal does occur in word-internal onsets after a short<br />
vowel as in engel |erpl| 'angel'. Here, the velar nasal is ambisyllabic:<br />
(29) o .o<br />
X X X X X<br />
l<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, the Uniform Applicability Condition will prohibit the Velar Nasal<br />
Constraint from applying. 24 After long vowels, a word-internal /g/ would be<br />
syllabified as an onset because <strong>of</strong> the constraint on velar nasals mentioned in<br />
the preceding section, but this will be excluded by the onset constraint (28).<br />
Hence, we do not find words like zaanger /zarjar/.<br />
Let us now turn to CC-constraints. To begin with, the /h/ does not combine<br />
with other consonants in onsets:<br />
(30) /h/-onset Constraint<br />
A branching onset may not dominate |+aspirated].<br />
A more general condition is that an onset never contains two sonorant<br />
consonants: combinations <strong>of</strong> nasals with liquids or glides, or liquids with<br />
glides are excluded:<br />
(31) Branching-onset Constraint<br />
A branching onset must dominate [-sonorant].<br />
Obstruents combine with glides, liquids, and nasals. A survey <strong>of</strong> possible<br />
clusters is given in (32):<br />
(32) pj- riempje 'little belt'<br />
tj- traan/y'e 'little tear'<br />
kj- koninfye 'little king'<br />
dj- aJ/eu 'farewell' (loan-word)<br />
tw- twee 'two'<br />
dw- (/waas 'stupid'<br />
sw- .yvvingen 'to swing' (loan-word)<br />
/.w- zweet 'sweat'<br />
fj- fjord 'id.' (loan-word)<br />
24 Alternatively, one might say in the framework <strong>of</strong> Goldsmith ( I WO) and Lombardi (1991 ) thai<br />
velar nasals are only licensed in codas. <strong>The</strong> velar nasal in the onsel <strong>of</strong> the second syllable <strong>of</strong> engel<br />
is then 'parasilically licensed', through its link with the coda <strong>of</strong> the previous syllable.
sj-<br />
Z J~<br />
3-5- CO-OCCURRENCE CONSTRAINTS 37<br />
.v/'aal 'shawl' (loan-word)<br />
J UT y ''d-' (loan-word)<br />
I will exclude /dj-/ and //j-/ as possible onsets because they only occur in loanwords,<br />
and because word-internally they do not form onsets in non-borrowed<br />
words such as diminutives. For instance, the word handje /handja/ 'hand',<br />
(dimin.) is syllabified as (hund) CT (J3) 0 as shown by the fact that syllable-final<br />
devoicing applies: |hantja|. <strong>The</strong>refore, the onset constraints (33) will be<br />
assumed.<br />
(33) a. *bw-, *pw-, *vw-, *fw- *O<br />
/\<br />
Lab<br />
Lab<br />
b. *xj, *vj-, *xw-, *yw- *O<br />
X<br />
p-cont]<br />
L Dors)<br />
X<br />
+appr<br />
(Lab<br />
I Dors I<br />
c. *bj-, *dj-, *vj-, *zj- *O<br />
X<br />
X<br />
[+voice] [+voc~|<br />
|_ DorsJ<br />
Constraint (33a) also excludes labial obstruents before /m/, a correct<br />
prediction.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first three clusters <strong>of</strong> (32) also illustrate that the set <strong>of</strong> possible wordinitial<br />
clusters need not be identical to the set <strong>of</strong> syllable-initial clusters (cf.<br />
Booij 1983): pj-, tj-, and kj- do not occur as word-initial clusters except in<br />
loan-words. In other words, the prosodie word is also a domain <strong>of</strong> phonotactic<br />
restrictions, as already proven by the appendix phenomena.<br />
Obstruent plus liquids combine rather easily, as the following survey shows:<br />
(34) Obstruents + liquids<br />
pi- plant 'id.'<br />
bl- bloem 'flower'<br />
pr- pruim 'plum'<br />
br- bruin 'brown'<br />
tr- frein 'train'
J<br />
38 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
drflvlfrvrsixlxrylyr-<br />
droog 'dry'<br />
y/es 'bottle'<br />
r/as 'flax'<br />
/raai 'beautiful'<br />
vriend 'friend'<br />
\/ank 'slim'<br />
chloor 'chlorine'<br />
chroom 'chrome'<br />
£/as 'glass'<br />
#ras 'grass'<br />
Thus, the following clusters are out: //-, dl-, zl-, zr-, and .vr-. This is formulated<br />
in the constraints (35).<br />
(35) Obstruent + Liquid Constraints<br />
a. *tl-, *dl-, *sr-, *zr- *O<br />
[acontl facontj<br />
L Cor J L CorJ<br />
b. *zl- *O<br />
X<br />
X<br />
[+voicel<br />
L Cor J<br />
A remarkable onset type is the combination /ur-/ that occurs in a few words<br />
such as wreed 'cruel' and wrijven 'to rub'. This sequence is an exception to the<br />
SSG since the /u/ is a non-vocoid approximant here, with the same degree <strong>of</strong><br />
sonority as the /r/. This explains that many speakers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> actually<br />
pronounce the w as [v] rather than as [u], i.e., as a fricative obstruent, thus<br />
avoiding violation <strong>of</strong> the SSG.<br />
Finally, we have to consider obstruent + nasal clusters. Generally, they do<br />
not combine, with the exception <strong>of</strong> the clusters listed here: 25<br />
(36) Obstruent + Nasal<br />
sm- .wiaak 'taste'<br />
sn- snee 'cut'<br />
kn- knie 'knee'<br />
Other combinations occur, but only in a few exceptional words (partially loanwords),<br />
namely pn-, as in pneumatisch 'pneumatic', fn- as in fnuiken 'to<br />
'"' <strong>The</strong>re is a universal tendency in languages lhal onset clusters <strong>of</strong> obstruents plus nasals are<br />
very marked, whereas obstruents combine easily with glides and liquids (cf. BrosHow (IWI) ).
3-5- CO-OCCURRENCE CONSTRAINTS 39<br />
cripple', and #«- as in gnuiven 'to gloat'. <strong>The</strong> ill-formed clusters and the<br />
rare onsets pn-,fn-, and gn- are excluded by constraint (37).<br />
(37) Obstruent + Nasal Constraint *O<br />
/\<br />
X, X<br />
|+nas|<br />
Condition:<br />
Xj / |+cont, -voice, Cor] or [-cont, Dors)<br />
Combinations <strong>of</strong> stops and fricatives are excluded by the SSG that ranks<br />
them as <strong>of</strong> equal sonority. Such combinations do occur, however, in some<br />
loan-words like psalm 'id.', tsaar 'tsar', and Xantippe 'id.' (the letter X stands<br />
for [ksj. 26 Moreover, the /s/ occupies a special position in that it combines with<br />
both stops and fricatives:<br />
(38) sp- spin 'spider'<br />
st- steen 'stone'<br />
sk- igelet 'skeleton'<br />
sf- sfeer 'sphere'<br />
sx- .vc/iool 'id.'<br />
We might try to to explain this exceptional behaviour by assuming that /s/ is a<br />
word-initial appendix. However, it was argued in Section 3.3.1 that this<br />
solution cannot be upheld. So the generalization seems to be the following: 27<br />
(39) In sC(C)-clusters, the sequence sC may violate the SSG.<br />
As noted in Section 3.3.1, there is only a very restricted set <strong>of</strong> CCC clusters: 2 *<br />
(40) spr- spreeuw 'starling'<br />
str- stroom 'stream'<br />
skr- skriba. 'scribe'<br />
spl- .v/7/inter 'id.'<br />
ski- .vA'/erose 'sclerosis'<br />
sxr- schreeuw 'cry'<br />
Thus, the following descriptive generalization can be made:<br />
(41) In CCC onset clusters the final CC is either a possible Stop + Liquid<br />
cluster, or a velar fricative + /r/<br />
This will exclude sequences such as /stl-/ because /tl-/ is ill-formed, but also<br />
sequences like /sfl-/ and /sfr-/.<br />
6 This implies lhat other languages may make a difference in sonority between stops and<br />
fricatives.<br />
7 <strong>The</strong> special nature <strong>of</strong> the combination /s/ plus stop in lhat it behaves as a unit, a sort <strong>of</strong><br />
complex segment, appears to be a cross-linguistic universal, as has frequently been noted in the<br />
literature (cf. Ewen 19X2. Selkirk 19X2, Stcriade 1982, Broselow 1991).<br />
In loan-words we also lind /stj-/ and /skw-/ as in sieward 'id.' and squaiinin 'id.' respectively.
40 THF PROSODIC STRUCTURE OK WORDS<br />
3.5.3. Coda constraints<br />
<strong>The</strong> only consonant that never occurs in codas is the /h/, as expressed in (42).<br />
(42) /h/-coda Constraint *C<br />
I<br />
X<br />
I<br />
l+asp]<br />
This can be related to the fact that the /h/ needs to be followed by a vowel in order<br />
to receive a spécification for its Place features: it is parasitic on a next vowel.<br />
Since glides only occur after long vowels, they do not combine with other<br />
consonants in codas because otherwise the rhyme would contain more than<br />
three positions, and thus they can only be followed by coronal obstruents, the<br />
appendix consonants.<br />
Of the logically possible liquid + nasal clusters, only /-1m, -rm, -rn/ occur:<br />
(43) -1m helm 'helmet'<br />
-rm arm 'id.'<br />
-rn kar« 'to churn'<br />
That is, we have to exclude /-In/ and liquid + velar nasal clusters (before the<br />
velar nasal no coda consonant whatsoever can appear). This is expressed in (44).<br />
(44) Liquid + Nasal Constraints *C *C<br />
[latj r+nasl l+nas 1<br />
L CorJ<br />
L DorsJ<br />
<strong>The</strong> occurrence <strong>of</strong> clusters <strong>of</strong> liquids and obstruents is almost unrestricted,<br />
as the following survey shows:<br />
(45) -lp help 'id.'<br />
-Ib<br />
-If e///elf/ 'id.'<br />
-Iv elf /elv/ 'eleven'<br />
-Ik melk 'milk'<br />
-ly a/j; 'alga'<br />
-Ix<br />
-rp har/7 'id.'<br />
-rb<br />
-rf amo// 'amorphous'<br />
-rv kor//korv/ 'basket'<br />
-rk ker£ /kerk/ 'church'<br />
-rx monarch 'id.'<br />
-ry er# 'very'
3-5- CO-OCCURRENCE CONSTRAINTS 4!<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are no examples <strong>of</strong>/-Ib/ and /-rb/: liquids apparently do not cluster with<br />
a /b/. <strong>The</strong> non-occurrence <strong>of</strong> /-lx/ at the underlying level is very probably an<br />
accidental gap since phonetically [lx] does occur. Of course, /-Ib/ and /-rb/<br />
would never surface as such in codas because <strong>of</strong> final devoicing.<br />
Liquids can also be followed by a coronal obstruent, but since these<br />
obstruents can also be interpreted as appendices, these clusters cannot be<br />
used as evidence for coda constraints: held /held/ 'hero', milt /milt/ 'spleen',<br />
hard /hard/ 'id.', hart /hart/ 'heart', hals /hal/7 'neck', als /als/ 'if', hars /hars/<br />
'resin', vers /verz/ 'verse'.<br />
Nasal consonants cluster with stops, but not with fricatives; the nasal is<br />
always homorganic with the following plosive. Only in heterosyllabic clusters<br />
do we find clusters <strong>of</strong> nasals with fricatives (e.g. kamfer /kumfar/ 'camphor'<br />
and angina /urjvina/ 'id.') and with heterorganic stops (e.g. imker /imkar/ 'bee<br />
keeper'), which once more stresses the relevance <strong>of</strong> the syllable as a domain <strong>of</strong><br />
phonotactics. Like the liquids, nasals do not combine with /b/. Thus we have<br />
the constraints (46) and (47).<br />
(46) Nasal + Fricative Constraint *C<br />
|+nas]<br />
|+cont]<br />
(47) /b/-coda Constraint *C<br />
X<br />
"-cont<br />
+voice<br />
. Lab_<br />
<strong>The</strong> SSG predicts that clusters <strong>of</strong> fricatives and stops do not occur, except in<br />
the Appendix. However, we do find /-sp, -st, -sk/:<br />
(48) -sp we.vp 'wasp', ge.sy? 'buckle', rasp 'grater'<br />
-st a.v/-ma 'asthma', i.v/-mus 'isthmus'<br />
-sk grote.si 'grotesque', obeliil 'id.'<br />
We have to allow for /-st/ as a possible coda because we cannot interpret the<br />
word-internal cluster /-st/ as in astma as an appendix. <strong>The</strong> clusters /-sp/ and<br />
/-sk/ also behave as real coda clusters, not as appendices, in that they cannot be<br />
preceded by a long vowel or diphthong. 29 Note also that they cannot be<br />
interpreted as complex segments (two melodic elements linked to one X)<br />
because distributionally they count as two X-positions. So we have to allow<br />
g<br />
<strong>The</strong> only exceptions are a tew geographical names such as Weesp, and the word hruusk<br />
'brusque', a loan from French.
42 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
for the /s/ to violate the SSG both in onset and coda; in the coda the violations<br />
are more restricted, however, since only stops combine with the /»/.<br />
3.5.4. Pansyllahic constraints<br />
Pansyllabic constraints are constraints governing sequences that do not fall<br />
within onset, coda, or rhyme constituents (Cairns 1988: 229), and which tend<br />
to limit recurrences <strong>of</strong> the same or similar segments within a syllable.<br />
As Janson (1986: 192) observed, in many languages the /j/ does not occur<br />
before /i/; this is also the case for <strong>Dutch</strong> as expressed by (49).<br />
(49) /ji/-Constraint *O<br />
( . . . 1+vocJi l+vocjj . . . ) 0<br />
Note that the sequence /vu/ is permitted in <strong>Dutch</strong>, because in prevocalic<br />
position the /u/ is a non-vocoid.<br />
Another constraint on CV-sequences is that /h/ does not occur before schwa.<br />
This may have to do with the fact that /h/ lacks a supralaryngeal specification,<br />
and the schwa, being the default vowel, also lacks a supralaryngeal specification.<br />
In other words, a syllable /ha/ would have no specification <strong>of</strong> Place<br />
whatsoever. That is, the following constraint:<br />
(50) /h9/-Constraint<br />
*( . . . [+asp] [-cons] u . . . ) 0<br />
can be related to the following general constraint:"<br />
(51) Place Constraint<br />
A a must dominate Place.<br />
This constraint correctly predicts that there are no syllables that consist <strong>of</strong> a<br />
schwa only. However, the /ha/-Constraint is more specific since, for instance,<br />
/hat/ is impossible even though /at/ is a possible syllable.<br />
Another type <strong>of</strong> pansyllabic constraint in <strong>Dutch</strong> concerns the co-occurrence<br />
<strong>of</strong> two liquids in a syllable: the sequence /IVI/ is strange with long vowels, and<br />
the sequence /rVr/ is out when the vowel is short: 12<br />
In Van der Hulst ( 1984) some <strong>of</strong> the constraints on consonant clusters in ousels and codas are<br />
formulated in terms <strong>of</strong> minimal sonority distance requirements on adjacent consonants, /ec ( 19X8)<br />
argues that co-ocurrence constraints such as those formulated here should he preferred to the<br />
minimal sonority distance approach.<br />
1<br />
This was suggested to me hy Carlos (iussenhoven.<br />
' 2 One might wonder whether the constraint holds across syllable boundaries It that were true,<br />
Ihe constraint would be a morpheme structure constraint rather than a syllable structure constraint.<br />
However, we do find words like Lola 'id.' (Christian name) and rara 'guess what?' which suggest<br />
that it is a syllable structure constraint alter all.
3.5. CO-OCCURRENCE CONSTRAINTS 43<br />
(52) 1V1 a. lol /bl/ 'fun', lel /lel/ 'lobe', lal /lal/ 'to jabber', lul /Ivl/ 'penis'<br />
*lool /lol/, *leel /lel/, *laal /lal/, *luul /lyl/, *loel /lul/, *liel /Ml/<br />
A), raar /rar/ 'strange', roer /rur/ 'rudder', Ruurd /ryrt/ 'id.' (proper<br />
name)<br />
*ror /ror/, *rer /rcr/, *rar /rar/, *rur /m/ 33<br />
A similar constraint is found for glides: we never find two /j/s or two /u/s in<br />
one syllable: *joej, *jooj, *jaaj, *wiew, *wuuw, with as exception weeuw /ueu/<br />
'widow'. Since glides only occur after long vowels, the length contrast which<br />
played a role with respect to /r/ and /I/ is not relevant here.<br />
<strong>The</strong> constraint can be expressed as in (53).<br />
(53) Double Approximant Constraint *o<br />
Conditions:<br />
If X, is |+lat|, N is branching<br />
If Xi is |+cont, Cor], N is non-branching<br />
O R<br />
/\<br />
N C<br />
Xi X,<br />
l+appr] [+appr]<br />
3.5.5. Sequential constraints<br />
As has been amply demonstrated above, many phonotactic restrictions should<br />
or can be seen as restrictions on possible syllables. In standard linear generative<br />
phonology, in which the notion 'syllable' did not play a role, phonotactic<br />
restrictions were expressed as morpheme structure conditions (MSCs),<br />
whereas Hooper (1972) argued that all MSCs could be replaced with syllable<br />
structure conditions (SSCs). Hooper's position is clearly too strong since<br />
languages also exhibit restrictions on combinations <strong>of</strong> segments within morphemes<br />
that are valid whether these segments belong to the same syllable or<br />
not (McCarthy 1986, Davis 1991).<br />
A possible example <strong>of</strong> an MSC is the restriction that velar nasals in <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
can only be followed by the schwa, as observed by Kager and Zonneveld<br />
(1986): sequences like /urjal/ are ill-formed in contrast to /arjsl/. This is<br />
expressed by the following negative constraint:<br />
(54) * [+nas| |-cons]<br />
I<br />
Dors<br />
I<br />
Place<br />
" <strong>The</strong>re happened to he a <strong>Dutch</strong> TV programme with the name Kur. hut this word is indeed<br />
experienced as an intentional coining.
44 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
However, such a cross-syllabic constraint can also be seen as a constraint on<br />
the possible prosodie words <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>.<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> prosodie words are also subject to the constraint that the velar nasal<br />
does not occur after a long vowel; this constraint is expressed in (55).<br />
(55) Velar Nasal Constraint *N<br />
X X X<br />
f+nas 1<br />
L Dors)<br />
<strong>The</strong> glides /j/ and /u/ do not combine with all vowels: the /j/ only occurs<br />
after long back vowels, and the /u/ only after long front vowels:<br />
(56) a. roei /ruj/ 'row', mooi /moj/ 'beautiful', saai /saj/ 'dull'<br />
h. nieuw /niu/ 'new', uw /yu/ 'your', leeuw /leu/ 'lion'<br />
<strong>The</strong> constraints (57) exclude the non-occurring combinations:<br />
(57) Glide constraints<br />
a. *N b. *N<br />
I<br />
A<br />
\/ I<br />
X X X X X<br />
l+vocj [+back] Lab I<br />
[-back] Dors)<br />
Constraint (57a) excludes glides after short vowels. <strong>The</strong> only exceptions are<br />
loan-words such as mais /mqjs/ 'maize', boiler /bojlar/ 'id.', and de tail /detaj/<br />
'id.', and the word hoi /hoj/ 'hello'. Constraint (51b) expresses that /j/ occurs<br />
after back vowels, and /v/ after front vowels. An additional constraint is that<br />
after /0/ we do not find glides at all.<br />
Glide constraint (57a) also shows that <strong>Dutch</strong> diphthongs should be analysed<br />
as complex nuclei rather than as sequences <strong>of</strong> a vowel and a consonantal glide,<br />
since otherwise we cannot explain the difference in status between, for instance,<br />
/ei/ and /oi/. It also explains why after real diphthongs (i.e., complex nuclei) all<br />
kinds <strong>of</strong> consonants can appear in the coda. For instance, we find eik, eip, and<br />
cil, whereas *aik , *aip, and *aim are impossible (cf. Booij 1989a). <strong>The</strong>se<br />
sequential constraints are not confined to the syllable, but they do not necessarily<br />
have the morpheme as their domain: it can also be the prosodie word.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are also constraints on clusters <strong>of</strong> consonants independent from the<br />
tautosyllabic or heterosyllabic status <strong>of</strong> these clusters. One generalization,<br />
proposed for 1 English by Yip (1991) also appears to hold for <strong>Dutch</strong>:<br />
(58) Consonant Cluster Condition<br />
In consonant clusters, consonants may have at most one other articulator<br />
feature than Coronal.
3-5- CO-OCCURRENCE CONSTRAINTS 45<br />
For instance, <strong>Dutch</strong> allows for clusters <strong>of</strong> a non-coronal obstruent plus a<br />
coronal one:<br />
(59) pt heliko/?rer 'helicopter'<br />
ft refter 'dining-room'<br />
kt akte 'act'<br />
xt echter 'however'<br />
However, combinations <strong>of</strong> a dorsal consonant with a labial consonant are<br />
either excluded or extremely rare:<br />
(60) Excluded clusters: km, mk, xm, mx, pk, kp, fk, xf, fx, kf, xp, px 34<br />
Moreover, in clusters with one coronal obstruent, the coronal is preferably the<br />
second consonant: /pt/ rather than /tp/, and /kt/ rather than /tk/. This seems to<br />
be a universal tendency (Clements 1990: 313). Again, the constraint can also<br />
be seen as a constraint on prosodie words since such clusters do not arise<br />
through morpheme concatenation: the only cohering suffix that begins with a<br />
non-coronal consonant is the allomorph -pje <strong>of</strong> the diminutive suffix, but this<br />
morpheme only appears after a stem ending in /m/.<br />
<strong>The</strong> examples <strong>of</strong> obstruent clusters given here all concern voiceless obstruents.<br />
This is no coincidence: as observed by Zonneveld (1983) one hardly finds<br />
any cluster <strong>of</strong> voiced obstruents within morphemes. Those that do occur are<br />
mainly found in loan-words, such as labda (lubda) 'lambda' and budget<br />
Ibvdzjetl 'budget'. This suggests a negative MSC that forbids double-linked<br />
[+voice| in the lexical representations <strong>of</strong> morphemes:<br />
(61) * X X<br />
[+voice]<br />
This constraint will only apply to obstruents if other segments have no<br />
specification for [voice] at the lexical level. In this case, its status as MSC<br />
is certain since we do find clusters <strong>of</strong> voiced obstruents within prosodie words,<br />
for instance in the past-tense forms <strong>of</strong> verbs with stems ending in a voiced<br />
obstruent, for example, tob-de [tDbda] 'toiled' (sg.).<br />
Consonant clusters are also subject to another tendency, the Syllable Contact<br />
Law, which says that in an optimal heterosyllabic consonant cluster the<br />
first consonant is more sonorous than the second one. In other words, liquids<br />
and nasals should precede obstruents in optimal syllable contacts. For instance,<br />
/mp/ is preferred to /pm/, and /nt/ to /tn/ (Clements 1990). It is indeed a correct<br />
generalization about <strong>Dutch</strong> that the first C in a heterosyllabic CC is a liquid or<br />
nasal, and the second one an obstruent. It is not an absolute restriction on<br />
pronounceability, though. Clusters with two obstruents occur, subject to<br />
14 Exceptions are loan-words like pigmee Ipixme] 'pygmee', Afghaan (afxan] 'Afghan',<br />
drachme (druxrna] 'drachma', the word imker [imkar] 'bee keeper', and the brand name Agfa<br />
[uxfa|. Nasals before another obstruent do not occur in the list <strong>of</strong> excluded clusters because they<br />
agree in place <strong>of</strong> articulation with the following consonant.
46 TUK PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
certain restrictions as given above, and even clusters in which an obstruent<br />
precedes a sonorant consonant, but these latter clusters are indeed rare. Such<br />
words are <strong>of</strong>ten loan-words, such as acne /ukne/ 'id.' and drachme /druxma/<br />
'drachma', and we also find them in family names like Ahma and Postma<br />
which historically derive from morphologically complex words.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Syllable Contact Law is particularly strong before schwas. For instance,<br />
a form like ordner /ordnar/ 'file' is very marked compared with ander /andDr/<br />
'other', and the effect is that a consonant cluster before a schwa <strong>of</strong>ten has the<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a well-formed syllable coda. 35<br />
Another constraint on the segmental composition <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> morphemes (a<br />
constraint observed for English by Davis (1991)) is that in the sequence sCVC<br />
identical non-coronal obstruents are avoided. It does not play a role whether<br />
the two identical Cs belong to the same syllable or not. <strong>The</strong> following<br />
examples illustrate this constraint:<br />
(62) CVC versus sCVC<br />
poep 'shit' *spoep<br />
toet 'face' stoet 'procession'<br />
koek 'cake' *skoek<br />
gigant 'giant' *sgigant<br />
<strong>The</strong> constraint may be <strong>of</strong> a more general nature since the same restriction holds<br />
for other well-formed onset clusters CQ followed by a vowel + Q (where<br />
subscript , indicates identity).<br />
(63) mam 'mum' *smam<br />
non 'nun' *snon, *knon<br />
lol 'fun' *slol, *plol, *klol, *blol<br />
raar 'strange' *praar, *kraar, *braar<br />
Such configurations are also strange when they are heterosyllabic: *smama,<br />
*knona, *krara, etc. <strong>The</strong>refore, the following constraint holds:<br />
(64) Identical Consonant Constraint<br />
* CC; -V-Cj<br />
Morpheme structure conditions may also have prosodie dimensions. For<br />
instance, above we saw that in lexical morphemes three-positional rhymes<br />
tend to end in an obstruent consonant. Another tendency is that short vowels do<br />
not appear so easily before obstruent + liquid clusters, as observed by Van der<br />
Hulst (1984). For instance we do not have /zebra/ along with zebra /zebra/<br />
'id.'. <strong>The</strong>re are, however, exceptions to this constraint, as in the words Accru<br />
/ukra/ 'id.', agglomeratie /uvlomorati/ 'agglomerate', hopla /hopla/ 'upsydaisy',<br />
Biafra /biafra/ 'id.', ACLO /aklo/ (acronym), Oslo /Dslo/ 'id.', Islam<br />
" In Kager and Zonneveld (19S6), this observation about the nature <strong>of</strong> consonant clusters<br />
before schwa is adduced as evidence lor the hypothesis lhat word final schwas are extra<br />
metrical. See Kager (1989: 212-14) for criticism <strong>of</strong> this hypothesis
3-6. RELATION BETWEEN MORPHOLOGICAL AND PROSODIC STRUCTURE 47<br />
/islam/ 'id.', and so on. So, clearly, it is not an absolute pronounceability<br />
constraint on sequences <strong>of</strong> segments.<br />
3.6. THE RELATION BETWEEN MORPHOLOGICAL AND PROSODIC<br />
STRUCTURE<br />
Lexical morphemes <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> appear to be subject to the following constraints:<br />
they have at least one full vowel;<br />
they do not begin with a schwa.<br />
This can be interpreted as follows: a lexical morpheme (i.e. a morpheme<br />
belonging to one <strong>of</strong> the lexical categories Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, or<br />
Preposition 36 ) must be able to form a well-formed prosodie word <strong>of</strong> its own,<br />
where a prosodie word is defined as a sequence <strong>of</strong> one or more well-formed<br />
syllables, at least one <strong>of</strong> which contains a full vowel. It is necessary to have at<br />
least one full vowel in a prosodie word because otherwise there is no syllable<br />
available for the location <strong>of</strong> main stress—schwa cannot bear stress—in words<br />
<strong>of</strong> major lexical categories (N, V, A). That is, a lexical morpheme minimally<br />
consists <strong>of</strong> a foot.<br />
As pointed out in Section 3.5.4, a syllable that consists <strong>of</strong> a schwa only is illformed<br />
because a syllable must be specified for Place. However, a prosodie<br />
word cannot begin with a schwa, even if it is followed by a tautosyllabic<br />
consonant, that is, even though the syllable with the schwa does dominate<br />
Place. Observe that function words with the structure /a/ + consonant do exist,<br />
for example, een /an/ 'a'. This implies that such function words do not form<br />
prosodie words <strong>of</strong> their own.<br />
Thus, the segmental string corresponding to a lexical morpheme will be<br />
dominated by a prosodie word node. <strong>The</strong> same applies to those suffixes that<br />
form an independent domain <strong>of</strong> syllabification such as -achtig '-like': since<br />
this string contains a full vowel and does not begin with a schwa, it will be<br />
dominated by a prosodie word node. On the other hand, function words such as<br />
determiners and pronouns can begin with a schwa, and/or have schwa as their<br />
only vowel, in particular in their weak or clitic forms. This also applies to<br />
weak (clitic) forms <strong>of</strong> some adverbs, and to prefixes and suffixes, all nonlexical<br />
morphemes. A survey <strong>of</strong> the phonological forms <strong>of</strong> these grammatical<br />
morphemes is given in Table 3.2.<br />
In so far as they do not contain a full vowel, these morphemes will not be<br />
dominated by a prosodie word node after syllabification has applied. In the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> suffixes, which normally do not form a syllabification domain <strong>of</strong> their<br />
"' Prepositions are ambiguous: Ihey tonn a class <strong>of</strong> words thai cannot be extended by morphological<br />
means like the other categories, but they do project into phrases, i.e. PPs. Note that <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
Ps do form prosodie words (except the preposition te /la/ 'at'): they always contain at least one full<br />
vowel, and also have appendices, as in naaxl /nast/ 'besides'.
48 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
TABLE 3.2. <strong>The</strong> phonological forms <strong>of</strong> grammatical morphemes<br />
Determiners<br />
de 'the' /da/ (-1- def. art.,<br />
masc,. fern., sg.; def.<br />
art., pi.)<br />
het /at/ 'the' (strong form<br />
[het]) (def. art., n., sg.)<br />
een /an/ 'a' (indef. art.,<br />
sg.)<br />
Pronouns<br />
ik /ak/ 'I' (strong form IM)<br />
me /ma/ 'me' (strong form<br />
mij /mei/)<br />
m'n /man/ 'my' (strong<br />
form mijn /mein/)<br />
je /ja/ 'you' (subj.) (strong<br />
form jij /jei/)<br />
je /ja/ 'you' (obj.) (strong<br />
form jou /j DU/)<br />
je /ja/ 'your' (strong form<br />
jouw /jou/)<br />
hem /am/ 'him' (strong<br />
form /hem/)<br />
haar /ar/ 'her' (strong form<br />
/har/)<br />
het /at/ 'it' (strong form<br />
/het/)<br />
d'r/dar/ 'her' (poss. pron.)<br />
(strong form haar /har/)<br />
er /ar/ 'it' (before<br />
postpositions) (strong form<br />
/er/)<br />
we /ua/ 'we' (strong form<br />
wij /uei/)<br />
ze /za/ 'they' (strong form<br />
zij /zei/)<br />
ze /za/ 'them' (strong form<br />
hen /hen/)<br />
z'n/zan/ 'his' (strong form<br />
zy'/i /zein/)<br />
Adverbs<br />
er /ar/ 'there' (strong form<br />
/Er/)<br />
daar /dar/ 'there' (strong<br />
form /dar/)<br />
eens /as/ 'once' (strong<br />
form /ens/)<br />
Preposition<br />
te /ta/ 'at'<br />
Prefixes<br />
be- /ba/, ge- /ya/, ver-<br />
/var/, er- /ar/ 37<br />
Suffixes<br />
-e /a/ (f. suff.) or<br />
substantivizing suff. or<br />
inflection <strong>of</strong> attr.<br />
adjectives)<br />
-el /al/ (de-nominal<br />
verbalizing suff.)<br />
-(e)lijk /(a)lak/ '-able'<br />
-en /an/ (plural suff. (verbs<br />
and nouns))<br />
-end /and/ (près. part.<br />
suff.)<br />
-(e)nis /anls/ '-ness'<br />
-er /ar/ '-er'<br />
-erd /ard/ (de-adjectival<br />
nominal suff. for<br />
personal names, pej.)<br />
-erig /aray/ '-ish'<br />
-erij /arei/ '-ing'<br />
-ig /ay/ '-ish'<br />
-sel /sal/ (de-verbal obj.<br />
names)<br />
-ster /star/ (f. suff.)<br />
-te /ta/ '-ness' (past t.)<br />
-tje /tja/ (dimin. (with<br />
allomorphs -/ja/, -/atja/,<br />
-/pja/, -/kja/))<br />
Circumfixes<br />
ge-en /ya-an/ (past part.<br />
circumfix for strong<br />
verbs)<br />
ge-t/d /ya-t/d/ (past part.<br />
for weak verbs)<br />
ge-te /ya-ta/ 'de-nominal<br />
collective'<br />
own, this does not mean that the suffixal string is not dominated by a prosodie<br />
word node, because they fuse with the preceding segmental material. (Note<br />
that for suffixes that contain only schwas it is predictable that they do not form<br />
prosodie words <strong>of</strong> their own!) In the case <strong>of</strong> prefixes and (the weak forms <strong>of</strong>)<br />
determiners, pronouns, and adverbs (all independent domains <strong>of</strong> syllabification),<br />
their segmental material will be dominated by syllable nodes, but not by<br />
prosodie word nodes. As we will see, they therefore have to be prosodically<br />
integrated at the post-syntactic level <strong>of</strong> prosodie structure. This <strong>of</strong> course also<br />
" Ver- and er- also have phonetic forms with the full vowel [e], at least for some speakers. <strong>The</strong><br />
prefix ont- does not have a variant with schwa, presumably because after a schwa a sequence <strong>of</strong> (wo<br />
consonants is not possible, and because vowel reduction does not occur in vowel-initial syllables<br />
(except /c/ before /r/).
3-6. RELATION BETWEEN MORPHOLOGICAL AND PROSODIC STRUCTURE 49<br />
applies to clitic forms like k T and t 'it' which consist <strong>of</strong> a consonant only,<br />
and therefore do not even get a syllable node.<br />
Even if a morpheme forms an independent domain <strong>of</strong> syllabification this<br />
does not guarantee that it will also be a prosodie word. For instance, the<br />
prefixes and clitic words discussed here are independent domains <strong>of</strong> syllabification,<br />
but not prosodie words.<br />
Note that this analysis also explains why the /n/ <strong>of</strong> the strong form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
adverb eens /ens/ 'once' has to be dropped in its weak form [as): once it has<br />
only a schwa, this word cannot be a prosodie word any more, and the sequence<br />
/ns/ is no longer licensed because there is no Appendix position that can<br />
accommodate a second consonant in the syllable after the schwa which itself<br />
occupies two positions.<br />
It is a basic insight <strong>of</strong> prosodie phonology that the prosodie structure <strong>of</strong> a<br />
word is not necessarily isomorphic to its morphological structure. For instance,<br />
the word hoeden 'hats' has the following two non-isomorphic structures as<br />
shown in (65).<br />
(65) Word<br />
Morpheme Morpheme<br />
3 n<br />
As pointed out above, most <strong>Dutch</strong> suffixes prosodify with the stem to which<br />
they are attached, except for a special class <strong>of</strong> suffixes which form prosodie<br />
words <strong>of</strong> their own. <strong>The</strong> first type <strong>of</strong> suffix may be called 'cohering suffix', the<br />
second type 'non-cohering suffix' (cf. Booij 1982a, 1983). Each constituent <strong>of</strong><br />
a compound forms a prosodie word <strong>of</strong> its own, as was shown above for the<br />
compound handappel 'eating apple', where syllable-final devoicing applied to<br />
the word-internal /d/. This assumption is also supported by the way in which<br />
Prevocalic Schwa Deletion applies. This phonological rule <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> deletes<br />
schwas before vowels, thus avoiding hiatus (cf. Section 4.2.3). It applies<br />
within the domain <strong>of</strong> a word, but not across a prefix boundary, across the<br />
internal boundaries <strong>of</strong> compounds, or before the vowel-initial suffix -aclitii^.<br />
This restriction on the domain <strong>of</strong> application <strong>of</strong> schwa deletion follows<br />
straightforwardly by the assumption that this rule has the prosodie word as<br />
its domain:<br />
(66) a. Deletion in:<br />
kaden /kada + an/ 'quays' (kadanj<br />
/.ydig //eido + ay/ 'silky' l/eidsx]<br />
Romein /roma + ein/ 'Roman'/ [romein]
50 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
b. No deletion in:<br />
zijdeachtig /zeida + uxtay/ 'silky' [zcidaaxtax]<br />
zijdeinkomsten /zeida + igkomstan/ 'silk revenues' [zddairjknmstan)<br />
beantwoorden /ba + antuordan/ 'to reply' [bauntuoirdan]<br />
A complex word may lose its semantic transparency, however, and thus it can<br />
lose its internal morphological structure. An example <strong>of</strong> this is provided by<br />
aardappel 'potato'. Since a potato is no longer considered to be a kind <strong>of</strong><br />
apple, the word aardappel appears to be prosodified as one word:<br />
(67) Stage I: morphological structure 38 [ |aard| N (appel] N | N<br />
prosodie structure ( (aard) c )J (ap) a (pel) 0 ) œ<br />
phonetic form |a:rtupall<br />
Stage II: morphological structure (aardappel)<br />
prosodie structure ( (aar) 0 (dap) a (pel) CT ) M<br />
phonetic form [airdupol]<br />
<strong>The</strong> same development took place in the compound tandarts |tundurts|<br />
'dentist' (lit. 'tooth-doctor', with the original structure land-arts), and in the<br />
word reuzachtix |r0/.uxtox) 'fantastic' (lit. 'giant-like') with the suffix -achtln.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> reuzachtig, the literal interpretation 'giant-like' also exists, and<br />
then we get the phonetic form [r0saxtax], as expected. In the prefixed verb<br />
herinneren 'to remember' (lit. to 're-internalize') with the prefix her- 're-', the<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> losing its morphological transparency is not to be seen in the voiced<br />
realization <strong>of</strong> word-internal obstruents, but in the fact that the /r/ <strong>of</strong> the prefix<br />
always forms the onset <strong>of</strong> the next syllable: (her) a (rin) CT (ner) 0 , not<br />
(her) CT (in) CT (ner) c . <strong>The</strong> prefix re- may also lose its transparency, as in reageren<br />
'to react' which requires obligatory insertion <strong>of</strong> a glide between the two<br />
adjacent vowels, that suggests that it has become one prosodie word.<br />
That affixes may function as independent prosodie words correctly predicts<br />
that they are subject to the rules for word stress, which have the prosodie word<br />
as their domain. For instance, in the prefix over- /ovar/ 'id.' and the suffix<br />
-aclitig /uxtav/ '-like', the first syllable receives stress because the second one<br />
contains a schwa, and is therefore unstressable. completely in accordance with<br />
the <strong>Dutch</strong> word-stress rule. 19<br />
<strong>The</strong> non-isomorphy <strong>of</strong> morphological and prosodie structure is also demonstrated<br />
by the phenomenon <strong>of</strong> conjunction reduction ('gapping') in complex<br />
words (Booij 1985a): a part <strong>of</strong> a word can be omitted under identity with a part<br />
<strong>of</strong> another word, for instance (the italic part is deleted):<br />
* <strong>The</strong> /a/ <strong>of</strong> aar Je /ardD/ 'earth' is deleted although it does not stand before a vowel in the same<br />
prosodie word. This schwa deletion is due to a lexically governed rule <strong>of</strong> schwa deletion that also<br />
deletes schwas before consonants, as in f»nli' + si Imp -» hnndxi hn/i 'message'.<br />
19<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is a cross-linguistic tendency for prefixes to behave as independent prosodie words, or<br />
as independent domains ol syllabification; cf. Booij and Kubach (1984) on English, Polish, and<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong>, and Cohn (1989) on Indonesian.
3-6. RELATION BETWEEN MORPHOLOGICAL AND PROSODIC STRUCTURE 51<br />
(68) | [land||/w«H>] ] en | [tuin||bouw] j 'agri- and horticulture'<br />
( [rood\achtix\ <strong>of</strong>'[ (groenJachtig] 'reddish or greenish'<br />
<strong>The</strong> crucial condition is that the gapped part forms one or more prosodie<br />
words, and that it is adjacent to the conjunction. 40 It is not enough that there<br />
is morphological identity. For instance, the suffix -ig, a cohering suffix with<br />
the same meaning as -achtig cannot be gapped because it does not form a<br />
prosodie word <strong>of</strong> its own:<br />
(69) *[ [rod] -| <strong>of</strong> [ Igroenjigl 'reddish or greenish'<br />
On the other hand, the cohering suffix -er and the cohering suffix -s can be<br />
gapped together with the part <strong>of</strong> the segmental string to which they prosodically<br />
cohere. That is, houwers can be gapped: although it is not a morphological<br />
constituent, it is a prosodie word:<br />
(70) morphology: [ | [ [land][/wMw| |c/ |.v| en [ [ [ [tuin](bouw] Jerjs]<br />
prosody: (Idn^a^houwers)^ (en),,, (tuin^bouwers)^<br />
Thus, land- en tuinbouwers 'agriculturers and horticulturers' is a well-formed<br />
expression.<br />
Gapping <strong>of</strong> the right <strong>of</strong> two identical constituents is also possible. In that<br />
case, the right prosodie word must be adjacent to the conjunction, as in<br />
herenjassen en -schoenen 'men's coats and -shoes'. Rightward gapping also<br />
proves that prefixes do not form independent prosodie words, although they<br />
form independent domains <strong>of</strong> syllabification: gapping <strong>of</strong> the second <strong>of</strong> two<br />
identical prefixes is impossible:<br />
(71) *befietsen <strong>of</strong>—lopen 'to cycle on or to walk on'<br />
<strong>The</strong> two constituents <strong>of</strong> a <strong>Dutch</strong> compound <strong>of</strong>ten have either an /s/ or an /s/<br />
in between them, the so-called linking phonemes. <strong>The</strong> question when they<br />
appear is a morphological issue (cf. Van den Toorn 1982). What is relevant<br />
here is that, although the linking phonemes do not form part <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
constituents from the morphological point <strong>of</strong> view, they fuse prosodically with<br />
the preceding prosodie word, as can be seen from the way in which they<br />
syllabify and from the fact that underlyingly voiced obstruents remain voiced<br />
before the linking schwa. For instance, hondebrood 'dog's food' has the<br />
following morphological and prosodie structures:<br />
(72) morphological structure: [ |hDnd] N 3[brod| N ] N<br />
prosodie structure: ( (h3n) 0 (d9) 0 )a,( (brod) a ) w<br />
phonetic form:<br />
[hDndabrot]<br />
'" A more correct slatemem <strong>of</strong> this latter condition is that the gapped constituent should occur at<br />
the periphery <strong>of</strong> a phonological phrase, since gapping also applies before a preposition as in Hij<br />
verwisselde de dagblad-voor de wetkblac(journalùtiek '(lit.) He exchanged the daily journalism for<br />
the weekly journalism' where voor is a preposition that begins a new phonological phrase<br />
according to the rules proposed in Nespor and Vogel (1986). Cf. Booij (
52 THE PROSODIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS<br />
We now also make the right prediction with respect to the behaviour <strong>of</strong> such<br />
compounds under conjunction reduction: since honde is the first prosodie<br />
word, that will be the remnant after gapping:<br />
(73) honde- en kattebrood 'dog's food and cat's food'<br />
In sum, we have seen that the mapping <strong>of</strong> morphological structure on to<br />
prosodie structure is systematic, but not isomorphic. This insight will play an<br />
important role in the analysis <strong>of</strong> phonological processes in the following<br />
chapters.
WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
4.1. INTRODUCTION: THE ORGANIZATION OF THE GRAMMAR<br />
A traditional distinction in the description <strong>of</strong> the phonological processes is that<br />
between word phonology and sentence phonology (cf. Booij 1981/>). Rules <strong>of</strong><br />
word phonology apply within words, whereas rules <strong>of</strong> sentence phonology,<br />
which are characteristic <strong>of</strong> connected speech, (also) apply in larger, phrasal<br />
LEXICON<br />
PHONOLOGY<br />
List <strong>of</strong> underived words<br />
Rules<br />
<strong>of</strong><br />
Morphological rules<br />
word<br />
phonology<br />
Words<br />
Syntax<br />
Rules <strong>of</strong> connected speech<br />
Phonetic form <strong>of</strong> sentences<br />
FIG. 4.1. <strong>The</strong> organization <strong>of</strong> the grammar
54 WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
domains. Clear cases <strong>of</strong> rules <strong>of</strong> word phonology are the rules for word stress<br />
(Chapter 5), and the so-called morpholexical rules,' rules that are conditioned<br />
by specific morphemes or only apply to restricted sets <strong>of</strong> lexical items. For<br />
instance, the rule <strong>of</strong> Learned Vowel Backing that was introduced in Section<br />
2.5.2 is typically a morpholexical rule because it only backs mid vowels in<br />
[-native] words. <strong>The</strong> question now is, where in the grammar the rules <strong>of</strong><br />
phonology must be assumed to apply, and how they interact with other<br />
components <strong>of</strong> the grammar.<br />
Suppose that we assume the following simple principle as to when<br />
phonological rules apply:<br />
(1) Apply a phonological rule whenever its structural description is met.<br />
This implies that a phonological rule will apply as soon as the relevant<br />
environment is available. Since words are available in the lexicon, words<br />
that meet the structural description <strong>of</strong> a rule will, in principle, undergo that<br />
rule in the lexicon. Rules <strong>of</strong> connected speech that apply within phrases, on the<br />
other hand, can only apply after the creation <strong>of</strong> phrases in syntax. Thus, the<br />
organization <strong>of</strong> the grammar emerges as in Fig. 4.1.<br />
<strong>The</strong> boxes around the two sets <strong>of</strong> phonological rules do not indicate<br />
completely separate subcomponents <strong>of</strong> the phonological component (some<br />
rules apply both in the lexicon and postlexically), but are meant to indicate<br />
that only a subset <strong>of</strong> phonological rules is able to interact with morphological<br />
operations, or can apply before syntax. To make this more concrete, let us look<br />
at the derivation <strong>of</strong> the word elitarisme 'elitism':<br />
(2) 1st cycle: [elit3] N<br />
2nd cycle:<br />
morphology<br />
[ [elit3] N e:r] A<br />
phonology: (Prevocalic Schwa Deletion) 0<br />
3rd cycle:<br />
morphology<br />
[ [ [elit] N e:r] A izm3] N<br />
phonology: Learned Backing<br />
a<br />
Lexical phonetic form:<br />
[elitanzma]<br />
This cyclic derivation <strong>of</strong> the word elitarisme follows from the assumption<br />
that morphological and phonological rules apply in tandem, the core <strong>of</strong> the<br />
theory <strong>of</strong> Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong> (Kiparsky 1982, Booij 198lè, Booij and<br />
Rubach 1987, 1991). By having phonological and morphological rules interspersed,<br />
it is correctly predicted that morphological rules may apply to<br />
derived phonological representations (Anderson 1979, Booij 1988b, Hargus<br />
1988: 59). Since the rules <strong>of</strong> Prevocalic Schwa Deletion and Learned Backing<br />
are applicable at the lexical level, they will apply in conformity with<br />
principle (1).<br />
However, in Chapter 3 it was argued that the rule <strong>of</strong> Prevocalic Schwa<br />
' This term is taken from Anderson (1974).
4-1. INTRODUCTION 55<br />
Deletion applies within the domain <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word. This implies that<br />
information about the prosodie structure <strong>of</strong> words must also be generated at<br />
the lexical level. This also follows from principle (1), since prosodification<br />
rules are phonological rules. Moreover, it makes the correct prediction that<br />
morphological rules may have to refer to prosodie properties <strong>of</strong> their input<br />
words (cf. Booij 1988/?, 1992r, Booij and Lieber 1993). On the other hand,<br />
the syllabification <strong>of</strong> the segmental string <strong>of</strong> a word may change due to<br />
morphological and phonological processes. For instance, the final schwa <strong>of</strong><br />
elite /elito/ is deleted before the next vowel-initial suffix. Since the schwa<br />
heads a syllable, this syllable node gets lost. Also, after the addition <strong>of</strong> -ixnie<br />
the coda <strong>of</strong> the last syllable, /r/, <strong>of</strong> elitair will become the onset <strong>of</strong> the first<br />
syllable <strong>of</strong> -isme. <strong>The</strong>refore, I will assume the following (re)syllabification<br />
procedure (steps (a) and (b) precede (c), but are only applicable after a<br />
morphological or phonological rule has applied) (cf. Itô 1989, Rubach and<br />
Booij I990a):<br />
(3) Continuous syllabification<br />
a. Coda Erasure in the word-final syllable after attachment <strong>of</strong> a cohering<br />
suffix; 2<br />
h. erasure <strong>of</strong> the o-node and the prosodie structure dominated by it if the<br />
head <strong>of</strong> o (the nucleus) is deleted;<br />
c. matching <strong>of</strong> syllable and prosodie word templates.<br />
This procedure will again be illustrated by the derivation <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
elitarisme as given in (4).<br />
Let us now look at the rule <strong>of</strong> syllable-final devoicing <strong>of</strong> obstruents. If it<br />
applied as early as possible, we would get wrong phonetic forms such as<br />
Ihutan) for hoeden: on the first cycle the /d/ <strong>of</strong> the morpheme /hud/ is<br />
syllable-final, and hence it would devoice, thus resulting in the wrong phonetic<br />
form. In other words, this rule should apply after morphology: the plural<br />
suffix -en will induce resyllabification <strong>of</strong> the /d/ as onset <strong>of</strong> the next syllable,<br />
and hence it remains voiced, as required (Booij 1981«: 119). Such rules are<br />
called word-level rules since they apply after morphology, but still at the<br />
lexical level. That is, we have to allow for rules <strong>of</strong> word phonology to apply<br />
;it a later level, the word level. This means that there are three levels at which<br />
rules can apply (Kiparsky 1985, Booij and Rubach 1987). <strong>The</strong> first level will<br />
be called the cyclic level because at that level morphology and phonology<br />
apply cyclically, as shown.<br />
"' Instead <strong>of</strong> Coda leisure. Levin ( 1985) anil Hall ( 1992) assume thai only Ihe last consonant <strong>of</strong><br />
a ccxla can ho rcs>llahilieil. through the structure-changing application <strong>of</strong> Ihe universal CV-rule.<br />
However, there arc case«, in which more lhan one consonant has to he rosyllabilieil. as in angstig<br />
(ui|),,(sl,ixi„ 'learliil' derived Irom uiifixl (urjst) 0 'leur'. Also, in liandjc (hun) 0 (IJ3) 0 'little hand'<br />
the AI/ is lust sylhbiliod as coda <strong>of</strong> the lirst syllable because <strong>Dutch</strong> docs not allow for dj- onsets<br />
This causes final devoicing. and subsequent resyllabification because tj- is a possible onset <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Dutch</strong>. Note that icsyllahiliealion takes place here even though the onset is already filled by the<br />
consonant /j/. ('I. also Ruhach and Booij (1990«).
WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
(4) 1st cycle:<br />
Syllabification<br />
0)<br />
o a a<br />
e li t9<br />
2nd cycle:<br />
-a/r-affixation<br />
+ prosodification<br />
Prevocalic Schwa Deletion<br />
Resyllabification<br />
(deletion <strong>of</strong> third a) I<br />
3rd cycle:<br />
-isme-affixation<br />
+ prosodification<br />
(including Coda Erasure)<br />
Learned Vowel Backing<br />
(0<br />
a a a a<br />
e li t3 e:r<br />
co<br />
/K<br />
a a a<br />
e li te:r<br />
o a o<br />
te: riz ma<br />
Lexical phonetic form<br />
[elitanzma]<br />
(5) Levels <strong>of</strong> application<br />
Cyclic level<br />
Word level<br />
Postlexical level<br />
By locating syllable-final devoicing at the word level, we also predict that<br />
postlexical resyllabification <strong>of</strong> consonants across word boundaries will not<br />
affect the voice properties <strong>of</strong> word-final obstruents. For instance, in the phrase<br />
een hond aan de lijn 'a dog on the leash' the sequence <strong>of</strong> words hond aan may<br />
be syllabified as (hDn) 0 (tan) 0 , with the word-final obstruent <strong>of</strong> hond /hond/<br />
forming an onset. However, the underlying /d/ is devoiced, so the phonetic<br />
form [hondan] is impossible.<br />
For other phonological rules <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> that apply obligatorily within the<br />
domain <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word there is no crucial evidence that they are cyclic<br />
rules or word level rules. This applies to the phonological (P-rules) discussed<br />
in Section 4.2. If nothing is said, they will apply as early as possible, in<br />
conformity with principle (1), hence at the cyclic level. In Chapter 5 it is<br />
shown that the Main Stress Rule for the location <strong>of</strong> main stress on words is
4-2. PHONOLOGICAL RULES 57<br />
indeed crucially cyclic. Consequently, syllabification must also be cyclic, since<br />
stress is a property <strong>of</strong> syllables.<br />
<strong>The</strong> cyclic application <strong>of</strong> rules is subject to the Strict Cycle Condition<br />
(Kiparsky 1985): they only apply in derived environments, unless they add<br />
information (i.e. are not structure-changing); in the latter case they may also<br />
apply in underived environments. This makes the right predictions for the<br />
phonological rules discussed in Section 4.2. since they either apply in derived<br />
environments only (for instance, Prevocalic Schwa Deletion), or they add<br />
information, and hence apply in underived environments as well, as required<br />
(e.g. Nasal Assimilation). Final Devoicing, as we have seen, is a word-level<br />
rule. This follows from the fact that it is only conditioned by syllable structure,<br />
and syllable structure does not count as derived environment (Kiparsky 1985).<br />
Hence, since it is a structure-changing rule, it will be blocked from application<br />
at the cyclic level, as required, and apply as soon as possible after the cyclic<br />
level, i.e., at the word level.<br />
Not all phonological rules that apply within words are obligatory rules.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are also rules that optionally apply, such as Schwa Epenthesis, a rule<br />
that breaks up coda consonant clusters (as in harp /harp/ 'id.' pronounced as<br />
[hurop)). Such rules are <strong>of</strong>ten stylistically governed in that they are characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> less monitored forms <strong>of</strong> speaking (casual speech). <strong>The</strong>y will be dealt<br />
with in Chapter 6, and will be argued to belong to the postlexical level.<br />
In this chapter I will discuss phonological processes that apply obligatorily<br />
within words, with the exception <strong>of</strong> word stress which is dealt with in Chapter<br />
5. Chapter 6 analyses optional rules that apply within words, and Chapter 7<br />
deals with rules <strong>of</strong> connected speech above the word, which are <strong>of</strong> course<br />
located at the postlexical level.<br />
4.2. PHONOLOGICAL RULES<br />
Phonological alternations differ as to the nature <strong>of</strong> their conditioning environments.<br />
Some alternations, such as that between voiced and voiceless obstruents<br />
in morpheme-final position are conditioned by phonological conditions only,<br />
in this example the position <strong>of</strong> the obstruent in the syllable. Such rules are<br />
called 'automatic phonological rules', phonological rules, or P-rules. Other<br />
alternations are also conditioned by non-phonological factors. For instance, the<br />
alternations in <strong>Dutch</strong> diminutive nouns are conditioned crucially by the presence<br />
<strong>of</strong> the diminutive suffix, and these alternations do not occur in other<br />
types <strong>of</strong> complex word. Rules which only apply to words with specific<br />
morphemes or to specific sets <strong>of</strong> items that are not characterizable in purely<br />
phonological terms, are called morpholexical rules or MP-ruIes (Anderson<br />
1974). This section will deal with P-rules, Sections 4.3 to 4.5 with MP-rules.<br />
P-rules that apply obligatorily within the domain <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word form
58 WORD PHONOUXiY<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the lexical phonotactics <strong>of</strong> a language, i.e., they define constraints on<br />
the notion 'possible prosodie word <strong>of</strong> language L'. In this respect they differ<br />
from MP-rules, which do not have such a phonotactic role. For instance, there<br />
is an MP-rule that inserts a schwa before the diminutive suffix after a short<br />
vowel followed by a sonorant consonant, as in kannetje /kan+tja/ 'small jug'<br />
with the phonetic form | kiin.it ja|. Nevertheless, this does not mean that /n/ and<br />
A/ cannot be adjacent in this phonological configuration, as is proven by the<br />
existence <strong>of</strong> another diminutive, kantje /kunt+tja/ 'piece <strong>of</strong> lace' with the<br />
phonetic form |kuntja|. This shows that the MP-rule <strong>of</strong> Schwa-insertion<br />
does not have a phonotactic role, and why it is important to distinguish these<br />
two kinds <strong>of</strong> rule. Related to this, MP-rules can have lexical exceptions, as<br />
illustrated below, which is understandable because they do not express absolute<br />
constraints on possible sequences <strong>of</strong> sounds within a prosodie word,<br />
whereas P-rules do not have exceptions at the lexical level.<br />
4.2.1. Devoicinfi and voice asaimilaiion<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> has the following two P-rules <strong>of</strong> voice assimilation, traditionally called<br />
Progressive Assimilation and Regressive Assimilation respectively. 3<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> Progressive Assimilation says that a fricative is devoiced after a<br />
voiceless obstruent:<br />
(6) Progressive Assimilation<br />
opvallend 'remarkable' /pv/ [pf|<br />
stoepzout 'pavement salt /p/./ [ps|<br />
o/>#raving 'excavation' /pv/ |px|<br />
zoiUvat 'salt tub'<br />
/tv/ |tf|<br />
zou/ruur 'hydrochloric acid' A// |ts|<br />
straa^'oot 'gutter' /ty/ [tx|<br />
da^venster 'dormer' /kv/ [kf |<br />
dakgoot 'gutter'<br />
/ky/ [kx|<br />
afval 'trash'<br />
/fv/ |f:|<br />
a/zuigen 'to extract'<br />
/fz/ |fs|<br />
a/^ang 'failure' /fy/ |fx|<br />
a.vvat 'ashbin' /sv/ |sf |<br />
wa.vrak 'laundry bag'<br />
/s/,/ [s:|<br />
wasgoed 'laundry'<br />
/sy/ |sx|<br />
per/ivogel 'unlucky person' /xv/ [xf]<br />
lar/izak 'laughing machine' /x// |xs|<br />
lardas'laughing gas' /xy/ |x:|<br />
In three examples we see a geminate fricative in the phonetic form. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
geminates are usually shortened through Degemination (Section 4.2.4).<br />
1 Cf. Tops (1974), Van der Hulst (1980), Booij (1981«), and /oiiiievekl ( 19X3).
4-2. PHONOLOGICAL RULES 59<br />
All these examples are complex words, consisting <strong>of</strong> at least two prosodie<br />
words, that is, we may call them prosodie compounds. Note that obstruent<br />
clusters <strong>of</strong> this type are very rare within morphemes: they do not form optimal<br />
syllable contacts (cf. Section 3.5.5). Nevertheless, there is evidence that this<br />
devoicing rule also applies within prosodie words, as in advies |utfis] 'advice'<br />
and in acronyms like ABVA /ubva/ [upfa] and AKZO /ukzo/ [uksoj. Phonological<br />
rules like Progressive Assimilation, which apply obligatorily within<br />
prosodie words and compounds, become optional in larger domains: for<br />
instance, in phonological phrases.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> Progressive Assimilation is fed by Final Devoicing since<br />
obstruents that are voiceless due to the latter rule also devoice when they<br />
follow underlyingly voiced fricatives:<br />
(7) handzaam 'handy' /d/./ [ts]<br />
hebzucht 'avarice' /bz/ [ps]<br />
graa/zucht 'digging urge' /vz/ |fs|<br />
<strong>The</strong> second rule <strong>of</strong> voice assimilation is that <strong>of</strong> Regressive Assimilation. It<br />
says that voiceless obstruents become voiced before a following voiced stop<br />
(i.e. /b/ or /d/):<br />
(8) Regressive Assimilation<br />
klapband 'flat tyre'<br />
/pb/ [b:]<br />
opdruk 'imprint'<br />
/pd/ [bd|<br />
eefbaar 'edible' /tb/ |db|<br />
potdicht 'tight'<br />
/td/ [d:]<br />
kooMoek 'cookery book' /kb/ |gb|<br />
/.akdoek 'handkerchief' /kd/ [gd|<br />
a/fcellen 'to ring <strong>of</strong>f' /fb/ |vb|<br />
stq/doek 'duster'<br />
/fd/ [vd]<br />
ka.vboek 'cash book' /sb/ [zb]<br />
misdaad 'crime'<br />
/sd/ [zd]<br />
lar/;/)ui 'fit <strong>of</strong> laughter' /xb/ [yb]<br />
\achduif 'laugher'<br />
/xd/ [yd]<br />
In this case, the effects <strong>of</strong> Final Devoicing are undone by voice assimilation.<br />
For instance, in niesbui 'fit <strong>of</strong> sneezing', the s represents an underlying /z/<br />
(witness niezen 'to sneeze'), which can be devoiced in coda position, but is<br />
then revoiced before the next /b/. As was the case with Progressive Assimilation,<br />
the rule applies both within and across prosodie word boundaries. <strong>The</strong><br />
effects within prosodie words may be seen in words like asbest [azbest]<br />
'asbestos' and Lesbos [lezbDs] 'id.'.<br />
<strong>The</strong> two rules <strong>of</strong> voice assimilation can be formulated as in (9) and (10).<br />
Since PVA is a more specific rule than RVA, PVA will apply first in<br />
accordance with the Elsewhere Principle (Kiparsky 1982) which says that<br />
when two rules compete, the more specific one gets priority, and blocks<br />
application <strong>of</strong> the other one. Once PVA has applied, for instance to zoutvat
6o<br />
WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
(9) Progressive Voice Assimilation (PVA)<br />
[—son] [— son]<br />
[+cont]<br />
[ — voice] [+voice]<br />
(10) Regressive Voice Assimilation (RVA)<br />
[-son] [-son]<br />
[-voice]<br />
[+voice]<br />
'salt tub', thereby devoicing the /v/, the application <strong>of</strong> RVA is no longer<br />
possible anyway, since the second obstruent no longer bears the feature<br />
[+voice].<br />
No ordering <strong>of</strong> PVA with respect to Final Devoicing is necessary for words<br />
like hebzucht 'avarice', with the underlying cluster <strong>of</strong> obstruents /bz/: the<br />
application <strong>of</strong> Final Devoicing will feed PVA: first the /b/ turns into [p],<br />
and this [p] changes the following /z/ into [s].<br />
When at the word level the rule <strong>of</strong> Final Devoicing applies to a word like<br />
handboei /hundbuj/ 'handcuff', with underlyingly voiced obstruents, the /d/<br />
will be devoiced, and then revoiced by RVA. <strong>The</strong>n, Final Devoicing cannot<br />
reapply, because RVA has created a structure in which the feature [+voice] is<br />
doubly linked, to both obstruents, and therefore the Uniform Applicability<br />
Condition (cf. Section 3.4.2) will block another application <strong>of</strong> Final Devoicing,<br />
which has the form given in (II). 4<br />
(11) Final Devoicing<br />
C<br />
I<br />
X<br />
I<br />
[-son]<br />
[+voice]<br />
4 Obstruents in Appendix position also devoice. We might therefore assume lhat, at the word<br />
level, appendix consonants are Chomsky-adjoined to the Coda. Another solution is proposed by<br />
Lombardi (1991 ): the feature [+voice] is only licensed in Onset position, and therefore delinked by<br />
convention in all other positions, i.e. Coda and Appendix. This analysis makes Chomsky-adjunction<br />
<strong>of</strong> appendices to codas superfluous. Gussmann (1992: 42). in his analysis <strong>of</strong> Polish voice<br />
assimilation, assumes the same restriction as to the licensing <strong>of</strong> |+voice| for Polish.
4-2. PHONOLOGICAL RULES 61<br />
<strong>The</strong> rules <strong>of</strong> voice assimilation do not apply only within words, but also<br />
across (grammatical) word boundaries, that is, in phrases. That is, the rules<br />
apply postsyntactically because their domain <strong>of</strong> application, the Intonational<br />
Phrase, will only be available postsyntactically. However, in larger domains<br />
the application <strong>of</strong> such rules is not completely obligatory and can be suppressed.<br />
5 I already mention them here, in the chapter on word phonology,<br />
because they apply obligatorily within the smaller domain <strong>of</strong> the word.<br />
Another complication as to the phrasal application <strong>of</strong> these rules is that the<br />
demonstratives die 'that' and Jat 'that' can be optionally subject to Progressive<br />
Voice Assimilation. Thus, we find the following phonetic realizations for<br />
dat and die in the sentence Is dat juist, op die manier? 'Is that OK, in that<br />
manner?' (Van Haeringen 1955):<br />
(12) [izdat] or [istat], [Dbdi] or [opti]<br />
In Section 8.3. it is shown that these facts follow from the optional encliticization<br />
<strong>of</strong> these function words to a preceding word.<br />
Verbal inflectional suffixes exhibit a different behaviour with respect to<br />
voice assimilation, which requires detailed discussion.<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> past-tense suffix for regular ('weak') verbs is /ta/ or /da/: /ta/<br />
after stem-final underlyingly voiceless obstruents, and /da/ elsewhere, i.e.,<br />
after voiced obstruents, sonorant consonants and vowels:<br />
(13) a. stem<br />
a. klap /klup/<br />
zet /zet/<br />
haak /hak/<br />
maf /maf/<br />
vis /vis/<br />
lach /lux/<br />
b. krab /krub/<br />
red /red/<br />
klo<strong>of</strong> /klov/<br />
raas /raz/<br />
1 leg /lev/<br />
c. roem /rum/<br />
zoen /zun/<br />
meng /men/<br />
roer /rur/<br />
rol /rol/<br />
aai /aj/<br />
ski /ski/<br />
'to applaud'<br />
'to put'<br />
'to crochet'<br />
'to sleep'<br />
'to fish'<br />
'to laugh'<br />
'to scratch'<br />
'to save'<br />
'to split'<br />
'to rage'<br />
'to lay'<br />
'to praise'<br />
'to kiss'<br />
'to mix'<br />
'to stir'<br />
'to roll'<br />
'to caress'<br />
'to ski'<br />
klapte<br />
zette<br />
haakte<br />
mafte<br />
viste<br />
lachte<br />
krabde<br />
redde<br />
klo<strong>of</strong>de<br />
raasde<br />
legde<br />
roemde<br />
zoende<br />
mengde<br />
roerde<br />
rolde<br />
aaide<br />
skiede<br />
past tense<br />
[klupta]<br />
[zeta]<br />
[hakto]<br />
[mafta]<br />
[vista]<br />
(luxta)<br />
[krubda]<br />
[reda]<br />
(klovdaj<br />
[razda]<br />
[Icyda]<br />
[rumda]<br />
[zunda]<br />
[merjda]<br />
|ru:rda]<br />
[rr>ldD]<br />
|ajda|<br />
[skida]<br />
According lo Cammenga and Van Reenen (1980) RVA <strong>of</strong> /s/ is also optional in compounds<br />
like misdaad 'crime' and niesbui 'fit <strong>of</strong> sneezing' which consist <strong>of</strong> two prosodie words, and in<br />
which therefore the two obstruents are separated by prosodie word boundaries.
02 WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
<strong>The</strong> past-tense forms given here are the singular forms. <strong>The</strong> plural forms are<br />
created by adding the verbal plural suffix -en /on/. <strong>The</strong> final schwa <strong>of</strong> the pasttense<br />
suffix deletes before the plural suffix due to the rule <strong>of</strong> Prevocalic Schwa<br />
Deletion, and thus the surface forms <strong>of</strong> the past tense plural forms consist <strong>of</strong><br />
the verbal stem plus /dan/ or /tan/ (e.g klapten, krabden, roemden).<br />
<strong>The</strong> first question to be answered is: why do not we just say that there are<br />
two competing past-tense suffixes, which appear in complementary environments?''<br />
<strong>The</strong> reason is that in such an analysis we would not account for the<br />
fact that the two suffixes are almost identical, and that, moreover, the variation<br />
is not purely arbitrary from a phonological point <strong>of</strong> view: the variant with the<br />
voiceless consonant shows up after voiceless sounds. It would be easy to<br />
describe a situation in which -te appeared after voiced segments, and -de after<br />
voiceless segments. <strong>The</strong>refore, a phonological analysis is called for. I will<br />
assume an underlying form /Do/, where the initial coronal stop is unspecified<br />
for [voice], and a P-rule that spreads the Laryngeal node from the preceding<br />
segment to the underspecified coronal stop (the '•' indicates the root):<br />
(14) Laryngeal Spreading<br />
• | son]<br />
Laryngeal<br />
Since the laryngeal node dominates either [+voice] or [-voice], the past<br />
tense suffix is either [da] or [ta]. 7<br />
<strong>The</strong> question now arises why syllable-final voiced obstruents in past-tense<br />
forms such as krabde /krub-do/ |krubdD| 'scratched' are not subject to syllable-final<br />
devoicing. <strong>The</strong> relevant part <strong>of</strong> the representation <strong>of</strong> krabde will then<br />
be as in (15) (for ease <strong>of</strong> exposition I refer directly to the feature [voice]<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> the class node Laryngeal):<br />
(15) C O<br />
I I<br />
X X X X X X X<br />
I I I I I I<br />
k r u b d o<br />
[+voice|<br />
6 Cf. Van Marie (19X5) for an analysis <strong>of</strong> competing affixes in <strong>Dutch</strong>, ('arslairs ll l )XX) has<br />
shown Ihat even when the choice between competing suffixes is ilelerniined by phonological<br />
properties <strong>of</strong> ihe stem, this does nol necessarily imply lhal the suffixes derive from a common<br />
underlying form.<br />
7 Zonneveld ( 19X3) proposed to account for Ihe progressive assimilation <strong>of</strong> Ihe /d/ <strong>of</strong> Ihe past<br />
tense suffix by positing an underlying denial fricalne lor lhe/d/ which is then subject lo Ihe iule ol<br />
Progressive Voice Assimilation. Such an abstract solution is made superfluous here.
4-2. PHONOLOGICAL RULES 63<br />
Representation (15) will not be subject to rule (II) due to the Uniform<br />
Applicability Condition (UAC). Alternatively, as pointed out above, we may<br />
assume, with Lombardi (1991), that there is no rule <strong>of</strong> Syllable-final Devoicing.<br />
but that the feature [+voice] is only licensed in onsets, and that, through<br />
the double linking, this feature is also licensed for the /b/. In other words, this<br />
would be a case <strong>of</strong> 'parasitic licensing'. 1 *<br />
<strong>The</strong> role <strong>of</strong> the UAC also appears to be crucial when we take another /t/-/d/<br />
alternation into account. <strong>The</strong> past participles <strong>of</strong> regular verbs are formed by<br />
prefixing t>e-, unless the verb begins with a [+native] prefix that does not bear<br />
stress, and by suffixing /t/ to the stem if the stem ends in a voiceless obstruent,<br />
and /d/ elsewhere. In other words, we have the same regularity here as with<br />
respect to past-tense suffixes, and the same rule <strong>of</strong> Laryngeal Spreading<br />
applies:<br />
(16) Verb Past participle<br />
klap 'to applaud' ge-klap-t<br />
krab 'to scratch' ge-krab-d<br />
roem 'to praise' ge-roem-d<br />
ski 'to ski'<br />
ge-skie-d<br />
<strong>The</strong> /d/ only shows up if the participle is inflected, that is, followed by a schwa,<br />
he-cause then it occurs in an onset. If it remains in word-final position, it will<br />
devoice due to Syllable-final Devoicing. In the case <strong>of</strong> gekrabd, all final<br />
obstruents will be voiceless, so /bd/ is realized as [pt].<br />
<strong>The</strong> representation <strong>of</strong> gekrabd will look as follows after the application <strong>of</strong><br />
Laryngeal Spreading:<br />
(17) X X X X X X X X<br />
I I I I I I I<br />
y 3 k r u b d<br />
[+voice|<br />
<strong>The</strong> UAC correctly predicts that in this configuration, Syllable-final Devoicing<br />
applies because both obstruents are dominated by the Coda node (the second<br />
one, the appendix consonant, after being Chomsky-adjoined to the coda), and<br />
thus we get the correct phonetic form |yokrupt|."<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> Laryngeal Spreading may also be used to underspecify wordinternal<br />
voiced stops in words like Bagdad [buydut| 'Baghdad' and Egbert<br />
[cybortl 'id.' (male name). Laryngeal Spreading will then create obstruent<br />
x<br />
C'I. Goldsmith (1WM: VIS ) lor I ho notions 'piosodic licensing' and 'parasitic licensing'.<br />
Goldsmith also observes that coda positions license fewer lealuies than onset positions, '(ienu<br />
nates, however, are associated with both a coda position and an onset position, so. while lhe> gel<br />
their licensing from their onset position, they then give rise to the presence ol segmentai material in<br />
the coda that would otherwise not have a chance ol appearing there' (IWO: 336).<br />
'' Note, however, thai the Linking Constraint (Hayes I'JXo) would block application <strong>of</strong> Syllablefinal<br />
Devoicing, which is incorrect, since the phonetic form |v,3krupl| must he derived.
64 WORD PHONOI.OCY<br />
clusters doubly linked to [+voice], which are thus exempted from Final<br />
Devoicing, as is required. More generally, Laryngeal Spreading may be used<br />
to express the fact that in underived sequences obstruent clusters always agree<br />
in voice. For instance, the voicelessness <strong>of</strong> the A/ in akte 'act' need not be<br />
specified in its underlying form.<br />
4.2.2. Nasal assimilation<br />
In many languages nasal consonants are <strong>of</strong>ten homorganic with a following<br />
obstruent. This is also the case in <strong>Dutch</strong>. In particular, tautosyllabic nasalobstruent<br />
clusters are always homorganic. <strong>The</strong> only systematic exceptions are<br />
nasal consonants followed by a coronal consonant, the appendix consonants.<br />
Such clusters occur usually in morphologically complex forms.<br />
(18) |m] dawp 'damp', rawp 'disaster', gember 'ginger'<br />
|rrj| kawfer 'camphor'<br />
[n| tand 'tooth', kam 'side', ruwd 'cow'<br />
[n] orawje 'orange', Spawje 'Spain', bonje 'fight'<br />
[n] dawk 'thank', bank 'couch', /.ink 'sink', a|gy|list 'anglicist', ta[rjg|o<br />
'id.'<br />
Consequently, in this configuration nasals need not be specified for Place, and<br />
the Place features will be spread from the following consonant as shown in (19).<br />
(19) Nasal Assimilation<br />
• l+cons)<br />
AX<br />
[+nas]<br />
Place<br />
Within morphemes, heterosyllabic nasal-obstruent clusters are usually also<br />
homorganic, as illustrated in (18). In a few words this is not the case, for<br />
instance in imker 'bee keeper'. <strong>The</strong>refore, the nasal <strong>of</strong> this word has to be<br />
specified as Labial underlyingly. Likewise, in zing+t 'sings', the velar nasal<br />
will already be specified as such in the morpheme zing //'in/-<br />
In compounds and phrases it is the coronal nasal /n/ only that assimilates to a<br />
following consonant. Examples are the following, with the prepositions aan<br />
/an/ 'to' and in /in/ 'id.' and the negative prefix on- /on/:<br />
(20) in Parijs 'in Paris' [imparcis]<br />
aanbod '<strong>of</strong>fer'<br />
lambot]<br />
onfatsoenlijk 'indecent' [orçfutsunbk]<br />
onvast 'unstable'<br />
|nrnvust|<br />
onwaar 'untrue'<br />
|:>rni>a:rl<br />
onmogelijk 'impossible'<br />
in Madrid 'id.'<br />
(Dmoyalak]<br />
|imadnt|
onjoviaal 'unjovial'<br />
in juli 'in July'<br />
onkies 'indecent'<br />
in chaos 'in chaos'<br />
ongewoon 'uncommon'<br />
4-2. PHONOLOGICAL RULES<br />
[onjovijal]<br />
[injylil<br />
[inxans]<br />
[onyauon]<br />
Non-coronal nasals do not assimilate, as illustrated by the following examples:<br />
(21) wangzak 'cheek-pouch' *[uunzak|<br />
damkampioen 'draught champion' *[dankumpijun]<br />
This restriction to /n/ can be accounted for if we assume that the morphemefinal<br />
coronal nasal is unspecified as to Place. It will then receive its place<br />
specification from Nasal Assimilation if it occurs before a consonant-initial<br />
word in the domain in which Nasal Assimilation applies. 10 If not, a default rule<br />
will provide the Place specification [Coronal | at the end <strong>of</strong> the phonological<br />
derivation, thus expressing that [Coronal] is the unmarked value for Place with<br />
respect to nasals." However, in Section 4.3.2 it will be shown that certain<br />
rules <strong>of</strong> Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong> have to refer to the feature [Coronal] <strong>of</strong> nasals. In<br />
Chapter 6 it will be argued that there are additional reasons for specifying<br />
coronal nasals as such before the end <strong>of</strong> the phonological derivation. 12 This<br />
implies that rule (19) cannot be taken to cover all cases <strong>of</strong> nasal assimilation: a<br />
separate feature-changing postlexical rule for the assimilation <strong>of</strong> the coronal<br />
nasal is required.<br />
4.2.3. Hiatus rules<br />
Two adjacent vowels within a <strong>Dutch</strong> prosodie word are very rare. In other<br />
words, <strong>Dutch</strong> does not favour word-internal onsetless syllables. <strong>The</strong> first vowel<br />
will always be long because syllables cannot end in a short vowel (Section<br />
3.3). If the first vowel is /a/, a glottal stop will be inserted at the phonetic level<br />
if the next vowel belongs to the syllable with main stress: 13<br />
(22) paella/paelja/'id.' [pa?elja|<br />
aorta /anrta/ 'id.'<br />
[a?orta|<br />
Kaiinda /kuunda/ 'id.' |ka?unda[<br />
versus<br />
chaos /xaos/ 'id.'<br />
[xaos]<br />
farao /farao/ 'Pharaoh' [farao]<br />
" <strong>The</strong> domain specifications <strong>of</strong> rules will be discussed in Chapter 7.<br />
" Cf. Paradis and Prunel (1984, 1941) loi cross-linguistic evidence for this claim.<br />
12 This conclusion is confirmed by the findings <strong>of</strong> McCarthy and Taub (1992) and Hall (199.!)<br />
with respect to Coronal underspccilication for English and German respectively.<br />
' ' Jongenburger and Van Heuven ( 1991 ) showed that a glottal Mop is always inserted before a<br />
vowel-inilial word after a pause. According lo Gussenhoven (personal communication) wordinternal<br />
glottal-slop insertion only occurs in loot-initial position, i.e. not in words like
66 WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
If the first vowel is a schwa, the schwa will be deleted. In all other cases except<br />
after/a/a homorganic glide will be inserted between the two vowels. I will first<br />
present the data concerning Homorganic Glide Insertion (HGI). <strong>The</strong> generalization<br />
is that the inserted glide has the same properties with respect to<br />
backness and roundness as the preceding vowel (Gussenhoven 1980: 177).<br />
Moreover, the glides are predictably high: 14<br />
(23) After rounded front vowels<br />
duo /dyo/ 'id.'<br />
flüor /flyor/ 'id'<br />
fonduen /fondyon/ 'fondue' (verb)<br />
üien /ceyan/ 'onions'<br />
réuen /r03n/ 'male dogs'<br />
Edui-.rd /edyurd/ 'id.'<br />
januari /janyari/ 'January'<br />
intui'tie /intyiti/ 'intuition'<br />
ruine /ryina/ 'ruin'<br />
After unrounded front vowels<br />
dieet /diet/ 'diet'<br />
bioscoop /bioskop/ 'cinema'<br />
Indriaas /indrias/ 'Andrew'<br />
Gea /yea/ 'id.' (f. name)<br />
Geo /yeo/ 'id.' (m. name)<br />
zee+en /zean/ 'seas'<br />
ree+en /rean/ 'deer'<br />
vijand /veiund/ 'enemy'<br />
After back vowels<br />
Ruanda /ruanda/ 'Rwanda'<br />
Boaz /boas/ 'id.'<br />
hou+en /hDuan/ 'hold' (Verb)<br />
[dyqo]<br />
Irlyipr]<br />
(fondyqon]<br />
lœyqan]<br />
[r0ipn|<br />
[edyqurt]<br />
[janyijaril<br />
[intyqitsi]<br />
(ryqina]<br />
[dijet]<br />
[bijnskop]<br />
|mdrijas|<br />
lyejal<br />
lyejo]<br />
[zejan|<br />
[rejon|<br />
|vfijunt|<br />
[ruuanda]<br />
[bouus]<br />
[houuDn]<br />
Note that the front rounded glide |q| does not occur as an underlying segment<br />
in <strong>Dutch</strong>. This explains why native speakers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> are inclined to interpret<br />
this glide as either |j] or [u|, depending on the stress pattern, or give variant<br />
answers to the question 'which glide occurs in a word like dw>T. In particular,<br />
after a front round vowel with main stress the glide is <strong>of</strong>ten perceived as [j|.<br />
Given this array <strong>of</strong> facts, it seems appropriate to split the formalisation <strong>of</strong><br />
HGI into two parts: insertion <strong>of</strong> an X-position, and subsequent spreading <strong>of</strong> the<br />
features <strong>of</strong> the preceding vowel as given in (24).<br />
<strong>The</strong> glide with the feature specification [+backj will surface as |u|, the glide<br />
4 <strong>The</strong> lirst generative analysis cil' 11(11 is presented in /onneveld (1978: 64-73). As Gussenhoven<br />
(1980) has pointed out, there are three ralher than two transitional glides. My analysis is based<br />
on Gussenhoven (1980).
4-2. PHONOLOGICAL RULES 67<br />
(24) Homorganic Glide Insertion<br />
a. Insert X in the context p-voc 1 [+voc]<br />
l+highj<br />
b. Spreading X X<br />
I"'*<br />
[+voc]<br />
with the feature specification [ — back, —round] as [j], and the glide with<br />
[-back, +round] as [q]. 15 If the first vowel is /e/ or /o/, the feature [+midj<br />
which is spread to the glide position, will change into [—mid] by convention<br />
since glides are predictably high, that is, [+high, -mid] (cf. Booij 1989a).<br />
Note, moreover, that the inserted vocoid will be predictably interpreted as a<br />
consonant since it occurs after long vowels. Finally, note that the back glide is<br />
labiodental rather than bilabial, whereas the preceding back vowels are<br />
bilabial. This is predictable since the <strong>Dutch</strong> rounded back glide is always<br />
labiodental.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> HGI does not imply that [j] is never to be found after back<br />
vowels since, as shown in Section 3.5.5, /j/ does occur there at the underlying<br />
level, as in loeien /luj+3n/ 'to moo', with the first-person singular form loei/luj/.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are a few pairs <strong>of</strong> words such as koe 'cow' [ku] —koeien 'cows' [kujan]<br />
where we have to assume two lexical allomorphs, in this case /ku/ and /kuj/. ' 6<br />
<strong>The</strong> domain <strong>of</strong> obligatory HGI is clearly the prosodie word since there is no<br />
obligatory insertion <strong>of</strong> a glide at the boundary between the constituents <strong>of</strong> a<br />
compound or other complex words consisting <strong>of</strong> more than one prosodie word.<br />
Usually, a glottal stop is inserted at the beginning <strong>of</strong> a vowel-initial prosodie<br />
word. Yet, it is possible to insert glides in such environments in casual speech.<br />
As will be discussed in Section 7.2, many phonological rules exhibit the<br />
property that they are obligatory within the prosodie word, and optional in<br />
larger domains:<br />
(25) koeachtig 'cow-like' [ku?axtax] or [kuuaxOx]<br />
zeearend 'sea eagle' [zeParant] or [zejarant]<br />
<strong>The</strong> second hiatus rule is that <strong>of</strong> Prevocalic Schwa Deletion which also<br />
applies obligatorily within a prosodie word:<br />
(26) Romein /roma+ein/ 'Roman' [romein]<br />
elitair /elit3+c:r/ 'elitist' [elite:r]<br />
codeer /koda+er/ 'encode' [kode:r]<br />
kaden /kada+an/ 'quays' [kadon]<br />
15 As shown by Van Heuven and Hoos (1991), inserted glides have a distinctly shorter duration<br />
than underlying glides. <strong>The</strong> former are transitional glides only. This is reflected by the representations<br />
for the inserted glides proposed here, namely as Xs that are linked to the Place features <strong>of</strong> the<br />
preceding vowel.<br />
16 Some southern dialects <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> only have the form /kuj/, i.e. the singular form <strong>of</strong> 'cow' is<br />
koei.
68 WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
Since the domain <strong>of</strong> application is the prosodie word, the prevocalic schwas in<br />
the following words will normally be pronounced:<br />
(27) zijd[3]-achtig 'silk-like'<br />
b|o]-antwoorden 'to reply'<br />
mod[3]-opleiding 'fashion academy'<br />
In casual speech the schwa may also be deleted across prosodie word boundaries,<br />
but hardly ever if the schwa forms part <strong>of</strong> a prefix. This will be discussed<br />
in Section 7.2.3.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> Prevocalic Schwa Deletion will therefore read as in (28).<br />
(28) Prevocalic Schwa Deletion<br />
Delete X X before |-cons]<br />
I<br />
[-consj u<br />
Glide Insertion will not apply after a schwa, as required, because Homorganic<br />
Glide Insertion only applies after vowels specified as [+high], a feature<br />
that the schwa does not bear.<br />
4.2.4. Degemination<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> does not allow for geminate consonants within prosodie words. Consequently,<br />
degemination is obligatory within prosodie words as soon as a cluster<br />
<strong>of</strong> two identical consonants arises. In larger domains such as compounds and<br />
phrases the rule is optional. <strong>The</strong> following examples, <strong>of</strong> course all complex<br />
words, illustrate this process:<br />
(29) eet /et+t/ 'to eat' (3 sg. pres.) (et|<br />
voedt /vud+t/ 'to feed' (3 sg. pres.) |vul| 17<br />
zette /zet+ta/ 'to put' (past)<br />
[zeto|<br />
voedde /vud+da/ 'to feed' (past)<br />
[vuda]<br />
gezet /ye+zet+t/ 'to put' (past part.)<br />
[yazet]<br />
gevoed /ya+vud+d/ 'to feed' (past part.) (yavutj<br />
kiest /kis+st/ 'delicate' (superl.)<br />
|kist|<br />
kies /kis+s/ '(something) delicate'<br />
|kis|<br />
grootte /yrot-Ha/ 'size'<br />
[yrota]<br />
fietsster /fits+star/ 'cyclist' (fem.)<br />
[fitstor]<br />
onmiddellijk /on+midal+Iak/ 'immediately' [omidalak]<br />
<strong>The</strong> suffix -sel appears systematically to exclude base words ending in /s/ or/z/,<br />
thus obviating the need for degemination in -se/-words (Booij 1977: 123).<br />
Since the rule is optional across prosodie word boundaries, it is possible to<br />
differentiate phonetically between complex words with and without a geminate,<br />
as in the following examples:<br />
17 <strong>The</strong> /d/ first becomes A/ through the Final Devoicing rule (11) given in Section 4.2.1
(30) ver-assen 'to cremate' [verusanj<br />
ver-rassen 'to surprise' [vcr:uson|<br />
4-3- MORPHOLEXICAL RULES 69<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> Degemination (31) deletes one <strong>of</strong> two adjacent identical consonants.<br />
(31) Degemination<br />
Xj Xi -» X:<br />
[+cons] [+cons] [+consj<br />
Domain:<br />
Obligatory in prosodie words, optional in larger domains<br />
4.3. MORPHOLEXICAL RULES<br />
4.3.1. Diminutive ullomorphy<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> diminutive suffix has five allomorphs: -tje, -je, -pje, -kje, and -etje.<br />
This suffix appears mostly after nouns, but also after some underived adjectives<br />
(e.g. blondje 'blond girl' < blond 'id.'), some verbs (e.g. speeltje 'toy' <<br />
speel 'to play'), and a few prepositions (for example, uitje 'outing' < uit 'out'),<br />
and creates neuter nouns. <strong>The</strong> regularities as to where the different allomorphs<br />
appear can be summarized as follows (Cohen 1958, Ewen 1978, Gussenhoven<br />
1978, Booij 1981«, Trommelen 1984):<br />
(«) -je U 9 ! appears after stem-final obstruents;<br />
(b) -etje [3tj3) appears after sonorant consonants if preceded by a short<br />
vowel with primary or secondary stress;<br />
(r) -pje appears after /m/ except in the cases sub (b);<br />
(d) -kje appears after /rj/ except in the cases sub (b);<br />
(e) -tje appears elsewhere.<br />
<strong>The</strong> following diminutives illustrate the use <strong>of</strong> the different allomorphs (the<br />
accent ' above a vowel letter indicates main stress, and the accent ' indicates<br />
secondary stress):<br />
(32) a. allomorph -je<br />
lip 'id.'<br />
lipje [lipjs]<br />
hand 'id.'<br />
handje [hantja]<br />
hek 'gate'<br />
hekje [hekjo]<br />
lief 'sweet' liefje |litja| .<br />
klas 'class'<br />
klasje [klusjol<br />
lach 'laugh'<br />
lachje [luxjaj<br />
b. allomorph -etje<br />
n'ng 'ring'<br />
sen'ng 'lilac'<br />
leerling 'pupil'<br />
ringetje<br />
seringetje [sanrjotjo]<br />
leerlingetje [leirlirjatja]
70 WORD PHONO1.0CV<br />
wandeling 'walk'<br />
bóemerang 'boomerang'<br />
bom 'bomb'<br />
bon 'ticket'<br />
horizon 'id.'<br />
bal 'ball'<br />
tor 'beetle'<br />
hotel 'id.'<br />
kanon 'gun'<br />
c. aUomorph -pje<br />
riem 'belt'<br />
bodem 'bottom'<br />
helm 'helmet'<br />
album 'id.'<br />
valium 'id.'<br />
wi'gwam 'id.'<br />
ti. dllomorph -kje<br />
koning 'king'<br />
paling 'eel'<br />
sdrong 'id.'<br />
kâmpong 'village'<br />
e. aUomorph -tje<br />
ree 'deer'<br />
stro 'straw'<br />
traan 'tear'<br />
wiel 'wheel'<br />
haar 'hair'<br />
doctor 'id.'<br />
ponton 'pontoon'<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essor 'id.'<br />
wandelingetje [uundalirjatja]<br />
boemerangetje [bumarurjatjo|<br />
bommetje [bDmatja]<br />
bonnetje [bonatja]<br />
horizonnetje [hoiri/.anatja]<br />
balletje [bulatja]<br />
torretje [taratjaj<br />
hotelletje [hotelatja]<br />
kanonnetje [kanonatja]<br />
riempje |rimpja|<br />
bodempje [bodampja]<br />
helmpje [helmpja]<br />
albumpje [ulbvmpjo]<br />
valiumpje |valijampjo| lx<br />
wigwampje (uixuumpja]<br />
koninkje [komrjkja|<br />
palinkje Ipalirjkjo)<br />
saronkje |sarr>rjkja|<br />
kamponkje |kumpDn.kja|<br />
reetje |retja|<br />
strootje [strotjo]<br />
traantje (trantja)<br />
wieltje |uiltjo|<br />
haartje [hairtja)<br />
doctortje [doktartja]<br />
pontontje [pnntantjal<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essortje Ipr<strong>of</strong>tsortja]<br />
We would like to express the phonological similarity <strong>of</strong> the five diminutive<br />
suffixes by deriving them from one underlying form, /tja/, through a number <strong>of</strong><br />
MP-rules. Note also that the choice <strong>of</strong> a specific allomorph is not completely<br />
arbitrary. For instance, the p-initial variant appears aller a stem-final /m/, and<br />
the ^-initial variant after the velar nasal, suggesting that some kind <strong>of</strong> Place<br />
assimilation is involved. <strong>The</strong> deletion <strong>of</strong> A/ ties in with the tendency in <strong>Dutch</strong> to<br />
simplify clusters <strong>of</strong> obstruents through /t/-deletion. Note, however, that it is<br />
normally the nasal consonant that assimilates to a following obstruent, whereas<br />
here it is the obstruent that assimilates to a preceding nasal. This emphasi/.es the<br />
'" Since the letter u in valium can be interpreted as /v/ as well, an alternative diminutive form<br />
also occurs: voliiunmetje. In Ihis lallcr form Ihe final syllabic <strong>of</strong> the base word receives secondary<br />
slress, hence (he allomorph -elje.
4-3- MORPHOLEXICAL RIJLES -J ]<br />
differences between the P-rule <strong>of</strong> Nasal Assimilation and the assimilatory MPrules<br />
involved here. <strong>The</strong> MP-rules can now be formulated as in (33)-(35). |l)<br />
(33) Insert /a/ in the following context:<br />
R<br />
N<br />
I<br />
X<br />
C<br />
I<br />
X<br />
I<br />
|-cons) [+son| f^sonj ja<br />
[Corj<br />
Condition:<br />
R is the rhyme <strong>of</strong> a stressed syllable<br />
(34) • (-son] ja<br />
l+nas)<br />
Place<br />
Place<br />
(35) Delete [-son, Cor] in the context |-son| —ja<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> a word like senn^cije, underlyingly /sanrj+tjo/, rule (33) will<br />
have to take precedence over rule (34), and therefore, rule (33) has to be<br />
ordered before rule (34). 20<br />
As may be expected in cases <strong>of</strong> allomorphy governed by MP-rules, there are<br />
exceptional diminutive forms. First, there is a number <strong>of</strong> words that in addition<br />
to the regular form also have a variant with -etjc:<br />
(36)<br />
wiel 'wheel'<br />
bloem 'flower'<br />
Jan 'John'<br />
brug 'bridge'<br />
weg 'road'<br />
heg 'hedge'<br />
Regular form<br />
wieltje<br />
bloempje<br />
Jannetje 'Jane'<br />
brugje<br />
wegje<br />
hegje<br />
Variant<br />
wieletje<br />
bloemetje<br />
Jantje 'Johnny'<br />
bruggetje<br />
weggetje<br />
heggetje<br />
l will relcr HI specific segments by iiu'ans <strong>of</strong> the corresponding phonemic symbol when no<br />
phonological gcneiali/alion is involved. We might a Ko represent the first segment <strong>of</strong> the diminutive<br />
suflix without Ihe specification Coronal. In that case, the rules that derive -pje and -kje do not<br />
have 10 delink the feature (Coronal], and can he restricted to a spreading operation. <strong>The</strong> feature<br />
[Coronal] would then be tilled in by a défailli rule lhal says that (Coronal) is the default value for<br />
consonants. 1 he proposal can be found in Lahiri and Evers (1991: 97). However, as pointed oui in<br />
the next section. Ihe feature (Coronal| has to he available at Ihe lexical level.<br />
Trommelen ( 1W4) is an attempt to deine Ihe different allomorphs without sliess conditions (cf.<br />
Boin| i l l )K-l) lm a review!. However, from a theoretical point <strong>of</strong> view Ihe fact that allomorphy is<br />
dcpi ndent on stress is nol embarrassing at all. since the stress patterns <strong>of</strong> Ihe base words have<br />
aheady been derived when Ihe rules <strong>of</strong> diminutive allomorphy apply.<br />
This is not piedicted by the hlscwhere Principle since the set ol' representations to which (33)<br />
applies is not a subset <strong>of</strong> lhal for (34); rather. Ihe sels are overlapping.
WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> bloemetje there is also semantic differentiation: bloemetje can<br />
also mean 'bunch <strong>of</strong> flowers', unlike bloempje. Trommelen (1984: 48)<br />
observes that some native speakers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> are also inclined to insert a<br />
schwa after stems ending in short vowel + sonorant consonant, although the<br />
vowel does not bear main stress, for example, wigwammetjt, kampongetje.<br />
Probably, loan-words such as wigwam 'id', and kampong 'village' (Indonesian<br />
loan) can be interpreted as (prosodie) compounds, which induces secondary<br />
stress on the second syllable.<br />
A second class <strong>of</strong> exceptions has to do with stem allo'morphy: some native<br />
nouns have two allomorphs, one with a short vowel and one with a long vowel.<br />
<strong>The</strong> allomorph with the long vowel occurs in some plural forms, diminutives,<br />
and verbs, but there is no systematicity here:<br />
(37) Singular Plural Diminutive Derived word<br />
schjijp 'ship'<br />
w[e]g 'road'<br />
p[u]d 'path'<br />
st[a]d 'city'<br />
b[a]d 'bath'<br />
gl[a]s 'glass'<br />
sch[e]pen<br />
w|e]gen<br />
p|a)den<br />
st[e|den<br />
b|ajden<br />
gl[a]zen<br />
sch|e|pje<br />
w|t-]ggetje<br />
p[a|dje<br />
st[u]dje<br />
b[u|dje<br />
gl|a]sje<br />
gl[u|sje<br />
sch[i)pper 'skipper'<br />
st[e]delijk 'urban'<br />
b[a|den 'to bathe'<br />
gl|a|zig 'glassy'<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> glasje/glaasje we find semantic differentiation: a glaaxje is a<br />
drinking glass or the slide used under a microscope, whereas glasje may refer<br />
to a spectacles lens.<br />
Another type <strong>of</strong> stem allomorphy found with diminutives is the use <strong>of</strong> a stem<br />
without the normally occurring final stem-final schwa:<br />
(38) karbonade 'carbonade' karbonaadje (kurbonatjo]<br />
parachute 'id.'<br />
parachuutje [parasjytjs]<br />
machine 'engine'<br />
machientje [masjintjn]<br />
Schwa deletion before -tje is an irregular phenomenon, and speakers might<br />
also choose not to delete the schwa. Thus, the form parachute! je also occurs.<br />
In most relevant words, this schwa deletion does not occur.<br />
<strong>The</strong> type <strong>of</strong> allomorphy that we find for the diminutive suffix also occurs in<br />
de-adjectival adverbs derived with the suffix -tjes, which can be analysed as<br />
the morpheme sequence /tja+s/. We get exactly the same allomorphy as for<br />
(39) zacht 's<strong>of</strong>t'<br />
stil 'quiet'<br />
stiekem 'stealthy'<br />
gewoon 'ordinary'<br />
zachtjes 's<strong>of</strong>tly' [zuxjos] 21<br />
stilletjes 'quietly |stilotjos|<br />
stiekempjes 'stealthily' |stikompjos|<br />
gewoontjes 'ordinarily lyauontjas]<br />
<strong>The</strong> /I/ is deleted due lo the /(/-deletion rule I» he discussed in Section 7.2.6.
4-3- MORPHOLEXICAL RULES 73<br />
Diminutive forms are also subject to P-rules. When the stem ends in a<br />
voiced obstruent, these voiced obstruents stand in syllable-final position after<br />
the application <strong>of</strong> the relevant MP-rule, for example, /hand+tja/ becomes<br />
/handja/ with the syllabification (hand) a (ja) CT (/dj/ is not a possible onset).<br />
Syllable-final Devoicing will then devoice the stem-final /d/, and thus we get<br />
(huntja] with, after resyllabirication, the syllabification pattern (han) 0 (tja) 0 .<br />
Another P-rule, /t/-deletion in obstruent clusters (Section 7.2.6) will delete<br />
the stem-final obstruent as in the diminutive form <strong>of</strong> the noun kast 'cupboard'<br />
/kust+ja/, that is realized as [kusja].<br />
4.3.2. -fr-allomorphy<br />
<strong>The</strong> suffix -er is used in three different functions: it forms comparative forms<br />
<strong>of</strong> adjectives, it forms subject names from verbs (cf. Booij 1986), and it forms<br />
de-nominal nouns with a variety <strong>of</strong> interpretations (cf. Booij 1988a). All three<br />
suffixes have the allomorph |dar| after a base ending in /r/, but a competing<br />
rule is that -aar occurs instead <strong>of</strong> -er in the case <strong>of</strong> the nominal (thus de-verbal<br />
and de-nominal) use <strong>of</strong> -er, after a base ending in schwa + coronal sonorant<br />
consonant (Smith 1976):<br />
(40) Adjective<br />
rood /rod/ 'red'<br />
goochem lyoxam] 'smart'<br />
heikel /hcikal/ 'risky'<br />
bitter /bitar/ 'id.'<br />
zuur //yr/ 'sour'<br />
(41) Verb<br />
eet /et/ 'to eat'<br />
/eur /z0r/ 'to nag'<br />
bezem /bezarn/ 'to sweep'<br />
bibber /bibar/ 'to tremble'<br />
kibbel /kibal/ 'to quarrel'<br />
oefen /ufan/ 'to train'<br />
(42) Noun<br />
Amsterdam /amstardum/ 'id.'<br />
wetenschap /uetansxup/ 'science'<br />
Bijlmermeer /bcilmarmer/ 'id.'<br />
Diemen /diman/ 'id.'<br />
Assen /uson/ 'id.'<br />
Lochern /bxam/ 'id.'<br />
Comparative<br />
roder [rodar] 'redder'<br />
goochemer [yoxamar] 'smarter'<br />
heikeler (hdkolor] 'riskier'<br />
bitterder [bitardarj 'more bitter'<br />
zuurder [zyirdar] 'sourer'<br />
De-verbal ninin<br />
eter [etarj 'eater'<br />
zeurder [z0:rdar] 'nagger'<br />
bezemer [bezamar] 'sweeper'<br />
bibberaar [bibara:r] 'trembler'<br />
kibbelaar [kibalairj 'quarreler'<br />
oefenaar [ufana:r| 'trainer'<br />
De-nominal noun<br />
Amsterdammer 'inhabitant <strong>of</strong> A.'<br />
wetenschapper 'scientist'<br />
Bijlmermeerder 'inhabitant <strong>of</strong> B.'<br />
Diemenaar 'inhabitant <strong>of</strong> D.'<br />
Assenaar 'inhabitant <strong>of</strong> A.'<br />
Lochemer 'inhabitant <strong>of</strong> L.'<br />
<strong>The</strong>se data show how <strong>Dutch</strong> avoids surfacing <strong>of</strong> the sequence [rVr], a cluster<br />
that is avoided cross-linguistically (cf. Dressler 1977, Shannon 1991). <strong>The</strong>
74 WORD PHONOl.OtiV<br />
-erl-aar alternation only occurs in nouns, 22 whereas the -erl-cicr alternation has<br />
a general character.<br />
<strong>The</strong> -erl-aar alternation can be dealt with in two ways. One analysis would<br />
simply state that these are two competing suffixes: -aar occurs in a specific<br />
phonological environment, -er is the general suffix, and occurs elsewhere (cf.<br />
Van Marie 1985 for comparable morphological analyses). However, that<br />
analysis does not account for the strong phonological similarity between -er<br />
and -aar (historically both derive from the Latin suffix -arius). Moreover, there<br />
are actually two nominal suffixes -er with different meanings, a de-verbal and<br />
a de-nominal one. So we would also have to assume two -aar suffixes.<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, I propose an MP-rule that changes -er into -aar within nouns:<br />
rule (43)<br />
(43) -erl-aar rule<br />
Insert [-high, -mid) in the context:<br />
[-cons) u +cons |-cons] u r<br />
+son<br />
Cor<br />
I<br />
Since the rule inserts Place features, it will only apply to empty vowels, i.e.,<br />
schwas. Thus, the second schwa will receive the Place specification <strong>of</strong> the /a/,<br />
which is the only long low vowel. Note that the rule mentions the lexical<br />
category Noun which excludes adjectives from its domain, as required. That is,<br />
it is clearly an MP-rule. 23<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule for -der can be seen as a P-rule since its structural description can<br />
be completely couched in phonological terms. It will insert /d/ in the sequence<br />
/r—ar/. It will also apply before the de-verbal suffix -erij /orti/, and insert a /d/<br />
in, for example, klierderij 'nagging' from underlying /klir+arci/. Similarly, it<br />
applies before the suffix -erii> as in liter 'with literary pretensions'. 24<br />
(44) /d/-insertion"<br />
Insert /d/ in the context:<br />
r — [— consj u r<br />
: <strong>The</strong> morpholexical nature <strong>of</strong> the -«•;•/ am alternation is also evident from the fact that -um<br />
occurs in some words that do not completely satisfy Ihe relevant phonological requirements, lor<br />
instance ilic/iiini 'servant' and Icnmi 'teacher', where the coronal consonant is preceded by a full<br />
vowel instead <strong>of</strong> the required schwa. Irregularly.
4-4- ALLOMORPHY IN THE NON-NATIVE LEXICON 75<br />
<strong>The</strong> MP-rule competes with the rule <strong>of</strong> /dAinsertion in nouns like schipperaar<br />
with the underlying form [ [sxip3r]v3r]N- <strong>The</strong> MP-rule has to have priority<br />
although this does not follow from the Elsewhere Principle since the class <strong>of</strong><br />
words to which the MP-rule can apply is not completely a subset <strong>of</strong> the class <strong>of</strong><br />
input words for the rule <strong>of</strong>/d/-insertion: the sets partially overlap. <strong>The</strong> correct<br />
ordering follows from the assumption that in the unmarked case MP-rulcs<br />
precede P-rules (Anderson 1974).<br />
4.4. ALLOMORPHY IN THE NON-NATIVE LEXICON<br />
In Section 2.5.2, I introduced the rule <strong>of</strong> Learned Vowel Backing which says<br />
that in non-native suffixes mid vowels become [+back] before an adjacent nonnative<br />
suffix. Crucially, this rule only applies in the non-native part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
lexicon. Before discussing a number <strong>of</strong> specific alternations in the non-native<br />
part <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>, I will discuss this notion 'non-native lexicon' in some more<br />
detail.<br />
<strong>The</strong> lexicon <strong>of</strong> a language consists <strong>of</strong> at least two parts: a list <strong>of</strong> existing<br />
words, and a set <strong>of</strong> word-formation rules that serve to expand this list. In the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>, it appears that the morphological rules clearly distinguish<br />
between native and non-native input words. For instance, <strong>of</strong> the two synonymous<br />
suffixes -iteit '-ity' and -held '-ness', the first one only attaches to nonnative<br />
input words, 26 whereas the native (Germanic) suffix -held attaches to<br />
both native and non-native input words <strong>of</strong> the required syntactic category:<br />
(45) absurd 'id.' absurditeit/absurdheid 'absurdity'<br />
gewoon 'ordinary' *gewoniteit/gewoonheid 'ordinariness'<br />
This asymmetry between native and non-native word formation is pervasive<br />
throughout <strong>Dutch</strong> word formation (Booij 1977: 131-9), and we may formulate<br />
the relevant morphological principle as follows:<br />
(46) Non-native suffixes only attach to non-native bases<br />
<strong>The</strong> class <strong>of</strong> non-native suffixes involved comprises at least the following<br />
ones: 27<br />
(47) Suffix Base word Derived word<br />
-aal muziek 'music' muzikaal 'musical' (adj.)<br />
-aan parochie 'parish' parochiaan 'parishioner'<br />
-aat doctor 'id.' doctoraat 'doctorate'<br />
-abel accept-eer 'to accept' acceptabel 'acceptable'<br />
-age percent 'per cent' percentage 'id.'<br />
-air elite 'élite' elitair 'élitist'<br />
-andus doctor 'id.'<br />
doctorandus 'MA'<br />
6 Exceptions to this generalization are the words stommiteit 'stupid act' andßauwiteit 'silliness'.<br />
21 Non-native prefixes are discussed in Chapter 5.
-ast<br />
-eel<br />
-eer<br />
-ces<br />
-esk<br />
-ein<br />
-eur<br />
-eus<br />
-iaan<br />
-ica<br />
-icus<br />
-ide<br />
-ieel<br />
-ief<br />
-iek<br />
-1er<br />
-ier<br />
-iet<br />
-ieus<br />
-ine<br />
-isch<br />
-iseer<br />
-isme<br />
-ist<br />
WORD<br />
gymnasium 'id.'<br />
fundament 'foundation'<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>eet 'prophet'<br />
Nepal 'id.'<br />
ballade 'ballad'<br />
Rome 'id.'<br />
ambassade 'embassy'<br />
rancune 'rancour'<br />
presbyter 'id.'<br />
elektron 'electron'<br />
elektron 'electron'<br />
chloor 'chlorine'<br />
exponent 'id.'<br />
agressie 'aggression'<br />
motor 'engine'<br />
juweel 'jewel'<br />
Israel 'id.'<br />
metropool 'metropolis'<br />
mode 'fashion'<br />
nectar 'id.'<br />
algebra 'id.'<br />
banaal 'trivial'<br />
absurd 'id.'<br />
propaganda 'id.'<br />
PHONOLOGY<br />
gymnasiast (lit.('gymnasium student'<br />
fundamenteel 'fundamental'<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>eteer 'to prophesy'<br />
Nepalees 'Nepalese'<br />
balladesk 'ballad-like'<br />
Romein 'Roman'<br />
ambassadeur 'ambassador'<br />
rancuneus 'vindictive'<br />
presbyteriaan 'Presbyterian'<br />
elektronica 'electronics'<br />
elektronicus 'electronic engineer'<br />
chloride 'id.'<br />
exponentieel 'exponential'<br />
agressief 'aggressive'<br />
motoriek 'locomotion'<br />
juwelier 'jeweller'<br />
Israelier 'Israeli'<br />
metropoliet 'metropolitan'<br />
modieus 'fashionable'<br />
nectarine 'id.'<br />
algebraisch 'algebraic'<br />
banaliseer 'to trivialize'<br />
absurdisme (lit.) 'absurdism'<br />
propagandist 'id.'<br />
It is not always easy to determine whether an underived word is still felt as<br />
non-native, but morphological behaviour is a reliable indication.<br />
So we might conceive <strong>of</strong> the non-native lexicon as a list <strong>of</strong> non-native words<br />
and a set <strong>of</strong> non-native word-formation rules. This subcomponent <strong>of</strong> the<br />
lexicon may then also comprise the MP-rules that account for the different<br />
types <strong>of</strong> allomorphy in affixes and roots. However, the notion 'non-native<br />
lexicon' cannot be seen as a completely distinct component <strong>of</strong> the grammar,<br />
because there are cases in which native affixation may take place in between<br />
cases <strong>of</strong> non-native affixation. For instance, in the word ongrammaticaal<br />
'ungrammatical' the native prefix on- 'un-' has been added to the non-native<br />
complex adjective f>rammatikaal 'grammatical', itself derived by suffixation<br />
<strong>of</strong> -aal '-al' to grammatika 'grammar'. Yet, we can add the non-native suffix<br />
-iteit '-ity' to the adjective ongrammaticaal, because the prefix on- is not the<br />
head <strong>of</strong> the word. Hence, the feature |— native] percolates from the head<br />
grammaticaal to the whole word ongrammaticaal (cf. Williams 1981, Lieber<br />
1989) which therefore allows for another cycle <strong>of</strong> non-native suffixation.<br />
As we will see in Chapter 5, the distinction between native and non-native<br />
lexicon will also play a role in the analysis <strong>of</strong> word stress.<br />
In the following subsections 1 will discuss a number <strong>of</strong> non-native MP-rules.
4-4- ALLOMORPHY IN THE NON-NATIVE LEXICON<br />
4.4.1. Affixal allomorphy<br />
77<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> non-native affixes exhibit allomorphy. <strong>The</strong>y will be discussed in<br />
this subsection.<br />
One type <strong>of</strong> allomorphy is mentioned in Section 2.2.5, the backing <strong>of</strong> long<br />
mid vowels. <strong>The</strong> following examples illustrate the working <strong>of</strong> this rule:<br />
(48) Base word<br />
-eel —> -aal<br />
fundament+eel<br />
eventu+eel<br />
sentiment+eel<br />
ration+eel<br />
mor+eel<br />
-air -> -aar<br />
milit+air<br />
vulg+air<br />
popul+air<br />
-eur -> -oor<br />
direct+eur<br />
superi+eur<br />
inspect+eur<br />
inferi+eur<br />
-eus —> -oos<br />
nerv+eus<br />
religi+eus<br />
curi+eus<br />
mon.stru+eus<br />
Derived words<br />
fundament+al+isme, fundament+al+ist<br />
eventu+al+iteit<br />
sentiment+al+isme<br />
ration+al+isme, ration+al+iteit<br />
mor+al+isme, mor+al+ist<br />
milit+ar+isme, milit+ar+ist<br />
vulg+ar+isme, vulg+ar+iseer<br />
popul+ar+iteit, popul+ar+iseer<br />
direct+or+aat<br />
superi+or+iteit<br />
inspect+or+aat<br />
inferi+or+iteit<br />
nerv+os+iteit<br />
religi+os+iteit<br />
curi+os+iteit<br />
monstru+os+iteit<br />
Rule (49) expresses this generalization concerning non-native suffixes with<br />
mid front vowels:<br />
(49) Learned Vowel Backing T-consl -» [+back] / — [+cons] ] s [ . . . ] s<br />
L+midJ<br />
Condition:<br />
S(uffix) = [-native]<br />
It is not sufficient here to assume that the rule is a cyclic rule, and hence<br />
applies in derived environments only. For instance, in tonelist /tonel+ist/<br />
'playwright' the /e/ is not backed since it is not part <strong>of</strong> a non-native suffix.<br />
<strong>The</strong> subsequent lowering <strong>of</strong> the [+back] counterpart <strong>of</strong> /e/ and A::/ to /a/<br />
follows from the redundancy rule that says that unrounded back vowels are<br />
low (Chapter 2, rule (\5h)). <strong>The</strong> 'learned' nature <strong>of</strong> this backing rule is also<br />
evident from the fact that for most native speakers the noun derived from<br />
nerveus 'nervous' is nervcusiteit 'nervousness', without Learned Vowel Backing,<br />
rather than nervositeit.
78 WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
A second type <strong>of</strong> allomorphy is characteristic for the non-native suffix -iek<br />
-likl that shows up as [is] before non-native suffixes that begin with an /i/ or /i/:<br />
(50) kathol-iek 'catholic' /katol-ik/, kathol-ic-iteit [kutolisiteit], kathol-icisme<br />
[kutolisismo]<br />
sympath-iek /sim-pat-ik/ 'sympathetic', sympath-is-eer |simpatise:r]<br />
excentr-iek /eks-sentr-ik/ 'eccentric', excentr-ic-iteit [eksentrisitcit]<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are also exceptions to the rule. For instance, the final /k/ <strong>of</strong> antiek<br />
'antique' does not show up as [s] before the suffix -iteit, but either as [k] or<br />
as [kw|: antiquiteiten 'antiquities' |untik(w)itdton).<br />
<strong>The</strong> non-native suffix -ear that expresses agents or instruments exhibits two<br />
allomorphs before the feminizing suffix -e: -eus /0s/ and -rie /ris/ which is<br />
found in particular after stems ending in a coronal stop:<br />
(51) mont-eur 'engineer' mont-eus-e<br />
control-eur 'checker' control-eus-e<br />
ambassad-eur 'ambassador' ambassad-ric-e<br />
conduct-eur 'conductor' conduct-ric-e<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are also some non-native prefixes with a specific allomorphy pattern.<br />
<strong>The</strong> negative prefix in-, a borrowing from Latin, still exhibits the allomorphy<br />
that it had in Latin:<br />
(52) im- [im| impopulair 'unpopular'<br />
in- [inj intolerant 'id.'<br />
in- [irjl inconsistent 'id.'<br />
il- [il] illegaal 'illegal'<br />
ir- [ir] irrationeel 'irrational'<br />
Note in particular that, whereas <strong>Dutch</strong> does have Nasal Assimilation, it does<br />
not have complete assimilation <strong>of</strong> nasals before liquids, as is the case here. <strong>The</strong><br />
same allomorphy is shown by the prefix con- /kon/, also a Latin borrowing:<br />
(53) com-[kom] commemoreren'to commemorate'<br />
con- [kon] consistent 'id.'<br />
con- [korj] conclaaf 'conclave'<br />
col- [kol] collaboratie 'collaboration' (pej.)<br />
cor- [kor] correlatie 'correlation'<br />
<strong>The</strong> prefixes a- /a/ 'id.' and de- /de/ 'id.' have specific allomorphs before<br />
vowel-initial stems: an- /an/ and des- /des/ respectively, as in an-organisch<br />
'inorganic' and des-interesse 'disinterest'.<br />
4.4.2. Root alternations<br />
Some non-native roots that end in A/ alternate with either /s/ (after a consonant),<br />
or /ts/ (after a vowel): 28<br />
2 * Some speakers have /Is/ aller a sonorant consonant, as in tolerantie which will then be<br />
pronounced as |tolr>runtsi|, hut only in very careful speech, because in more casual speech A/s tend<br />
to delete in CtC clusters.
4-4- ALLOMORPHY IN THE NON-NATIVE LEXICON 79<br />
(54) akt+ie 'action' [uksi]<br />
adopt+ie 'adoption' [adnpsij<br />
tolerant 'tolerant' [tolaruntj<br />
president 'id.' [president]<br />
Kant |kunt) 'id.'<br />
convert+eer 'to convert'<br />
[knnvcrteir]<br />
(55) rat+io 'id.' [ratsijo]<br />
relat+ie 'relation' (relatsi]<br />
akt+ief 'active' [aktif]<br />
adopt+eer 'to adopt' [adopte:r],<br />
adopt+ief 'adoptive' [adnptif]<br />
tolerantie 'tolerancy' [tolarunsi]<br />
president+ieel 'presidential'<br />
Ipresidcnsjel)<br />
Kantiaan 'Kantian' [kunsijan]<br />
convers+ie 'conversion' (konversi]<br />
rat+ificeer 'to ratify' [ratifiseir]<br />
relat+ief 'relative' (relatif)<br />
relat+eer 'to relate' [relate:r]<br />
milit+air 'militairy' [milite:r]<br />
milit+ie 'militia' [militsi]<br />
polit+ie 'police' [politsi] polit+iek 'politics' [politik]<br />
polit+ioneel 'police-' [politsijonel]<br />
stat+ion 'id.' [statsijon] stat+isch 'static' [statis]<br />
<strong>The</strong> generalization is that underlying ft/ changes into /ts/ or /s/ before the<br />
morpheme /i/, or before morphemes that begin with an /i/ which is followed by<br />
a vowel in the same morpheme, as in -io, -iaan, -ion. <strong>The</strong> relevant rules will<br />
therefore refer to the notion 'morpheme /i/ or morpheme /i/ followed by a<br />
vowel (M = Morpheme): 29<br />
(56) a. t -> ts / (-cons) — [i X . . . | M X * |+cons]<br />
b. t -> s / [+cons] — [i X ... IM X * |+cons|<br />
<strong>The</strong> rules will not apply to simplex words like spaghetti 'id.' and Haiti 'id.'<br />
because they do not contain a morpheme /i/. Moreover, there are also exceptions<br />
to the rule even where a nominalizing morpheme -le seems to be involved as in<br />
sympathie 'sympathy' [simpati |. In the case <strong>of</strong> Kantiaan there is variation: it may<br />
also be pronounced as [kuntijan]. Many speakers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> realize intervocalic<br />
As/ as [s], for instance in politie which will then be pronounced as [polisi],<br />
One may doubt whether such alternations should really be accounted for by<br />
rule. <strong>The</strong>re is no transparent phonological generalization given words such as<br />
sympathie. Moreover, native speakers might not even establish relations<br />
between allomorphs like those <strong>of</strong> /polit/ in polit+ie 'police' versus polit+iek<br />
'politics', given the lack <strong>of</strong> semantic relationship between these words. So we<br />
might assume that both allomorphs are listed in the lexicon as parts <strong>of</strong> the<br />
words in which they occur, and that, instead <strong>of</strong> productive rules, we have 'via<br />
rules' (Vennemann 1972) that express the systematic* in the distribution <strong>of</strong><br />
allomorphs. A via rule does not derive one form from another, but only states<br />
" v In a complete formali/uliun ol' these rules, one cannot uniquely refer Io A/ as the locus <strong>of</strong> the<br />
rules if Ivoicel is a private feature: the rule will jusi refer to coronal slops. Note, however, that /d/s<br />
ilo not alternate, compare komt'ilir 'comedy', (unii'iluinl 'comedy player'. This seems to be a<br />
problem for the privative interpretation <strong>of</strong> | voice]. However, the rule has exceptions anyway (e.g.<br />
.\\iii/Kiiliii' /simpati/ with the phonetic form |simpati|).
80 WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
that two forms are formally related. For instance, rule (56a) would be<br />
reformulated as follows:<br />
(57) [. . . |-cons) ts] M in the context - - [i X . . . ] M alternates with<br />
[ . . . [-cons] t ] M elsewhere (X * [+cons| )<br />
4.4.3. Alternations in velar nasal clusters<br />
As pointed out by Trommelen (1984: 165-6) velar nasal clusters exhibit three<br />
different types <strong>of</strong> alternation.<br />
First, words ending in |rj] may have an allomorph ending in |qy] before nonnative<br />
suffixes:<br />
(58) difto|rj] 'diphthong' difto[rjy]eer 'to diphthongi/.e'<br />
A[n]elsaksisch 'Anglo-Saxon' a[rjy]list 'Anglicist'"<br />
Secondly, [rjy] alternates with [rjk] before a coronal obstruent:<br />
(59) fu|rjy|eren 'to function' fu(rjk|tie 'function'<br />
larylrjyjaal 'laryngeal' lary[rjk|s 'larynx'<br />
A third alternation is that between |rjy] and |kj, as in<br />
(60) fi[rjy|eren 'to make up' fi|k]tie 'fiction'<br />
restri[rjy]eren 'to restrict' restri(k|tie 'restriction'<br />
As will be clear from the unsystematic nature <strong>of</strong> these alternations, the relevant<br />
allomorphs will have to be listed as parts <strong>of</strong> the complex words in which they<br />
occur.<br />
4.4.4. Vowel lengthening<br />
Non-native words ending in a syllable with a VC rhyme that does not bear<br />
main stress exhibit vowel lengthening: the vowel <strong>of</strong> the last syllable is<br />
lengthened before vowel-initial suffixes:<br />
(61) doct[o]r 'id.' doct[o]r-aat 'doctorate'<br />
doct[o|r-aal 'MA degree'<br />
doct|o|r-andus 'MA'<br />
This lengthening is systematic, as is illustrated here for a number <strong>of</strong> suffixes:<br />
(62) Base word Derived word<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ess|D]r 'pr<strong>of</strong>essor' pr<strong>of</strong>ess[o]r-aal 'pr<strong>of</strong>essorial'<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ess|o|r-aat 'pr<strong>of</strong>essorship'<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ess[o|r-abel 'fit for pr<strong>of</strong>essorship'<br />
cons|v]l 'id.'<br />
cons|y]l-air 'consular'<br />
Nep|a|l 'id.'<br />
Nep[a]l-ees 'Nepalese'<br />
Äron|D]ff 'id.'<br />
Aron[o|v-iaan 'Aronovian'<br />
" <strong>The</strong> pronunciation without the velar fricative also occurs.
elektr[D]n 'id.'<br />
alcoh[rt]l 'id.'<br />
4-4- ALLOMORPHY IN THE NON-NATIVE LEXICON 8l<br />
mot[o]r 'engine'<br />
kan|ojn 'canon'<br />
nect[u|r 'id.'<br />
Isru|L-]l 'id.'<br />
Jak[D)b 'Jacob'<br />
Jez|v]s 'Jesus'<br />
No|a)ch 'Noah'<br />
alfab[e)t 'alphabet'<br />
dem[D]n 'id.'<br />
sat(u]n 'id.'<br />
elektr[o]n-ica 'electronics'<br />
elektr[o]n-icus 'electronic engineer'<br />
alcoh(o]l-icus 'alcoholic'<br />
alcoh|o)list 'alcoholic'<br />
mot[o]r-iek 'way <strong>of</strong> moving'<br />
kan[o]n-iek 'canonical'<br />
nect[a]r-ine 'id.'<br />
Isra[e)l-ier 'Israeli'<br />
Jak[o|b-iet 'Jacobite'<br />
Jez[y|-iet 'Jesuit'<br />
No[a|ch-iet 'Noachite'<br />
alfab[e)t-isch 'alphabetic'<br />
dem|o]n-isch 'demonic'<br />
sat[a]n-isch 'satanic'<br />
<strong>The</strong> lengthening is triggered by [-native] suffixes, but the base should also be<br />
[-native], as is proven by the following observation. We can add the<br />
[-native] suffix -iaan to personal names such as the name <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
linguist Uhlenbeck /ylanbck/. We then get Uhlenbeckiaan 'follower <strong>of</strong><br />
Uhlenbeck', but the /c/ in the final syllable is not lengthened, although it<br />
does not bear main stress: [ylanbekijan]. <strong>The</strong> rule should therefore be<br />
formulated as (63). 31<br />
(63) Vowel Lengthening (non-native morphemes only) 32<br />
Insert X in the context X; X X<br />
I I I<br />
[-cons] [+cons| [-cons]<br />
Condition:<br />
X; is not in a syllable with main stress"<br />
<strong>The</strong> condition that the base-final syllable does not bear main stress explains<br />
why we do not get lengthening in the following cases, where the base word has<br />
main stress on the final syllable:<br />
(64) Base word Derived word<br />
kan[D|n 'gun'<br />
kan[D]nn-ier 'gun man'<br />
kol[n]s 'giant'<br />
kol[o]ss-aal 'gigantic'<br />
" A seemingly exceptional case <strong>of</strong> lengthening is ufftoilixch |ufxodis| 'idolatrous' derived from<br />
«/.i;
82 WORD PHONOUXiY<br />
mod|c|I 'model'<br />
kart|D]n 'cardboard'<br />
tir[u]n 'tyrant'<br />
tromplejt 'trumpet'<br />
klarin[L'|t 'clarinet'<br />
mod[i:lll-eer 'to model'<br />
kart|r>|nn-age 'cardboard manufacture'<br />
tir|u]nn-iseer 'to tyrannize'<br />
tromp|t|tt-ist 'trumpeter'<br />
klarin|t;)tt-ist 'clarinettist'<br />
<strong>The</strong> stress condition on vowel lengthening shows that the base words must<br />
already have their stress patterns assigned before vowel lengthening applies,<br />
because after affixation the main stress will shift rightward, thus erasing the<br />
stress differences between the base words. For instance, in alcohólicus<br />
'alcoholic', main stress is on the syllable (ho) 0 , and this would incorrectly<br />
block lengthening if lengthening applied at the end <strong>of</strong> the derivation. Inversely,<br />
in, for example, trompettist the penultimate syllable is unstressed. Yet, the<br />
vowel <strong>of</strong> that syllable should not lengthen since it did have main stress on the<br />
previous cycle. In sum, the facts discussed here clearly require a cyclic<br />
application <strong>of</strong> rules: on the first cycle, stress is assigned, on the second cycle<br />
Vowel Lengthening applies, and then again the stress rule.<br />
In Odden (1990) it is suggested that we may avoid cyclic stress assignment<br />
by making the relevant rules sensitive to lexical stresses. Indeed, words like<br />
trompet have exceptional stress in that normally words ending in a VC syllable<br />
do not have final stress. However, lengthening does not occur if the base word<br />
is monosyllabic, that is, in words for which the location <strong>of</strong> the main stress is<br />
completely predictable, as in tonnage 'number <strong>of</strong> tons' derived from ton 'id.',<br />
or in blokkeer 'to block' derived from blok 'block'. Another interesting case is<br />
librettist [librctistl 'id.' derived from libretto /lihrtto/ 'id.'. <strong>The</strong> base word has<br />
a regular, penultimate main stress. After regular deletion <strong>of</strong> the final vowel <strong>of</strong><br />
the base word, it is the /e/ which is potentially subject to lengthening, but this<br />
is blocked by the presence <strong>of</strong> the regular main stress on the relevant syllable, as<br />
assigned on the first cycle. Thus it is correctly predicted that the /e/ does not<br />
lengthen, although no lexical stress is involved here.<br />
Non-native words in -or and -on are special in that vowel lengthening also<br />
occurs before the plural suffix -en /an/ (note that normally the plural suffix<br />
after syllables without main stress is /s/):<br />
(65) doct|D]r 'id.' doct[o|r-en 'doctors'<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ess|o|r 'id.' pr<strong>of</strong>ess|o]r-en 'pr<strong>of</strong>essors'<br />
juni[D)r 'id.' juni[o]r-en 'juniors'<br />
seni|D]r 'id.' seni[o|r-en 'seniors'<br />
mot[D]r 'engine' mot[o]r-en 'engines'<br />
dem|D]n 'id.' dem|o)n-en 'demons'<br />
elektr|D|n 'id.' elektr[ojn-en 'electrons'<br />
We may also select the other plural suftix <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>, -.v. In this case, the /.->/ is<br />
not lengthened. Also, the main stress <strong>of</strong> the word, which is on the syllable<br />
before -or, will then remain on that syllable, whereas it is shifted to the syllable<br />
with [o] in case the vowel is lengthened as shown in (66).
(66) doctors<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essors<br />
Juniors<br />
seniors<br />
motors<br />
démons<br />
eléktrons<br />
4.4. ALLOMORPHY IN THE NON-NATIVE LEXICON<br />
doctoren<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essoren<br />
junioren<br />
senioren<br />
motoren<br />
demonen<br />
elektronen<br />
<strong>The</strong> implication <strong>of</strong> this phenomenon is that these plural forms have to be<br />
exceptionally fed back into the non-native component <strong>of</strong> the lexicon which<br />
will then make them undergo vowel lengthening and the Main Stress Rule (cf.<br />
Section 5.2). <strong>The</strong> Main Stress Rule (MSR) will then assign main stress to the<br />
syllable with the lengthened vowel (67).<br />
(67) 1st cycle: motor<br />
MSR 0<br />
2nd cycle<br />
motor + an<br />
Lengthening<br />
o<br />
MSR<br />
ó<br />
Phonetic form [motóran]<br />
4.4.5. Other cases <strong>of</strong> allomorphy<br />
Allomorphy in the non-native lexicon is not restricted to the alternations<br />
discussed in the preceding sections. <strong>The</strong>re are more examples, which <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
have an unsystematic character: we simply have to learn that a specific<br />
allomorph <strong>of</strong> a word has to be used when it enters derivation. <strong>The</strong> following<br />
list <strong>of</strong> examples is by no means an exhaustive list <strong>of</strong> all the possibilities. We<br />
clearly deal here with a 'pan-European' kind <strong>of</strong> lexicon <strong>of</strong> roots, since similar<br />
alternations are found across the learned vocabularies <strong>of</strong> European languages:<br />
(68) Base word<br />
a. orkest 'orchestra'<br />
b. gymnasium 'id.'<br />
c. cursus 'course'<br />
d. minist|3]r 'id.'<br />
apost[o|l 'apostle'<br />
c. g[c:]ne 'shame'<br />
ƒ. dimensie 'dimension'<br />
functie 'function'<br />
g. Plato 'id.'<br />
h. Portugal 'id.'<br />
i. Jezus 'Jesus'<br />
j. Paulus 'Paul'<br />
k. trauma 'id.'<br />
drama 'id.'<br />
Derived word<br />
orkestr-eer 'to orchestrate'<br />
gymnasi-ast '(lit.) gymnasium pupil'<br />
curs-ist 'student'<br />
minist[e]r-ieel 'ministerial'<br />
apost|o]l-isch 'apostolic'<br />
g[o]n-ant 'shaming'<br />
dimension-eel 'dimensional'<br />
function-eer 'to function'<br />
platon-ist 'Platonist'<br />
Portug-ees 'Portuguese'<br />
Jezu-iet 'Jesuit'<br />
Paulin-isch 'Pauline'<br />
traumat-isch 'traumatic'<br />
dramat-isch 'dramatic'
84 WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
horizon 'id.'<br />
horizont-aal 'horizontal'<br />
/. chaos 'id.' chaot-isch 'chaotic'<br />
eros 'Eros'<br />
erot-isch 'erotic'<br />
m. orgel 'organ' organ-ist 'id.'<br />
n. commiss-ie 'committee' committ-eer 'to commit'<br />
In some cases the allomorphy is more systematic. <strong>The</strong>re are roots ending in /tr/<br />
or /yl/ such as arbiter /urbitr/ 'id.', center /scntr/ 'centre', regel /reyl/ 'rule',<br />
and filter /filtr/ 'id.' which occur without a schwa before non-native suffixes,<br />
but with a schwa in formations with a native suffix. <strong>The</strong> root ends in a cluster<br />
that cannot be syllabified because the final /r/ is more sonorous than the<br />
preceding obstruent, and thus the SSG would be violated if they formed a<br />
coda. In the non-native lexicon syllabification is made possible through<br />
attachment <strong>of</strong> a vowel-initial suffix. If no affixation takes place, the unsyllabifiable<br />
/r/ is rescued by inserting a schwa before the /r/ before the word<br />
enters the native morphology:<br />
(69) arbitreer, arbitrage versus arbiter, arbiteren<br />
centreer, centraal versus center, centeren<br />
reglement versus regel, regelen, regeling<br />
filtreer, filtraat versus filter, filteren, filtering<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule that inserts the schwa must therefore apply after non-native morphological<br />
processes, but before the application <strong>of</strong> the native morphology:<br />
(70) Insert /a/ before an extrasyllabic liquid.<br />
Another regularity is that the stem-final vowel <strong>of</strong> words may disappear<br />
before a vowel-initial non-native suffix if that stem-final vowel is not<br />
stressed. However, this vowel deletion is not systematic:<br />
(71) Amerika 'America' Amerik-aan 'American'<br />
Canada 'id.'<br />
Canad-ees 'Canadian'<br />
propaganda 'id.' propagand-ist 'id.'<br />
piano 'id.'<br />
pian-ist' 'id.'<br />
cello 'id.'<br />
cell-ist 'id.'<br />
solo 'id.'<br />
sol-ist 'soloist'<br />
inflatie 'inflation' inflat-oir 'inflatory'<br />
Exceptions are words like egoist 'id.' and maoist 'Maoist'. <strong>The</strong> final vowel <strong>of</strong><br />
the base word does not disappear if it bears the main stress <strong>of</strong> the word, as in<br />
hobo 'oboe'-hoboist 'oboist'.<br />
In the following word pairs there is an alternation between /e/ or /e/ and<br />
schwa. <strong>The</strong> underlying /e/ and /e/ obligatorily change into a schwa in<br />
unstressed position:<br />
(72) juweel /jyuel/ 'jewel' juwel-ier [jyualiir) 'jeweller'<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>eet /protêt/ 'prophet' pröfet-éer [pr<strong>of</strong>ateir) 'to prophesize'<br />
arrest /urest/ 'id.'<br />
àrrest-éer [urasteir] 'to arrest'
4-4- ALLOMORPHY IN THE NON-NATIVE LEXICON<br />
This alternation is related to the phenomenon <strong>of</strong> vowel reduction (Section 6.4):<br />
vowels, and in particular the /e/ and the /e/, optionally reduce to schwa in<br />
unstressed position. <strong>The</strong> difference is that in the words discussed here the<br />
reduction is obligatory. <strong>The</strong> rule can be stated as in (73).<br />
(73) Vowel Reduction [—cons]<br />
+mid<br />
— round<br />
Condition:<br />
In unstressed syllables only<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule is lexically governed. For instance, in percentage /persentaZja/ 'id.',<br />
derived from percent /pcrscnt/ 'per cent' the vowel <strong>of</strong> the unstressed second<br />
syllable can still be pronounced as a full |ej. Optional vowel reduction is<br />
accounted for by a separate rule (cf. Section 6.4). <strong>The</strong>re is also variation<br />
between speakers here: some are rather categorical in their reduction <strong>of</strong> these<br />
vowels, and thus they may have more words marked in their lexicon as subject<br />
to this rule.<br />
Note, that, as in the case <strong>of</strong> vowel deletion, information about the stress<br />
pattern <strong>of</strong> the words involved may be crucial, either that <strong>of</strong> the base word, as in<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> vowel deletion, or that <strong>of</strong> the derived word, as in the case <strong>of</strong> vowel<br />
reduction.<br />
It is not always clear whether the allomorphy occurs in the stem or in the<br />
suffix. In the case <strong>of</strong> dimensioneel one might either say that -eel selects a<br />
specific allomorph dimension, or that dimensie selects a specific allomorph <strong>of</strong><br />
the suffix -eel, viz. -oneel. If the allomorphy shows up in related words with<br />
different suffixes, there is evidence that it is a case <strong>of</strong> root allomorphy. For<br />
instance, the allomorph dramat <strong>of</strong> drama 'id.' occurs in dramatisch 'dramatic',<br />
dramaturg 'dramatist' and dramatiek 'dramatics'. A case <strong>of</strong> allomorphy <strong>of</strong> the<br />
suffix can be seen in the word pairs perceptie 'perception'—perceptueel<br />
'perceptual' and contract 'id.'—contractueel 'contractual', and in exponent<br />
'id.'—exponentieel 'exponential' an allomorph with /i/ shows up. If we<br />
consider the /u/ and the /i/ part <strong>of</strong> the suffixes, we can predict the deletion<br />
<strong>of</strong> the stem-final /i/ <strong>of</strong> 'perceptie, and also the loss <strong>of</strong> the final schwa <strong>of</strong> principe<br />
'principle' in the adjective principieel 'principled'.<br />
Clearly, we have reached here the borders <strong>of</strong> phonology, and such observations<br />
could be relegated to morphology as well. That applies even more so in<br />
pairs <strong>of</strong> related words like the following:<br />
(74) plagiaat 'plagiary' plagieer 'plagiarize'<br />
kandidaat 'candidate' kandideer 'to nominate as candidate'<br />
where a whole morpheme -aat disappears before the next suffix. Such rules<br />
have been called truncation rules by Aron<strong>of</strong>f (1976).
86 WORD PHONOUXiY<br />
In sum, the non-native roots and affixes that are used in <strong>Dutch</strong> appear to<br />
have their own systematics and irregularities that do not extend to the native<br />
lexicon. <strong>The</strong> relevant rules will therefore be assigned to a specific non-native<br />
subpart <strong>of</strong> the lexical phonology <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>. Moreover, words will sometimes<br />
have to be listed with their specific allomorphs in the lexicon.<br />
4.5. ALLOMORPHY IN THE NATIVE LEXICON<br />
Above, I discussed some examples <strong>of</strong> regular allomorphy in specific native<br />
suffixes. Some suffixed words exhibit allomorphy in that there is an alternation<br />
between an allomorph with initial schwa, spelled e and one without it. This<br />
applies to the suffixes -ling, -loos, -lijk, and -nix:<br />
(75) twee-ling 'twins', naar-ling 'pain in the neck', verschopp-e-ling 'outcast',<br />
hov-e-ling 'courtier', lamm-e-ling 'dead loss', vertrouw-e-ling<br />
'confidant'<br />
baan-loos 'jobless', bodem-loos 'bottomless', werk-loos 'unemployed'<br />
moed-e-loos 'dispirited', werk-e-loos 'idle'<br />
aanzien-lijk 'considerable', aandoen-lijk 'moving', klaag-lijk 'plaintive'<br />
graf-e-lijk '<strong>of</strong> a court', werk-e-lijk 'real', gemoed-e-lijk 'agreeable',<br />
vrouw-e-lijk 'female'<br />
vuil-nis 'trash', treur-nis 'sorrow'<br />
begraf-e-nis 'burial', laf-e-nis 'refreshment', vermoei-e-nis 'weariness'<br />
<strong>The</strong> schwa-initial allomorph seems to be the preferred one after an obstruent,<br />
but there are no absolute rules here, as the examples lammeling and werkloos<br />
illustrate. 14 One may raise the question whether the schwa belongs to the<br />
suffix, or to the stem. As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact, there is evidence that the schwa<br />
should indeed be considered here an extension <strong>of</strong> the stem: -ling and -loos<br />
belong to the set <strong>of</strong> suffixes that form a prosodie word <strong>of</strong> their own, and the<br />
schwa clearly does not belong to that prosodie word, but to the preceding<br />
one. (Prosodie words cannot even be schwa-initial!) For instance, the<br />
prosodie structure <strong>of</strong> moedeloos '(lit.) without courage, dispirited' is<br />
( (mu) CT (d3) 0 )o)( (losJo)^. So these schwas might be seen as kinds <strong>of</strong> linking<br />
phonemes between stem and suffix (cf. Section 3.6 on linking phonemes).<br />
Native roots also exhibit a number <strong>of</strong> types <strong>of</strong> allomorphy, with the common<br />
property that the relevant alternations are always lexically governed. For<br />
instance, a completely irregular pattern <strong>of</strong> vowel alternations is found for<br />
i4<br />
<strong>The</strong> phonological status <strong>of</strong> this schwa was discussed in Kooij ( 1977). Interestingly, Shannon<br />
( 1991 ) argued that the insertion <strong>of</strong> a schwa alter obstruents has to do with the fact that a cluster <strong>of</strong><br />
an obstruent followed by a sonorant consonant does not form an optimal syllable contact. In<br />
optimal syllable contacts, the sonorant consonant precedes the obstruent (cf. Section 3.3.5). This<br />
also explains why it is sonorant-inilial suffixes that exhibit this allomorphy.
4-5- ALLOMORPHY IN THE NATIVE LEXICON 87<br />
nouns derived from strong or ablauting verbs." Sometimes, the vowel <strong>of</strong> the<br />
de-verbal noun corresponds with one <strong>of</strong> the vowels <strong>of</strong> the verbal paradigm, but<br />
even that is not always the case, as the examples given here show:<br />
(76) Verb Verbal form Noun<br />
komen 'to come' k[D|m (pres. sg.) k[3]mst 'coming'<br />
snijden 'to cut' sn[eld (past sg.) sn[e]de 'cut'<br />
sluiten 'to close'<br />
slot 'lock'<br />
ruiken 'to smell'<br />
reuk 'smell'<br />
zingen 'to sing'<br />
gez[a]ng 'song'<br />
geven 'to give' g[a[f (past sg.) g|a]ve 'gift'<br />
g(a|ven (past pi.) g[i]ft 'gift'<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, it makes no sense to analyse such vowel alternations in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
rules.<br />
Another kind <strong>of</strong> irregular vowel alternation is found for a few words, where<br />
/y/ alternates with /DU/, as in nu-nou 'now', duw-douw 'push', and stuw-stouw<br />
'to stow'. <strong>The</strong>y differ in that the form with the diphthong is more informal,<br />
and may have different connotations and different conditions <strong>of</strong> use, as is<br />
particularly clear for nu versus nou.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are also lexically governed alternations where some regularity is<br />
involved. <strong>The</strong>y are discussed in the next subsections.<br />
4.5.1. Vowel lengthening<br />
In a number <strong>of</strong> words a short vowel alternates with a long vowel, as in the<br />
following pairs <strong>of</strong> singular and plural nouns:<br />
(77) Singular Plural<br />
schip 'ship' [sxip] schepen (sxepan)<br />
smid 'smith' [smit] smeden [smedan]<br />
spel 'game' [spel] spelen |spelan|<br />
weg 'road' |uex| wegen [ueyon]<br />
god 'god' [y:>t| goden [yodon]<br />
hol 'hole' [hol]<br />
holen [holan]<br />
lot 'id.' [lat]<br />
loten [lotan]<br />
hertog 'duke' [hertox] hertogen [hcrtoyan]<br />
dal 'valley' [dul) dalen [dalan]<br />
bad 'bath' [bat]<br />
baden [badan]<br />
stad 'city' |stut|<br />
steden [stedan]<br />
<strong>The</strong> last example is exceptional in that |u| alternates with [e] rather than with<br />
|;i|. Note that (e| is the long counterpart <strong>of</strong> both [i] and [e], as discussed in<br />
Section 2.5.2.<br />
" <strong>The</strong> vowel alternations in the verbal paradigms <strong>of</strong> these strong verbs are a purely morphological<br />
matter, and will therefore not be discussed in this book.
88 WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
Historically, this alternation is due to a process <strong>of</strong> open-syllable lengthening.<br />
Synchronicaliy, however, it is a purely lexically governed phenomenon. It also<br />
occurs in other types <strong>of</strong> complex word, as in sch\e.\peling 'crew member',<br />
sm[t\derij 'smithy', l[o]terij 'lottery', hert[o]gelijk 'ducal' and st[e\delijk<br />
'urban'. But even for those morphemes that exhibit this alternation we also<br />
rind the allomorph with the short vowel in open syllable, as in schipper<br />
[sxipar] 'skipper', spelletje [spelatja] 'game', goddelijk (y^dalak] 'divine'<br />
and badderen [budaran] 'to take a bath' (informal). Inversely, we find the<br />
long vowel in all forms <strong>of</strong> the following verbs, even when the relevant syllable<br />
is closed, as is the case with the first-person singular forms:<br />
(78) inscheep 'to embark' /insxep/<br />
smeed 'to forge' /smed/<br />
speel 'to play'<br />
/spel/<br />
verafgood 'to idolize' /vcrufyod/<br />
loot 'to cast lots' /lot/<br />
daal 'to go down' /dal/<br />
baad 'to take a bath' /bad/<br />
<strong>The</strong> long vowel is also found in a closed syllable in a compound like<br />
scheepsheschuit '(lit.) ship's biscuit'."'<br />
4.5.2. /da/-0 alternations and /a/-0 alternation*<br />
In medieval <strong>Dutch</strong> a phonological process took place in which the sequence<br />
/da/ was deleted both word-finally and in intervocalic position. It was a<br />
process subject to lexical diffusion, that is, it affected a number <strong>of</strong> words,<br />
one by one, and then it stopped. Consequently, there are a number <strong>of</strong> words in<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> with two forms, one with, and one without /do/. As may be expected, the<br />
two allomorphs <strong>of</strong>ten got different meanings, or at least a stylistic differentiation<br />
(the Je-less allomorph is more informal, or the allomorph with de<br />
archaic):<br />
(79) Word-finally<br />
snede 'cut'<br />
snee 'cut, slice (<strong>of</strong> bread)'<br />
armoede 'poverty' armoe<br />
lade 'drawer'<br />
la<br />
weide 'meadow' wei<br />
koude 'cold'<br />
kou<br />
heide 'heath'<br />
hei<br />
moede 'tired'<br />
moe<br />
mede 'with'<br />
mee<br />
/.eide 'said'<br />
zei<br />
'' <strong>The</strong>se alternations are discussed in Zonneveld (1978) where a so-called abstract analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
them is given, and in Booij (19810: 69-72) who argues against the abstract analysis.
4-5- ALLOMORPHY IN THE NATIVE LEXICON 89<br />
IntervocalicaUy<br />
broeder 'brother' broer<br />
moeder 'mother' moer 'female animal, female screw'<br />
ijdel 'vain'<br />
ijl 'thin'<br />
buidel 'pouch'<br />
buil 'lump'<br />
voeder 'animal food' voer<br />
neder 'down'<br />
neer<br />
More examples are given in Zonneveld (1978: 73-86). An example <strong>of</strong> a<br />
resulting meaning difference is the case <strong>of</strong> broeder, a word that can also be<br />
used for someone in a religious order, for a male nurse, and as a form <strong>of</strong><br />
address in church meetings, versus broer that can only be used in its literal<br />
meaning 'brother'. One even gets subtle meaning differences in verbs derived<br />
from these nouns. For instance, the verb voeren 'to feed' can be used for<br />
referring to the feeding <strong>of</strong> both animals and children, whereas voederen can<br />
only refer to the feeding <strong>of</strong> animals. In complex words, usually only one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
allomorphs is correct: we do not find heiveld, only heideveld 'heath', nor<br />
broertwist besides the correct hrocdertwist 'row between brothers'.<br />
<strong>The</strong> phonological generalization that can be made is that de deletes after<br />
long vowels and diphthongs, in word-final position, or before /y, k, m, 1, r/<br />
(Zonneveld 1978: 73). However, it will be clear that this generalization can<br />
only be seen as a via rule. Moreover, the process only affected native words:<br />
words <strong>of</strong> Romance origin do not alternate.<br />
Another phonological process that was active in medieval <strong>Dutch</strong> is wordfinal<br />
schwa deletion after a voiced coronal obstruent, which resulted in word<br />
pairs like the following:<br />
(80) einde 'end' eind<br />
stonde 'hour' stond<br />
aarde 'earth' aard<br />
gaarde 'garden' gaard<br />
keuze 'choice' keus<br />
wijze 'manner' wijs<br />
leuze 'slogan' leus<br />
Since this proces was also subject to lexical diffusion, that is, affected words on<br />
a word-by-word basis, there are regions <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> where the schwa-deletion rule<br />
affected a word before df-deletion, thus bleeding the latter rule. For instance, in<br />
North Holland, weide became weid, a form to which ^-deletion does not apply,<br />
whereas in standard <strong>Dutch</strong> the form wei occurs (cf. Verhoeven 1974).<br />
Schwa deletion also occurs before the adjectival suffix -.y, and in compounds<br />
at the end <strong>of</strong> the first prosodie word (Van Marie 1982). <strong>The</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
schwa is lexicalized in the case <strong>of</strong> compounds:<br />
(81) aarde 'earth' aards 'earthly'<br />
Drente'id.'<br />
Drents'<strong>of</strong> Drente'<br />
(geographical name)
90 WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
Suriname 'Surinam'<br />
aard(e) 'earth'<br />
eind(e) 'end'<br />
schande 'shame'<br />
Surinaams 'Surinamese'<br />
aard-appel 'potato' (*aarde-appel)<br />
aard-beving 'earthquake' (*aarde-beving)<br />
aard-bei 'strawberry' (*aarde-bei)<br />
eind-verslag 'final report' (*einde-verslag)<br />
schand-knaap 'catamite' (*schande-knaap)<br />
schand-paal 'pillory' (*schande-paal)<br />
schand-vlek 'blot' (*schande-vlek)<br />
4.5.3. Idl-deletion and Idl-weakening<br />
In a number <strong>of</strong> words, the underlying /d/ optionally alternates with [jj or [u],<br />
before a schwa, which is usually either an inflectional suffix or the first<br />
segment <strong>of</strong> a derivational suffix. 37 <strong>The</strong> form with the glide has a more<br />
informal character:<br />
(82) a. breed /bred/ 'wide' bred+e |breja| 'wide' (attr.)<br />
rood /rod/ 'red' rod+e |roj3] 'red' (attr.)<br />
goed /yud/ 'good' goed+e [yuja] 'good' (attr.)<br />
goed+ig [yujax] 'complacent'<br />
b. goud /youd/ 'gold' goud+en [youuan] 'golden'<br />
oud /Dud/ 'old' oud+e [Duua] 'old' (attr.)<br />
<strong>The</strong>se alternations are lexically governed. For instance, it is impossible to<br />
pronounce hoeden 'hats' /hud+an/ as [hujan], and in standard <strong>Dutch</strong> the<br />
phonetic realization [Duuars] for ouders 'parents' /nud+ar+s/ is also impossible,<br />
even though the morpheme oud 'old' does exhibit this alternation in<br />
the inflected form oude. <strong>The</strong> same applies to ouderling 'presbyter',<br />
whereas, on the other hand, the form with |u] is the only possible form in<br />
ouwehoeren 'to nag' (from ouwe hoer '(lit.) old whore, nagger', where,<br />
again, ouwe is the only possible form: oude hoer is only possible in the<br />
literal interpretation 'old whore'). <strong>The</strong>se facts show that, although certain<br />
phonological generalizations can be made, yet all the allomorphs have to be<br />
listed in the lexicon, and complex words will be entered in the lexicon with<br />
the one or two allomorphs that they allow for. This is reflected by the fact<br />
that in <strong>Dutch</strong> orthography the occurrence <strong>of</strong> the glide in cases like ouwe is<br />
represented in the spelling.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> morphemes with a front vowel or a diphthong the glide that is<br />
created is homorganic with the preceding vowel. Morphemes with back vowels<br />
are different in that they have /j/ rather than the homorganic glide /u/. I will<br />
therefore assume that the /d/ alternates with /j/ after steady-state vowels, and<br />
17 An exception is heneden 'down' wilh the allomorph |bonepn| for which there is no evidence<br />
for internal morphological structure.<br />
K<br />
/onneveld ( 1978). Some dialects <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>, particularly in the south-western part <strong>of</strong> Holland,<br />
allow for considerably more cases <strong>of</strong> /d/-weakening, cf. Zonneveld (WK).
4-5- ALI.OMORPHY IN THE NATIVE LEXICON 91<br />
that the /d/ alternates with 0 after diphthongs. 39 In the latter case, the gap will<br />
he predictably filled with a homorganic glide. This is stated in (83).<br />
(83) a. d -> j / X X<br />
I<br />
[—cons] [—cons]<br />
h. d -» 0 / X X<br />
I<br />
I<br />
[-cons] [-cons] [-cons]<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is a second process <strong>of</strong> /d/-deletion: a number <strong>of</strong> verbs ending in<br />
diphthong + /d/ have an allomorph without the /d/. In this case, there is no<br />
conditioning schwa environment, and, again, the /d/-deletion is lexically<br />
governed:<br />
(84) glijd 'glide' /gleid/ glij<br />
rijd 'ride' /rcid/ rij<br />
snijd 'cut' /sncid/ snij<br />
houd 'keep' /hsud/ hou<br />
lijden 'suffer' /leid/ lij<br />
Phonologically similar verbs like belijden 'to confess' and mijden 'to avoid' do<br />
not exhibit this alternation, thus showing the lexically governed nature <strong>of</strong><br />
this alternation. <strong>The</strong> verbs involved are all high frequency strong verbs that<br />
form their past tense through vowel alternation (and sometimes additional<br />
modifications). <strong>The</strong> rule can be stated as (85).<br />
(85) d -» 0 / X X —]v<br />
I<br />
I<br />
[-cons] [-cons]<br />
Consequently, we also get two past-tense forms for these verbs, except for<br />
houden which has the extra irregular past tense form hield:<br />
(86) Present Past singular Past plural<br />
glijd/glij gleed/glee gleden/gleeën [glejan]<br />
rijd/rij reed/ree reden/reeën [rejan]<br />
snijd/snij sneed/snee sneden/sneeën [snejan]<br />
<strong>The</strong> [j] in the past tense plural forms results from Homorganic Glide Insertion.<br />
Note that, although we also have a special rule for d-j alternations, as pointed<br />
out above, this rule appears not to apply to past-tense forms such as vermeden<br />
'avoided' (pi.) and leden 'suffered' (pi.). In other words, it is not the d/j-rule<br />
that should be held responsible for the occurrence <strong>of</strong> glides in past-tense forms.<br />
By listing both the allomorph with /d/, and that without /d/ for the relevant<br />
w Zonneveld (1978: 32) presents a slightly different analysis in that he assumes thai /d/ also<br />
deletes aller front vowels, as in reden/reeën 'ride' (past pi.). In my analysis a form like ree is<br />
derived from the J-lcss verbal allomorph rij 'ride' (pres.). <strong>The</strong> latter form is derived by a separate<br />
rule for verbs ending in diphthong + /d/.
92 WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
verbs, we predict that they will also have two past-tense allomorphs, and that<br />
we only find /j/ instead <strong>of</strong> /d/ in past-tense forms if the correlating presenttense<br />
stem allows for /d/-deletion. This is a correct prediction. For instance,<br />
since belijden 'to confess' has no /d/-deletion, the past tense plural form<br />
beleden cannot be realized as [balejan], and this is a systematic pattern for<br />
these verbs. Similarly, although we have rijer 'rider' derived from the allomorph<br />
rij 'to ride', we do not have belijer 'confessor' alongside with belijder<br />
because the verb belijden does not have the allomorph belij. 4>><br />
4.5.4. 0-1 kl alternations<br />
In a number <strong>of</strong> words the morpheme-final /rj/ alternates with the cluster /rjk/<br />
(Booij 1980, Trommelen 1984):<br />
(87) oorspro|rj] 'origin' oorspro|rj|k+elijk 'original'<br />
toega[rj| 'access' toega[rj]k+elijk 'accessible'<br />
aanvalrj] 'start' aanva[rj)k+elijk 'initial'<br />
jo[rj] 'young' jo[rj]kvrouw 'damsel'<br />
spri[rj] 'to jump' spri[rj|khaan 'grasshopper'<br />
la[rj] 'long'<br />
la(rj]kmoedig 'long-suffering'<br />
<strong>The</strong> historical background <strong>of</strong> this alternation is that the morpheme-final nasal<br />
derives from the sequence /rjg/. <strong>The</strong> /g/ devoiced in certain positions, among<br />
others at the end <strong>of</strong> a syllable (the rule <strong>of</strong> Syllable-final Devoicing), as<br />
illustrated by jonkvrouw with the structure ( |jong| A [vrouw| N ]N '(lit.) young<br />
woman'. 41 Later, the velar plosive /g/ developed into a velar fricative, and was<br />
dropped after nasals because <strong>Dutch</strong> does not allow for codas with nasal +<br />
fricative. Such clusters only occur as heterosyllabic clusters as in fungeren<br />
/fvrjyeran/ ' to function'. Synchronically, we have to list words with the<br />
allomorph ending in |k| in the lexicon, because we also find cases where the<br />
|k] does not show up in exactly the same environment:<br />
(88) jong [jDrjJ 'young' jongvee Lpf) ve ] 'young cattle'<br />
bang (barjl 'afraid' bangelijk [barplak] 'fearful'<br />
spring [sprirjl 'to jump' springnet |spnrjnet] '(lit.) jumping net'<br />
In other words, the alternation is not productive any more.<br />
4.5.5. Fricative devoicing<br />
As pointed out in Booij (1977: 87) the final fricatives <strong>of</strong> native morphemes<br />
devoice before the schwa-initial suffixes -elijk and -enis. Since these fricatives<br />
" <strong>The</strong> past-tense forms <strong>of</strong> zullen 'will' are irregular in that the sg. form is always without /d/<br />
(zou), whereas the plural has both forms, zouden and zouwen |z3uuan]. Compare also kon 'could'<br />
(sg.) with konden 'could' (pi.), with the same type <strong>of</strong> irregularity.<br />
1<br />
<strong>The</strong> devoicing <strong>of</strong> obstruents before -elijk will be discussed in the next subsection.
4-6. ALLOPHONIC RULES 93<br />
will occur in onset position this devoicing cannot be related to the automatic P-<br />
rule <strong>of</strong> Syllable-final Devoicing. Moreover, the devoicing is very restricted: it<br />
applies to labial and coronal fricatives before -elijk, and to labial fricatives<br />
before -enis:<br />
(89) a. graaf/grav/'earl'<br />
lijf /leiv/ 'body'<br />
vrees /vrez/ 'fear'<br />
begraaf/bayrav/ 'to bury'<br />
droef /druv/ 'sad'<br />
laaf /lav/ 'feed'<br />
compare:<br />
b. heb /heb/ 'to have'<br />
land /lund/ 'land'<br />
besnijd /basneid/ 'to circumcise'<br />
verrijs /vcrreiz/ 'to rise'<br />
gra(f lelijk '<strong>of</strong> a court'<br />
lij[f lelijk 'bodily'<br />
vre[s|elijk 'horrible'<br />
begra[f Jenis 'burial'<br />
droeff Jenis 'sadness'<br />
la|f jenis 'refreshment'<br />
onhe|b]elijk 'rude'<br />
lan|d)elijk 'rural'<br />
besnij[d]enis 'circumcision'<br />
verrij[z]enis 'resurrection'<br />
<strong>The</strong> generalizations involved are expressed by the MP-rules (90a, b).<br />
(90) a. p-cons<br />
+cont<br />
Lab<br />
b. —cons<br />
+cont<br />
Cor<br />
[+voice| / — alok, anis<br />
l+voice] / — alak<br />
4.6. ALLOPHONIC RULES<br />
Allophonic rules differ from the automatic P-rules discussed above in that they<br />
do not involve alternations between segments that occur in lexical, that is,<br />
underlying, forms. <strong>The</strong>y have the same property <strong>of</strong> being determined by<br />
phonological conditions only.<br />
An allophonic rule that was already mentioned in Section 2.2.1 is the rule<br />
that lengthens long vowels before /r/. It is a rule that applies obligatorily,<br />
within the domain <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word. <strong>The</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> the rule is shown below<br />
(cf. Streekstra and De Graaf 1979):<br />
(91) koraal 'choral' [ko:ral|<br />
Erik 'id.'<br />
[eirik]<br />
oregano 'id.' |o:reyano|<br />
pirouet 'pirouette' |pi:ruuet|<br />
uur 'hour'<br />
[y:r|<br />
boer 'farmer' [bu:r] boer+en (pi.) [bu:ran]<br />
boor 'drill' [bo:r] bor+en (pi.) |bo:ran]
94 WORD PHONOLOüY<br />
kaars 'candle' [ka:rs] kaars+en (pi.) [kaïrsan]<br />
toorn 'rage' [to:rn] toorn+en 'to rage' |to:rnan|<br />
koers 'direction' |ku:rs| koers+en 'to direct' |ku:rson|<br />
Lengthening does not apply in the past-tense forms <strong>of</strong> some strong verbs that<br />
have exceptional rhymes in which a long vowel is followed by two (nonappendix)<br />
consonants in the coda, as in zwierf [zwirf] 'wandered', wierp [uirpl<br />
'threw', bedierf [badirf] 'spoiled', verwierf [veruirf] 'acquired', and stierf<br />
|stirf| 'died'. <strong>The</strong>se facts are accounted for if we assume that the underlying<br />
vowel <strong>of</strong> these forms is /i/ rather than /i/, which is then turned into (i| after<br />
lengthening <strong>of</strong> long vowels before /r/. This solution is possible because we do<br />
not find combinations <strong>of</strong>/i/ and /rp/ or /if/ at the underlying level. Moreover, it<br />
explains why at the surface these syllables can violate the Maximal Rhyme<br />
Constraint. Lengthening in these exceptional morphemes is also impossible in<br />
plural forms, where the /r/ is syllable-final:<br />
(92) zwierven |/.i>irvon|<br />
wierpen [uirpsn]<br />
bedierven [bodirvon]<br />
verwierven |vcruirvon|<br />
stierven [stirvan]<br />
In compounds in which the second constituent begins with an /r/, this /r/<br />
cannot have a lengthening effect because it does not belong to the same<br />
prosodie word. This explains the contrast in the realization <strong>of</strong> vowels in pairs<br />
<strong>of</strong> words like the following:<br />
(93) keur 'to select' [k0:rj keur-ing 'selection' |k0:nrj|<br />
versus<br />
keu-ring 'pig's 'ring' morphological structure [keu| N |ring| N ] N<br />
phonetic form [k0nrj|<br />
Lengthening also applies to the vowel <strong>of</strong> the non-native suffix -cur, as in<br />
direct+eur 'director' (di:rtkt0:r|. However, in the suffix sequence -eux-c<br />
derived from -eur-e the vowel is not lengthened. This confirms that lengthening<br />
is a word-level P-rule: if it were a cyclic rule we would get a lengthened<br />
/0:/ in the sequence -euse. In sum, the lengthening rule must be considered a<br />
word-level rule that applies in the domain <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word. 42 Its post-<br />
2 This rule is a lexical rule since il is an obligatory rule <strong>of</strong> word phonology. Thus, it forms a<br />
problem for the hypothesis thai lexical rules are structure preserving (Kiparsky 19X5). i.e., (hat they<br />
do not create new types <strong>of</strong> segment, but only segments which occur at Ihe underlying level. A<br />
similar problem was noted for German by Hall (19X4): (he allophomc rule lhal accounts foi the<br />
occurrence <strong>of</strong> the palatal allophone |c| and the velar allophone |x| <strong>of</strong> the palalal/alvcolar fricative<br />
after front and back vowels respectively, is also a lexical rule. <strong>The</strong> same point (die existence <strong>of</strong><br />
non-structure-preserving lexical rules) is made by Harris (19X7. 19X9). As proposed by Hooi j and<br />
Rubach ( 19X7) and supported by Iveison and Salmons ( 1992) who |x>ml out that the German rule is<br />
a word-level rule as well, the hypothesis <strong>of</strong> structure prcscivingness should be restricted to the<br />
cyclic rules, i.e., word-level rules need not he strucluiv-preserving. Thus, the rule <strong>of</strong> vowel<br />
lengthening discussed here does not form a problem loi the theory since it is a word-level rule.
4-6. ALLOPHONIC RULES 95<br />
cyclic (word-level) nature follows from the fact that the sequence long vowel +<br />
/r/ never forms a derived environment.<br />
A second allophonic rule is the rule that palatalizes the coronal obstruents<br />
and nasals /s, z, t, n/ before /j/. This kind <strong>of</strong> palatalization is the shift <strong>of</strong> the<br />
primary place <strong>of</strong> articulation, not the addition <strong>of</strong> a second place <strong>of</strong> articulation:<br />
(94) katje 'kitten' [kufja]<br />
tasje 'little bag' Itujp]<br />
jury 'id.'<br />
l3Jy:ri|<br />
sjaal 'shawl' [Jjal]<br />
atjar 'id.'<br />
[utjar]<br />
pasja 'pasha' [pujja]<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> handje 'hand' (dim.) we even get double palatalization: (hunt jo|<br />
(or [hanca]). This example shows that palatalization also affects the /n/. Note<br />
that while the /j/ is considered to be [Dorsal), the palatalized coronals are<br />
usually considered to be [Coronal, —anterior], that is, postalveolars.<br />
Palatalization should be expressed as a spreading rule. Sagey (1986: 108-9),<br />
who discusses the same rule for English, interprets this process as a rule that<br />
spreads [—back) to the Coronal node, with the concomitant effect that the<br />
Coronal node is specified as [ -anterior] (underlyingly, there is no specification<br />
for [anterior] in <strong>Dutch</strong>). <strong>The</strong> rule is given in (95).<br />
(95) Palatalization O<br />
I<br />
|-appr| l+voc]<br />
I<br />
I<br />
Cor Dors<br />
x J<br />
I-back|<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule applies obligatorily within prosodie words, and optionally across<br />
prosodie word boundaries. 41<br />
An alternative and simpler analysis <strong>of</strong> palatali/ation is presented in Lahiri and Hvcrs ( 1991)<br />
who argue lhal the l]l and the front vowels have the Place node [Coronal, -anterior], and that<br />
palatalization is spreading <strong>of</strong> Ihis Place node. In Ihis way, palatali/.ation can be expressed more<br />
dmvtly as sprcadinjj ul the Ailic.ulator node. <strong>The</strong> same point is made in Clements and Hume<br />
( 1 {) 'H). Jacobs and Van de Weijer (1992) proposed that the /j/ has a Place node lhal dominates both<br />
[Coronal, —anterior] and [Dorsal, —back], and that Ihis Place node is spread to the preceding<br />
coional consonant. A similar position is advocated by Pulleyblank (1989).<br />
Lahiri and Evers (1991: 99) also point out lhat there is variation between speakers as to the<br />
phonetic rcali/ation <strong>of</strong> the A j/ sequence in diminutive suffixes. Whereas in my dialect it is indeed a<br />
l>alaiali/cd /I/: |t'|, some speakers reali/e this sequence moie like |ts'|.
WORD STRESS<br />
5.1. INTRODUCTION<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> is a language with word stress. That is, one <strong>of</strong> the syllables <strong>of</strong> a word is<br />
perceived as the prominent one, the main stress <strong>of</strong> the word. In words with<br />
more than one syllable, other syllables may also have stress, <strong>of</strong> a lower degree,<br />
so-called secondary stress.<br />
<strong>The</strong> phoneticians Cohen, 't Hart, and Collier have shown that main stress is<br />
realized as a pitch movement on the relevant syllable, if the word in question<br />
bears a sentence accent.' In other words, a syllable with main stress is a<br />
potential locus <strong>of</strong> sentence accent. A pitch rise in the most prominent syllable<br />
<strong>of</strong> a word will give a sentence accent to that word if the pitch rise starts before<br />
the vocalic part <strong>of</strong> the syllable. Pitch lowering assigns accent if the lowering<br />
starts after the beginning <strong>of</strong> the vocalic part <strong>of</strong> the stressed syllable. In other<br />
words, it is the timing <strong>of</strong> the pitch movement that is crucial. Thus we get<br />
intonational patterns like the following, the so-called hat pattern which is<br />
mein zon u i l an l e u z i n<br />
l<br />
Time (sec.)<br />
1.5<br />
FIG. 5.1. Stylized pitch contour <strong>of</strong> the sentence Mijn :i>on wil een leeuw zien 'My son<br />
wants to see a lion'<br />
Source: Based on Nooteboom and Cohen (1976: 151)<br />
1<br />
Cf. Cohen and 't Hart (1967), 't Hart and Cohen (1973), 'I Hart and Collier ( l975),.Collier and<br />
'I Hart (19X1), Nooteboom and Cohen (1976), 't Hart, Collier, and Cohen (1990).
5-1. INTRODUCTION 97<br />
frequent in <strong>Dutch</strong> (Nooteboom and Cohen 1984: 156-7), with two accent<br />
assigning pitch movements (Fig. 5.1).<br />
<strong>The</strong> accents are realized as pitch accents that consist <strong>of</strong> movements with<br />
respect to the low and the high declination line for F 0 , the fundamental<br />
frequency.<br />
This does not mean that stress is to be equated with pitch movement. Stress<br />
is a more abstract property, which also manifests itself in vowel duration and<br />
(lack <strong>of</strong>) vowel reduction, and these phenomena also play a role in the<br />
perception <strong>of</strong> syllables as being stressed (Beekman 1986). Note also that the<br />
location <strong>of</strong> stress plays a role in some morphological rules and lexical<br />
phonological rules, that is, at a level where pitch movements are not available<br />
yet.<br />
Moreover, a pitch accent can also be placed on a syllable without lexical<br />
stress, for instance for metalinguistic reasons, as in Heb je versie <strong>of</strong> verbum<br />
gezegd! 'Did you say versie ('version') or verbum ('verb')?' 2 (<strong>The</strong> words<br />
versie and verbum have lexical stress on the first syllable.)<br />
In recent years some phonologists have argued, also with respect to <strong>Dutch</strong>,<br />
that sentence stresses should not be seen as pitch movements imposed on the<br />
basic declination line, but as tone elements (High or Low) associated with the<br />
syllables that bear sentence stress, with predictable tone contours between<br />
the sentence stresses. 1 This approach maintains the insight that sentence stress<br />
is related to pitch movement.<br />
Secondary stress is determined by a rhythmic principle, that is, it creates an<br />
alternation <strong>of</strong> stressed and unstressed syllables. For instance, in the word<br />
automaat 'automaton', main or primary stress falls on the final syllable, and<br />
secondary stress on the first syllable, whereas in dominee 'parson' we find the<br />
reversed stress pattern.<br />
Both primary and secondary stress have a potential effect on duration. For<br />
instance, in a pair like bacterie ' bacterium '-difterie 'diphtheria' the identical<br />
second syllables (te) 0 differ in duration because this syllable only bears<br />
primary stress in the first word. And when automaat /nutomat/ is pronounced<br />
in isolation, the syllable (mat) c has the longest duration, the unstressed syllable<br />
(to) a is the shortest, and the duration <strong>of</strong> the secondary stressed syllable is in<br />
between that <strong>of</strong> the other two (Nooteboom 1972, Slootweg 1988) which shows<br />
that secondary stress also has effect on duration. 4 <strong>The</strong> imposed stress pattern<br />
also has an effect on the possibility <strong>of</strong> vowel reduction: only unstressed vowels<br />
can be reduced to schwa. That is, only the /o/ <strong>of</strong> (to) 0 can be reduced to a<br />
' Example from Sluijter (1992).<br />
' Cf. Gussenhoven ( 1984, 1988. 1991 ), Ladd (1992) and the references given there, and Van den<br />
Berg, Gussenhoven, and Rietveld (1992). Critical comments on this view are given in Collier<br />
(1989).<br />
4 <strong>The</strong> duration <strong>of</strong> a syllable also depends on its position in the word. As Slootweg (1988: 14)<br />
points out, '|T|he duration <strong>of</strong> the unstressed linal syllable is nearly as long as the duration <strong>of</strong> a<br />
stressed one in the same position.' In other words, the final syllable af automaat would have a long<br />
duration anyway, even if it were unstressed.
9ö<br />
WORD STRESS<br />
schwa, resulting in the phonetic form [automat]. Secondary stress also plays a<br />
role in determining the place to which a stress is moved in case <strong>of</strong> stress shift,<br />
as will he illustrated below. 5<br />
Following Liberman and Prince (1977), Prince (1983), Selkirk (1984/7), and<br />
Halle and Vergnaud (1987) I will represent the stress pattern <strong>of</strong> a word by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> a grid. 6 Each syllable has an entry on line 0 <strong>of</strong> the grid, indicated by<br />
'-', the place holder <strong>of</strong> the syllable on the grid. Each syllable with stress will<br />
get an asterisk (*) on line 1, the foot level, where metrical feet will be created.<br />
<strong>The</strong> optimal <strong>Dutch</strong> foot consists <strong>of</strong> a stressed syllable, followed by an<br />
unstressed one. On the next level, line 2, the word level, the syllable with<br />
main stress will have an entry. This also applies to monosyllabic words. In<br />
other words, the degree <strong>of</strong> stress is indicated by the number <strong>of</strong> asterisks that a<br />
syllable has on the grid. So the stress representation for the words automaat<br />
and dominee will be as follows:<br />
( 1) au to maat do mi nee<br />
line 0<br />
(* ) (*) (* ) (*) line 1<br />
* * line 2<br />
<strong>The</strong> parentheses indicate that a stressed syllable (a 'peak') forms a constituent<br />
(a foot) with a following unstressed syllable (a 'trough') if possible. For<br />
convenience's sake, 1 will usually omit line 0 in the stress representations,<br />
and also the parentheses that indicate constituency, unless it is crucial for the<br />
analysis.<br />
In compounds, each prosodie word has a stress grid. In <strong>Dutch</strong> compounds,<br />
the primarily stressed syllable <strong>of</strong> the first constituent becomes the main<br />
stressed syllable <strong>of</strong> the whole compound. So we add an asterisk for that<br />
syllable on the next level, line 3, as illustrated for the compound dorpsdomincc<br />
'village parson, rector':<br />
(2) dorps do mi nee<br />
* line 1<br />
line 2<br />
* line 3<br />
s 'I'lic relation between accent and duration in <strong>Dutch</strong> is also dealt with in Felting ( 1991 ) and<br />
Sluijter (1992).<br />
'' Kager (19X9) also uses the grid for the representation <strong>of</strong> the stress patterns <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> words.<br />
whereas Trommelen and /.onneveld (19X
5-2. MAIN STRESS PATTERNS 99<br />
This gives rise to a so-called stress clash, a clash between two adjacent<br />
stresses. A situation <strong>of</strong> stress clash is defined as a situation in which two<br />
asterisks are adjacent at two consecutive levels (Liberman and Prince 1977). It<br />
is indicated here by the boxed part <strong>of</strong> the representation. <strong>The</strong> only way to<br />
remedy this is to shift the line-2 asterisk <strong>of</strong> the syllable (do) a to the last<br />
syllable. We cannot shift the asterisk to the syllable (mi) a because a wellformedness<br />
condition on grids is that a syllable that has an asterisk at line n,<br />
also has to have an asterisk at line n — 1 (Prince 1983). Also, we cannot move<br />
the line-3 asterisk to the syllable (do) 0 because in that case the stress clash still<br />
exists. So, the stress clash is resolved by the operation Move *, with the<br />
following effect (called Trochaic Reversal):<br />
I nti'/iaic Reversal<br />
(3) dorps do mi nee<br />
* * * line 1<br />
* * line 2<br />
* line 3<br />
In Section 5.2. I will discuss the stress patterns <strong>of</strong> underived words and nonnative<br />
complex words. <strong>The</strong> subsequent sections deal with the stress patterns <strong>of</strong><br />
the different categories <strong>of</strong> morphologically complex words.<br />
5.2. MAIN STRESS PATTERNS<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are two general principles for the distribution <strong>of</strong> stresses (primary or<br />
secondary) in all <strong>Dutch</strong> words:<br />
(4) Schwa Restriction<br />
A syllable headed by a schwa never receives stress.<br />
(5) Optimal Grid Principle<br />
A prosodie word has an alternating stress pattern.<br />
Principle (4) restricts principle (5). For instance, in the word sappelen<br />
/supDlan/ 'to toil', a stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed syllables:<br />
the final syllable cannot get the stress that would give the word an alternating<br />
pattern, because it contains a schwa. In formal terms, the Schwa Restriction<br />
means that only a syllable with a nucleus that has a Place specification can<br />
receive an entry on line 1.<br />
Let us now look in more detail at the location <strong>of</strong> primary stress in underived<br />
words. From the historical point <strong>of</strong> view, <strong>Dutch</strong> stress is a mixture <strong>of</strong> three<br />
patterns (Van Marie 1980): a Germanic pattern, with stress on the initial<br />
stressable syllable, a French pattern with stress on the final stressable syllable,<br />
and a Latin pattern with stress on the penultimate syllable, or on the<br />
antepenultimate if the penultimate is light (i.e. the rhyme <strong>of</strong> the penultimate<br />
consists <strong>of</strong> a short vowel):
IOO<br />
WORD STRESS<br />
(6) German: pijler /peilar/ 'pillar', bevel /bavel/ 'command'<br />
French: kanon /kanon/ 'gun', parade /parada/ 'id.'<br />
Latin: kanon /kanon/ 'canon', valium /valivm/ 'id.'<br />
This does not mean that stress is completely unpredictable from the synchronie<br />
point <strong>of</strong> view. Minimal pairs are scarce: kanon 'gun' v. kanon 'canon', and<br />
servies [servis] 'dinner service' v. Servisch |servis] 'Serbian'. <strong>The</strong> position <strong>of</strong><br />
stress <strong>of</strong>ten correlates with segmental structure, as illustrated by the etymologically<br />
related pair <strong>of</strong> words pilaar /pilar/ 'p'\\\&r'-pijler /pcilar/ 'pillar'. In<br />
pilaar we have the French stress pattern, whereas in pijler we see the Germanic<br />
stress pattern: in Germanic, stress shifted to the first syllable. This led to<br />
reduction <strong>of</strong> the second syllable in that its vowel changed into a schwa. Moreover,<br />
stressed /i/s diphthongized, changing /i/ into /ei/. Put more generally: since<br />
the words in the different layers <strong>of</strong> the vocabulary exhibit partially different<br />
patterns <strong>of</strong> segmental composition, it is possible to formulate generalizations<br />
concerning the locus <strong>of</strong> main stress on the basis <strong>of</strong> segmental composition.<br />
However, many cases <strong>of</strong> unpredictable stress will remain. For instance, words<br />
ending in -ie have main stress on the penultimate syllable, on the antepenultimate<br />
syllable, or on the final syllable (words <strong>of</strong> French origin); compare:<br />
(7) a. olie /oli/ 'oil'<br />
kanarie /kanari/ 'canary'<br />
Hérry /hcri/ 'id.' (female name)<br />
bikini /bikini/ 'id.'<br />
b. alibi /alibi/ 'id.'<br />
Rfmini /rimini/ 'id.'<br />
c. melodi'e /melodi/ 'melody'<br />
chemie /xemi/ 'chemistry'<br />
energie /enerzji/ 'energy'<br />
S<strong>of</strong>ie /s<strong>of</strong>i/ 'Sophie'<br />
<strong>The</strong> regularities that are discussed here, appear to hold for both underived<br />
words and complex words derived by non-native morphology, but there are<br />
more exceptions in the subset <strong>of</strong> native underived words. <strong>The</strong> Main Stress Rule<br />
proposed here is a rule that looks at the last three syllables <strong>of</strong> a word, that is, it<br />
applies from right to left. <strong>The</strong> basic generalizations can be found in Van der<br />
Hulst (1984), Trommelen and Zonneveld (l989«), and Kager (1989), the latest<br />
in-depth studies <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> word stress. 7 <strong>The</strong>y can be summarized as follows:<br />
(8) Words ending in a vowel: penultimate stress: olie 'oil', kanarie 'canary',<br />
etc., with two classes <strong>of</strong> exceptions:<br />
(a) some word have antepenultimate stress, for example, words in -ia.<br />
-io: aria 'id.', ratio 'id.', etc.<br />
7 Kager (1989) provides an excellent survey <strong>of</strong> the descriptive gcncrali/ations concerning the<br />
stress patterns <strong>of</strong> underived and non-native words ('level-1 stress'), with a wealth <strong>of</strong> examples, and<br />
also gives a critical summary <strong>of</strong> the theoretical literature on <strong>Dutch</strong> word stress before 19X9. 1 will<br />
not give the (long) list <strong>of</strong> references here since they can be found in Kager's book.
5.2. MAIN STRESS PATTERNS 101<br />
(b) some words have final stress: melodfe 'melody', tr<strong>of</strong>ee 'trophy',<br />
kadó 'gift', etc.<br />
(9) Words ending in long vowel + consonant (WC), short vowel + CC<br />
(VCC), or a diphthong (+ optional C): final stress: kanaal 'channel',<br />
perkament 'parchment', kopij 'manuscript', paradijs 'paradise'. Exceptionally,<br />
main stress may be located on a penultimate or antepenultimate<br />
syllable, subject to the following restriction: primary stress cannot be<br />
on the antepenultimate syllable if the penultimate is closed or contains<br />
a diphthong (Kager 1989: 227): lichaam 'body', hospitaal 'hospital',<br />
andijvie 'endive', fndex 'id.', olifant 'elephant', appendix 'id.', juffrouw<br />
'miss', sélderij 'celery'.<br />
(10) Words ending in short vowel + consonant
102 WORD STRESS<br />
In order to derive the other patterns, we have to make use <strong>of</strong> the notion<br />
'extrametricality': a word-final constituent, in this case the syllable, can be<br />
made invisible to the MSR by making it extrametrical (Hayes 1982). Extrametricality<br />
can either be imposed by rule, or be marked in the lexical representation<br />
<strong>of</strong> a word. For words ending in -VC we impose extrametricality by<br />
rule:<br />
(13) Extrametricality Rule<br />
Make word-final syllables with a VC-rhyme extrametrical<br />
This rule applies to words like bivak /bivak/ 'bivouac' and Michael /mixael/<br />
'id.'. So we create a monosyllabic foot on the first syllable <strong>of</strong> bivak, ignoring<br />
the second syllable, and a binary foot on the part (mixa) <strong>of</strong> Michael. Of course,<br />
words in -VC that have final stress, must be marked as exceptions to this rule<br />
<strong>of</strong> extrametricality. Rule (13) expresses that a majority <strong>of</strong> words in -VC do not<br />
have final stress, but there is a substantial number <strong>of</strong> words ending in -VC with<br />
final stress, for example, karton 'cardboard' and kanon 'gun'.<br />
Extrametricality may also have to be marked on specific lexical items. At<br />
the underlying level, we do not have syllables, so we cannot mark syllables as<br />
extrametrical in underlying representations. Instead, we mark the relevant<br />
vowel, the head <strong>of</strong> the syllable, as extrametrical, and this property can then<br />
be percolated from the head to the syllable node, once the syllable nodes have<br />
been introduced by the syllabification algorithm.<br />
In' a word like olifant /olifant/ 'elephant', the /u/ will be marked as EM<br />
(extrametrical). Consequently, foot construction will apply to the part /oli/, and<br />
thus locate stress on the first syllable. Subsequently, a second stress will be<br />
introduced by the general rule that creates rhythmic alternations <strong>of</strong> stressed and<br />
unstressed syllables, and thus creates optimal grids, the Optimal Grid Rule.<br />
(14) /o 1 ! a n t/<br />
l<br />
[EM]<br />
Syllabification<br />
a<br />
(a)<br />
l i f u n t<br />
Grid construction<br />
MSR<br />
Optimal Grid<br />
Note that the extrametricality feature is only relevant for the location <strong>of</strong> main<br />
stress, since the last syllable <strong>of</strong>, for example, olifant does get secondary stress.
5-2. MAIN STRESS PATTERNS 103<br />
Certain regularities as to extrametricality can be found. For instance, words<br />
ending in VC.ç, such as climax /klimuks/ 'id.' and larynx /lanrjks/ 'id.' usually<br />
have prefinal stress, and thus their final syllables may be made extrametrical by<br />
rule.<br />
How do we account for cases <strong>of</strong> antepenultimate stress like calcium 'id.' and<br />
aria 'id.'? In these words, the last syllable should also be marked as extrametrical.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are certain generalizations involved here that have to do with<br />
the prefinal and final syllables since specific combinations lead to final extrametricality,<br />
in particular with penultimate syllables containing /i/. <strong>The</strong> historical<br />
background is that these are words from Latin or formed after a Latin<br />
model, and the corresponding /i/ in Latin was short, thus giving rise to light<br />
syllables, to be skipped in stress assignment. In addition, we find Germanic<br />
geographical names with initial stress and specific endings such as -uwe:<br />
(15) -ium /ivm/: gymnasium 'id.', geranium 'id.', critérium 'criterion'<br />
-i(C)o /iCo/: ratio 'id.', légio 'many', Pinócchio 'id.', libido 'id.',<br />
risico 'risk'<br />
-ina /ina/: pagina 'page', vagina 'id.'<br />
-ika /ika/: Amerika 'America', Afrika 'Africa', lógika 'logic'<br />
-ier /ior/: agrariër 'farmer', Australie 'Australia', Proletarier<br />
'proletarian'<br />
-icus /ikvs/: medicus 'doctor', lógicus 'logician', chemicus<br />
'chemist'<br />
-ia /ia/:<br />
paria 'pariah', aria 'id.', malaria 'id.'<br />
-uwe /yu9/: Bétuwe 'id.' (geographical name), Véluwe 'id.'<br />
(geographical name) 9<br />
Such generalizations concerning certain /(/-combinations (but not all, compare<br />
•\nlffde /svlrida/ 'sulphide' and marine /marina/ 'navy') and -uwe can be<br />
expressed by rules that predict the feature [extrametrical].<br />
Words ending in -or are special in that the final syllable does not receive<br />
main stress, but the penultimate, which can be an open syllable:<br />
(16) motor 'engine'<br />
condensator 'id.'<br />
alligator 'id.'<br />
So here, the 'light' penultimate syllable is not skipped. <strong>The</strong> correct stress<br />
pattern can be derived by making the final /r/ in word-final -or extrametrical<br />
by rule. This more specific rule will take precedence over the general rule that<br />
makes final VC-syllables extrametrical. <strong>The</strong> MSR will then assign main stress<br />
to the penultimate syllable.<br />
A second type <strong>of</strong> lexical exception mechanism is to be introduced for words<br />
9 <strong>The</strong>se words are exceptions to the generalisation in Kager and Zonneveld (1986) that it is the<br />
syllabic before the schwa that always receives main stress, i.e. pre-schwa syllables cannot be<br />
skipped in main stress assignment.
104 WORD STRESS<br />
ending in vowels that have final stress, words like melodie and tr<strong>of</strong>ee. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
words will have to be marked with an exception feature |+F) (for l+French)),<br />
and we will have to add to the MSR that a trough cannot dominate the feature<br />
[+F]. Thus, a monosyllabic foot will be created at the end <strong>of</strong> such words.<br />
Finally, there remain a number <strong>of</strong> words, in particular, geographical names,<br />
that have initial stress, which cannot be assigned by making use <strong>of</strong> extrametricality<br />
<strong>of</strong> the last syllable because they consist <strong>of</strong> four syllables, or three<br />
syllables <strong>of</strong> which the second is heavy. <strong>The</strong> only way to derive the correct<br />
stress pattern is to assume a minor stress rule for words marked as [+G] (for<br />
I+Germanic]) that assigns stress to the first stressable syllable. Examples are<br />
geographical names like:<br />
(17) Wägeningen /uayaniipn/, Éverdingen /evordirjan/, Ämerongen<br />
/amorDrjan/, Leeuwarden /leuurdan/ 'id.'<br />
Note that in Leeuwarden the penultimate syllable is closed, and hence it cannot<br />
be skipped by the MSR. Again, we might invoke redundancy rules to predict<br />
[+G|, for instance on the basis <strong>of</strong> the property 'geographical name'. <strong>The</strong> minor<br />
stress rule that is triggered by (+G] takes precedence over the Main Stress<br />
Rule, as predicted by the Elsewhere Principle.<br />
<strong>The</strong> (+GI rule also has to apply to a few quadrisyllable words <strong>of</strong> Latin origin<br />
with inital stress such as infinitief 'infinitive' and accusatief 'accusative' which<br />
emphasizes that features such as [+G] have no diachronic status. 10<br />
<strong>The</strong> way in which the MSR is formulated predicts how words that are<br />
incorrectly stressed behave. For instance, words like notulen /notylon/ 'minutes',<br />
emeritus /emeritvs/ 'id.', and normaliter /normaliter/ 'normally' require<br />
extrametricality to get the correct antepenultimate stress, and people indeed<br />
tend to give these words penultimate stress, as would be the case if there were<br />
no extrametricality (in that case the last vowel <strong>of</strong> normaliter is pronounced as<br />
schwa). Similarly, the word hysterie /histeri/ 'hysteria' which is marked as<br />
[+F|, is <strong>of</strong>ten pronounced with prefinal stress. Also, many speakers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
pronounce Leeuwarden with prefinal instead <strong>of</strong> initial stress."<br />
<strong>The</strong> distinction between native and non-native words is not always easy to<br />
make. As long as a word does not form input for non-native word formation,<br />
we have no evidence. Non-native suffixes, on the other hand, form a clearly<br />
distinguishable class on the basis <strong>of</strong> morphology, and this correlates with their<br />
phonological behaviour. When they end in VVC or VCC, they always bear<br />
main stress, whereas non-native lexical morphemes ending in VVC or VCC<br />
can be extrametrical, as illustrated by index and larynx. <strong>The</strong> suffixes -ica and<br />
•ikux (as in elektron-ika 'electronics', elektron-ikus 'electric engineer') have<br />
'" However, some speakers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> pronounce these words with final siress.<br />
" Cf. Neijl and Van Heuven (1992) for a discussion <strong>of</strong> the types <strong>of</strong> exceptional word stress in<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong>, and the available exception mechanisms.<br />
12 Compare indif+eer and laryng+aal which prove the non native nature <strong>of</strong> their hase words.<br />
because -eer and -aal are [-native).
5-2. MAIN STRESS PATTERNS 105<br />
an extrametrical final syllable, and thus get main stress on the presuffixal<br />
syllable. 13<br />
5.2.1. Secondary stress<br />
As pointed out above, words may also have secondary stresses, in conformity<br />
with principle (5), as illustrated below: 14<br />
(18) au to maat do mi nee<br />
* * * *<br />
* *<br />
fo no lo gie in fi ni tief ka ta lo gus<br />
* * * * * *<br />
* * *<br />
ste ro i de<br />
Wa ga nin gan<br />
* * * *<br />
* *<br />
en cy clo pe die<br />
en cy clo pe disch<br />
* * *<br />
* *<br />
en cy clo pe do loog en do cri no lo gie<br />
* * * * * *<br />
* *<br />
l assume that the relevant rule, the Optimal Grid Rule, applies after the main<br />
stress <strong>of</strong> a word has been determined. <strong>The</strong> Optimal Grid Rule adds asterisks on<br />
line 1. Subsequently, binary, left-dominant feet are created when possible. In<br />
some <strong>of</strong> these examples, it is impossible to create a really perfect grid <strong>of</strong><br />
rhythmically alternating syllables, for instance in fonologie. In this word, the<br />
third syllable cannot receive secondary stress because it would clash with the<br />
next main stress. <strong>The</strong> crucial observation is that it is the first rather than<br />
the second syllable that receives secondary stress. In other words, <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
prefers stresses at (prosodie) word boundaries. This principle, described in<br />
Booij (198la: 166-9), is sometimes referred to as the Hammock Principle<br />
(Van Zonneveld 1985). <strong>The</strong> mirror image case is infinitief with secondary<br />
stress on the final rather than the prefinal syllable. Note also that in words<br />
In female names such a.s Jti/iiina anil Hcntlcnka main stress is on the penultimate syllable.<br />
Such names can be analysed as sullixed with the feminine sut'lix -a, attached lo the stems <strong>of</strong><br />
Latinized forms <strong>of</strong> masculine names such as .liiiinn us and Hcndenk-us. So they have the normal<br />
Mress pattern <strong>of</strong> suffixed non-native words, and this explains the difference in stress with words<br />
like 1'1,'klnni iku and i'li'kin'in-ifus, where different suflixes are involved.<br />
<strong>The</strong> respective meanings <strong>of</strong> these words are 'automaton', 'parson', 'phonology', 'infinitive',<br />
'catalogue', 'steroid'. 'Wagcningen'. 'encyclopaedia', 'encyclopaedic', 'encyclopaedist',<br />
'endocrinology'.
IO6<br />
WORD STRESS<br />
with initial stress like Wageninxeti, a secondary stress appears on the third<br />
syllable. When two secondary stresses are assigned there may be some variation<br />
as to the location <strong>of</strong> the word-internal secondary stress: in èncyclopèdoló<strong>of</strong>><br />
it is on the fourth syllable, in endocrinologie on the third (Hoeksema and<br />
Van Zonneveld 1984). <strong>The</strong> difference may have to do with the interpretation<br />
<strong>of</strong> endo- as a non-native prefix.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se observations lead to the conclusion that we should not derive<br />
secondary stresses by iterative application <strong>of</strong> the Main Stress Rule, which<br />
creates sequences <strong>of</strong> feet, and thus an alternating pattern, because the Main<br />
Stress Rule would derive secondary stress on the second syllable, instead <strong>of</strong> on<br />
the first syllable ol'fonologie. Secondly, whereas the MSR is a directional rule,<br />
applying from right to left, the rule for secondary stresses must be able to apply<br />
from both sides <strong>of</strong> the word, depending on the location <strong>of</strong> the main stress, as<br />
shown by the pair infinitlef-fOnologie, and the pair horizon 'id.'—klarinet<br />
'clarinet'.<br />
An additional but logically independent issue is whether the assignment <strong>of</strong><br />
secondary stresses in <strong>Dutch</strong> is sensitive to the segmental composition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
syllable ('syllable weight'). <strong>The</strong> analysis given here assumes that this is not the<br />
case for <strong>Dutch</strong>. <strong>The</strong> opposite position is taken by Kager ( 1989) who argues that<br />
there is certain evidence that closed syllables and syllables with a diphthong<br />
have inherent stress. <strong>The</strong> evidence concerns certain stress patterns, vowelreduction<br />
possibilities (to be discussed in detail in Section 6.4), and Trochaic<br />
Reversal.<br />
Kager (1989: 290) observed that it is possible to have secondary stress on<br />
the second syllables <strong>of</strong> the words melancholiek 'melancholic' and gerontologie<br />
'gerontology', alongside the possibility <strong>of</strong> initial secondary stress. This would<br />
follow from stress being assigned by weight. However, in many words we get<br />
word-initial secondary stress even when the second syllable is closed, as in<br />
identiteit 'identity', tuberculose 'tuberculosis' and conservatief 'conservative'.<br />
So it seems that non-initial secondary stress is not a systematic phenomenon.<br />
Note, moreover, that non-initial secondary stress also occurs in some words<br />
although the second syllable is light, as in piraten'/ 'pirate actions' and<br />
grammàtikâal 'grammatical'.<br />
Vowels in open syllables indeed reduce easier than vowels in closed<br />
syllables, and diphthongs never reduce to schwa. Nevertheless, vowels in<br />
closed, that is, 'heavy' syllables can reduce. For instance, in anekdote<br />
/antkdoto/ 'anecdote' the second syllable is closed. Yet, reduction <strong>of</strong> the<br />
vowel is possible, which forces Kager to add a rule that reduces the stress<br />
<strong>of</strong> closed syllables in certain configurations. In the approach taken here, the<br />
second syllable does not take stress, and hence the vowel can reduce. <strong>The</strong> fact<br />
that diphthongs do not reduce may be related to a more general tendency,<br />
namely that diphthongs do not undergo rules which apply to stable long<br />
vowels. For instance, they also do not undergo the rule <strong>of</strong> word-initial vowel<br />
shortening (Section 6.5) that applies in stressed syllables.
5-2. MAIN STRESS PATTERNS 107<br />
Trochaic Reversal is the phenomenon discussed above in (3) with respect to<br />
the stress pattern <strong>of</strong> dorpsdomincc. It seems that this kind <strong>of</strong> reversal sometimes<br />
leads to a shift <strong>of</strong> stress to the final syllable <strong>of</strong> a bisyllabic word forming<br />
the right constituent <strong>of</strong> compounds, as in Bosatlas Md.' (Bos is the author <strong>of</strong><br />
this atlas), jeugdherherg 'youth hostel', and hloedlichaam 'blood corpuscle'.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rhythmic reversal is illustrated for Bosatlas, for analyses with and without<br />
inherent weight:<br />
(19) With inherent weight Without inherent weight<br />
bos at las bos at las<br />
* (*) _> *<br />
* *<br />
Kager's argument in favour <strong>of</strong> the weight analysis is that stress shift does not<br />
occur on words ending in a vowel. For instance, in postgiro 'giro', stress<br />
cannot be shifted to the last syllable. Gussenhoven (1984: 305), however,<br />
provides the example tandpasta 'toothpaste' where Trochaic Reversal does<br />
occur, and hence the second vowel can reduce: |to.mp3sta|. Also, Visch (1989:<br />
129) gives a number <strong>of</strong> examples in which the secondary stress cannot shift<br />
although the relevant syllable to which the stress would move, is heavy:<br />
âartsvijand 'arch-enemy', hûlprôbot '(lit.) help robot', and borstsleraad<br />
'breast ornament'. In short, Trochaic Reversal phenomena do not lead to<br />
clear conclusions. We should also keep in mind that in words such as dominee<br />
'parson', the last, open syllable gets secondary stress anyway, also in Kager's<br />
analysis, 15 although it is a 'light' syllable.<br />
Moreover, it appears that the inverse <strong>of</strong> Trochaic Reversal, Iambic Reversal,<br />
which takes place in phrases, is sometimes possible with stress shift to open<br />
syllables, as the following examples (from Kager 1989: 279) illustrate: 16<br />
(20) vocaal 'vocal' vocale steun 'vocal support'<br />
neutraal 'neutral' neutrale opstelling 'neutral position'<br />
primair 'primary' primaire kenmerken 'primary features'<br />
An argument in favour <strong>of</strong> the analysis presented here is that the rule for<br />
assignment <strong>of</strong> secondary stress applies throughout the lexicon, i.e., also to<br />
complex words with native, stress-neutral suffixes, that do not trigger application<br />
<strong>of</strong> the MSR. For instance, the word wandeling /wundalirj/ 'walk', with the<br />
stress-neutral suffix -ing /irj/ bears secondary stress on the final syllable, which<br />
is confirmed by the fact that it selects the diminutive allomorph -etje that only<br />
occurs after stressed syllables. On the other hand, bisyllabic words ending in<br />
-ing like paling 'eel' get the allomorph -kje. Note that this also speaks against<br />
assigning inherent stress to closed syllables, since then the final syllable <strong>of</strong><br />
" Kager derives this secondary stress by assigning lexical stress to Ihe vowel <strong>of</strong> the last syllable<br />
l
I08<br />
WORD STRESS<br />
paling would bear stress, and we can no longer predict the choice <strong>of</strong> the correct<br />
diminutive allomorph.<br />
Another relevant native suffix is -nis: in vuilnis 'garbage', the second<br />
syllable is stressless, and the underlying /!/ can reduce to schwa. In droefenis<br />
'sadness', on the other hand, the last syllable receives rhythmical stress, and<br />
thus it is correctly predicted that here the /i/ does not reduce. Again, this shows<br />
that the Optimal Grid Rule applies to the native complex words as well.<br />
In sum, there are two choices to be made for each language with respect to<br />
secondary stress:<br />
(a) is it weight-sensitive or only determined by rhythmic alternation?<br />
(b) does it apply in the same direction as the MSR or from the other<br />
direction?<br />
<strong>The</strong>se choices appear to be independent. According to Halle and Kenstowic/.<br />
(1991), English is weight-sensitive, but secondary stress does not apply in<br />
the same direction as the MSR, and Spanish is just the other way round:<br />
secondary stress is not weight-sensitive, but applies in the same direction as<br />
the MSR, i.e., from right to left. According to Kager (1989) <strong>Dutch</strong> secondary<br />
stress is weight-sensitive, and is assigned in the same direction as the MSR,<br />
whereas here, the opposite choice is made for both parameters, which makes<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> in this respect equal to, for instance. Polish (cf. Rubach and Booij<br />
1985).<br />
In conclusion, the following phonological rule <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> accounts for<br />
secondary stress: 17<br />
(21) Optimal Grid Rule<br />
Assign line-1 *s to syllables within a prosodie word under the following<br />
conditions:<br />
(a) no adjacent *s;<br />
(b) if possible, insert * on syllables at word edges (the Hammock<br />
Principle).<br />
In the initially stressed Wapeningen a secondary stress on the final syllable is<br />
7 <strong>The</strong> analysis in which main stress is assigned lirst. and then secondary stress by a separate<br />
rule, was proposed in Booij (1981«: ch. 9), and is also defended in Van /.onneveld (1985) and Van<br />
dei Hulst ( 1984). As argued in Rubach and Booij (1985), secondary stress in Polish is assigned<br />
according to the same principles <strong>of</strong> 'main stress first' (in the penultimate), and then secondarystress<br />
assignment from both word edges. Vogel and Scalise ( 19X2) defend this approach tor Italian,<br />
and Halle and Kenstowicz ( 1991 ) argue in favour <strong>of</strong> such a rule <strong>of</strong> secondary-stress assignment for<br />
English, in the case <strong>of</strong> English only from the left edge <strong>of</strong> the word, i.e. on the part <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
before the main stress. In their opinion the fact that the secondary-stress rule starts from the word<br />
edge follows from the 'cross-over constraint' that says that 'melritication' (the construction <strong>of</strong><br />
metrical feet) can only affect elements that have not yet been parsed. Roca (1986, forthcoming)<br />
also argues that secondary stress in Spanish is determined by rhythmic principles rather than by an<br />
iterative Main Stress Rule. Other evidence is summari/ed in Van de Vijver (1993).<br />
Strictly speaking, secondary-stress assignment is not one rule in the case <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> because it<br />
applies from both word edges. One may conceive <strong>of</strong> it as imposing a certain template on line 1 <strong>of</strong><br />
the metrical grids <strong>of</strong> words.
5-2. MAIN STRESS PATTERNS 109<br />
impossible because it contains a schwa. Hence, the secondary stress is located<br />
in the prefinal syllable.<br />
<strong>The</strong> principle that adjacent stresses are forbidden only holds within prosodie<br />
words. For instance, as shown above, the compound dorpsdominee does allow<br />
tor adjacent stresses, even after the stress clash has been removed.<br />
5.2.2. Cyclic i ty <strong>of</strong> stress assignment<br />
If the MSR applies when possible, the rule will apply cyclically without any<br />
further stipulation, given the organization <strong>of</strong> the grammar as outlined in<br />
Section 4.1. <strong>The</strong> question is whether this is a desirable result. In Chomsky<br />
and Halle (1968), the rule for English word stress is assigned cyclically. On<br />
each subsequent cycle, main stress is reassigned, and the primary stress <strong>of</strong> the<br />
previous cycle is lowered by one degree by convention. If we applied this<br />
theory to <strong>Dutch</strong>, the following stress patterns for words such as pr<strong>of</strong>eteer 'to<br />
prophesize' and kanaliseer 'to canalize' would result:<br />
(22) 1st cycle:<br />
MSR<br />
2nd cycle:<br />
MSR<br />
Stress Lowering<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>eet<br />
1<br />
+eer<br />
1<br />
2<br />
kanaal<br />
1<br />
+iseer<br />
1<br />
2<br />
So, we derive the wrong stress patterns pr<strong>of</strong>eteer and kanaliseer instead <strong>of</strong> the<br />
correct patterns with secondary stress on the word-initial syllables. <strong>The</strong><br />
correctness <strong>of</strong> the given patterns can be deduced from the vowel-reduction<br />
possibilities: in both words, the vowel <strong>of</strong> the second syllable can reduce:<br />
[pr<strong>of</strong>9te:r|, [kanalize:r]. In the case <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>eteer we might explain this by a<br />
rule <strong>of</strong> stress shift that shifts the secondary stress from its prestress position, in<br />
order to get a more optimal rhythmic pattern. In the case <strong>of</strong> kanaliseer, this<br />
explanation does not go through since the cyclic derivation does derive an<br />
alternating pattern, as shown above.' x In other words, derived words, at least<br />
those derived by means <strong>of</strong> non-native suffixes, behave as underived words with<br />
respect to stress. Two different conclusions may be drawn from this observation:<br />
either main stress is assigned cyclically, but a Stress Erasure Convention<br />
erases it when a new cycle is created through the addition <strong>of</strong> an affix, or the<br />
MSR is a rule that applies after the non-native morphology. <strong>The</strong> first proposal,<br />
cyclic assignment plus a Stress Erasure Convention, is that <strong>of</strong> Halle and<br />
Vergnaud (1987: 83). This convention states that existing stresses within the<br />
8 <strong>The</strong>re are a few words, though, with non-initial stress thai correlates with the position <strong>of</strong> the<br />
main stress in the base word: piraat—piraterij, grammatika—grananatikaal. In grammankuul it is<br />
the vowel <strong>of</strong> the first rather than that <strong>of</strong> the second syllable that can be reduced to schwa. <strong>The</strong>y<br />
might be seen as lexically governed exceptions lo the Stress Erasure Convention. Comparable<br />
lexical exceptions appear lo exist for English. For instance, in originality the second syllable bears<br />
Mress, instead <strong>of</strong> the first one, a reflection <strong>of</strong> the main stress on the second syllable <strong>of</strong> its base word<br />
original (Halle and Kenstowicz 1991: 491).
I 10<br />
WORD STRESS<br />
domain <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word to which the MSR reapplies are erased. I will<br />
assume it a* well, since there is another argument for cyclicity <strong>of</strong> stress<br />
assignment: morphological and phonological rules may require information<br />
about the stress pattern <strong>of</strong> a word. For instance, the adjectival suffix -ief only<br />
attaches to nouns ending in unstressed -ie (in other cases the suffix -ixch is<br />
used, cf. Booij and Rubach (1987)):<br />
(23) a. agressie 'aggression' agressief 'aggressive'<br />
indicatie 'indication' indicatief 'indicative'<br />
restrictie 'restriction' restrictief 'restrictive'<br />
b. hysten'e 'hysteria' hysterisch 'hysterical'<br />
demokrati'e 'democracy' demokratisch 'democratic'<br />
algebra 'id.'<br />
algebraisch 'algebraic'<br />
Note that the words in unstressed -ie are the ones with the regular stress<br />
pattern, so we cannot refer to some diacritic feature <strong>of</strong> words like agressie**<br />
In Chapter 4 we also encountered a case where the correct application <strong>of</strong> a<br />
rule <strong>of</strong> vowel lengthening is dependent on information about the stress pattern<br />
on the previous cycle: the rule <strong>of</strong> Vowel Lengthening in the non-native lexicon<br />
(Section 4.4.4). 20<br />
In sum, like English (Halle and Vergnaud 1987: 83), <strong>Dutch</strong> has a class <strong>of</strong><br />
cyclic suffixes that do not themselves form domains <strong>of</strong> stress assignment; they<br />
therefore trigger reapplication <strong>of</strong> the MSR and erase the existing stress pattern<br />
<strong>of</strong> the base. Below, we will see that the class <strong>of</strong> cyclic suffixes is somewhat<br />
larger than the class <strong>of</strong> non-native suffixes.<br />
5.3. WORD STRESS AND NATIVE SUFFIXATION<br />
Above we saw that the MSR holds for (native and non-native) underived<br />
words, and for non-native complex words. This layer <strong>of</strong> the lexicon is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
referred to as 'stratum 1 ' or 'level 1 ' . <strong>The</strong> only clear level-1 rule that we have<br />
encountered so far is the MSR. <strong>The</strong> rules discussed in Chapter 4 were either<br />
19 An alternative analysis is proposed in Odden IIWO). Oclden assumes that in words like<br />
/HVC'/"/»K/
5-3- WORD STRESS AND NATIVE SUFFIXATION III<br />
P-rules, not restricted to a particular layer <strong>of</strong> the lexicon, or MP-rules, which<br />
were either characteristic for non-native or for native words.<br />
<strong>The</strong> native suffixes <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> can be divided into three classes:<br />
(a) stress-neutral suffixes<br />
(b) stress-bearing suffixes<br />
(c) stress-shifting suffixes.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y will be discussed in the next subsections.<br />
5.3.1. Stress-neutral suffixes<br />
Most native suffixes <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> are stress-neutral, that is, they do not influence<br />
the position <strong>of</strong> the main stress <strong>of</strong> their base word. <strong>The</strong>re are two categories <strong>of</strong><br />
stress-neutral suffixes to be distinguished since some <strong>of</strong> them form prosodie<br />
words <strong>of</strong> their own, the so-called non-cohering suffixes:<br />
(24) a. Cohering suffixes<br />
-e /a/ (several functions)<br />
-el /al/ (denominal verbalizing suff.)<br />
-en /an/ (pi. suff.)<br />
-er /ar/ (several functions, plus allomorph /ar/)<br />
-erd /ord/ (creates de-adjectival pej. names)<br />
-erig /aray/ '-ish'<br />
-ing /irj/ '-ing'<br />
-nis /nis/ '-ness'<br />
-s /s/ (substantivizing suff., pi. suff., gen. suff.)<br />
-sel /sal/ (creates de-verbal obj. names)<br />
-st /st/ (super., de-verbal nominalizing suff.)<br />
-ster /star/ (feminizing suff.)<br />
-t /t/ (de-verbal nominalizing suff.)<br />
-te /ta/ '-ness' (past tense)<br />
-tje /tja/ (dimin., + 4 allomorphs)<br />
b. Non-cohering suffixes<br />
-achtig /oxtay/ '-like'<br />
-baar /bar/ '-able'<br />
-dom /dom/ '-dom'<br />
-held /held/ '-ness'<br />
-ling /lirj/ '-ling'<br />
-loos /los/ '-less'<br />
-schap /sxap/ '-ship'<br />
It is almost completely predictable whether a native suffix will be non-cohering<br />
or not. <strong>The</strong> rule is: a native suffix that could form a prosodie word <strong>of</strong> its own,<br />
1<br />
<strong>The</strong> non-cohering suffix -zaam is dealt with in Section 5.3.3, where -biiar also recurs.
I 12<br />
WORD STRESS<br />
does it, except for -ing and -nis. 22 By definition, non-cohering suffixes are not<br />
cyclic suffixes, and hence they do not affect the main stress <strong>of</strong> their input<br />
words. In order to account for the stress-neutrality <strong>of</strong> the stress-neutral cohering<br />
suffixes, we have to mark them as non-cyclic suffixes. In most cases,<br />
this marking can be predicted from the fact that these suffixes are either<br />
nominalizing or inflectional [+native] suffixes.<br />
On the other hand, the Optimal Grid Rule is a purely phonological rule, and<br />
applies if possible. Thus, in wandeling /wundolirj/ 'walk' derived from the<br />
verb wandel 'to walk', the MSR assigns main stress to the initial syllable. After<br />
the affixation <strong>of</strong> -ing, a non-cyclic suffix, the MSR does not reapply, but the<br />
Optimal Grid Rule is applicable since there is now a syllable with a full vowel,<br />
introduced by the suffix -ing, and it will assign secondary stress to the last<br />
syllable.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Optimal Grid Rule is, when nothing is said, a cyclic rule (although its<br />
effects will be erased by the Stress Erasure Convention). This is in harmony<br />
with the fact that in the allomorphy <strong>of</strong> the diminutive suffix the location <strong>of</strong><br />
secondary stress may play a role, as is the case for wandeling 'walk' with the<br />
diminutive wandelingetje. If the Optimal Grid Rule were a word-level rule,<br />
and thus applied after the MP-rules triggered by the native morphology, the<br />
relevant information that the last syllable <strong>of</strong> wandeling has secondary stress,<br />
would not be available.<br />
<strong>The</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> adding stress-neutral suffixes with only schwas is that we may<br />
get complex words with a sequence <strong>of</strong> unstressed syllables, as illustrated by<br />
gemakkelijker, the comparative form <strong>of</strong> gemakkelijk 'easy', itself derived from<br />
gemak /y3mak/ 'easiness' by means <strong>of</strong> the suffix -elijk /alak/:<br />
(25) Y3 ma ks Is kar<br />
* line 1<br />
* line 2<br />
It should also be noted that the stress-neutrality <strong>of</strong> these suffixes does not<br />
follow from their containing schwas. For instance, in the adjective judaxxerig<br />
[jydusaraxl 'Judas-like', the stress is not on the last full vowel, as would be<br />
expected if we determined the stress pattern anew, but on the first one,<br />
corresponding with the main stress on the first syllable <strong>of</strong> Judas 'id.'.<br />
<strong>The</strong> non-cohering native suffixes have an internal stress pattern. For instance,<br />
in -achtig the first syllable bears stress. <strong>The</strong> other non-cohering suffixes are<br />
monosyllabic. Like monosyllabic words <strong>of</strong> lexical categories, they will automatically<br />
receive main stress, i.e., *s at level 1 and level 2. Of course, the fact<br />
that monosyllabic prosodie words have main stress is not specific for level 1,<br />
but is valid across the lexicon. Similarly, since across the lexicon a schwa<br />
cannot receive stress, the initial stress <strong>of</strong> -achtig /axtoy/ is predictable. Words<br />
like rood-achtig 'reddish' and eet-baar 'edible' are compounds <strong>of</strong> two<br />
22 Some speakers always rcali/.e -nis as |nas|. Thus, lor those speakers, -nis is no exception, hut<br />
is predictably a cohering suffix.
5-3- WORD STRESS AND NATIVE SUFFIXATION 113<br />
prosodie words, and thus they will be subject to the stress rule for compounds<br />
to be discussed in Section 5.4 which states that the first prosodie word gets an<br />
asterisk on line 3:<br />
(26) (rood),,,<br />
*<br />
*<br />
*<br />
(ach tig) u<br />
*<br />
(baar) œ<br />
* line 1<br />
line 2<br />
line 3<br />
5..?.2. Stress-bearing suffixes<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are four native suffixes that bear the main stress <strong>of</strong> the words that they<br />
form:<br />
(27) -erij /arci/ schiet-erij 'shooting', et-erij 'eating'<br />
-es /es/ voogd-es 'fern, guardian' (fem.)<br />
-in /in/ hel-din 'heroine', leeuw-in 'lioness'<br />
-ij /ei/ voogd-ij 'guardianship, abd-ij 'abbey'<br />
<strong>The</strong>se words are native suffixes as proven by the fact that they attach typically<br />
to native base words. <strong>The</strong>refore, these native suffixes have to be marked as<br />
cyclic suffixes. Moreover, the final consonants <strong>of</strong> the suffixes -es and -in have<br />
to be marked as exceptions to the rule <strong>of</strong> final VC-extrametricality discussed<br />
above, because they bear the main stress <strong>of</strong> the word, or they are to be marked<br />
as I+F].<br />
It is worth discussing how the grammar developed here will derive the stress<br />
pattern <strong>of</strong> maatschappij 'society' which is derived by suffixation <strong>of</strong> -ij to the<br />
base word maatschap '(lit) mateship' that in its turn contains the non-cohering<br />
suftix -schap. In maatschap the first syllable bears main stress, and the second<br />
syllable bears secondary stress because it is a prosodie word in its own right. In<br />
other words, stress is as predicted by the Compound Stress Rule to be<br />
discussed below. In maatschappij the cohering suffix -ij is added to the<br />
prosodie word -schap. <strong>The</strong> cohering nature <strong>of</strong> this suffix is also clear from<br />
its resyllabification effect: the final /p/ <strong>of</strong> -schap forms a syllable with -ij. So<br />
we get the following stress patterns:<br />
(28) (maat) (0 (schap),,, (maat) w (schap pij) (0<br />
* * * * line 1<br />
* * * line 2<br />
* line 3<br />
Since -ij is a cyclic suffix, it will delete previously assigned stresses. <strong>The</strong><br />
second syllable <strong>of</strong> maatschappij is indeed stressless and the vowel can be<br />
reduced to schwa: [matsxapei]. <strong>The</strong> removal <strong>of</strong> the original stress pattern <strong>of</strong><br />
maatschap follows from the Stress Erasure Convention. Finally, note that the<br />
original prosodie structure does not seem to play a role in the determination <strong>of</strong><br />
the main stress. That is, we have to assume that after stress erasure, the MSR
I 14<br />
WORD STRESS<br />
which normally applies in the domain <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word, can extend its<br />
domain, and also apply across a prosodie word boundary.<br />
5.3.3. Stress-shifting suffixes<br />
A third category <strong>of</strong> native suffixes requires the main stress <strong>of</strong> the word to be<br />
located on the last stressable syllable before the suftix. <strong>The</strong>y are all adjectival<br />
suffixes (cf. Schultink 19X0):<br />
(29) -baar /bar/ overdraagbaar 'transferable'<br />
-end /and/ omarmend 'embracing'<br />
-ig /ay/<br />
driehoekig 'triangular'<br />
-isch /is/ afgodisch 'idolatrie'<br />
-(e)lijk /alok/ hartstochtelijk 'passionate', aanzienlijk 'considerable'<br />
-s /s/ goedlachs 'merry'<br />
-zaam /zam/ mededeel/aam 'communicative'<br />
A remarkable detail is that the suffix -haar only attracts main stress if the base<br />
word is a so-called separable complex verb. 21 For instance, overdraagbaar is<br />
derived from the separable complex verb overdragen 'to transfer'. On the other<br />
hand, when we add -baar to the complex verb beïnvloeden 'to influence' which<br />
is not a separable complex verb, the main stress remains where it was, on the<br />
syllable in. Furthermore, if -loos is preceded by a schwa, it may also attract<br />
stress, as in hartstochtelooa 'passionless'. Finally, stress shift is also observed<br />
for the sequence <strong>of</strong> suffixes -loos-heid, where main stress is located on -loos,<br />
as in werkeloosheid 'joblessness'. 24 <strong>The</strong> relevant generalization is:<br />
(30) Assign main stress to the last stressable syllable before the suffix in<br />
adjectives ending in -haar, -end. -/'#, -isch, -(e>lijk, -s, and -zaam.<br />
Clearly, these suffixes also have to be qualified as cyclic suffixes, in that they<br />
erase the existing stress pattern, and trigger reassignment <strong>of</strong> Main Stress. <strong>The</strong><br />
suffixes -end, -ix, and -(e)lijk are then completely regular: they cannot bear<br />
main stress themselves since they do not contain full vowels. <strong>The</strong> other three<br />
suffixes are irregular in that they require main stress on the syllable before the<br />
suffix.<br />
Just as in the case <strong>of</strong> maatschappij, the effect <strong>of</strong> this special rule is that the<br />
second prosodie word <strong>of</strong> the adjective bears main stress:<br />
(31) Morphological structure 11 [mat| N sxup| N al3k] A<br />
Prosodie structure (mat)^ (sxupglak)^<br />
Stress grid line 1 * *<br />
line 2 *<br />
" In main clauses the verbal pan <strong>of</strong> separable complex verbs stands in second position, whereas<br />
the particle is clause-final; cf. Booij (IWO«) for a morphological analysis <strong>of</strong> these verbs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> proper analysis <strong>of</strong> these complicated facts is discussed in Neijt and /onneveld (14X1 ).<br />
KOOIJ and Van der Niel (1985), and De Haas (1985, 1991).
5-4- COMPOUND STRESS 115<br />
To summarize, there is a number <strong>of</strong> adjectival native suffixes that have to be<br />
qualified as cyclic suffixes.<br />
5.4. COMPOUND STRESS<br />
<strong>The</strong> basic stress pattern for compounds is that the first <strong>of</strong> the two constituents is<br />
the most prominent one (the strong-weak pattern). <strong>The</strong> most productive<br />
category <strong>of</strong> compounds is that <strong>of</strong> nominal compounds. Verbal compounds<br />
are rare (but do exist), and adjectival compounds also form a productive<br />
category, but their constituents are usually non-compounds (i.e. adjectival<br />
compounding does not allow for recursivity). 25 <strong>The</strong> following rule accounts<br />
for compound stress:<br />
(32) Compound Stress Rule (CSR)<br />
Add an * to the leftmost prosodie word on the next line.<br />
<strong>The</strong> following derivations illustrate the (cyclic) application <strong>of</strong> this rule to the<br />
compound onderzoekfonds 'research fund':<br />
(33) Klonderl [zoek]] [fonds]]<br />
1st cycle: MSR * * * line 1<br />
* * * line 2<br />
2nd cycle: CSR * line 3<br />
3rd cycle: CSR * * line 3<br />
* line 4<br />
By convention, the application <strong>of</strong> the CSR at line 4 also introduces an * for<br />
fonds at line 3 because before each application <strong>of</strong> the CSR the two constituents<br />
involved must be represented at the same number <strong>of</strong> lines. This correctly<br />
expresses that in the word under discussion the constituent fonds is more<br />
prominent than the constituent zoek. Recall that the stress grids are assigned<br />
to prosodie constituents. <strong>The</strong>refore, the CSR also applies to complex words<br />
that are not compounds from the morphological point <strong>of</strong> view, but nevertheless<br />
consist <strong>of</strong> two prosodie words, for instance the complex adjectives kleurloos<br />
'colourless' and draagbaar 'portable', and the complex nouns schoonheid<br />
'beauty' and leerling 'pupil'.<br />
Let us now look at the derivation <strong>of</strong> the stress grid <strong>of</strong> kankeronderzoek<br />
'cancer research' as given in (34).<br />
<strong>The</strong> then-resulting grid may seem to exhibit a configuration <strong>of</strong> stress clash.<br />
Stress clash is defined as the configuration in which two *s are adjacent at line<br />
" Cf. Langeweg (1988), Visen (1989), and Booij (1992ft) for a survey <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> compounding,<br />
and the different stress patterns.
no<br />
(34) ([kanker]<br />
1st cycle: MSR *<br />
2nd cycle: CSR<br />
3rd cycle: CSR<br />
WORD STRESS<br />
( (onder] [zoek]]]<br />
*<br />
line l<br />
line 2<br />
line 3<br />
line 3<br />
line 4<br />
n and line n - l (Liberman and Prince 1977, Prince 1983). <strong>The</strong> clash will be<br />
resolved by Trochaic Reversal, that is, movement <strong>of</strong> the line-3 * <strong>of</strong> the syllable<br />
on to the syllable zoek. In other words, the pattern 1-2-3 is changed into 1-3-<br />
2. Similar examples are taalwetenschap '(lit.) language science', staatseigendom<br />
'state property', and ho<strong>of</strong>dschakelaar 'main switch' (Visch 1989: 131).<br />
<strong>The</strong> interpretation <strong>of</strong> stress shift as 'Move *' correctly predicts that if the<br />
second constituent <strong>of</strong> a compound is bisyllabic, and thus forms one bisyllabic<br />
foot, the stress shift is impossible, because it would result in an ill-formed grid,<br />
with no grid entry for the final syllable at line I: 26<br />
(35) post gi ro<br />
*<br />
line 1<br />
* © -> line 2<br />
* line 3<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, stress shift is impossible in the following cases (data partially from<br />
Visch 1989: 128):<br />
(36) póstgiro<br />
blóedplasma<br />
grâansîlo<br />
jâarprèmie<br />
kóorkanon<br />
n'dderhàrnas<br />
*póstgirö<br />
*bloedplasmà<br />
*graansilô<br />
*jâarpremie<br />
*kóorkanön<br />
*n'dderharnàs<br />
'giro'<br />
'blood plasma'<br />
'grain elevator'<br />
'annual premium'<br />
'choir canon'<br />
'knight's cuirass'<br />
Exceptions to this restriction are words like Bosatlas and tandpasta mentioned<br />
above, and a few compounds (Visch 1989: 128) such as bloedlichaam 'blood<br />
cell' and booreiland 'oil rig': they allow for Trochaic Reversal to apply.<br />
Bosatlas and tandpasta may be seen as lexicalizations that form only one<br />
prosodie word (the Optimal Grid Principle will then assign secondary stress to<br />
the last syllable), whereas words like lichaam 'body' and eiland 'Lsland' can be<br />
interpreted as formal compounds, thus allowing for stress shift:<br />
ltl<br />
In Visch (1989: 126) Trochaic Revcisal is analysed in the iree-cum-grid framework <strong>of</strong> Hayes<br />
(19X4) This moans that the grid functions primarily as an interpretational device. When a stress<br />
clash arises, restructuring and relabelling <strong>of</strong> the metrical tree takes place. Trochaic Reversal is<br />
forinali/ed as the adjunction <strong>of</strong> a constituent that does not contain the Designated Terminal<br />
Element <strong>of</strong> the constituent in which the siress clash lakes place to the preceding constituent,<br />
which becomes strong, since an adjoined constituent is always weak.
5-4- COMPOUND STRESS iiy<br />
(37) boor ei land<br />
* * * line 1<br />
* * * line 2<br />
* ©-» - line 3<br />
* line 4<br />
<strong>The</strong> analysis given here also correctly predicts that Trochaic Reversal does not<br />
always apply to compounds with a second constituent ending in the suffix -ing:<br />
(38) prijsstijging -» *prijsstijgîng 'price increase'<br />
weersverwachting —> * weersverwachting 'weather forecast'<br />
bóswandeling —» bóswandeling 'forest walk'<br />
wéersveràndering —> wéersverandering 'weather change'<br />
In the last two examples, the final syllable <strong>of</strong> the second constituent receives<br />
stress from the Optimal Grid Rule, and hence it is a proper location for 'Move<br />
k ' to move an asterisk to:<br />
(39) prijs<br />
*<br />
stij<br />
*<br />
ging versus bos<br />
*<br />
wan<br />
*<br />
de ling<br />
*<br />
* * * (*) —><br />
* *<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are certain exceptions to the CSR, established compounds with main<br />
stress on the second constituent instead <strong>of</strong> on the first:<br />
(40) [staats][bosbeheer] 'forestry commission'<br />
[kinder|(bijslag] 27 'child allowance'<br />
[stad|[hiiis] 'town hall'<br />
[boeren][zoon| 'farmer's son'<br />
An even more exceptional stress pattern that is sometimes heard is arbeidsvoorwaardenbeleid<br />
'terms <strong>of</strong> employment policy' with main stress on voor,<br />
the morphologically most deeply embedded constituent. This type <strong>of</strong> stress<br />
pattern is the regular one for cases where a phrase functions as the first part <strong>of</strong><br />
a compound. I will assume that within the phrase, stress is assigned by a noun<br />
phrase stress rule (NSR) which assigns stress to the head <strong>of</strong> a nominal phrase<br />
within compounds, as illustrated by the derivation (41).<br />
On line 3, an additional * will be added to huis by convention because at that<br />
level both constituents should be represented.<br />
Verbal compounding is unproductive in <strong>Dutch</strong>. A verbal compound like<br />
st<strong>of</strong>zuigen '(lit.) to dust-suck', i.e., 'to vacuum clean' has probably arisen<br />
through reinterpretation: the regular nominal compound ( [st<strong>of</strong>] N [zuiger]n]n<br />
'vacuum cleaner' with the de-verbal head zuiger can have been reinterpreted as<br />
the de-verbal -er-noun <strong>of</strong> the verbal stem st<strong>of</strong>zuig. 2 * Prosodically, they fall<br />
27 Some speakers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> have regular main stress on this compound: kinderbijslag.<br />
2H Cf. Booij (1989/j) for a more elaborate analysis <strong>of</strong> these phenomena.
I l8<br />
WORD STRESS<br />
(41) [|[oude) A [mannenj N | NP |huis| N | N<br />
1st cycle: MSR * * * line 1<br />
* * * line 2<br />
2nd cycle: NSR<br />
3rd cycle: CSR<br />
* line 3<br />
* * line 3<br />
* line 4<br />
under the domain <strong>of</strong> the CSR that correctly predicts main stress on the first<br />
constituent.<br />
Adjectival compounds exhibit two different stress patterns. Most <strong>of</strong> them<br />
have main stress on the second constituent (Visen 1989: 105, Trommelen and<br />
Zonneveld 1989«: 246, Backhuys 1989):<br />
(42) hulpbehoevend '(lit.) help-needing'<br />
gastvrij 'hospitable'<br />
zelfrijzend 'self-raising'<br />
kiesgerechtigd 'enfranchised'<br />
do<strong>of</strong>stom 'deaf-mute'<br />
However, in attributive position there is stress shift (Iambic Reversal) to the first<br />
constituent, as in een gastvrije ontvangst 'a warm welcome' (cf. Section 7.4). A<br />
mimimal pair illustrating the difference with nominal compounds is tâalpolitiek<br />
tnoun) 'language policy' versus tâalpolitiek (adj.) 'language-political'.<br />
A second class <strong>of</strong> complex adjectives has main stress on the first prosodie<br />
words, that is, the strong-weak pattern (Backhuys 1989):<br />
(43) zéeziek 'sea-sick'<br />
schi'etgraag 'trigger-happy'<br />
/.fnvol 'meaningful'<br />
lévensmoe 'world-weary'<br />
kleurrijk 'colourful'<br />
Formally, the right constituents are adjectival heads, but semantically they are<br />
comparable to adjectival suffixes, since their lexical meaning has faded. Indeed,<br />
they have the same stress pattern as complex adjectives such as kleurloos<br />
'colourless' and vruchtbaar 'fruitful'. In other words, these adjectives fall<br />
under the general CSR.<br />
<strong>The</strong> following type <strong>of</strong> adjective has been claimed to form a special category:<br />
(44) |[ree] N |bruin| A ] A '(lit.) deer brown', i.e., 'fawn coloured'<br />
[[peper] N [duur] A ] A '(lit.) pepper-expensive', i.e., 'very expensive'<br />
[|reuze] N [leuk] A ] A '(lit.) giant funny', i.e., 'very funny'<br />
|(knetter) v [gek] A ] A '(lit.) crackling mad', i.e., 'completely mad'<br />
Ilgeel] A [groen] A ] A 'yellow-green'<br />
[aarts[lelijk| A ] A 'very ugly'
5-5- STRESS IN PREFIXED WORDS 119<br />
Van Heuven (19S6: 84; 1987) showed for bisyllahic adjectival compounds that<br />
although the focused constituent is indeed accented, as in Zij is een beeldschoon<br />
meisje 'She is a very beautiful girl', the intensity and duration <strong>of</strong> the two<br />
constituents are more alike than in the case <strong>of</strong> simplex bisyllabic adjectives<br />
such as concreet 'concrete'. That is, they seem to be equally stressed. Neijt<br />
(1990), in a reaction, argued that these adjectives fall under the weak-strong<br />
patterns, and that durational rules may account for the similarity in duration <strong>of</strong><br />
the two syllables. 29 Spoken in isolation, a word like beeldschoon does have<br />
accent on the final syllable in the form <strong>of</strong> a down-stepped tone.<br />
Compound prepositions also fall under the weak-strong pattern, when they<br />
are used intransitively. When they form part <strong>of</strong> a prepositional phrase, the<br />
main stress shifts to the first constituent:<br />
(45) bovem'n bovenin de kàmer 'at the top <strong>of</strong> the room'<br />
onderaan ónderaan de bèrg 'at the foot <strong>of</strong> the mountain'<br />
bovenop bovenop het dàk 'on top <strong>of</strong> the ro<strong>of</strong>'<br />
achteraan achteraan de rij 'at the back <strong>of</strong> the row'<br />
In sum, adjectival and prepositional compounds are exceptions to the CSR<br />
in that they have the reverse stress pattern weak-strong. However, this only<br />
applies to adjectives <strong>of</strong> which the head still has a distinct lexical meaning.<br />
5.5. STRESS IN PREFIXED WORDS<br />
5.5./. Non-native prefixes<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> has a number <strong>of</strong> non-native prefixes which attach to non-native base<br />
words or to roots that do not always occur as words by themselves:<br />
(46) a- apathisch 'apathetic'<br />
ab- absorbeer 'to absorb'<br />
ad- adhesie 'adhesion'<br />
ante- antedateer 'to predate'<br />
apo- apotheose 'apotheosis'<br />
con- concentreer 'to concentrate'<br />
de- decomponeer 'to decompose'<br />
in- inclusief 'inclusive'<br />
inter- intervenieer 'to intervene'<br />
per- perforeer 'to perforate'<br />
post- postdateer 'to postdate'<br />
pre- prelude 'id.'<br />
re- representeer 'to represent'<br />
trans transponeer 'to transpose'<br />
29 Cf. Sluijter ( 1492) for further comments on this issue.
120 WORD STRESS<br />
As we have seen in Section 3.6, prefixes are independent domains <strong>of</strong> syllabification.<br />
However, non-native prefixes may lose their transparency, and thus<br />
become one prosodie word with the stem. This is illustrated by the verb<br />
reageer 'to react' in which Homorganic Glide Insertion applies obligatorily.<br />
It may also be illustrated by the possible syllabification pattern<br />
(tran) 0 (spo) a (neer) a for the verb transponeer. In terms <strong>of</strong> secondary-stress<br />
patterns they <strong>of</strong>ten seem to form one domain with their verbal stem, because<br />
they get secondary stress (they will never bear main stress given the fact that<br />
the MSR basically assigns stress to one <strong>of</strong> the word-final syllables):<br />
(47) dateer antedateer<br />
componeer dècomponéer<br />
presenteer representeer<br />
poneer transponeer<br />
For instance, in representeer the first syllable bears secondary stress. Hence,<br />
reduction <strong>of</strong> the vowel <strong>of</strong> the first syllable is impossible, unlike that <strong>of</strong> re- in<br />
reductie 'reduction':<br />
(48) representeer [représente:^, [reprgsenteir], (reprosanteir],<br />
*|r9pres9nte:r|<br />
reductie |redvksi|, [radvksil<br />
In other cases, for instance the verb reanimeer /re-animer/ 'to reanimate', the<br />
prefix may still be recogni/.ed because <strong>of</strong> the transparent meaning <strong>of</strong> re- in this<br />
case: there exists an independent word animeer 'to animate'. In any case, nonnative<br />
prefixes do not get primary stress, but at most secondary stress, either by<br />
virtue <strong>of</strong> being a prosodie word <strong>of</strong> their own, or because they are in the domain<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Optimal Grid Rule. <strong>The</strong> rule that states that prefixes in complex verbs do<br />
not bear main stress will be given below. Prefixed words <strong>of</strong> other lexical<br />
categories such as prelude will be considered as simplex words, just like<br />
prefixed verbs that have lost their transparency, and hence they are stressed<br />
by the MSR.<br />
5.5.2. Nativized and native prefixes<br />
Some originally non-native prefixes have become native in that they also<br />
attach to native base words, unlike the non-native prefixes discussed above,<br />
and sometimes they even occur as independent words, for instance anti-, co-,<br />
contra-, des-, ex-, inter-, meta-, non-, para-, pro-, semi-, sub-, super-, ultra-.<br />
That is, they behave like compounds, and also get the stress pattern <strong>of</strong><br />
compounds that is derived by the CSR. In many examples given here the<br />
'" Another example is the phonetic realization <strong>of</strong> abortus 'abortion'. Usually, the prefix ab- will<br />
no longer be recognized here. Those who still recognize the prefix will pronounce this word as<br />
(up) 0 (3r) 0 (tYS) 0 , but most speakers pronounce it as (
5-5- STRESS IN PREFIXED WORDS 121<br />
right constituent is a native word. <strong>The</strong> right constituent (the head) is a noun,<br />
and the syntactic category <strong>of</strong> the whole word is therefore predictable:<br />
(49) änti-houding 'adverse attitude'<br />
co-piloot 'co-pilot'<br />
contra-gewicht 'counterweight'<br />
des-interesse 'disinterest'<br />
éx-gelovige 'ex-believer'<br />
mter-faculteit 'inter-faculty'<br />
méta-taal 'metalanguage'<br />
non-issue 'id.'<br />
semi-arts 'assistant doctor'<br />
siib-groep 'sub group'<br />
super-mark! 'supermarket'<br />
All these prefixes are independent prosodie words, and thus such prefixed<br />
words are subject to the CSR.<br />
Adjectives with such prefixes pattern differently in that, like, for example,<br />
adjectives prefixed with on- (see below), they have main stress on the adjectival<br />
head when they occur in predicative position (Langeweg 1986):<br />
(50) inter-continentaal 'intercontinental'<br />
para-medisch 'paramedical'<br />
post-koloniäal 'postcolonial'<br />
semi-direct 'id.'<br />
ultra-modern 'id.'<br />
Within the set <strong>of</strong> native prefixes we have to distinguish two classes. Some <strong>of</strong><br />
them get main stress. <strong>The</strong>y should be considered independent prosodie words<br />
since they contain full vowels, have an internal stress pattern when they are<br />
polysyllabic, form an independent domain <strong>of</strong> syllabification, and one <strong>of</strong> them,<br />
aarts- 'arch-' even has an appendix <strong>of</strong> two coronal obstruents, which is only<br />
possible if it is a prosodie word. <strong>The</strong>se prefixes attach to nouns, and the<br />
syntactic category <strong>of</strong> the complex word is always that <strong>of</strong> the base word:<br />
aarts-/arts/ aartsbisschop'archbishop'<br />
aartsvader 'patriarch'<br />
oer- /ur/ oermens 'primitive man'<br />
oerwoud 'primeval forest'<br />
on- /on/<br />
onmens 'brute'<br />
onzin 'nonsense'<br />
her- /her/ hérbouw 'rebuilding'<br />
hérfinanciering 'refinancing'<br />
onder- /ondar/ onderverhuur 'to sublet'<br />
ónderbouw 'to underpin'<br />
over /ovar/ overgang 'transition'<br />
óverbesteding 'excess spending'
122 WORD STRESS<br />
Since these prefixes are defined as independent domains <strong>of</strong> syllabification, and<br />
since they also fulfil the requirements for prosodie word status, words with<br />
these prefixes will be prosodie compounds, and thus subject to the CSR that<br />
correctly assigns primary stress to the first prosodie word <strong>of</strong> complex nouns, in<br />
these cases the prefix. So no special rule is required for the derivation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
stress patterns <strong>of</strong> words with these prefixes.<br />
<strong>The</strong> second category <strong>of</strong> native prefixes is formed by those that are always<br />
stressless; they are all verbalizing prefixes:<br />
(52) be- /ba/ bedi'jk 'to dike'<br />
er- /er/ ervaar 'to experience'<br />
ge- /ya/ gelo<strong>of</strong> 'to believe'<br />
ont- /ont/ ontmoet 'to meet'<br />
ver- /ver/ vertrouw 'to trust'<br />
As pointed out above, although they are independent domains <strong>of</strong> syllabification,<br />
those with schwa cannot form a prosodie word <strong>of</strong> their own.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is a second category <strong>of</strong> unstressed verb-creating native prefixes,<br />
which also occur as prepositions or particles. <strong>The</strong>y all fulfil the requirements<br />
for being a prosodie word, and for the bisyllabic ones, the location <strong>of</strong> the main<br />
stress is completely predictable because the second syllable contains a schwa.<br />
Since they have specific meanings when used as prefixes, 1 consider them ;is<br />
prefixes, not as the first parts <strong>of</strong> compounds. Thus, we can correlate their<br />
préfixai nature with the fact that they do not receive the main stress <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word, as we would expect if they were compounds:<br />
(53) aan- /an/ aanvaard 'to accept'<br />
achter- /uxtar/ achterhaal 'to recover'<br />
door- /dor/<br />
doorloop 'to pass'<br />
her- /her/<br />
herbouw 'to rebuild'<br />
mis- /mis/<br />
misdraag 'to misconduct'<br />
om- /om/<br />
omklem 'to grasp'<br />
onder- /nndor/ ondersteun 'to support'<br />
over- /ovar/<br />
overstroom 'to overflow'<br />
vol- Aol/<br />
voldoen 'to suffice'<br />
voor- /vor/<br />
voorkóm 'to prevent'<br />
weer- /ver/<br />
weerspiegel 'to reflect'<br />
So the rule that accounts for the stress pattern <strong>of</strong> these prefixed words is the<br />
following:<br />
(54) In prefixed verbs, assign * on the next line to the rightmost prosodie<br />
word.<br />
This rule will account for verbs with either native or non-native prefixes. It<br />
competes with the CSR in that it also applies to sequences <strong>of</strong> prosodie words.<br />
Since it is the more specific one, referring to the category 'prefixed verb'
5-6. BRACKETING PARADOXES 123<br />
whereas the CSR does not mention morphological information, it will get<br />
priority by the Elsewhere Principle."<br />
Finally, there are some prefixes with variable stress (Schultink 1964, De<br />
Vries 1975). <strong>The</strong> prefixes her-, over-, and onder- when used with verbal bases,<br />
follow the rule just given, unless the first syllable <strong>of</strong> the base verb does not<br />
bear main stress. In that case, the prefixes receive main stress:<br />
(55)<br />
heronderover-<br />
Basc verb<br />
formuleer<br />
financier<br />
belicht<br />
Derived verb<br />
herformuleer 'to reformulate'<br />
ónderfinancier 'to underfinance'<br />
overbelicht 'to overexpose'<br />
According to the literature on <strong>Dutch</strong> stress, the negative prefix -on behaves<br />
in a marked fashion when attached to adjectival bases: either the prefix or the<br />
adjective bears main stress, depending on the syntactic position (Van den Berg<br />
1970, Schultink 1979): in predicative position, main stress is either on the base<br />
or on the prefix. <strong>The</strong>re appears to be variation here, at least in transparent<br />
adjectives: the main stress is on the adjective, but in order to emphasize the<br />
negative meaning, on- can also get main stress. 32 <strong>The</strong> prefix usually bears main<br />
stress in attributive position:<br />
(56) Jan is onaardig/onaardig<br />
'John is unkind'<br />
een onaardig mens<br />
'an unkind person'<br />
This also applies to adjectives with the prefixes aarts- and oer-, as in aartslelijk<br />
'very ugly' and oergezellix 'very cosy'. <strong>The</strong> stress behaviour in attributive<br />
position can be interpreted as a case <strong>of</strong> Iambic Reversal, i.e., a case where<br />
stress clash is resolved by shifting stress to the left (cf. Chapter 7; at line 4, the<br />
rule for phrasal stress applies):<br />
(57) (on) (aardig)<br />
line I * *<br />
(mens)<br />
*<br />
line 2 * * *<br />
line 3 CSR
124 WORD STRESS<br />
1991) which involve stress. <strong>The</strong> classic example is the English word ungrammatically.<br />
I will discuss here its <strong>Dutch</strong> equivalent OHgrammaticaliteit. <strong>The</strong><br />
problem arises because a distinction between level-1 phonology and level-2<br />
phonology is assumed which correlates with a difference between level-1<br />
morphology (= non-native morphology) ordered before level-2 morphology<br />
(native). On this view, non-native morphology is stress-shifting because the<br />
MSR is restricted to level 1, and this explains that native morphology is stressneutral.<br />
<strong>The</strong> paradox then is that from the morphological point <strong>of</strong> view -iteit is<br />
added to the adjective ongrammaticaal, whereas from the phonological point<br />
<strong>of</strong> view it seems that first -iteit is added to grammaticaal, thus causing shift <strong>of</strong><br />
the main stress to the final syllable <strong>of</strong> -iteit, and then, at level 2, on- is added,<br />
which then has no effect on the location <strong>of</strong> main stress on the part grammaticaliteit.<br />
Thus, both <strong>of</strong> the following two structures seem to be necessary:<br />
(58) Morphological structure: ] [ongrammaticaalIA JAiteitjN<br />
Phonological structure: [on| [grammaticaal) A iteit] N ] N<br />
In the analysis presented here and the preceding chapter, I do not make use<br />
<strong>of</strong> level ordering. <strong>The</strong> word imgrammaticaliteit clearly shows that non-native<br />
affixation (with -iteit) may follow native affixation (with on-), so the ordering<br />
<strong>of</strong> all non-native affixation before all native affixation is empirically inadequate.<br />
13 Since in the adjective ongrammaticaal the base adjective grammaticaal<br />
is the head <strong>of</strong> the word, and since it bears the feature [—native],<br />
the whole adjective ongrammaticaal is [-native] by percolation (cf. Williams<br />
1981), and thus attachment <strong>of</strong> the [—native] suffix -iteit is allowed. Note that<br />
we need a morphological principle that restricts [-native] suffixation to<br />
[-native] bases anyway, since we also have to exclude [-native] suffixation<br />
to [+native] roots: a word such as *roditeit '(lit.) reddity i.e., 'redness' derived<br />
from the [+native] adjective rood is impossible.<br />
Instead, the suffix -iteit, being a [-native] suffix, is predictably cyclic.<br />
Hence it will erase the existing stress pattern <strong>of</strong> ongrammaticaal (the Stress<br />
Erasure Convention), and induce reapplication <strong>of</strong> the MSR to the newly<br />
formed string ongrammatikaliteit, thus assigning main stress to the last syllable.<br />
Subsequently, the Optimal Grid Rule will assign secondary stress, which<br />
results in the stress pattern ongrammatikaliteit? 4<br />
As noted above, there are also [+native] suffixes that are nevertheless cyclic.<br />
This forms another problem for the theory <strong>of</strong> level ordering because they<br />
would be level 1 in terms <strong>of</strong> stress, but level 2 as far as morphology is<br />
concerned.<br />
" See Booij (I982a) for more empirical evidence from <strong>Dutch</strong>.<br />
14 Arguments for the same analysis <strong>of</strong> the English equivalent ungrammatically are given in<br />
Halle and Vergnaud (1987: 80-5). However, they also argue that all phonology follows all<br />
morphology, a claim I do nol support.
CONNECTED SPEECH I: WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
6.1. INTRODUCTION<br />
In the preceding chapters I have presented a survey <strong>of</strong> rules concerning the<br />
distribution <strong>of</strong> sounds within prosodie words. <strong>The</strong>se rules <strong>of</strong> word phonology<br />
have an obligatory character (although some also apply optionally in larger<br />
domains). In connected speech, words are subject to rules which are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
optional, in that they are dependent on style <strong>of</strong> speech and speech rate. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
rules serve to reduce the articulatory efforts <strong>of</strong> the speaker, and to get a<br />
smooth transition from one segment to the next. <strong>The</strong>refore, most <strong>of</strong> these<br />
processes are either reduction processes or assimilation processes. For<br />
instance, the realization <strong>of</strong> a vowel as a schwa requires less articulatory effort<br />
than the realization <strong>of</strong> a full vowel (Koopmans-van Beinum 1980). In addition,<br />
we also find cases where insertion or apparent insertion <strong>of</strong> a segment serves<br />
ease <strong>of</strong> articulation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> these processes is <strong>of</strong>ten characteristic <strong>of</strong> less monitored, casual<br />
speech. It is characteristic <strong>of</strong> casual speech that ease <strong>of</strong> production gets priority<br />
over ease <strong>of</strong> perception, because speakers can only afford to give priority to<br />
ease <strong>of</strong> production in more informal situations.<br />
It is not the case that all rules diminish articulatory efforts in the same<br />
direction. For instance, schwa epenthesis has the effect <strong>of</strong> breaking up nonhomorganic<br />
consonant clusters (but increases the number <strong>of</strong> syllables to be<br />
pronounced), but there is also a process <strong>of</strong> schwa deletion that decreases the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> syllables, but creates consonant clusters.<br />
Although the rules to be discussed here are usually optional, it may be that<br />
use <strong>of</strong> one makes use <strong>of</strong> another one obligatory, as will be shown below.<br />
A related category <strong>of</strong> rules is formed by the rules that typically depend on<br />
speech rate. Examples are the rules <strong>of</strong> Schwa Deletion and /i/-deletion. <strong>The</strong><br />
basic effects <strong>of</strong> such rules are that certain segments are either not pronounced,<br />
or 'masked' because they show temporal overlap due to decreased magnitude<br />
in space and time <strong>of</strong> the segments involved (Browman and Goldstein 1990).<br />
<strong>The</strong>y may be called fast-speech rules, but without further empirical research it<br />
is impossible to decide whether there are rules which only depend on speech<br />
rate, and not on degree <strong>of</strong> monitoring as well.<br />
Although casual speech may <strong>of</strong>ten be fast speech, the two notions are not<br />
identical (Zwicky 1972). One can speak casually at low speed, or one may not<br />
use the rules typical <strong>of</strong> casual speech, and yet speak fast (Nolan 1992: 264).
126 CONNECTED SPEECH I: WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
However, since casual speech and fast speech <strong>of</strong>ten go together, the actual use<br />
<strong>of</strong> a casual-speech rule may also exhibit the effects <strong>of</strong> higher speech rate, and it<br />
is not easy to distinguish between the two factors.<br />
In addition to their being possibly optional, connected speech rules are<br />
also different from the obligatory rules <strong>of</strong> word phonology in that they may<br />
create types <strong>of</strong> syllable that are not allowed for by the lexical syllabification<br />
algorithm. This applies for instance to the rule <strong>of</strong> schwa deletion, and it is<br />
another reason for considering them as postlexical rules rather than as lexical<br />
rules, since the latter may not violate the lexical syllable-structure<br />
constraints.'<br />
As pointed out above, the actual application <strong>of</strong> rules <strong>of</strong> connected speech is<br />
typically dependent on the style <strong>of</strong> speech (i.e., degree <strong>of</strong> monitoring) and/or<br />
speech rate. In addition, a number <strong>of</strong> other factors play a role:<br />
lexical variation: words with a higher frequency, that is, with a higher<br />
activation level in the lexical memory, are more <strong>of</strong>ten subject to such<br />
rules than words with a lower frequency;<br />
dialectal variation: rules may be applied differently depending on the<br />
geographical or social background <strong>of</strong> the speaker;<br />
the linguistic properties and environments <strong>of</strong> the segments involved; for<br />
instance, mid vowels reduce much more easily than high vowels, and<br />
more easily in open syllables than in closed syllables.<br />
In other words, these rules are typically variable rules in the sense <strong>of</strong> Labov<br />
(1972).<br />
Although the connected speech processes <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> are described here in<br />
categorical terms, they may be <strong>of</strong> a more gradual nature than these descriptions<br />
suggest. Phonologists base their inventories <strong>of</strong> connected speech processes<br />
on perception, which is inherently categorical, but such inventories are<br />
not more than a first necessary step in the unravelling <strong>of</strong> connected speech<br />
processes (Kohler 1990, 1991). For instance, the phonologist <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
perceives a vowel in unstressed position as either the full vowel or the<br />
schwa, but it may be that the actual vowel has been slightly reduced only,<br />
thus leading to its still being perceived as a full vowel, although some<br />
reduction has applied.<br />
In this chapter I deal with connected speech phenomena that apply within<br />
words. <strong>The</strong> domains <strong>of</strong> these rules are prosodie constituents such as the coda,<br />
the syllable, or the prosodie word, hence they only apply within words. <strong>The</strong><br />
next chapter covers reduction and assimilation processes that apply across<br />
(prosodie) word boundaries, and Chapter 8 deals with the phonological behaviour<br />
<strong>of</strong> clitics, another typical connected speech phenomenon.<br />
1<br />
In other words, these rules arc not always structure-preserving, which might be a reason lor<br />
considering them as postlexical rules; cf. Kiparsky (1985).
6.2. SCHWA EPENTHESIS 127<br />
6.2. SCHWA EPENTHESIS<br />
In non-homorganic consonant clusters in coda position, a schwa may be<br />
inserted:<br />
(1) kalm 'quiet' [kalam]<br />
arm 'id.'<br />
[aram]<br />
help 'id.'<br />
Ihelapj<br />
harp 'id.'<br />
[hurapl<br />
herfst 'autumn' [herafstj<br />
elf 'eleven' [d<strong>of</strong> |<br />
melk 'milk' [melakj<br />
werk 'work' [ucrak]<br />
alg 'alga' [alsx|<br />
erg 'very' [erox]<br />
urn 'id.'<br />
[vran]<br />
hoorn 'horn' [horan]<br />
Schwa insertion is impossible if the second <strong>of</strong> the two consonants involved is<br />
an appendix consonant, that is, /s/ or /t/, or if the cluster is a nasal followed by<br />
a homorganic consonant:<br />
(2) a. hart 'heart' *[huratl, hars 'resin' *[hur3s], markt 'market' [maraktj,<br />
but *[murk3t], halt 'stop' *[hulot], band 'tape' *|bun3t), hals<br />
'neck' *|hul3s|, kans 'chance' *|kunas)<br />
h. damp 'id.' *[dam3p], bank 'id.' *[burj9k|<br />
<strong>The</strong>se facts suggest the following rule <strong>of</strong> Schwa Epenthesis: 2<br />
(3) Schwa Epenthesis<br />
Insert a in Coda<br />
X —X<br />
This rule will not apply to clusters with coronal obstruents because these are<br />
syllabified as appendices. This supports the 'active' interpretation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Appendix position: even in a word like hart 'heart', the /t/ must be considered<br />
as an appendix although this is not required by the length <strong>of</strong> the rhyme.<br />
Homorganic clusters <strong>of</strong> a nasal plus obstruents form partial geminates: they<br />
share tne features on the Place tier. Indeed they show the property typical <strong>of</strong><br />
geminates, integrity: the two halves cannot be separated by a vowel. Note,<br />
however, that insertion <strong>of</strong> a schwa is not blocked here by the prohibition on<br />
crossing association lines since the schwa has no Place tier at the underlying<br />
level. So the following configuration could arise: 3<br />
2 This process is discussed in BOOIJ (l9Xli;: 156), Berendsen and Zonneveld (1984), and De<br />
Haas (19Xh).<br />
1 <strong>The</strong> consequence ol treuling the epenthetic vowel as un underspecilied vowel, i.e. the<br />
impossibility ol using the Prohibition on Crossing ol Association Lines as a blocking mechanism<br />
in this case, was pointed out by l rvin ( 19X5: X7-X). <strong>The</strong> analysis in De Haas (19X6) makes use <strong>of</strong><br />
this condition, and therefore Levin's objection applies to that analysis.
128 CONNECTED SPEECH I: WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
(4) [+cons] [—cons) u [+cons]<br />
Place<br />
Let us therefore assume the following condition on linking: 'Consonants that<br />
share their melodic specifications partially or wholly must be adjacent on the<br />
X-tier'. 4 This rules out the above configuration, and thus schwa-epenthesis is<br />
blocked.<br />
In words like kern /kern/ 'core' and urn /vrn/ 'id.', the two coda consonants<br />
do not share their Place features, unlike nasal-stop clusters, and hence schwa<br />
insertion does take place in these cases.<br />
<strong>The</strong> fact that the rule also applies to words like toorn 'anger' and hoorn<br />
'horn' proves that the final /n/s in these extra-long syllables should not be seen<br />
as (exceptional) appendix consonants, but as the last consonant <strong>of</strong> exceptionally<br />
long codas. Underlyingly, there is no schwa in these words, and we have<br />
minimal pairs such as toorn /torn/ 'anger'—toren /toran/ 'tower', hoorn /horn/<br />
'horn'—horen /horan/ 'to hear'.<br />
Finally, note that schwas cannot be inserted in word-final obstruent clusters<br />
such as /sp/ and /sk/, as in wesp 'wasp' and in the suffix -esk. This implies that<br />
we require the first consonant to be sonorant, or that we treat the special<br />
clusters /sp/ and /sk/ as a kind <strong>of</strong> complex segment (cf. Ewen 1982), linked<br />
to one X on the X-tier.<br />
From a functional point <strong>of</strong> view it is quite natural that only heterorganic<br />
consonant clusters are broken up since they require more articulatory effort<br />
than homorganic clusters.<br />
6.3. SCHWA DELETION<br />
When a <strong>Dutch</strong> word has two consecutive syllables headed by schwa, the first <strong>of</strong><br />
these schwas may be deleted, provided that the resulting onset consonant<br />
cluster be an obstruent + liquid cluster, universally the most favoured type<br />
4 This suggestion was made by John McCarthy (personal coinnuiniculion). Note that this<br />
condition is restricted here to consonants which indeed usually exhibit local types <strong>of</strong> assimilation,<br />
whereas vowels can influence each other across consonants (e.g. Umlaut, vowel harmony), as<br />
observed in Clements (1985). <strong>The</strong>re are a few exceptions though, like the Sanskrit Nali rule thai<br />
makes a nasal retr<strong>of</strong>lex if a retr<strong>of</strong>lex consonant precedes it. <strong>The</strong>re may be other segments between<br />
the consonants involved, hut no coronal consonants (Schein and Sleriade l9Xn). <strong>The</strong>iefore,<br />
Clements and Hume (1993) proposed a different analysis in which non-adjacent consonants can<br />
share single features, but non-adjacent consonants are blocked from sharing class nodes since<br />
vowels have the same class nodes.<br />
5 <strong>The</strong>re are southern and western dialects <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> in which schwas in this configuration appear<br />
to be underlying, since they also have the schwa in heterosyllabic clusters as in \\crkcn 'to work'<br />
] (cf. Berendscn and Zonneveld 1984).
6.3. SCHWA DELETION 12Q<br />
<strong>of</strong> onset cluster. In the examples below the schwa that deletes is represented by<br />
e.<br />
(5) soepele 'smooth' [suplo|<br />
koperen 'copper'<br />
[kopran]<br />
knabbelen 'to munch' [knublon]<br />
bibberen 'to tremble' (bibron]<br />
snuffelen 'to search' [snvflsn)<br />
<strong>of</strong>feren 'to sacrifice' [nfran]<br />
hevelen 'to syphon'<br />
(hevlan)<br />
kietelen 'to tickle'<br />
|kitlon]<br />
wandelen 'to walk'<br />
Iwundlan]<br />
wisselen 'to change' [wislan]<br />
mazelen 'pimps'<br />
Ima/.lon]<br />
gemakkelijk 'easy'<br />
lyamuklok]<br />
rochelen 'to hawk up' [roxlan]<br />
kegelen 'to play skittles' [keylan]<br />
What is remarkable here is that /tl/, /dl/, and //I/ form onsets. Universally,<br />
they are permitted, but in <strong>Dutch</strong> they do not occur at the lexical level, as<br />
shown in Section 3.5.2. In the case <strong>of</strong> /dl/ and //I/, the intuitive syllabification<br />
<strong>of</strong> these clusters as onsets is also proven by the fact that the /d/ and the<br />
/z/ do not devoice. <strong>The</strong> rule involved here should therefore not only express<br />
the deletion <strong>of</strong> the schwa and the configuration in which this is possible, but<br />
also that the pre-schwa consonant forms an onset with the following<br />
consonant. Note, moreover, that the rule does not apply to other configurations,<br />
even if they resulted in syllabifiable (but not always tautosyllabic)<br />
clusters:<br />
(6) tekenen /tekonon/ 'to draw' *|teknon|<br />
be/.emen /bezaman/ 'to sweep' *|bezm3n|/*[besmon|<br />
redenen /redonan/ 'reasons' *[rednon|/*[retnon]<br />
rammelen /rumolan/ 'to rattle' *[rumlon|<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, this process has to be interpreted as a rule that forms obstruentliquid<br />
clusters across the schwa, whereby the schwa deletes:<br />
(7) Schwa Deletion<br />
Delete o in the context [-son]- ~-voc~| 3<br />
L+apprj<br />
This rule deletes the schwa <strong>of</strong> the first relevant syllable. Hence, that syllable<br />
node is no longer headed by a |-consonant] segment, and will disappear by<br />
convention. Thus, resyllabification <strong>of</strong> the original onset obstruent to the next<br />
onset is possible. This relinking is in accordance with the universal conditions<br />
mi onsets (the SSG), but not with the language-specific constraints <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> that<br />
forbid /tl-, dl-, /.I-/. So we might assume that language-specific constraints on<br />
syllable structure are turned <strong>of</strong>f at the postlexical level.
130 CONNECTED SPEECH I: WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
Note that a schwa does not delete if the next syllable is headed by a full<br />
vowel:<br />
(8) geraamte /yaramo/ 'skeleton' *[v.rarnt3]<br />
beloven /balovon/ 'to promise' *[blovon|<br />
beraad/barad/'meeting'<br />
*[brut|<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule decreases the articulatory effort required for the pronunciation <strong>of</strong><br />
the relevant words in that there is one syllable less to produce. Admittedly,<br />
consonant clusters are created but this kind <strong>of</strong> consonant cluster, obstruent +<br />
liquid, is the universally favoured kind <strong>of</strong> CC-onset, and may therefore be<br />
assumed to be relatively simply to produce.<br />
6.4. VOWEL REDUCTION<br />
Vowel reduction is the phenomenon that an underlyingly full vowel is optionally<br />
realized as schwa in unstressed syllables. 7 <strong>The</strong> following examples<br />
illustrate this process:<br />
(9) banaan /banan/ 'banana' [banan]<br />
lokaal /lokal/ 'class-room' [lokal|<br />
metaal /metal/ 'metal' [motalj<br />
muzi'ek /myzik/ 'music' [ma/ik|<br />
minuut /minyt/ 'minute' [manyt]<br />
Vowel reduction is subject to a number <strong>of</strong> conditions. It should first be noted<br />
that speakers vary somewhat as to the vowel reductions they allow for.<br />
Furthermore, there is a strong frequency effect in that words with high<br />
frequency reduce much more easily. High vowels do not reduce easily: for<br />
instance, reduction <strong>of</strong> the first vowels <strong>of</strong> Liane 'id.' /liana/ and Suzanne 'id.'<br />
/syzana/ is almost impossible: *|lajana|, *|sazuna). Yet, the unstressed<br />
vowels in minuut and muziek reduce reasonably easily, because they are<br />
high frequency words that are <strong>of</strong>ten used in casual speech. 8<br />
Reduction is even easier when the vowel is in interstress position. So the<br />
combined effects <strong>of</strong> frequency and position makes the reduction <strong>of</strong> the high<br />
vowels in the following examples quite natural:<br />
(10) dominée /domine/ 'parson' |domone|<br />
asp/'rine /uspirina/ 'aspirin' |usparina)<br />
lucifer /lysifcr/ 'match' |Iysafer)<br />
6 Certain lexicalized cases are exceptions, such as ^cloven (ylovan) to believe, xi-n-fiinm-i-nl<br />
lyrel.irmeirt] 'reformed, Protestant', terug (lrYx|, and tcn-< tit |trcxt| 'rightly'. Moreover, some<br />
native speakers also delete schwas in syllables which are followed by syllables with primary or<br />
secondary stress in other words, as in apparaat /uparat/ (upral) 'apparatus' (Schwa Deletion is<br />
applicable after vowel reduction <strong>of</strong> the unstressed /a/), kaïn-laan /kupnlan/ |kuplan| 'chaplain' and<br />
konpelinf! /knpDlirj/ (k.iplirjl 'coupling'. High frequency <strong>of</strong> words is an additional factor here.<br />
S Cf. Martin (1968), Booij (1977, 198la, I982/?), and Kager (I9X'J|.<br />
* In Fidelholt/ (1975) the importance <strong>of</strong> frequency and the reluctance <strong>of</strong> high vowels to reduce<br />
is pointed out with respect to English.
6.4- VOWEL REDUCTION 131<br />
Important structural conditions are that vowels do not reduce when they are<br />
syllable-initial, or when they begin with /h/. This correlates with the observations<br />
made in Section 3.5.4 and Section 3.6 that a prosodie word cannot begin<br />
with schwa, and that the sequence /ha/ is also impossible:<br />
(11) anàal 'anal' *[anal]<br />
elite 'élite' *[alita]<br />
erotisch 'erotic' *[arotisj<br />
maoist 'Maoist' *|maaist|<br />
heraut 'herald'<br />
heroisch 'heroic'<br />
humaan 'human'<br />
*[h3rDut]<br />
*[h3roi>is)<br />
*[haman]<br />
Furthermore, reduction in open syllables is preferred (with certain classes <strong>of</strong><br />
exceptions to be discussed below), except when the syllable-final consonant is<br />
ambisyllabic. In the latter case, reduction is possible: 9<br />
(12) syllabe/silaba/'syllable' [salabo]<br />
misschien /misxin/ 'perhaps' [masxin]<br />
supporter /svpDrtar/ 'id.'<br />
[saportar]<br />
dessert /desert/ 'id.'<br />
[dasert]<br />
rapport /report/ 'report'<br />
[rapr>rt|<br />
Reduction does not apply in word-final syllables (again, there are exceptional<br />
classes). Diphthongs do not reduce:<br />
(13) pleidooi/pleidoj/'plea' *[pladoj]<br />
seizoen /seizun/ 'season' *[sazun]<br />
Pauh'en /poulin/ 'Pauline' *[palin|<br />
<strong>The</strong> following rule expresses the phonological conditions mentioned so far:<br />
(14) Vowel Reduction<br />
[+cons) [-cons] X ) 0 Y) tó<br />
Place<br />
Place<br />
Conditions:<br />
X = 0or [+cons], Y * 0, o is unstressed<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule delinks Place from a vowel, and hence this position will be filled in by<br />
the default rule for schwa. By requiring the presence <strong>of</strong> a Place specification on<br />
the preceding consonant, reduction after /h/ is excluded. Since Y * 0, the<br />
syllable will not be the word-final one, as required. Conditions on the variable<br />
X will be discussed below.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule will not apply to diphthongs, as required, because diphthongs are<br />
Examples from Kager (1989: 306).
132 CONNECTED SPEECH I: WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
sequences <strong>of</strong> [-cons] segments, and hence do not satisfy the structural<br />
description <strong>of</strong> the rule.<br />
As pointed out in the relevant literature, there are cases in which vowel<br />
reduction takes place in closed syllables. In word-initial position this is<br />
particularly clear for the sequence /er/, and also for short vowels followed<br />
by /s/:<br />
(15) person/person/'person' [parson]<br />
percent /persent/ 'per cent' [parsent|<br />
pastoor /pustor/ 'pastor' |pasto:r]<br />
pastei /pustei/ 'pie'<br />
[pastei]<br />
As pointed out by Koopmans-van Beinum (1982), the /r/ has a centrali/.ing<br />
effect, and will thus further reduction <strong>of</strong> a vowel to the central vowel schwa. In<br />
other cases, intuitions differ. In my idiolect, I have to delete the consonant first<br />
before being able to reduce the vowel. In that way, the vowel becomes<br />
reducible, being in syllable-final position:<br />
(16) benzfne /benzina/ 'petrol' [bazina], *[banzina]<br />
kanton /kunton/ 'canton' [katon], *[kanton]<br />
porti'er/portir/ 'porter' [pati:r|, *|partiir|<br />
kwarti'er/kuurtir/ 'quarter' [kuatiir], *[kuarti:r]<br />
Other native speakers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> (cf. Kager 1989) allow for the phonetic forms<br />
starred here by me. We also observe here the interdependency <strong>of</strong> optional<br />
rules: once the syllable-final consonant has been dropped, the vowel must<br />
reduce. In other words, phonetic forms like [be/.ina], [pntiir] and [kuton]<br />
are impossible. Once we have chosen a certain style <strong>of</strong> speech, the rules<br />
become obligatory within that style <strong>of</strong> speech (Booij 1981«: 149ff.): the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> one rule implies use <strong>of</strong> the other. 10 In any case, the exceptional types <strong>of</strong><br />
closed syllables in which reduction is allowed can be specified as an alternative<br />
condition on the variable X mentioned in the rule. <strong>The</strong> conditions on X<br />
observed so far that will further vowel reduction are: in word-initial syllables,<br />
if X = /r/ preceded by e, or X =/s/." Such variable furthering conditions are<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> style-governed, optional rules, as shown by Labov (1972).<br />
As observed in Booij (1981a: 149) and Kager (1989: 282), closed syllables<br />
in word-internal position allow for vowel reduction on a much larger scale (the<br />
reducible vowels are in italic):<br />
(17) identiek'identical'<br />
compensatie 'compensation'<br />
anekdote 'anecdote'<br />
direktéur 'director'<br />
alimentatie 'alimony'<br />
" This has also hoen observed by KuCera (1973) for C/.ech and by Hooper (1976) for English.<br />
1<br />
<strong>The</strong> positive effect <strong>of</strong> /s/ may have to do wilh the fact that /s/ can easily become onset <strong>of</strong> the<br />
following syllabic, so that the vowel to be reduced is in syllable luuil position.
6.4. VOWEL REDUCTION 133<br />
sentimenteel 'sentimental'<br />
pav/ljóen 'pavilion'<br />
inlVltréer 'to infiltrate'<br />
amalgaam 'amalgam'<br />
adapteer 'to adopt'<br />
This suggests that for a vowel to be in a word-internal position furthers its<br />
reduction whatever the value <strong>of</strong> X.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the examples given concern /e/. This is no coincidence: the /e/<br />
appears to be the vowel that is most susceptible to reduction, to such an extent<br />
that in many words the underlying /e/ has been replaced with /a/ (cf. Booij<br />
19826). For instance, the first vowel <strong>of</strong> Rebecca 'id.' is always pronounced as<br />
a schwa. Consequently, the schwa may also surface in syllables where the<br />
Optimal Grid Rule would have assigned secondary stress if the syllable<br />
contained a full vowel /e/, as in reformatie 'reformation' [raformatsij and<br />
revolutie 'revolution' [rovolytsij. In other words, in many cases a historical<br />
/e/ has been replaced with a schwa in the underlying form. 12 In some pairs <strong>of</strong><br />
related words, the /e/ alternates obligatorily with schwa, as in<br />
(18) juweel 'jewel' Ijyuelj<br />
juwelfer 'jeweller' [jyualiir], *[jyueli:r]<br />
genfe 'genius'<br />
[zjani], *(zjeni]<br />
geniaal 'genial'<br />
[yenijal], *[y3nijal]<br />
mim'ster 'minister' [ministar], ""[minister]<br />
ministerie 'ministry' [ministen] or (minasterij<br />
<strong>The</strong> fact that the schwas are obligatory here also illustrates that some schwas<br />
have become part <strong>of</strong> the underlying form <strong>of</strong> certain allomorphs, since there is<br />
no regular alternation involved.<br />
A factor that might play a role in the lack <strong>of</strong> reducibility <strong>of</strong>/i/ in suffixes like<br />
-iicit '-ity' and -iseer '-ize' is that in these cases the /i/ is located at morphological<br />
boundaries which appear to impede reduction processes (Labov 1972).<br />
Let us now look at some cases which are more complicated in that there are<br />
two syllables that are potentially subject to vowel reduction, words <strong>of</strong> the<br />
following type:<br />
(19) fonologi'e 'phonology'<br />
individu 'individual'<br />
réparateur 'repairer'<br />
In these words both the second and the third syllable are unstressed, and both<br />
unstressed syllables have the same vowel. Yet, as observed in Booij (1981a:<br />
148) there is a clear preference to reduce the first unstressed syllable. This<br />
difference must have a structural explanation since the two vowels involved<br />
are the same. In other words, it cannot be attributed to a difference in<br />
1<br />
Native speakers might also differ here as to whether they still have two possibilities, full<br />
vowel or schwa, or schwa only.
134 CONNECTED SPEECH I WORD I'HONOLOGY<br />
reducibility <strong>of</strong> the vowels. <strong>The</strong> stress representation <strong>of</strong>, for instance, fonologie<br />
is as follows:<br />
(20) f o no lo gie<br />
(* ) (*) line 1<br />
* line 2<br />
<strong>The</strong> second syllable can be adjoined to the preceding syllable, forming a foot,<br />
whereas the third syllable cannot combine with another following syllable into<br />
a foot, and hence remains a stray syllable (adjunction to the right is impossible<br />
since I assume that <strong>Dutch</strong> has uniformly left-headed trochaic feet). We thus<br />
conclude that reduction in the weak syllable <strong>of</strong> a foot is easier than in a stray<br />
syllable. Interestingly, this provides evidence for the foot as a prosodie<br />
category <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> (cf. Booij )982c, 1983, Kager 1989: 312-18).<br />
As pointed out above, reduction in a stray syllable implies that reduction<br />
also takes place in a weak syllable <strong>of</strong> a binary foot. So we may assume the<br />
following hierarchy:<br />
(21) Formal style: no reduction<br />
Informal style:<br />
reduction in adjoined syllables<br />
Very informal style: reduction in both syllables<br />
This hierarchy interacts with a second hierarchy concerning vowel reducibility.<br />
<strong>The</strong> following hierarchy <strong>of</strong> increasing reducibility can be established:<br />
(22) /y, u, 0/<br />
N<br />
IO, 3/<br />
/a, u/<br />
/e, i/<br />
Kager (1989) pointed out that the two hierarchies may interact, and even make<br />
opposite predictions if the vowel in the adjoined syllable is less reducible than<br />
the vowel in the stray syllable, as in the following words:<br />
(23) logopedie /loyopedi/ 'speech therapy'<br />
epidemfe /epidemi/ 'epidemic'<br />
desideratum /desideratvm/ 'id.'<br />
In these cases, the vowel <strong>of</strong> the stray syllable appears to reduce more easily<br />
than that <strong>of</strong> the adjoined syllable. Kager (1989: 315) concluded that the two<br />
hierarchies interact in the following way (where style III has the highest degree<br />
<strong>of</strong> formality, and style I the lowest degree <strong>of</strong> formality):<br />
(24) Vowel Reduction Hierarchy<br />
Adjunct position Stray position<br />
/e/ style III style III<br />
/a/ style II style II<br />
/o,i/ style II style I<br />
/y,u/ style I excluded
6.4- VOWEL REDUCTION 135<br />
<strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> a style which is lower on the degree <strong>of</strong> formality implies that the<br />
reductions allowed for in styles which are more formal also apply (Dressier<br />
1974, Booij 1981«: 150). So we predict the following possible phonetic<br />
realizations for a number <strong>of</strong> crucial cases (in order <strong>of</strong> increasing informality):<br />
(25) economi'e /ekonomi/ 'economy': |ekonomi|, [ekanomi), [ekanami],<br />
*[ekonami|<br />
adrenaline /adrenalina/ 'adrenalin'; [adrenalins], [adranalina],<br />
ladranalina], *|adrenalina|<br />
lögopedi'e /loyopedi/ 'speech therapy'; (loyopedij, [loyopadi),<br />
lloyapadi], *[loyapedi]<br />
grammâtika /yrumatika/ 'grammar': [yrumatikaj, (yramatika],<br />
lyramataka], *|yrumatoka|<br />
Usually, vowel reduction does not take place in final syllables. <strong>The</strong>re are,<br />
however, some exceptions, in particular words ending in vowel + /r/, and<br />
words ending in /i, e/ + consonant:<br />
(26) motor /motor/ 'engine' (molar)<br />
kermis /kermis/ 'fair'<br />
|kermas|<br />
kennis /ken+nis/ 'acquaintance' [kenos]<br />
koning /konin./ 'king'<br />
|konorj|<br />
monnik /irnnik/ 'monk'<br />
[rmn.ikj<br />
i'dem /idem/ 'id.'<br />
[idam]<br />
Agnes /axnes/ 'id.'<br />
(uxnas]<br />
amen /amen/ 'id.'<br />
(aman)<br />
In other words, the condition that the variable Y in the rule <strong>of</strong> Vowel<br />
Reduction be non-zero must be relaxed in that Y can be zero if X is a<br />
consonant and is preceded by /e, i/, or if X is /r/. In words historically ending<br />
in unstressed /er/, the /e/ is always realized as a schwa, so it must be assumed<br />
to be present underlyingly, as in peiler 'father' (religious) Ipatar]. This lexical<br />
replacement <strong>of</strong>/e/ through schwa can also be observed when stress shift makes<br />
a syllable with /e/ unstressed, as in the following examples:<br />
(27) normaliter /normaliter/<br />
normalster /normalitar/<br />
negeren /neyeran/ 'to ignore' (neye:ran| or |naye:ran]<br />
negeren /neyaran/ 'to ignore, (lit.) to treat as a negro'<br />
In the first word, the stress shift is a case <strong>of</strong> regularization (penultimate is the<br />
regular pattern), the change in the second word is a case <strong>of</strong> folk etymology:<br />
people interpret this verb as a conversion <strong>of</strong> the noun neger /neyor/ 'negro'.<br />
We should also be aware <strong>of</strong> the fact that, since there is no special letter for<br />
the schwa, the schwa is mostly represented by e, which will induce native<br />
speakers to interpret the e as a schwa anyway.
136 CONNECTED SPEECH I: WORD I'HONOI.()(, V<br />
6.5. VOWEL SHORTENING<br />
Vowels can be shortened in word-initial position under the condition that the<br />
syllable in which they occur does not bear the main stress <strong>of</strong> the word. That is,<br />
secondary stress does not block the shortening:<br />
(28) /a-u/ paradijs 'paradise'<br />
amalgaam 'amalgam'<br />
analyse 'analysis'<br />
/e-i/<br />
/O-D/<br />
Amerika 'America'<br />
banaan 'banana'<br />
tf'levi'sie 'television'<br />
telefoon 'telephone'<br />
g(e)rpformeerd 'reformed' 1<br />
radeneer 'to reason'<br />
kolossaal 'enormous'<br />
prMiti'ek 'politics'<br />
/i-i/ d/rektéur 'director'<br />
Except for /a/ the relevant vowels can only be reduced if they head the first<br />
syllable <strong>of</strong> a word-initial foot with its weak syllable being headed by schwa. In<br />
other words, reduction <strong>of</strong> the second syllable is required, except in the case<br />
<strong>of</strong> /a/:<br />
(29) analyse 'analysis': |anali/o|, [unali/.e], (unalize)<br />
televisie 'television'; (televi/,i|, [telavizi), [tilovi/.i|, *|tilevi/.i|<br />
politiek 'polities': [politik], (pnlatikj, *(p3litik]<br />
monument 'monument': [monyment], *|monymcnt), *[mDnoment|<br />
In televisie and politick the first vowel can be shortened if the second vowel is<br />
realized as schwa; in monument the first vowel cannot be shortened because<br />
the second (high) vowel does not reduce to schwa.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule can be interpreted as a rule that deletes X in word-initial syllables.<br />
By requiring it to be followed by a consonant, reduction <strong>of</strong> the first vowel in a<br />
word like chatitiach /xaotis/ 'chaotic' is correctly blocked:<br />
(30) Vowel Shortening<br />
Delete X in the context u,( 0 (Q X X<br />
I<br />
I<br />
|-cons| l+cons]<br />
where Q stands for zero or more consonants<br />
Condition:<br />
o does not bear main stress; if it is not headed by /a/, it forms part ot a<br />
binary foot with a weak o headed by a schwa.<br />
" As pointed oui above, the first schwa <strong>of</strong> Ihis word which is represented by the parenthcsi/' '' '<br />
will have to be deleted as well in order to make the shortening possible.
6.6. INTRUSIVK STOPS 137<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> the shortened /i/, which results in [i], the vowel is also lowered<br />
because there are no short high vowels in <strong>Dutch</strong>. In other words, this lowering<br />
is an automatic consequence, and can be taken care <strong>of</strong> by the relevant<br />
redundancy rule.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> Vowel Shortening is related to the rule <strong>of</strong> Vowel Reduction in<br />
that application <strong>of</strong> Vowel Reduction feeds application <strong>of</strong> Vowel Shortening, as<br />
illustrated above in (29).<br />
6.6. INTRUSIVE STOPS<br />
Intrusive stops illustrate the phenomenon <strong>of</strong> retiming. As Browman and<br />
Goldstein (1990) point out, fast-speech processes may be seen as the overlap<br />
in time and space between the articulatory gestures required for the realization<br />
«I the individual segments. This does not necessarily imply, however, that<br />
such processes should not be seen as rules <strong>of</strong> the language, since languages<br />
may differ in their fast-speech rules, i.e., in the way in which the phonetic<br />
requirements imposed by each individual segment on the vocal apparatus in<br />
the realization <strong>of</strong> words in connected speech are reconciled.<br />
<strong>The</strong> traditional observation is that a stop can be inserted between a noncoronal<br />
nasal and a following obstruent in the same syllable, a [p] after |m], and<br />
a |k] after [rj]. Consequently, the phonetic forms <strong>of</strong> the third-person singular<br />
present forms <strong>of</strong> the verbs kammen 'to comb' and kampen 'to fight', and those<br />
for zingen 'to sing' and zinken 'to sink' become undistinguishable:<br />
(31) kam -t /kamt/ [kumpt]<br />
kamp-t /kumpt/ |kumpt|<br />
zing-t /zirjt/<br />
zink-t /zirjkt/<br />
l/'Qkt]<br />
[zirjkl|<br />
Rather than considering this as a case <strong>of</strong> segment insertion, it should be<br />
expressed as a case <strong>of</strong> retiming. For instance, in the word kamt, due to<br />
retiming <strong>of</strong> the melodic tier with respect to the X-tier, the Place feature<br />
ILabial] is linked to the following [— sonorant] element, which thus becomes<br />
a contour segment: in its first phase it is a labial stop [pi, and subsequently it is<br />
u coronal stop [t]. <strong>The</strong> same applies to a velar nasal plus stop: the feature<br />
[Dorsal] <strong>of</strong> the velar nasal spreads, making the first phase <strong>of</strong> the /t/ sound like a<br />
Ik]. Thus, the rule reads as in (32) (I presuppose that appendix consonants are<br />
incorporated into the coda before this rule applies).<br />
(32) Intrusive Stop Insertion<br />
[+cons] |+cons| ) a<br />
[+nas]<br />
Place<br />
Place
138 CONNECTED SPEECH I: WORD PHONOLOGY<br />
6.7. /(/-DELETION<br />
An unstressed /i/ optionally deletes between a consonant and the palatal glide<br />
/)/ (itself inserted by Homorganic Glide Insertion):<br />
(33) station /station/ 'station'<br />
rationed /rationel/ 'rational'<br />
financieel /finunsiel/ 'financial'<br />
sociaal /sosial/ 'social'<br />
religieus /relivi0s/ 'religious'<br />
piano /piano/ 'id.'<br />
ambiance /umbiusa/ 'id.'<br />
ideaal /ideal/ 'ideal'<br />
radioloog 'radiologist'<br />
lineaal 'ruler'<br />
Ariane 'id.'<br />
alliantie 'alliance'<br />
|siuspn| 14<br />
[rasjonel]<br />
[finunsjell<br />
Isosjal]<br />
|reliyj0s]<br />
| pjano)<br />
[umbjuso]<br />
[idijal or lidjal) 15<br />
[radjolox]<br />
[Imjal]<br />
|arjano|<br />
(uljuntsi)<br />
<strong>The</strong> stress condition correctly predicts that the /i/ does not delete in Siam<br />
/sium/ 'id.' or in Siamees /siames/ 'Siamese'. If the main stress precedes the<br />
syllable with /i/, there is also no deletion. For instance, deletion cannot take<br />
place in paria /paria/ 'pariah' *[parja| or Âzic /a/.io/ 'Asia' *[a/J3] (compare<br />
Aziatisch /a/.iatis/ 'Asian' in which, after glide insertion, deletion <strong>of</strong> /i/ can<br />
take place: |azjatis|).<br />
When the preceding consonant is /s/, application <strong>of</strong> the rule is more probable,<br />
corresponding with the fact that <strong>of</strong> the resulting complex onsets only /sj/<br />
is a completely regular onset at the lexical level, and can moreover be<br />
pronounced as one segment, a postalveolar |J'|.<br />
Deletion <strong>of</strong> /i/ does not occur when it is preceded by a complex onset. For<br />
instance, in Adrianus /adrianvs/ 'id.' it is impossible to get the phonetic form<br />
[adrjanvsl, presumably because this would create a too complex onset, /drj-A<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule can therefore be formulated as (34).<br />
(34) /i/-deletion: delete X X in the structure<br />
„( (X) —; ) X<br />
|+cons|<br />
+voc<br />
-back<br />
+high<br />
Condition:<br />
O is unstressed, and is not preceded by main stress.<br />
4 <strong>The</strong> tirsl vowel [a] may also he reali/.ecl as |u|, in accordance with the rule <strong>of</strong> Vowel<br />
Shortening given above.<br />
He fore /a/ the /e/ can he reali/eil as an |i|; see also lineaal 'ruler' jlinijal) and UI,;KI/ 'area'<br />
|anjal|
6.8. /N/-DELETION 139<br />
<strong>The</strong> fact that the deletion only takes places in unstressed syllables, which have<br />
the shortest duration <strong>of</strong> all syllables, complies with a retiming interpretation <strong>of</strong><br />
this phenomenon: it is only the X-tier that is changed.<br />
For many speakers, realization <strong>of</strong> the word station /station/ 'id.' with<br />
deletion <strong>of</strong> the /i/ is the only possible pronunciation: [stasJDii] or [statsJDnJ,<br />
not *|statsipn] or *[stasijsn|.<br />
6.8. /n/-DELETION<br />
In standard <strong>Dutch</strong>, syllable-final /n/s can be dropped after a schwa, except in<br />
the indefinite article een /an/ 'a':<br />
(35) Singular nouns<br />
regen /reysn/ 'rain'<br />
molen /molon/ 'mill'<br />
deken /dekan/ 'blanket'<br />
Plural nouns<br />
bloem-en /blum-an/ 'flowers'<br />
plant-en /plum an/ 'plants'<br />
boek-en /buk-an/ 'books'<br />
Plural verbs / infinitives<br />
lopen /lop-an/ 'to walk' (pres. pl./inf.)<br />
eten /et-an/ 'to eat' (pres. pl./inf.)<br />
[reyan] or [reya]<br />
[molan] or [molo)<br />
|dekan] or [deka]<br />
[bluman] or [bluma]<br />
Ipluntan] or [plants]<br />
[bukan] or [buka|<br />
[lopan] or [lopa|<br />
[etan| or [eta|<br />
It is sometimes assumed that for those speakers who always drop the final /n/<br />
<strong>of</strong> the plural morpheme -en /an/ <strong>of</strong> verbs and nouns, the underlying form <strong>of</strong><br />
the plural suffix is /D/ instead. However, in Chapter 8 it will be shown that<br />
even for those speakers an underlying form /an/ is required in order to<br />
explain why the final schwa <strong>of</strong> the past-tense suffix may disappear before<br />
a schwa-initial clitic through Prevocalic Schwa Deletion, but the schwa <strong>of</strong><br />
the plural suffix cannot. For instance, zette het /zêta at/ 'put (past sg.) it' can<br />
be pronounced as |zetat|, whereas zetten het /zetan at/ 'put (pres. pi.) it' is<br />
pronounced as [zetanat], and [zctat] is impossible in that case. This can<br />
only be accounted for if the underlying form <strong>of</strong> the plural morpheme ends in an<br />
/n/.<br />
<strong>The</strong> /n/ can also be deleted at the end <strong>of</strong> syllables <strong>of</strong> other lexical categories<br />
such as adjectives and particles/prepositions:<br />
(36) gouden/y^udan/'golden' [youda|<br />
open /opan/ 'id.'<br />
|opa|<br />
boven /bovon/ 'above, upstairs' |bova|
140 CONNECTED SPEECH I: WORD PHONOI O(iV<br />
Examples <strong>of</strong> word-internal /n/-deletion are diminutives with a base noun<br />
ending in -en, and some adverbials:"'<br />
(37) kuikentje/kceykan-tja/'chicken'(dimin.) [kœykatja]<br />
molentje /molan-tja/ 'mill' (dimin.)<br />
[molatja]<br />
wagentje /uayan-tja/ 'car(t)' (dimin.) [uayatjol<br />
regentje /reyan-tja/ 'rain' (dimin.)<br />
|reyotjo|<br />
openlijk /opan-lak/ 'openly'<br />
|opalok|<br />
gezamenlijk /ya-zaman-lak/ 'common' |yazamalak|<br />
eventjes /evan-tjas/ 'a little while'<br />
[evatjas]<br />
As pointed out above, /n/ deletes obligatorily in word-initial syllables if the<br />
preceding vowel has been turned into a schwa by Vowel Reduction as in<br />
benzine /benzina/ 'petrol' [bazina]. However, in this position it is also<br />
possible for the /r/ to delete, as in portier 'porter' |pati:r|, so this might be<br />
a different rule after all.<br />
For many speakers, in particular in the western part <strong>of</strong> the Netherlands, the<br />
deletion <strong>of</strong> /n/ is obligatory. This may lead to the conclusion that for those<br />
speakers the underlying forms <strong>of</strong> the relevant morphemes end in /a/ rather<br />
than /an/. Note, however, that this is an incorrect conclusion since there are<br />
pairs <strong>of</strong> related words in which the verb is morphologically related to an /n/-<br />
final word, and the /n/ shows up in non-word-final position, for instance in the<br />
present plural form and the (phonologically identical) infinitive <strong>of</strong> the verb:<br />
(3K)<br />
regen 'rain'<br />
baken 'beacon'<br />
zegen 'blessing'<br />
teken 'sign'<br />
open 'open'<br />
Verb (plural present t» infinitive}<br />
regenen 'to rain' [reyana(n)]<br />
afbakenen 'to delimit' [uvbakana(n)]<br />
zegenen 'to bless' [zeyana(n)]<br />
tekenen 'to draw' [tekana(n)]<br />
openen 'to open' [opana(n)]<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, the words in the left column must still have a final /n/ underlyingly-<br />
As pointed out by Koefoed (1979), the rule does not apply to the /n/ that<br />
appears at the end <strong>of</strong> a verbal stem. This is the case for the first-person singular<br />
present forms <strong>of</strong> verbs that have a zero inflectional ending:<br />
(39) Verbal stem First-person singular present<br />
teken 'to draw' [tekan], *[teka]<br />
oefen 'to train' [ufan], *|ufa|<br />
reken 'to count' [rekan], *[reka]<br />
This shows again that morphological structure might influence the application<br />
6 <strong>The</strong> /n/ also deletes in informal speech before a syllablc-hnal /s/ in frequent words such as<br />
telkens /tElkans/ 'time and again' lltlk.is], widens /ueyons/ 'because <strong>of</strong>' |oey.is|, 'A nuirons /smsryans/<br />
'in the morning' Isrnnryas], lakens /lakan-s/ 'sheets' |lak,is]. and crocus /crysns/<br />
'somewhere' [trps|. <strong>The</strong> deletion <strong>of</strong> the nasal before /s/ may be related to the fact that nasals<br />
rarely occur before fricatives (Padgett 1991, 1992). Note that /n/ does not delete before /t/ as in<br />
lopend 'walking' /lopand/ [lop-ant], *|lop3t).
6-9- CONCLUSIONS 141<br />
<strong>of</strong> rules <strong>of</strong> connected speech: we have to impose a negative condition on the<br />
process in that it may not delete /n/s at the end <strong>of</strong> verbal stems.<br />
<strong>The</strong> /n/ also deletes at the end <strong>of</strong> the first prosodie word <strong>of</strong> compounds and<br />
derived words, as expected (cf. Berendsen 1986: 88):<br />
(40) regen-pak (lit.) 'rain suit' [reyapak]<br />
open-baar 'public'<br />
|opoba:r]<br />
Christen-dom 'Christianity' [kristadom]<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> /n/-deletion can be seen as a rule that deletes the final /n/ <strong>of</strong> a<br />
syllable after a schwa at the end <strong>of</strong> a morpheme that is not a verbal stem (41).<br />
(41) /n/-deletion<br />
Delete f+nasl in the context 9 —) 0 ] x<br />
LcorJ<br />
Condition:<br />
X is a morphological boundary but not a verbal stem boundary<br />
<strong>The</strong> feature [Coronal) is mentioned in order to avoid deletion <strong>of</strong> the /m/ which<br />
also occurs after schwa. This implies that coronal nasals must be specified for<br />
Place when /n/-deletion applies.<br />
<strong>The</strong> requirement that the /n/ is not only syllable-final, but also adjacent to a<br />
morphological boundary also correctly excludes deletion <strong>of</strong> the /n/ in present<br />
participles like volgende 'following, next' with the morphological structure<br />
[ [[volg] v end]\, e] v , although the /n/ is syllable-final in such cases. <strong>The</strong> rule<br />
thus shows that the prosodie and morphological structure <strong>of</strong> a word may have<br />
to be referred to simultaneously in a rule (cf. Booij and Lieber 1993).<br />
6.9. CONCLUSIONS<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> specific properties are shared by the rules <strong>of</strong> connected speech<br />
discussed in this chapter. <strong>The</strong>y tend to increase the ease <strong>of</strong> production, and<br />
thus make words less distinguishable. Ease <strong>of</strong> production can indeed get<br />
priority in informal situations in which the speaker can afford to reduce the<br />
perceptibility <strong>of</strong> words. Whether they apply also depends on a number <strong>of</strong> nonphonological<br />
factors: frequency (i.e. the degree <strong>of</strong> activation <strong>of</strong> a word in<br />
lexical memory), and lexicalization (in the sense <strong>of</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> morphological<br />
transparency). Moreover, speakers differ in the degree to which they allow for<br />
reduction processes to apply. Phonological conditions sometimes appear to be<br />
<strong>of</strong> a gradual nature.<br />
A third property <strong>of</strong> rules <strong>of</strong> connected speech is that although a rule may be<br />
optional, it may have to apply obligatorily due to the application <strong>of</strong> another<br />
rule. In particular, the behaviour <strong>of</strong> the rules discussed in this chapter support<br />
Dressler's (1974) hypothesis that the use <strong>of</strong> rules for less formal or less<br />
monitored styles <strong>of</strong> speech implies the use <strong>of</strong> rules for more formal or more
142 CONNECTED SPI.I.Ml I WORD PHONOl.OCiY<br />
monitored styles <strong>of</strong> speech. <strong>The</strong>re also appear to be relations <strong>of</strong> mutual<br />
implication between rules <strong>of</strong> connected speech.<br />
In the case-<strong>of</strong> fast-speech rules we saw that they may sometimes be seen as<br />
cases <strong>of</strong> retiming rather than as deletion or insertion <strong>of</strong> segments.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rules <strong>of</strong> connected speech that apply across word boundaries, and that<br />
are discussed in the next chapter, also exhibit the properties summarized here.
CONNECTED SPEECH II:<br />
SENTENCE PHONOLOGY<br />
7.1. INTRODUCTION<br />
In this chapter, we deal with rules that (also) apply across word boundaries. An<br />
important theoretical question is that <strong>of</strong> how to state the domain <strong>of</strong> such rules:<br />
'Are some <strong>of</strong> these domains to be defined in terms <strong>of</strong> syntactic information, as<br />
present in the surface structure <strong>of</strong> sentences, or can they be stated exclusively<br />
in terms <strong>of</strong> prosodie domains?' 1 A related issue is the exact nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
hierarchy <strong>of</strong> prosodie domains, the so-called Prosodie Hierarchy.<br />
<strong>The</strong> domains <strong>of</strong> rule application for P-rules have been argued to form the<br />
following hierarchy (Nespor and Vogel I986):<br />
(1) Prosodie H ici 'an h v<br />
Syllable (a)<br />
Foot (F)<br />
Prosodie Word (w)<br />
Clitic Group (C)<br />
Phonological Phrase (()>)<br />
Intonational Phrase (IP)<br />
Utterance (U)<br />
<strong>The</strong> first three categories have to be available at the lexical level, the higher<br />
prosodie domains will be constructed on the basis <strong>of</strong> syntactic structure.<br />
Evidence for the foot was given above in relation to glottal-stop insertion in<br />
hiatus position (Section 4.2.3) and the stress-related phenomenon <strong>of</strong> vowel<br />
reduction (Section 6.4) 2<br />
Nespor and Vogel (1986) also proposed the domain <strong>of</strong> the Clitic Group.<br />
However, it is doubtful whether we really need this domain (cf. Booij 1988c.<br />
Zee 1988, Malikouti-Drachman and Drachman 1992). As far as <strong>Dutch</strong> is<br />
concerned, it is argued in Chapter 8 that clitics are incorporated into the<br />
preceding, or Chomsky-adjoined to the following prosodie word, without<br />
forming a prosodie category <strong>of</strong> their own.<br />
<strong>The</strong> next prosodie category is the Phonological Phrase. As for the construction<br />
<strong>of</strong> phonological phrases, it is usually assumed that each word <strong>of</strong> a lexical<br />
1<br />
('I'. Booij (I992u) lor a survey ol' this discussion.<br />
: Arguments loi the loot as part ol' the Prosodie Hierarchy are given in Poser (I9K'>, 1990),<br />
McCarthy and Prince (1990), and Im and Mester (1992).
144 CONNECTED SPEECH 11: SENTENCE PHONOLOGY<br />
category forms a phonological phrase with either the preceding or the following<br />
function words (determiners, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries).<br />
According to Selkirk (1986) this is a parameter: English joins function words<br />
with the following lexical category into a phonological phrase; in Japanese it is<br />
just the inverse: function words form a phonological phrase with the preceding<br />
lexical category. For <strong>Dutch</strong> I will assume that, when possible, function words<br />
form
7.2. PHONOLOGY ABOVE WORD LEVEL 145<br />
This structure correctly predicts that a syllable boundary coincides with the<br />
prefix boundary. Formally, it is a case <strong>of</strong> Chomsky-adjunction <strong>of</strong> a syllable to a<br />
prosodie word, thus creating a new prosodie word node. Thus, it follows that<br />
Prevocalic Schwa Deletion does not apply, except in very fast or informal<br />
speech where such boundaries are ignored. This rule requires that the schwa to<br />
be deleted and the next vowel are dominated by the same prosodie word node.<br />
This is not the case in structure (2) given the following definition <strong>of</strong> dominance<br />
(Chomsky 1986: 7):<br />
(3) Dominance<br />
a is dominated by ß only if it is dominated by every segment <strong>of</strong> ß<br />
In the example headcm the préfixai schwa (a) is not dominated by the prosodie<br />
word node (ß) because it is not dominated by the lowest co-node. Hence, the<br />
rule does not apply, as required.<br />
Similarly, compounds may be assumed to form prosodie structures <strong>of</strong> the<br />
following type in which a prosodie word is Chomsky-adjoined to a preceding<br />
prosodie word:<br />
(4) co<br />
co s<br />
co w<br />
Again, rules that have the prosodie word as their domain will not apply to such<br />
compound structures given the definition <strong>of</strong> dominance in (3).<br />
In sum, it seems necessary to weaken the Strict Layer Hypothesis in so far as<br />
we have to allow for adjunction <strong>of</strong> prosodie categories to other prosodie<br />
categories.<br />
In the next sections <strong>of</strong> this chapter, the role <strong>of</strong> the Phonological Phrase and<br />
the Intonational Phrase are illustrated. It is shown that other levels <strong>of</strong> representation<br />
such as the argument structure <strong>of</strong> the sentence may also play a role in<br />
sentence phonology.<br />
7.2. PHONOLOGY ABOVE THE WORD LEVEL<br />
In Chapter 4 it is repeatedly pointed out that many <strong>of</strong> the P-rules discussed<br />
there that apply obligatorily in the domain <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word—and <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
also in compounds—apply optionally in larger domains such as (compounds
146 CONNECTED SPEECH II: SENTI NCI-. PHONOLOGY<br />
and) phrases. <strong>The</strong> same point will be made with respect to /t/-deletion (Section<br />
7.2.6): this rule exhibits the properties <strong>of</strong> variable rules in that the rule applies<br />
above the level <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word, but with a larger degree <strong>of</strong> optionality.<br />
In general, we expect rules <strong>of</strong> connected speech to apply more frequently in<br />
smaller domains than in larger domains because words are tied together more<br />
closely in smaller domains than in larger domains.<br />
For <strong>Dutch</strong>, the issue <strong>of</strong> the prosodie domains <strong>of</strong> rules above the level <strong>of</strong> the<br />
prosodie word is an underresearched area. It is sufficient for present purposes<br />
to assume that the probability <strong>of</strong> application <strong>of</strong> P-rules above the word level<br />
decreases as the relevant prosodie domain <strong>of</strong> application becomes larger. In<br />
other words, I do not assign a particular prosodie domain to P-rules, but<br />
generally they are restricted to being applied within intonational phrases.<br />
This implies that they are postlexical rules, and that they can also apply in<br />
smaller domains than the IP.<br />
7.2.1. Voice Assimilation<br />
<strong>The</strong> rules <strong>of</strong> voice assimilation presented in Chapter 4 are illustrated there<br />
mainly by means <strong>of</strong> compounds, i.e. assimilation across co-boundaries. Voice<br />
assimilation also applies in larger domains, across ^-boundaries (Loots 1983,<br />
Menert 1988). <strong>The</strong> following examples illustrate this:<br />
(5) ( (dat ik),), (aan de rand),,, (van het bos),,, (bouw)u| (Regressive Assimilation)<br />
(6) ( (op die manier),» (zal Piet),, (/.akkeiD^),,.<br />
in that way will Peter fail'<br />
op die /Dp di/ 'in that' [Dbdi| (Regressive Assimilation)<br />
Piet zakken /pit zuksn/ 'Peter fail' [pitsukan] (Progressive Assimilation)<br />
Note that in the sequences bos bouw and Piet zakken the words are separated<br />
by a ({»-boundary, since they are words <strong>of</strong> lexical categories which head a<br />
phonological phrase <strong>of</strong> their own.<br />
Loots's (1983) investigation <strong>of</strong> regressive assimilation clearly indicates that<br />
the rule has the IP as its domain, and also that the rule applies more frequently<br />
if the consonants involved belong to the same phonological phrase: there was a<br />
clear difference in frequency <strong>of</strong> application <strong>of</strong> regressive assimilation within<br />
compounds from that within sentences. Since the prosodie words <strong>of</strong> a compound<br />
<strong>of</strong> course belong to the same phonological phrase, we can state that<br />
voice assimilation applies more frequently in s than in IPs.<br />
A rule <strong>of</strong> voice assimilation which only applies across a prosodie word<br />
boundary is that <strong>of</strong> Fricative Voicing that voices prosodie word-final fricatives<br />
preceded by a sonorant, and followed by a vocoid (cf. Zwaardemaker and
7.2. PHONOLOGY ABOVE WORD LEVEL 147<br />
Eijkman 1928: 226, Gussenhoven and Broeders 1976: 140). <strong>The</strong> following<br />
examples illustrate this type <strong>of</strong> voicing:<br />
(7) pas op 'be careful' [pu/np|<br />
huisarts 'GP' [hœy/urts]<br />
was je 'were you' luaZja]<br />
hoefijzer 'horse shoe' [huvti/,3r|<br />
twaalf uur 'twelve o'clock' [tualvy:r|<br />
Note that voicing <strong>of</strong> fricatives does not occur within prosodie words<br />
(Gussenhoven 1985). Thus we may get systematic phonetic differences<br />
between kiesjc [kijjo] 'molar' (dimin.) and kies je |ki3ja] '(lit.) choose<br />
you', and between wasje (uujjo] 'wash' (dimin. noun) and was je |uu3Jo]<br />
'(lit.) were you', because the diminutive suffix -je is a cohering suffix, and thus<br />
forms one prosodie word with its base. <strong>The</strong> rule can be stated as (8).<br />
(8) Fricative Voice Assimilation<br />
[+son) |-son] ), u [+voc]<br />
|+cont]<br />
Laryngeal<br />
Laryngeal<br />
<strong>The</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> application <strong>of</strong> rules <strong>of</strong> sentence phonology such as voice<br />
assimilation is <strong>of</strong> course also determined by the performance factors discussed<br />
in Chapter 6, particularly degree <strong>of</strong> monitoring and speech rate (Menert 1988).<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are also individual differences (Slis 1985).<br />
7.2.2. Nasal Assimilation<br />
Examples <strong>of</strong> the application <strong>of</strong> Nasal Assimilation across word boundaries are<br />
given in Chapter 4. <strong>The</strong> examples there are all prepositional phrases, which<br />
form one phonological phrase. <strong>The</strong>re is no evidence that Nasal Assimilation<br />
does not apply in the larger domain IP. For instance, in the following<br />
sentences, Nasal Assimilation seems to be possible for the final nasals <strong>of</strong><br />
haan 'job' /ban/ and boon 'bean' /bon/:<br />
(9) Wiedebaa[rj] krijgt . . .<br />
'Who the job gets ..."<br />
Wie de boo[m] pakt . . .<br />
'Who the bean takes ..."<br />
It should be remembered, however, that such observations are based on<br />
intuitions only, and require experimental underpinnings. Moreover, as pointed<br />
out by Nolan (1992), assimilations may be only partial. In cases <strong>of</strong> partial<br />
Nasal Assimilation, the nasal would be partially Coronal, partially Dorsal or<br />
Labial, which may be represented as follows (cf. Hayes 1992):
148 CONNECTED SPEECH II: SENTENCE PHONOLOGY<br />
(10) Nasal Assimilation (postlexical)<br />
|-son]<br />
|+nas] Place Place<br />
Cor<br />
In other words, whereas nasal assimilation in word phonology spreads the Place<br />
feature <strong>of</strong> the following consonant to the preceding underspecified nasal consonant,<br />
nasal assimilation at the postlexical level only affects coronals. This, by<br />
itself, could be represented by leaving coronal nasals unspecified until after<br />
Nasal Assimilation has applied postlexically, provided that the nasal consonant<br />
assimilates completely. However, if the first stage <strong>of</strong> the nasal consonant can<br />
also be coronal, the coronal nasal must be specified as such before spreading <strong>of</strong><br />
the Place feature <strong>of</strong> the following consonant takes place. <strong>The</strong> actual stretch <strong>of</strong><br />
alveolar articulation may vary with speech rate and degree <strong>of</strong> monitoring.<br />
Moreover, as argued in Section 4.3.2, certain lexical rules already require<br />
the proper identification <strong>of</strong> the coronal nasal which therefore cannot be left<br />
unspecified until the postlexical level. Consequently, we cannot identify the<br />
lexical and the postlexical processes <strong>of</strong> nasal assimilation.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> word-final /n/ preceded by a schwa the /n/ will delete through<br />
the rule <strong>of</strong> /n/-deletion instead <strong>of</strong> being assimilated:<br />
(11) de kleden (kleda] pakken '(lit.) the carpets take', i.e., 'to take the carpets'<br />
de kleden | kledo| kloppen '(lit.) the carpets beat', i.e., 'to beat the carpets'<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> nasals before fricatives another phenomenon plays a role. As<br />
observed by Trommelen (1984: 265) 4 an alveolar nasal may be deleted in fast<br />
speech before a following fricative. According to Gussenhoven and Broeders<br />
(1976) nasal deletion is even more general, applying before non-plosives. <strong>The</strong><br />
preceding vowel will then be nasalized and somewhat lengthened:<br />
(12) on-fatsoenlijk 'indecent' /on-fatsunlak/ [5futsunlok|<br />
on-zeker 'uncertain' /on-zekar/<br />
[5zek3r]<br />
on-gewoon 'abnormal' /on-yauon/<br />
[5v3uon)<br />
wan-gedrag 'misbehaviour' /uan-yadruy/<br />
[uayodruxl<br />
on-weer 'thunderstorm' /Dn-uer/<br />
[5ue:r]<br />
on-rustig 'unquiet' /on-rvstay/<br />
[5rvstox]<br />
de ton grijpen '(lit.) 'the ton grab', '(lit.) to grab the ton' [tSyreipan]<br />
de ton pakken '(lit.) the ton take', i.e., 'to take the ton' [tompakan]<br />
This process does not apply to non-coronal nasals. It may be phonetically<br />
'explained' in that the sequence nasal + continuant requires two different<br />
4 Trommelen mentions Zwaardemaker and Eijkman (1928: 230) and Eijkman ( 1955: 107) as her<br />
sources.
1.2. PHONOLOGY ABOVE WORD LEVEL 149<br />
gestures with respect to the degree <strong>of</strong> stricture <strong>of</strong> the vocal tract: first, a stop<br />
and then a continuant. In the case <strong>of</strong> a nasal followed by a plosive obstruent the<br />
two consonants can be realized with the same gesture. This may also explain<br />
why nasals do not co-occur with fricatives in the same coda in <strong>Dutch</strong>, and that<br />
this sequence, even when it is a heterosyllabic cluster, is rather rare within<br />
morphemes, compared to clusters <strong>of</strong> nasals + plosives, an example being<br />
kamfer 'camphor'. 5 <strong>The</strong> restriction <strong>of</strong> this process to the alveolar nasal is<br />
the same as that found for other processes <strong>of</strong> assimilation and reduction in<br />
connected speech: it is always the alveolar nasal that is subject to such<br />
processes.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule for this kind <strong>of</strong> nasal deletion with compensatory lengthening may<br />
be stated in (13). 6<br />
(13) Nasal Deletion<br />
X X X<br />
[-cons] [+cons] [+cont]<br />
[+nas]<br />
Cor<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule is a case <strong>of</strong> delinking-cum-spreading: the features <strong>of</strong> the nasal<br />
consonant are all delinked from the X-slot, and the feature [+nasal] is relinked<br />
to the preceding vowel, thus creating a nasalized vowel. I assume that the<br />
feature [—consonant] will subsequently spread to the vacated X-position,<br />
which accounts for the lengthening effect on the preceding vowel. <strong>The</strong> way<br />
in which the rule is formulated expresses the insight that such rules are<br />
basically a matter <strong>of</strong> retiming: the melodic segments are not deleted, but the<br />
features are distributed in a different way. Moreover, Eijkman (1955) states<br />
that the vowel is only optionally lengthened in addition to being nasalized,<br />
which is understandable in view <strong>of</strong> the fact that the available articulation time<br />
is reduced anyway in this kind <strong>of</strong> speech.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule may also apply word-internally, in particular when a velar nasal<br />
precedes a velar fricative. For instance, words like congres 'congress'<br />
/konvres/ and fungeren 'to function' /fvnveran/ can be pronounced with a<br />
nasal vowel and without the nasal consonant being realized. A special case is<br />
the pronunciation <strong>of</strong> the word koningin 'queen' /konirj+m/ as [konsyin] (in<br />
addition to the standard pronunciation [konirjm])-because the velar fricative<br />
Ivl that shows up here is synchronically not present in the underlying form <strong>of</strong><br />
the base word koning 'king' /konin/. It is also remarkable that the combination<br />
velar nasal + stop has survived in a number <strong>of</strong> native words such as koninklijk<br />
* See Padgett (1991, 1992) for cross-linguistic evidence concerning this difference between<br />
fricative and plosives with respect to combinability with other consonants.<br />
6 This formulation implies that /n/ is not deleted before /!/ which is [-cont], a correct prediction<br />
as far as 1 know.
150 CONNECTED SPEECH 11: SENTENCE PHONOLOGY<br />
'royal' [konirjklak], whereas the velar fricative systematically disappeared<br />
after velar nasals, again suggesting that such clusters have a marked character.<br />
In western varieties <strong>of</strong> standard <strong>Dutch</strong> one may also find /n/-deletion before<br />
/s/ within lexical morphemes, with concomitant lengthening and nasalization<br />
<strong>of</strong> the vowel:<br />
(14) Hans 'id.' [ho:s]<br />
gans 'goose' |yo:s]<br />
kans 'chance' [ka:s]<br />
ons 'ounce' [5:s]<br />
This phenomenon can be accounted for by dropping the condition on Nasal<br />
Deletion that the continuant stand at the beginning <strong>of</strong> a prosodie word.<br />
However, as pointed out, the process does not belong to standard <strong>Dutch</strong>.<br />
7.2..?. Hiatus rules<br />
In Chapter 4, we discussed two hiatus rules, Homorganic Glide Insertion (HGI)<br />
and Prevocalic Schwa Deletion. HGI also applies in compounds, in other s,<br />
and in IPs (cf. Berendsen and Den Os 1987):<br />
(15) 4><br />
zee[j]arend 'sea eagle'<br />
toe[u|eigenen 'to appropriate'<br />
sherry[j]achtig 'sherry-like'<br />
twee-en-twintig 'twenty-two' [twejantwintax]<br />
die [j] avond 'that evening'<br />
IP<br />
( (Marie),,, [jj (eet niet)$) IP<br />
'Mary does not eat'<br />
(Henk) 0 (haalde),,, (de vlo)«, [u] (uit het eten)()>)ip<br />
'Henk removed the flea from the food'<br />
Schwa deletion appears to be more restricted at the postlexical level. In<br />
particular, it does not apply to schwa-final prefixes, except in some lexicalized<br />
forms such as gereformeerd 'reformed' [yrefbrmeirtl and geloven 'to believe'<br />
[ylovan):<br />
(16) b[3]-amen'to agree' *[bam3n]<br />
b[a]-ogen 'to aim' *[boyon|<br />
g[o]-opend 'open' *|yopant|<br />
On the other hand, it may apply within compounds and in noun phrases<br />
beginning with the determiner de, that is, within (|>s:<br />
(17) mod[3]-adviseur'fashion adviser' [modatfis0:r]<br />
d[a] avond 'the evening'<br />
[davont]<br />
rod[a] aardbeien 'red strawberries' [rodairtbeijan]
7-2. PHONOLOGY ABOVE WORD LEVEL 15!<br />
Application <strong>of</strong> this process is characteristic <strong>of</strong> casual speech. This is also clear<br />
from the fact that the preposition te /ta/ is not subject to reduction, unlike the<br />
phonologically similar article de, presumably because this preposition is only<br />
used in very formal styles <strong>of</strong> speech. <strong>The</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> reduction in prefixes<br />
can be related to the observation made in Section 6.4 that morphological<br />
boundaries impede reduction processes.<br />
If the schwa deletes, the preceding consonant becomes the onset <strong>of</strong> the next<br />
syllable. Thus, the effect <strong>of</strong> both HGI and Prevocalic Schwa Deletion is that<br />
the number <strong>of</strong> onsetless syllables reduces. After a pause, that is, when there is<br />
no resyllabification, a glottal stop is always inserted before the vowel-initial<br />
word after the pause (Jongenburger and Van Heuven 1991).<br />
7.2.4. De gemination<br />
Degemination is one <strong>of</strong> the rules that apply obligatorily within prosodie words.<br />
When two identical consonants come together within a complex word or a<br />
phrase, one <strong>of</strong> them may be deleted (or they may be said to become one<br />
consonant; phonetically it may be the case that the length <strong>of</strong> a geminate<br />
consonant is still somewhat larger than that <strong>of</strong> its single counterpart):<br />
(18) ver-rassen /ver-rusan/ 'to surprise' [vcrasanj<br />
pak-kans /puk-kcms/ 'chance <strong>of</strong> being caught' [pukans]<br />
ik koop /ik kop/ 'I buy'<br />
[ikop]<br />
aan-name /an-nama/ 'assumption'<br />
[anama]<br />
in Namen /in naman/ 'in Namen'<br />
[maman]<br />
Jan nam /jan num/ 'John took'<br />
[ junum]<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule is the same as that given in Section 4.2.4. <strong>The</strong> only difference is that it<br />
is optional as a postlexical rule, and its domain is the IP, as shown by the last<br />
example <strong>of</strong> (18).<br />
7.2.5. Palatalization<br />
Palatalization affects alveolar consonants before a /j/. Palatalization is clearly<br />
observable before the personal pronoun je when it joins the preceding prosodie<br />
word. In other words, the parts anje /anja/ <strong>of</strong> Spanje /spanja/ 'Spain' and kan<br />
je /kan ja/ 'can you?' are phonetically identical when je is encliticized.<br />
(19) had je? 'had you?' |hutja] or [hata]<br />
was je? 'were you?' [uu3Ja] or [0033]<br />
kan je? 'can you?' [kunja] or |kuna]<br />
ben je? 'are you? [btnja] or [bcfia]<br />
In larger prosodie domains, palatalization is certainly possible in casual and<br />
fast speech, as in:<br />
(20) ( (Ik ken) $ (je moeder),), )jp 'I know your mother' [ikenjamudar]
152 CONNECTED SPEECH II: SENTENCE PHONOLOGY<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> /n/-final auxiliaries such as kan and ben it is also possible to<br />
delete the /n/ before /j/: kun je 'can you' [kaja], ben je 'are you' [btjo|.<br />
<strong>The</strong> question whether the /j/ after palatalized consonants is still there as a<br />
separate segment is clearly a matter <strong>of</strong> speech style and speech rate, in other<br />
words, a question <strong>of</strong> timing <strong>of</strong> the articulatory gestures with respect to the X-<br />
tier. For instance, the relevant part /sj/ <strong>of</strong> the representation <strong>of</strong> was je after<br />
Palatalization will be as in (21).<br />
(21) |-son) [+voc]<br />
I<br />
Place<br />
I<br />
Cor<br />
I<br />
Place<br />
Since the feature [—back] <strong>of</strong> the /j/ is now linked to the preceding consonant,<br />
the original X dominating that feature can be deleted in fast speech, while<br />
leaving the information concerning the place <strong>of</strong> constriction intact.<br />
7.2.6. Ill-deletion<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> /t/-deletion is typically one <strong>of</strong> the processes that occur in fast<br />
speech, but to a lesser extent also in careful speech.<br />
If a /t/ in a coda is preceded by an obstruent, and followed by another<br />
consonant, the /t/ may delete. This is illustrated here first for diminutive nouns<br />
in which deletion is obligatory:<br />
(22) klacht-je 'complaint'<br />
abt-je 'abbot'<br />
pact-je 'pact'<br />
[pukjo]<br />
markt-je 'market' |murkJ3|<br />
kaft-je 'cover'<br />
[kafja]<br />
kast-je 'cupboard' Ikujjo]<br />
<strong>The</strong> A/ does not delete, however, when the preceding consonant is a sonorant<br />
consonant:<br />
(23) tand-je 'tooth' [tuntjo], *[tanj3)<br />
hemd-je 'shirt' [hcmtja], *[hemj3J<br />
hart-je 'heart' [hurtja], *|hurjo|<br />
kilt-je 'kilt' [kiltjo], *[kilja]<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> /t/-deletion also accounts for the obligatory deletion <strong>of</strong> the A/<br />
before the suffixes -,v and -st:<br />
(24) echt-st 'most real' [exst]<br />
echt-s '(something) real' |exs|
licht-st 'lightest'<br />
licht-s '(something) light'<br />
J.2. PHONOLOGY ABOVE WORD LEVEL 153<br />
[lixst]<br />
|lixs]<br />
Like diminutive nouns, these forms consist <strong>of</strong> one prosodie word.<br />
In compounds the deletion <strong>of</strong>/t/ is optional, although for many speakers it<br />
will he obligatory in frequent words such as postkantoor 'post <strong>of</strong>fice' (the<br />
deletable /t/ is in italic):<br />
(25) vrachr-wagen 'truck'<br />
markf-plein 'market square'<br />
herfsf-kleuren 'autumn colours'<br />
posr-bank '(lit.) Post Office Bank'<br />
pacf-sluiting 'pact agreement'<br />
/ichf-baar 'visible'<br />
ab/-loos 'abbotless'<br />
on-ach/-zaam 'negligent'<br />
If the preceding consonant is a sonorant, /t/-deletion is also possible, but then<br />
the following consonant must be an obstruent; moreover, native speakers may<br />
differ as to whether /t/-deletion is possible in all cases, and lexicalisation and<br />
frequency play a role:<br />
(26) Compounds<br />
bandbreedte 'band width'<br />
tandsteen 'tartar'<br />
tandpasta 'toothpaste'<br />
Prefixed verbs<br />
ont-pl<strong>of</strong>fen 'to explode'<br />
ont-staan 'to arise'<br />
[bumbreto]<br />
[tunsten]<br />
[tumpusta]<br />
[Dmpbfanl<br />
[onstan]<br />
When the obstruent following the sonorant + A/ cluster is /k/, deletion does not<br />
apply, as in honlkftia^ 'fur collar'. When A/ is preceded by a sonorant, and also<br />
followed by a sonorant, deletion is impossible:<br />
(27) kant-lijn 'margin' *[konlcin|<br />
ont-lopen 'to avoid' *[onlopgn]<br />
A/-deletion is typically a variable rule in the Labovian sense (Labov 1972) in<br />
that certain factors further the actual application <strong>of</strong> the rule. In the case <strong>of</strong><br />
deletion <strong>of</strong> A/ it was also found that, for English, the less sonorous the<br />
following segment is, the easier deletion can apply (Guy 1980, Neu 1980).<br />
<strong>The</strong> fact that the domain <strong>of</strong> application also plays a role has already been<br />
mentioned: within prosodie words deletion is obligatory, which accounts for<br />
diminutives and for superlative forms. In prefixed words and compounds, A/ is<br />
separated from the following consonant by a prosodie word boundary, hence<br />
deletion can more easily be suppressed there. Across phrasal boundaries, A/-<br />
deletion is possible if both the preceding and the following consonants are<br />
obstruents, less probable after or before a nasal consonant, and even less<br />
probable before liquids and glides:
154 CONNECTED SPEECH II: SENTENCE PHONOLOGY<br />
(28) Wint Piet? 'Does Peter win?' [umpit]<br />
Komt Piet? 'Does Peter come?' (kompit)<br />
Zakt Piet? 'Does Peter fail?' Izakpit)<br />
Zakt Marie? 'Does Mary fail?' [zukmari]<br />
Zakt Ria? 'Does Ria fail'<br />
*[/ukrija]<br />
Zakt Jan? 'Does John fail?' *[zukjun)<br />
Thus, we formulate /t/-deletion as (29).<br />
(29) /t/-deletion<br />
Delete [— cont, Coronal) in: ([+cons] —)CODA |+cons|<br />
Domain: IP<br />
Condition: at least one <strong>of</strong> the (+cons) segments must be (—son)<br />
<strong>The</strong> condition rules out deletion <strong>of</strong> /t/ in words like kantlijn 'margin' and<br />
phrases like Komt Jan'? 'Does John come?' 7 <strong>The</strong> rule does not distinguish<br />
between /t/ and /d/, but this is not necessary since /d/ does not occur in the<br />
relevant context, the coda position. <strong>The</strong> requirement <strong>of</strong> a consonant following<br />
the /t/ implies that, unlike in English, the A/ does not delete at the end <strong>of</strong> an IP. 8<br />
As pointed out in Section 6.6, Browman and Goldstein (1990) conceive <strong>of</strong><br />
fast speech rules as retiming <strong>of</strong> the articulatory gestures, with masking effects,<br />
rather than interpreting such phenomena in terms <strong>of</strong> the actual deletion <strong>of</strong><br />
segments. <strong>The</strong>y adduce some evidence that in the case <strong>of</strong> English /t/-deletion,<br />
the A/ is indeed masked in perception but not completely absent in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
production. <strong>The</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> retiming may also explain why deletion applies<br />
more readily in smaller domains: since a prosodie word is a smaller domain<br />
than, for instance, a compound or a phrase in terms <strong>of</strong> the time dimension,<br />
reduction <strong>of</strong> time will have comparatively stronger effects in a prosodie word<br />
than in a compound or phrase. Nevertheless, in words with obligatory A/-<br />
deletion, the A/ is completely absent, since we do not perceive any phonetic<br />
difference between kantje 'cupboard' (dimin.) and kasje 'greenhouse' (dimin.)<br />
both pronounced as (kujjaj.<br />
7.3. SENTENCE ACCENT<br />
As pointed out in Section 5.1, the main stressed syllable <strong>of</strong> a word is a<br />
potential locus <strong>of</strong> sentence accent. <strong>The</strong> stressed syllable is the 'anchor point'<br />
7 <strong>The</strong> 2 sg. pres. form <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> verbs ends in /I/, hut is /t/-less it the subject pronoun je follows<br />
the verb: je komt 'you come', but Köm je'.' 'Do you come?'. <strong>The</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> /t/ in the case <strong>of</strong> the<br />
inverted word order is clearly not a phonological phenomenon, but a case <strong>of</strong> syntactically<br />
conditioned allomorphy, given the constraints on /I/ deletion discussed here.<br />
K<br />
However, word-final deletion ol A/ does occur in some non-standard dialects such as thai <strong>of</strong>'<br />
Utrecht and Leiden (cf. De Vries et al. 1974). In standard <strong>Dutch</strong> we find deletion <strong>of</strong>/t/ in word-final<br />
position after a vowel in function words like met /nit/ 'nol' and wat /uut/ 'what' which can be<br />
pronounced as [nil and [uu] respectively in informal language use.
7-3- SENTENCE ACCENT 155<br />
<strong>of</strong> the pitch movements that give prominence to certain constituents <strong>of</strong> a<br />
sentence.<br />
<strong>The</strong> location <strong>of</strong> sentence accents is determined by semantic and pragmatic<br />
factors (Selkirk 1984/>, Gussenhoven 1984). For instance, the following sentence<br />
can have two locations for its sentence accent, depending on which<br />
background knowledge is assumed:<br />
(30) a. *<br />
(Waar is Jan?) Jan is in de kamer.<br />
'Where is John? John is in the lounge.'<br />
h. *<br />
(Wie is in de kamer?) Jan is in de kamer.<br />
'Who is in the lounge? John is in the lounge.'<br />
In (30a) the prepositional phrase in de kamer is a constituent that is meant as<br />
new information, i.e. it carries focus. <strong>The</strong> non-focused pan is what the speaker<br />
takes as his starting point. In (30b) the constituent Jan is the constituent with<br />
focus, and thus it gets a sentence accent. In other words, the basic rule is that<br />
each focused constituent bears a sentence accent. It is also possible to use<br />
'narrow focus' accent with a contrastive function as in:<br />
(31) * *<br />
Jan is in de kamer, niet in de keuken.<br />
'John is in the lounge, not in the kitchen.'<br />
Note that syntactic structure plays a role in that in the prepositional phrase in<br />
de kamer it is the noun, that is, a member <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the major lexical<br />
categories, that bears the sentence accent, not one <strong>of</strong> the function words in<br />
or de. Sentence accent on a function word is also possible, if the sentence<br />
accent has a contrastive function:<br />
(32) * *<br />
Het boek ligt niet in, maar onder de kast.<br />
'<strong>The</strong> book is not in, but under, the bookcase'<br />
Here, only the prepositions are [+focus] elements, whereas de kast functions as<br />
background knowledge. This example also serves to illustrate that function<br />
words must be provided with a main stress in word phonology for determining<br />
the potential locus <strong>of</strong> sentence accent, for example, on the first syllable <strong>of</strong> the<br />
preposition onder.<br />
<strong>The</strong> relation between focus and sentence accent in <strong>Dutch</strong> has been investigated<br />
by Gussenhoven (1984, 1992«). In particular, he showed that a predicate<br />
may not receive a sentence accent even if it is |+focus]. Gussenhoven distinguishes<br />
between three types <strong>of</strong> constituents in a clause: each clause contains a<br />
predicate (P), zero or more arguments (A), and any number <strong>of</strong> modifiers (M),<br />
constituents with an adverbial function. Arguments are noun phrases or prepositional<br />
phrases for which a predicate is subcategorized in its lexical entry.<br />
Gussenhoven proposed the following rule for sentence accents:
156 CONNECTED SPEECH II: SENTENCE PHONOLOGY<br />
(33) Sentence Accent Assignment Rule (SAAR)<br />
If focused, every predicate, argument, and modifier must be accented, with the<br />
exception <strong>of</strong> a predicate that, discounting unfocused constituents, is adjacent to an<br />
argument. (Gussenhoven 1992«: 84)<br />
This rule can be formulated as an algorithm. First, we determine which parts <strong>of</strong><br />
a clause are [+focus| (indicated by underlining), then we determine the<br />
domains <strong>of</strong> sentence accent assignment, and finally we accent the relevant<br />
constituents (Gussenhoven 1984: 69):<br />
(34) SAAR Algorithm<br />
a. Domain assignment: P (X) A -> [P (X) A|<br />
(ordered) A (X) P -> [A (X) P)<br />
Y -» [Y]<br />
b. Accent assignment | ] -» [*]<br />
In [AP/PA) accent A<br />
<strong>The</strong> working <strong>of</strong> SAAR is illustrated by the following examples: 9<br />
(35) a. (Has anyone resigned?)<br />
*<br />
AP -> [A]P *<br />
De voor/.itter is afgetreden.<br />
'<strong>The</strong> chairman has resigned.'<br />
h. (What's new?)<br />
*<br />
AP -» [AP| *<br />
De voorzitter is afgetreden.<br />
r * * * * * *<br />
AMP —> [A](M||P]<br />
De voorzitter is inderhaast afgetreden.<br />
'<strong>The</strong> chairman has hurriedly resigned.'<br />
d. (Why can't the chairman do that?)<br />
* *<br />
AP -> A [P]<br />
De voorzitter is afgetreden.<br />
<strong>The</strong> examples (35«) and (35/>) have the same sentence accent, although they<br />
differ with respect to focus. This reflects the ambiguity <strong>of</strong> this sentence with<br />
respect to the size <strong>of</strong> the focused constituent, either part <strong>of</strong> the sentence, or the<br />
whole sentence. In other words, if possible, predicate and argument form one<br />
domain <strong>of</strong> sentence accent assignment, and it is the argument that then receives<br />
the sentence accent. In (35c) the focused predicate and the focused argument<br />
are separated by a focused modifier, and therefore they form separate domains<br />
<strong>of</strong> accent assignment, resulting in a sentence with three sentence accents.<br />
9 Taken from Gussenhoven (1984: 70).
7-3- SENTENCE ACCENT 157<br />
<strong>The</strong> ordering <strong>of</strong> the creation <strong>of</strong> [ AP] domains before [PA] domains accounts<br />
for the fact that in a sentence like<br />
(36) * *<br />
Jan slaat zijn vrouw.<br />
'John beats his wife.'<br />
there is a prosodie break after Jan, i.e., it is slaat zijn vrouw that forms a<br />
domain rather than Jan slaat.<br />
As pointed out by Gussenhoven (1984: 27), the SAAR also explains the<br />
difference in accentuation between the following two sentences discussed by<br />
Schmerling (1976):<br />
(37) *<br />
(Have you heard?) Johnson died.<br />
(38) *<br />
(Have you heard?) Truman died.<br />
In the second sentence, it is presupposed that the hearer already knows that<br />
Truman is very ill. Hence, it is only the predicate that is [+focus|, and therefore<br />
the sentence accent is located on the verb. This observation also holds for<br />
equivalent <strong>Dutch</strong> sentences.<br />
<strong>The</strong> sentence accent in the constituent ix afgetreden in sentence (35d) is<br />
located on af. <strong>The</strong> location on afgetreden is to be expected since i.v is a<br />
function word. Afgetreden is the participle <strong>of</strong> the separable complex verb<br />
aftreden 'to resign'. <strong>The</strong>se verbs are complex predicates in that they form a<br />
semantic unit, but yet they are phrases from the syntactic point <strong>of</strong> view (Booij<br />
1990«): the two parts can be separated in main clauses, as in:<br />
(39) Jan belt zijn moeder op.<br />
'John phones his mother.'<br />
<strong>The</strong> sentence accent assignment in the following examples shows that if the<br />
two parts <strong>of</strong> the complex predicate are separated, they still form one domain <strong>of</strong><br />
sentence accent assigment (the underlined part is |+focus|):<br />
(40) (What's Jan doing?)<br />
*<br />
a. Jan belt zijn moeder op.<br />
'Jan phones his mother.'<br />
*<br />
h. Jan belt op.<br />
'John makes a phone call.'<br />
<strong>The</strong> location <strong>of</strong> the sentence accent in (4()b) shows that when a complex<br />
predicate is accented it is the non-verbal part that receives the accent.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are a number <strong>of</strong> complications in the assignment <strong>of</strong> sentence accent.<br />
First, a pronoun with [+focus| forms a domain <strong>of</strong> its own, not with the
158 CONNECTED SPEECH II: SENTENCE PHONOLOGY<br />
following predicate, as is illustrated by the following examples (Gussenhoven<br />
1984: 73):<br />
(41) (What's the matter?)<br />
*<br />
a. De gevangenen zijn ontsnapt!<br />
'<strong>The</strong> prisoners have escaped.'<br />
* *<br />
h. Iedereen is ontsnapt!<br />
'Everyone has escaped.'<br />
In (41 h) the argument iedereen does not form a domain together with the<br />
following predicate. <strong>The</strong>refore, the predicate forms a domain <strong>of</strong> its own, and<br />
receives its own sentence accent: sentence (4 \h) without sentence accent on<br />
the predicate is ill-formed.<br />
Second, SAAR is meant as a generalization for so called eventive sentences.<br />
Eventive sentences present the proposition 'as a historical development <strong>of</strong><br />
some sort, while a non-eventive sentence could serve as a description <strong>of</strong> the<br />
status-quo ('definitional sentence'), or convey information which is potentially<br />
relevant to the listener ('contingency sentence')' (Gussenhoven 1992a: 103).<br />
<strong>The</strong> distinction is nicely illustrated by the two interpretations <strong>of</strong> the sentence<br />
De direktie geeft dieven aan '<strong>The</strong> management turns thieves in'. It may be a<br />
general statement on a sign in a shop, as in (42a), or the description <strong>of</strong> an<br />
event, as in (42h). In the first case, the sentence is non-eventive, and therefore<br />
each focused constituent receives its own sentence accent. That is, skipping the<br />
predicate in the assignment <strong>of</strong> sentence accent as expressed by the SAAR is<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> eventive sentences (geeft aan is a discontinuous complex<br />
predicate here):<br />
(42) a. * * *<br />
De direktie geeft dieven aan.<br />
b. * *<br />
De direktie geeft dieven aan.<br />
In addition to SAAR, sentence accent is also assigned by Topicalization. A<br />
constituent that is preposed by Topicalization to the first position in the<br />
sentence receives a sentence accent even if it is not [+focus|:<br />
(43) (What happened to Yvonne?)<br />
* *<br />
Yvonne heeft hij gearresteerd.<br />
Yvonne has he arrested.<br />
'He arrested Yvonne.'<br />
In this example, Yvonne is background knowledge, and hence it is [-focus).<br />
Although the argument Yvonne and the predicate are only separated by a<br />
|-focus) constituent, they cannot form one domain: the Topic constituent
7-3- SENTENCE ACCENT 159<br />
forms a sentence accent domain <strong>of</strong> its own, and hence gearresteerd also<br />
receives sentence accent.<br />
This effect <strong>of</strong> Topicalization also explains why the weak forms <strong>of</strong> pronouns<br />
are excluded from being topicalized: they cannot bear stress, and hence they<br />
are also unable to receive sentence accent. In other words, it is not necessary to<br />
constrain syntactic rules <strong>of</strong> topicalization in such a way that they do not affect<br />
weak pronouns: this follows from their prosodie properties.'"<br />
Attributively used adjectives do not count as constituents for the SAAR.<br />
Yet, they may function as focus constituents independently from the following<br />
noun, and then they are accented. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb,<br />
however, the sentence accent is on the adverb:<br />
(44) (What did you see?)<br />
*<br />
Ik zag een leuk meisje.<br />
'l saw a nice girl.'<br />
(45) (What do you think <strong>of</strong> her?)<br />
*<br />
Ik vind haar een leuk meisje.<br />
'I consider her a nice girl.'<br />
(46) (What did you see?)<br />
*<br />
Ik zag een erg leuk meisje.<br />
'I saw a very nice girl.'<br />
In (45) the use <strong>of</strong> haar 'her' already presupposes the existence <strong>of</strong> a specific<br />
female being in the background knowledge <strong>of</strong> the hearer, and hence it is<br />
only leuk that is [+focusj. Adjectives also form focus domains when used<br />
contrastively, as in<br />
(47) *<br />
Mijn oudste oom is overleden.<br />
'My eldest uncle has died.'<br />
This survey <strong>of</strong> factors determining the location <strong>of</strong> sentence accents is by no<br />
means exhaustive, but presents the basic generalizations; cf. Gussenhoven<br />
(1984, \992a) for more detailed studies.<br />
<strong>The</strong> next issue to be discussed is the actual realization <strong>of</strong> sentence accents as<br />
pitch movements. It has been found for English that a sentence accent can be<br />
'" In the case <strong>of</strong> weak pronouns, Ihere is an alternative strong form that can be used in topic<br />
position, with the phonological properties required for being a prosodie word. <strong>The</strong> same applies to<br />
tlie determiner her. if it is to carry sentence accent (e.g. in order to express the uniqueness <strong>of</strong><br />
referent <strong>of</strong> the noun phrase), we cannot use the form |.il|. only the form |htt|, which forms a<br />
prosodie word <strong>of</strong> its own. <strong>The</strong> only exception is
i6o<br />
CONNECTED SPEECH II: SENTENCE PHONOLOGY<br />
realized as a fall, a rise, or a fall-rise. <strong>The</strong>se patterns can be interpreted as tonal<br />
morphemes consisting <strong>of</strong> contour tones (Gussenhoven 1984, 1988):<br />
(48) H*L falling tone<br />
L*H rising tone<br />
H*LH falling-rising tone<br />
<strong>The</strong> asterisk following a tone indicates that this tone is to be linked to the<br />
syllable with the sentence accent. <strong>The</strong> following tone or tones are spread<br />
across the rest <strong>of</strong> the association domain. Furthermore, there is a copy <strong>of</strong> the<br />
last tone <strong>of</strong> the contour that functions as a boundary tone (indicated by H% or<br />
L%) at the end <strong>of</strong> an intonational phrase. <strong>The</strong> resulting tone patterns are<br />
illustrated here for sentence (49).<br />
(49) Leeuwarden wil meer mannen.<br />
'Leeuwarden needs more men.'<br />
with both one (Fig. 7.1) and two (Fig. 7.2) sentence accents, and with either<br />
H*L or L*H as the first sentence accent (from Van den Berg et al. 1992):<br />
<strong>The</strong> part <strong>of</strong> a phonological phrase before the first sentence accent may be<br />
called the onset, and usually has low pitch. <strong>The</strong> prosodie boundary is also<br />
indicated. As Van den Berg, Gussenhoven, and Rietveld (1992) point out.<br />
(a) 500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
X 200<br />
o<br />
100<br />
L%<br />
e- w a r d s wilm e-r m un 3<br />
50<br />
( 0.0 0.3 0.6<br />
Time (sec.)<br />
0.9 1.2<br />
(b) 500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
X 200<br />
100<br />
e- w a r d 3 w i l m e' r m u n 3<br />
50<br />
0.0 0.3 0.6<br />
0.9 1.2<br />
Time (sec.)<br />
FIG. 7.1. Contours (H*L L%) AD and (L*H H%) AD on the sentence Leeu*warden wil<br />
meer mannen
7-4- RHYTHMIC RULES 161<br />
(a) 500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
K 200<br />
100<br />
(b) 500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
£200<br />
50<br />
0.0<br />
I e- w a r d a w i l m e-rm<br />
0.3 0.6<br />
Time (sec.)<br />
«-H<br />
0.9 1.2<br />
KM)<br />
50<br />
0.0<br />
w a r d 3 w i l m e-rtn<br />
0.3 0.6<br />
Time (sec.)<br />
0.9 1.2<br />
FIG. 7.2. Contours (H*L) AD , (H*L%) AD> and (L*H) AD (H*L L%) AD on the sentence<br />
Leeu*warden wil meer ma*nnen<br />
there is also a phonetic realization possible in which the two phonological<br />
phrases in (49) do not each form an association domain (AD), but form only<br />
one such domain. <strong>The</strong> effect is that the tone following the starred tone is<br />
moved to the rest <strong>of</strong> a string before the next sentence accent (i.e., there is no<br />
second onset with its own L tone) (Fig. 7.3.)<br />
7.4. RHYTHMIC RULES<br />
In Section 5.4. we encountered two types <strong>of</strong> stress shift, Trochaic Reversal (in<br />
compounds), and Stress Retraction (cf. Gussenhoven 1983«, 19836; 1984).<br />
Stress Retraction is a postlexical rule that changes the stress patterns <strong>of</strong><br />
attributively used adjectives and <strong>of</strong> prepositions, as in:<br />
(50) Adjectival compounds <strong>of</strong> the weak-strong type<br />
[dóod][zi'ek] een doodziek kind 'a critically ill child'<br />
[straat|[arm] een straatarm mens 'a very poor person'
162<br />
(a) 5(X)<br />
400<br />
300<br />
CONNECTED SPEECH II: SENTENCE PHONOLOGY<br />
N 200<br />
100<br />
50<br />
(b) 500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
N 200<br />
a<br />
w u r da l m e' r<br />
0.3 0.6<br />
Time (sec.)<br />
L%<br />
0.9 1.2<br />
100<br />
50<br />
war daw i n a<br />
0.0 0.3 0.6<br />
Time (sec.)<br />
0.9 1.2<br />
FIG. 7.3. Contours (H*L H*L L%) AD , and L*H H*L L%) AD on the sentence<br />
Leeu*warden wil meer ma*nnen<br />
[zélf] [rijzend]<br />
[nàuw][ge/.ét]<br />
zèlfrijzend bäkmeel 'self-raising flour'<br />
een nauwgezet femand 'a scrupulous person'<br />
(51) Prepositional compounds<br />
onderaan onderaan de bérg 'at the foot <strong>of</strong> the mountain'<br />
bovenop bovenop de schuur 'on top <strong>of</strong> the shed'<br />
achterin achterin de tuin 'at the back <strong>of</strong> the garden'<br />
Stress shift also occurs in the following cases, referred to as cases <strong>of</strong> Iambic<br />
Reversal (Gussenhoven 1984, Kager and Visch, 1988, Visch 1989) in order to<br />
distinguish it from Stress Retraction. Stress Retraction seems to be obligatory,<br />
while Iambic Reversal is optional, and its use is also determined by pragmatic<br />
factors, that is, it can be used as a rhetorical device in speeches in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
attributively used adjectives (Gussenhoven 1983a, 1984):<br />
(52) Attributively used adjectives<br />
speciaal spéciaal geval 'special case'<br />
feodaal feodaal stelsel 'feudal system'<br />
respectabel respectabel man 'respectable man'
74- RHYTHMIC RULES 163<br />
(53) Nouns before appositions<br />
admiraal admiraal de Riiyter 'Admiral de Ruyter'<br />
kardinaal kardinaal Simonis 'Cardinal Simonis'<br />
Rotterdam Rötterdam-Züid 'Rotterdam-South'<br />
<strong>The</strong>se examples show that stress clashes in the domain <strong>of</strong> the phonological<br />
phrase can be resolved by shifting the non-primary stress to the left. <strong>The</strong><br />
relevant constituents can indeed be qualified as s if single attributively<br />
used adjectives (i.e. non-branching APs) are assumed not to form a <strong>of</strong> their<br />
own (Nespor and Vogel 1986). Note that it is thus correctly predicted that<br />
stress shift does not occur when the attributively used adjective is preceded by<br />
an adverb, and thus is the head <strong>of</strong> a branching AP:<br />
(54) [een [zeer speciaal] AP geval) NP 'a very special case'<br />
een zeer speciaal geval, *een zeer spéciaal geval<br />
Leftward stress shift is a case <strong>of</strong> Move * in the domain <strong>of</strong> , as illustrated here<br />
for the noun phrase (een) doodziek kind 'a critically ill child':<br />
(55) ( (dood) w (ziek) u (kind),,)«,,<br />
* * line 1<br />
* * * line 2<br />
104 CONNECTED SPEECH II: SENTENCE PHONOLOGY<br />
(57) ( ( (pe) 0 (ni) a (b3l) a ) M ( (mo) 0 (ment) 0) J „,<br />
* * line 1<br />
* * line 2<br />
* line 3<br />
( ( (spe) a (si) 0 (al)
8<br />
CONNECTED SPEECH III: CLITICIZATION<br />
8.1. INTRODUCTION<br />
Clitics are function words such as pronouns, determiners, auxiliaries, particles,<br />
conjunctions, and prepositions which are phonologically dependent on a<br />
host word to which they attach, and with which they form a prosodie<br />
constituent. In addition, they may also have special syntactic distributional<br />
properties. For instance, the <strong>Dutch</strong> singular definite article het [het| has a<br />
weak form which is a clitic: [at|. Its syntactic distribution is determined by<br />
the rules for the construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> noun phrases, but phonologically it<br />
may be dependent on the preceding word in the sentence, its host. This is<br />
clear from the fact that it can form one domain <strong>of</strong> syllabification with the<br />
preceding word, as illustrated here for the sentence Jan kocht het boek 'John<br />
bought the book':<br />
(1) syntactic structure: |Jan] N p [kochtJv I't boek] NP<br />
prosodie structure: (J un )u> ( (' < ox) a (t3t) a ) lo (buk)^<br />
<strong>The</strong> prosodie structure is non-isomorphic to the syntactic structure: the<br />
determiner (otj depends syntactically on the following noun, and prosodically<br />
on the preceding verb.' <strong>The</strong> non-independence <strong>of</strong> [at] follows from its<br />
phonological form, since it cannot form a prosodie word <strong>of</strong> its own. After its<br />
obligatory incorporation into the preceding prosodie word, resyllabification<br />
takes place according to the universal CV-rule (cf. Section 3.4.2). This<br />
process <strong>of</strong> resyllabification also blocks /n/-deletion when the host word ends<br />
in /an/:<br />
(2) Zij kochten 't boek<br />
(zei) u ( (kDx)„(t3) a (n3t) 0 ) (U (buk)«,<br />
'<strong>The</strong>y bought the book'<br />
Due to resyllabification the post-schwa /n/ no longer occurs in a coda, but in an<br />
onset, and hence it is saved from deletion.<br />
If their structural descriptions are met, other P-ruIes that apply obligatorily<br />
within the prosodie word, also apply obligatorily in the host + clitic domain, in<br />
particular Homorganic Glide Insertion and Prevocalic Schwa Deletion:<br />
1<br />
Cf. Klavans (1985) and Nevis (19SX) lor similar observations as lo the non-isomorphism <strong>of</strong><br />
prosodie and syntactic structure in the ease <strong>of</strong> clitics. Sadock (1991) also argues that two structures<br />
are necessary in case <strong>of</strong> clitici/.alion, but he does not qualify one <strong>of</strong> them as prosodie.
l66<br />
CONNECTED SPEECH Hi: CLITICIZATION<br />
(3) Homorganic Glide Insertion (HGI)<br />
Ik zie 't boek<br />
(ik) M (sijaOu (buk)«<br />
'I saw the book'<br />
Ik doe 't werk<br />
(ig) M (duu3t) œ (uerk) œ<br />
'I do the chores'<br />
(4) Prevocalic Schwa Deletion<br />
Ik merkte 't direct<br />
(ik) M (merktat),,, (direkt)^<br />
'I noticed it immediately'<br />
It is also possible to insert an /n/ between the schwa and the next vowel:<br />
(5) (tk)« (merktanaOo, (direkt) w<br />
In all cases, the effect is that after incorporation <strong>of</strong> the clitic, the prosodie word<br />
fulfils all conditions on well-formed prosodie words.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se examples also illustrate that cliticization processes form part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
connected-speech phenomena.<br />
8.2. PRONOMINAL AND ADVERBIAL CLITICS<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> personal pronouns do not have the same distributional properties as<br />
full noun phrases (although they are syntactically equivalent to full noun<br />
phrases in that they denote arguments <strong>of</strong> the verb, and occur in prepositional<br />
and adverbial phrases), unless they are stressed, that is, bear a sentence accent,<br />
and have full ('strong') phonological forms. When they are unstressed and/or<br />
have a reduced ('weak') form, they are to be qualified as clitics. A survey <strong>of</strong><br />
the <strong>Dutch</strong> system <strong>of</strong> personal pronouns is given in Table 8.1. <strong>The</strong> pronouns hen<br />
and hun in the last row differ in that the first is used as accusative and the<br />
second as dative. 2<br />
<strong>The</strong> full forms can be used in stressed and unstressed positions, with the<br />
exception <strong>of</strong> het. When they are stressed they have the same syntactic distribution<br />
as lexical noun phrases. <strong>The</strong> third-person pronouns are not only used<br />
to refer to animate beings, but also for referring to inanimate entities.<br />
Er is the (suppletive) allomorph for het in prepositional phrases, and<br />
always occurs before the preposition; 3 it is also the adverbial pronoun for<br />
'there':<br />
2<br />
In substandard <strong>Dutch</strong> the pronoun hun is also used as Ihe 3 pi. subject pronoun.<br />
1 <strong>The</strong> pronoun er and the following preposition are usually written as one word. Cf. Van<br />
Riemsdijk (I97X) lor a syntactic analysis <strong>of</strong> er.
8.2. PRONOMINAL AND ADVERBIAL CLITICS<br />
TABLK 8.1. <strong>The</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> personal pronouns<br />
1 sg. subj.<br />
1 sg. obj.<br />
2 sg. subj.<br />
2 sg. obj.<br />
3 sg. subj. masc.<br />
3 sg. obj. masc.<br />
3 sg. subj. fern.<br />
3 sg. obj. fern.<br />
3 sg. neut.<br />
1 pl. subj.<br />
1 pl. obj.<br />
2pl.<br />
3 pl. subj.<br />
3 pl. obj.<br />
Strong<br />
ik /ik/<br />
mij /mei/<br />
JU /jei/<br />
jou /pu/<br />
hij /hei/<br />
hem /hem/<br />
zij /zei/<br />
haar /har/<br />
het /het/<br />
wij /uei/<br />
ons /nns/<br />
jullie /jvli/<br />
zij /zei/<br />
hen /hen/, hun /hvn/<br />
Weak<br />
ik /ik/, /ak/, 'k /k/<br />
me /ma/<br />
je /ja/<br />
je /ja/<br />
ie /i/<br />
'm /am/<br />
ze /za/<br />
'r /ar/, d'r /dar/<br />
't /at/, M<br />
we /ua/<br />
ze /za/<br />
ze /za/<br />
(6) Het ligt er.<br />
it lies there<br />
'It's lying there.'<br />
Ik lig [er op] PP /*op het<br />
I lie it on<br />
'I'm lying on it.'<br />
Er has the full forms /er/ and the weak form /ar/. In contrast to the personal<br />
pronouns, the pronouns het and er cannot be used in stressed positions, not<br />
even in their full forms. Instead, the corresponding demonstrative pronouns dat<br />
/dut/ and daar /dar/ have to be used. <strong>The</strong> weak form <strong>of</strong> daar, /dar/, also<br />
functions as a stylistic variant <strong>of</strong> er.<br />
<strong>The</strong> weak forms <strong>of</strong> these pronouns cannot be derived from the corresponding<br />
full forms by means <strong>of</strong> a productive phonological reduction rule. <strong>The</strong><br />
general rule <strong>of</strong> Vowel Reduction (Section 6.4.) does not apply to diphthongs.<br />
Yet, the full forms <strong>of</strong> mij, jij, :ij, and wij have corresponding weak forms<br />
with schwa. Also, a vowel cannot reduce after /h/ or in word-initial position.<br />
Nevertheless, the reduced form <strong>of</strong> hem is [am], and ik has [ak] as one <strong>of</strong> its<br />
weak forms. Consequently, we have to list the weak forms as such in the<br />
lexicon. This means that they are 'special clitics' (cf. Zwicky 1977) in that<br />
they have opaque phonology. In addition, they also have special syntactic<br />
properties, as we see below, which means that they are also special clitics for<br />
syntactic reasons.<br />
<strong>The</strong> conclusion that the weak forms have to be listed as lexical items is<br />
corroborated by the observations made by Berendsen (1986) and Zwart (1992)<br />
that in some contexts only the weak forms can be used. For instance, the weak
168 CONNECTED SPEECH III: CLITICIZATION<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> the second-person singular and third-person plural pronouns, ye and ze<br />
may have a generic interpretation, unlike the corresponding full forms:<br />
(7) Ze/*zij zeggen zoveel.<br />
'People say a lot.'<br />
Je/*jij moet eerlijk zijn<br />
'One has to be honest.'<br />
Furthermore, the strong third-person plural pronouns zij, hen, and Hun can only<br />
be used to refer to animate entities or abstract entities like institutions, but not<br />
to other kinds <strong>of</strong> concrete entity. Idiomatic expressions <strong>of</strong>ten only allow for the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> the weak forms, as in:<br />
(8) Ben je/*jij gek?<br />
'Are you crazy?'<br />
Smeer 3m/*hem!<br />
'Clear <strong>of</strong>f!'<br />
Inversely, certain contexts require the strong form to be used, for instance after<br />
the preposition volgens 'according to', which requires prominence <strong>of</strong> its<br />
complement-noun phrase:<br />
(9) volgens mij/*me 'according to me'<br />
<strong>The</strong> weak form je is the only permissible second-person singular pronoun in<br />
pseudo-reflexive verbs such as zich vergissen 'to make a mistake' and zieh<br />
schamen 'to be ashamed':<br />
(10) Je vergist je/*jou.<br />
'You are making a mistake.'<br />
Schaam je / *jou!<br />
'Shame upon you!'<br />
Pronominal clitics also exhibit syntactic properties that distinguish them<br />
from lexical NPs (Model 1991: ch. 10, Zwart 1992). For instance, adverbs such<br />
as gisteren 'yesterday' cannot stand before clitics, as illustrated in (11). <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
clitics also exhibit 'clitic climbing', see (12):<br />
(11) dat gisteren Jan/*ie het boek gelezen heeft<br />
that yesterday John/he the book read has<br />
'that yesterday, John/he read the book'<br />
(12) *dat ik de afwas Marie heb zien doen<br />
that I the dishes Mary have see do<br />
'that I saw Mary doing the dishes'<br />
dat ik 't Marie heb zien doen<br />
that I it Mary have see do<br />
'that I saw Mary doing it'<br />
Furthermore, clitics cannot be conjoined:
8.2. PRONOMINAL AND ADVERBIAL CLITICS 169<br />
TABLE 8.2. <strong>Dutch</strong> singular possessive pronouns<br />
f:'<br />
•'<br />
Strong form<br />
mijn /mein/<br />
JOUW /J3U/<br />
zijn /zein/<br />
haar /har/<br />
Weak form<br />
m'n /man/<br />
je /ja/<br />
z'n /zan/<br />
'r /ar/, d'r /dar/<br />
(13) Ik zag hém en haar<br />
*Ik zag am en ar<br />
'I saw him and her'<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> singular possessive pronouns also have weak forms that only occur in<br />
unstressed position (Table 8.2). <strong>The</strong> possessive pronoun for 'its' only has the<br />
weak form /zan/. Again, the weak forms cannot be derived by rule, and have to<br />
be lexically listed. As was the case for personal pronominal clitics, the clitic<br />
forms can be used only in certain idiomatic expressions:<br />
(14) in je eentje/*in jouw eentje<br />
'on your own'<br />
op z'n best/* op zijn best<br />
'at best'<br />
<strong>The</strong> adverbs er 'there', daar 'there', and eens 'once' also have clitic forms<br />
(Table 8.3). <strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> the weak form is again lexicalized, as in *Eensles even<br />
kijken 'Let's see.'<br />
TABLE 8.3. <strong>Dutch</strong> adverbial clitics<br />
er 'there'<br />
daar 'there'<br />
eens 'once'<br />
Strong form<br />
er /er/<br />
daar /dar/<br />
eens /ens/<br />
Weak form<br />
er /ar/, d'r /dar/<br />
d'r /dar/<br />
es /as/<br />
8.2.1. Prosodie integration<br />
<strong>The</strong> question now arises how clitics are incorporated into prosodie structure.<br />
Except for ie l\l and ik /ik/ all weak pronouns and adverbs have schwa as their<br />
only vowel (if any: there are also vowelless clitics, /k/ and A/). This implies<br />
that they do not form prosodie words <strong>of</strong> their own (Section 3.6), but at most<br />
syllables, because a prosodie word requires at least one syllable with a full<br />
vowel. <strong>The</strong> fact that they are not prosodie words also explains why they cannot
170 CONNECTED SPEECH III: CLII ICI/. ATION<br />
be stressed, since the domain <strong>of</strong> word-stress rules is the prosodie word.<br />
Moreover, syllables with schwa never bear word stress. 4<br />
Can we assume then that clitics form directly part <strong>of</strong> phonological phrases,<br />
without being dominated by a prosodie word node? This would be in conflict<br />
with the Strict Layer Hypothesis (Selkirk 1984/>, 1986, Nespor and Vogel<br />
1986) which says that<br />
<strong>The</strong> prosodie categories are ordered in a hierarchy and in phonological representations<br />
they are strictly organized into layers according to that hierarchy i.e. prosodie<br />
constituents <strong>of</strong> the same category are not nested. (Selkirk 1986: 384)<br />
This hypothesis excludes clitics, which are only syllables, from being directly<br />
dominated by a phonological phrase node. This means that clitics must either<br />
be Chomsky-adjoined to an adjacent prosodie word, as proposed in Neijt<br />
(1985), or incorporated into that prosodie word, that is, Chomsky-adjoined<br />
to a foot. <strong>The</strong> difference between the two solutions can be represented as<br />
follows:<br />
(15) u>- adjunction w<br />
o w<br />
I<br />
Clitic<br />
F-adjunction<br />
GO<br />
I<br />
. F<br />
Logically, the mirror images <strong>of</strong> these adjunctions are also possible. However,<br />
it appears that in <strong>Dutch</strong>, proclitics are Chomsky-adjoined to prosodie<br />
words, and enclitics are Chomsky-adjoined to feet. Proclitics cannot adjoin to<br />
the following foot since a <strong>Dutch</strong> foot is a trochee, and hence cannot begin with<br />
a syllable with schwa, because it cannot function as the head <strong>of</strong> a foot.<br />
Enclitics, on the other hand, can adjoin to the preceding foot without violating<br />
the canonical structure <strong>of</strong> the left-headed feet <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>. Thus they exhibit the<br />
maximal degree <strong>of</strong> prosodie integration. In sum, proclitics have the same<br />
<strong>The</strong> fact that <strong>Dutch</strong> clitics do not form prosodie words also excludes an analysis analogous to<br />
that proposed by Nespor and Vogel for Italian clitics in which clitics are prosodie words that are<br />
dominated, together with their host word, by a node <strong>of</strong> the prosodie category Clitic Group (cf.<br />
Booij I988f).
8.2. PRONOMINAL AND ADVERBIAL CLITICS 17!<br />
prosodie status as schwa-containing prefixes, and enclitics have the same<br />
prosodie status as suffixes.<br />
Chomsky-adjunction still violates the Strict Layer Hypothesis in that a<br />
prosodie node is dominated by another one <strong>of</strong> the same category, but this is<br />
a very restricted type <strong>of</strong> violation. In the case <strong>of</strong> adjunction <strong>of</strong> a syllable to a<br />
prosodie word, we also skip one prosodie level. 5<br />
In principle, clitics can function both as enclitics and as proclitics. <strong>The</strong> only<br />
exceptions are the clitic ie and its allomorph die, and the pronominal clitic der<br />
/dor/ 'her' which are obligatory enclitics: that is, they require a host word on<br />
their left. Moreover, function words that contain a full vowel do not have to<br />
cliticize at all, since they can form prosodie words <strong>of</strong> their own. A clitic can be<br />
only a proclitic in sentence-initial position, and only an enclitic in sentencefinal<br />
position.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> schwa-initial clitics, there is clear evidence that these clitics<br />
can be incorporated into the preceding prosodie word, as illustrated here for<br />
the clitic /at/ 'it' in sentence-final position:<br />
(16) (Jan) ziet 't<br />
prosodie structure: ( (zi) a (t9t) a ) œ<br />
'John sees it.'<br />
<strong>The</strong> basic observation here is that the clitic /at/ induces obligatory resyllabih'cation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the preceding word (the coda consonant /t/ <strong>of</strong> ziet becomes onset <strong>of</strong><br />
the next syllable), because a syllable cannot begin with a schwa. Since the<br />
prosodie word is the domain <strong>of</strong> syllabification, the incorporation <strong>of</strong> the clitic<br />
into the preceding prosodie word predicts this obligatory resyllabitication.<br />
Another rule that applies in host + clitic combinations is /n/-insertion: after<br />
schwa, In/ can be inserted to resolve the hiatus that arises when the clitic<br />
begins with a vowel (note that hiatus is resolved obligatorily in prosodie words<br />
only):<br />
(17) ik zette-n-et'I put it' [iksetanat]<br />
(hij) wilde-n-et 'he wanted it'<br />
(uildanat]<br />
wilde-n-ie 'wanted he'<br />
(uildani)<br />
wilde-n-ik 'wanted I'<br />
[uildanik]<br />
(het) gekke-n-is 'the strange thing is' [vekanis]<br />
<strong>The</strong> fact that /n/-insertion also applies before vowel-initial clitics with a full<br />
vowel (is* ie, ik) suggests that they can also be incorporated into the preceding<br />
prosodie word. Note that /n/-insertion does not apply between a clitic and a<br />
lin Mild Mesler (I'W2) have Mrgucd on the basis <strong>of</strong> Japanese thai skipping <strong>of</strong> one level should<br />
he permitted. So they allow for untooted syllables thai are dominated directly by the prosodie word<br />
node. In such a theory, cohering suffixes and enclitics can he incorporated into the preceding<br />
piosodic word without being Chomsky-adjoined to a foot. However, this approach does not explain<br />
why there is a difference in the degree <strong>of</strong> prosodie integration between proclitics/prefixes and<br />
enclilics/sutlixcv<br />
6 As will be shown below, auxiliaries like is also behave as clitics.
172 CONNECTED SPEECH III: CLITICIZATION<br />
following word, as in je eet lekker 'you eat nicely' (*[janet]). Instead, the<br />
vowel-initial word after the clitic begins with a glottal stop: [ja ?etj. In this<br />
respect proclitics exhibit the same behaviour as unstressed prefixes with<br />
respect to Prevocalic Schwa Deletion (cf. Section 7.1). In other words, the<br />
domain <strong>of</strong> /n/-insertion is the prosodie word. This supports the hypothesis that<br />
proclitics do not form one prosodie word with a following word, but are rather<br />
Chomsky-adjoined to them. Unlike Prevocalic Schwa Deletion, /n/-insertion<br />
only applies postlexically.<br />
<strong>The</strong> resyllabification induced by the clitic bleeds /n/-deletion (cf. Section<br />
6.8), a rule that deletes /n/ after schwa. For instance, the sentence ze deden 't 'they<br />
did it' has the phonetic form [za dedanatj. It is impossible to first apply /n/-<br />
deletion, and then, after prosodie incorporation, Prevocalic Schwa Deletion,<br />
which would result in the wrong phonetic form [dedal]. This is an impossible<br />
pronunciation for the sequences (zij) deden 't '(they) did it'. <strong>The</strong>se facts<br />
follow straightforwardly if the rules <strong>of</strong> connected speech such as /n/-deletion<br />
apply after the proper prosodie structure <strong>of</strong> a sentence has been created. <strong>The</strong><br />
resyllabification induced by clitics puts the final /n/ in onset position, thus<br />
making it immune to /n/-deletion that only applies to /n/ in coda position.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> the clitic ie, it is also possible to avoid the hiatus within the<br />
prosodie word by choosing the allomorph die instead <strong>of</strong> ie. <strong>The</strong> same applies to<br />
the clitic er for which the variant d'r can be used. However the hiatus may be<br />
resolved, the fact that it must be resolved somehow shows that these vowelinitial<br />
function words indeed form a prosodie word with the preceding word,<br />
obligatorily when it is ie, optionally in the case <strong>of</strong> the schwa containing clitics,<br />
ik and is. When vowel-initial clitics are not encliticized, a glottal stop is<br />
inserted before the vowel.<br />
As pointed out above, when pronominal clitics occur in sentence-initial<br />
position, they can only cliticize to the following word. This also applies to<br />
clitics that consist <strong>of</strong> one consonant only (/k/, /t/) and clitics that begin with a<br />
consonant:<br />
(18) Er [ar] staat een paard in de gang.<br />
'<strong>The</strong>re stands a horse in the corridor.'<br />
(19) 't gaat [at xat] goed/'t gaat [txat] goed.<br />
'It goes well.'<br />
(20) Ik zal [ik sol] komen/'k zal [ksal] komen.<br />
'I will come.'<br />
(21) We eten [ua etan] lekker.<br />
'We eat nicely.'<br />
In cases where the clitic is a proclitic, it is not incorporated into the following<br />
prosodie word, as is proved by the fact that the phonological rules discussed<br />
above that apply within the domain <strong>of</strong> the prosodie word, do not apply to such<br />
clitic + host combinations. (Recall the definition <strong>of</strong> dominance given in section<br />
7.1!) For instance, Prevocalic Schwa Deletion does not apply obligatorily to
8.2. PRONOMINAL AND ADVERBIAL CLITICS 173<br />
the schwa <strong>of</strong> we /V3/ in (21), since the sequence schwa-vowel is not dominated<br />
by the prosodie word node. 7 This follows from Chomsky-adjunction <strong>of</strong> the<br />
clitic to the following prosodie word. In the case <strong>of</strong> consonantal clitics this<br />
results in clusters such as /tx/ and /ks/ at the phonetic level, which we do not<br />
find at the lexical level.<br />
When pronominal clitics can in principle take either the preceding or the<br />
following word as their host, it is enclisis that takes precedence over proclisis<br />
in the case <strong>of</strong> vowelless clitics. 8 This is clear from minimal pairs such as zaik<br />
eten versus zal keten which can be perceptually distinguished (examples from<br />
Gussenhoven 1985):<br />
(22) (Dat) zal'k eten (zalk) a (e) 0 (t3n) CT<br />
'(lit.) that will I eat' i.e., 'that I will eat'<br />
(Jan) zal keten (zal) 0 (ke)„(t3n) 0<br />
'John will fool'<br />
Another indication that consonantal clitics take a host on their left is that<br />
they cannot be used when the preceding word ends in a consonant; in those<br />
cases, the variant with preceding vowel has to be used:<br />
(23) Ik pak *[t]/[3t] 'I fetch it.'<br />
Dat rol *[k|/|ik] 'That I roll.'<br />
This constraint shows that there is a co-occurrence restriction between clitics<br />
and the preceding phonological material, which suggests that they form a unit<br />
with that material.<br />
Clitics with a vowel (e.g., er, ik, je, ze, and we) can in principle also be<br />
integrated into the following prosodie structure, that is, their phonological<br />
structure permits them to acts as proclitics. Evidence that schwa-initial clitics<br />
may function as enclitics is presented above. On the other hand, as pointed out<br />
by Gussenhoven (1985), there is also evidence that they do not always form<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the preceding prosodie word. This evidence concerns the process <strong>of</strong><br />
Fricative Voice Assimilation discussed in Section 7.2.1: a prosodie word-final<br />
fricative may be voiced after a sonorant if the following word begins with a<br />
vowel, for example, in the compound hui\z]arts 'GP' and the phrase lee[\] ik<br />
'(lit.) live I'. <strong>The</strong> rule can be stated as in (24).<br />
(24) Fricative Voice Assimilation<br />
[+son] [-son] )„, [+voc]<br />
[+cont]<br />
Laryngeal<br />
Laryngeal<br />
'However, in casual speech the word-final schwa <strong>of</strong> function words may be deleted as in we eten<br />
A>3 elan/ [uetan] 'we eat', and de avond /da avand/ (davont) 'the evening'.<br />
8 Gussenhoven (1985) also argued that <strong>Dutch</strong> prefers enclisis to proclisis.
174 CONNECTED SPEECH III: CLITICIZATION<br />
By interpreting this process as the spreading <strong>of</strong> the class node Laryngeal rather<br />
than the feature [+voice] we correctly predict that no other segment with a<br />
laryngeal specification can be inserted between the fricative and the following<br />
vowel. Thus, we account for Gussenhoven's (1985) observation that glottal<br />
stops cannot be inserted before the vowel-initial word after application <strong>of</strong><br />
voicing since a glottal stop is crucially specified on the Laryngeal tier.<br />
Gussenhoven (1985) concluded that clitics such as er do not necessarily<br />
belong to the preceding prosodie word, since Fricative Voice Assimilation may<br />
apply in relevant phrases. For instance, geef er 'give her' may be realized<br />
either as [yefor] or as [yevar]. In the first case, er is encliticized, in the second<br />
case it is not.<br />
Evidence for consonant-initial clitics concerning their (optionally) functioning<br />
as enclitics is provided by the fact that they are subject to contraction<br />
processes in which it is always a host word on the left with which they are<br />
contracted. For instance, the complementizer dat 'that' contracts with a<br />
following clitic, dropping its final A/:<br />
(25) dat 'k [dok]<br />
dat je<br />
l du j o I<br />
dat ze |dusa]<br />
dat we [duua]<br />
Nevertheless, this does not necessarily mean that these words also encliticize<br />
when they do not contract. As we saw above, and as we will also see in Section<br />
8.3, there is evidence that schwa-containing clitic words may be either<br />
enclitics or proclitics. In sum, we do not have to specify whether a <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
pronominal clitic is an enclitic or a proclitic, except for ie, die, and der. That<br />
is, the latter are directional clitics. y Hence, ie does not have the same distribution<br />
as its strong counterpart hij, since the clitic cannot occur in sentenceinitial<br />
position where no left host word is available. <strong>The</strong>refore, this clitic must<br />
be subcategorized for occurring with a prosodie word on its left (Booij and<br />
Lieber 1993). I0 It induces obligatory resyllabirication if the host ends in a<br />
consonant, which follows from the incorporation analysis proposed above:<br />
(26) dat-ie komt 'that he comes' (do) a (ti) CT (kDmt) 0<br />
komt-ie? '(lit.) comes he' i.e., 'does he come?' (kom) a (ti) 0<br />
8.2.2. Cliticization and Final Devnicing<br />
Since Final Devoicing <strong>of</strong> obstruents in codas is a lexical word-level rule, and<br />
prosodie integration with concomitant resyllabification takes place at the post-<br />
9 Nespor and Vogel (I98f>) also make a distinction between non-directional and directional<br />
clitics.<br />
'" Similar clitics with a prosodie subcategorization frame are found in Serbo-Croation, cf. Zee<br />
and Inkelas (1990).
8.2. PRONOMINAL AND ADVERBIAL CLITICS 175<br />
syntactic level, it is predicted that word-final obstruents are voiceless even<br />
when they shift to onset positions. This indeed appears to be the case:<br />
(27) vond-ik /vond ik/ 'found I' phonetic form (von) 0 (tik) 0<br />
vond-ie /vond i/ 'found he' phonetic form (von) 0 (ti) 0<br />
vond et /vond at/ 'found it' phonetic form (vDn) a (tat) 0<br />
However, there appears to be variation here (Berendsen 1983, 1986; Booij<br />
19856) in that for certain frequent verbs the variants with voiced obstruents are<br />
also found, but only in cases where there is an underlying stem-final voiced<br />
obstruent. This suggests that certain verb+clitic combinations are lexically<br />
stored." Consequently, the resyllabification induced by the attachment <strong>of</strong> the<br />
clitic will bleed the word-level rule <strong>of</strong> Final Devoicing:<br />
(28) heb-ik 'have I'<br />
lexical clitic: /heb ik/ (he) 0 (bik) 0<br />
postlexical clitic: /hep ik/ (he) 0 (pik) 0<br />
Less frequent verbs with stem-final voiced obstruents such as verbind 'to<br />
connect', verwond 'to injure', and vermoord 'to murder' do not surface with<br />
a voiceless obstruent before the clitic:<br />
(29) verbind-ik [varbintik], *[varbmdik]<br />
verwond 'r [varuontar], "[varuondar]<br />
vermoord 'm [varmoirtam], *[varmo:rdam]<br />
This supports the lexicalization hypothesis for frequent verbs like hebben 'to<br />
have'. As we will see in Section 8.4, there are more cases <strong>of</strong> lexical listing <strong>of</strong><br />
verb + clitic combinations in <strong>Dutch</strong>. 12<br />
A special property <strong>of</strong> ie is that it never occurs after a stem-final /d/. For<br />
instance, the only possible phonetic realization <strong>of</strong>vond-ie 'found he' is [vDnti];<br />
*[vondi] is impossible. This restriction is related to the fact that the allomorph<br />
/di/ always surfaces as [ti] after an obstruent: 13<br />
(30) keek-[i], keek-[ti], *keek-[di] 'watched he'<br />
gaf-fi], gaf-[ti], *gaf-[di] 'gave he'<br />
In this respect /di/ differs from other /d/-initial function words which can either<br />
voice a preceding voiceless obstruent or be devoiced themselves after voiceless<br />
obstruents, as discussed in the next section. <strong>The</strong> weak form <strong>of</strong> the pronoun<br />
haar, /dar/, is also obligatorily subject to devoicing after an obstruent. In other<br />
" A similar variation is found for combinations <strong>of</strong> 'to have' and clitics in German, cf. Wiese<br />
(1996). Note also that in Middle <strong>Dutch</strong>, which had no standard orthography, such frequent verb +<br />
clitic combinations were written as one word, e.g. hebbic 'have I' (cf. Van Kerckvoorde 1993:<br />
14-17 for a survey).<br />
12<br />
In Booij and Rubach (1987) evidence for the existence <strong>of</strong> lexical attachment <strong>of</strong> clitics is<br />
provided for <strong>Dutch</strong> and Polish.<br />
3 This observation was made in Zonneveld (1983) and Gussenhoven (1985). Berendsen (1983)<br />
accounts for these facts as follows: the clitic l\l is derived from an underlying form that begins with<br />
a dental fricative. A special rule converts the sequence alveolar stop + dental fricative into a [t].<br />
This rule is ordered before the rule that derives [i] from this underlying form.
176 CONNECTED SPEECH III: CUTICIZATION<br />
words, /d/-initial personal pronominal clitics are obligatorily subject to incorporation,<br />
and hence devoice by a rule <strong>of</strong> devoicing presented in Section 8.3.<br />
8.3. CLITICIZATION OF OTHER FUNCTION WORDS<br />
Cliticization also applies to determiners, and to a number <strong>of</strong> /d/-initial function<br />
words. <strong>The</strong> three <strong>Dutch</strong> determiners are de, het, and een:<br />
(31) een/an/ (indef., sg.)<br />
het /het/, weak form /at/ (def., sg., n.)<br />
de /da/<br />
(def., sg., masc., fern.; def., pi.)<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> het, the strong form has to be used in stressed position. <strong>The</strong> other<br />
determiners have only one form, which is weak since the only vowel is schwa.<br />
If necessary, they can carry contrastive stress, as in Dit is dé winkel voor<br />
hoeken 'This is thé shop for books', Dat is één mogelijkheid 'That is a<br />
possibility.'<br />
As shown in Section 8.1, the weak forms <strong>of</strong> determiners can be encliticized<br />
when there is a potential host word on the left. Otherwise, they will be<br />
Chomsky-adjoined to the following prosodie word.<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> function words with initial /d/ including de have the special<br />
property that they have two possible phonetic realizations: the normal rule <strong>of</strong><br />
Regressive Assimilation across prosodie word boundaries may apply, which<br />
means that /d/ causes voicing <strong>of</strong> the preceding word-final obstruent, or /d/<br />
devoices itself. For instance, in the prepositional phrase op die manier 'in that<br />
way', the sequence op die can be pronounced as either [obdi], the expected<br />
form, or as [opti]. This pattern is found for the following words:<br />
(32) de /da/ 'the', dit /dit/ 'this', deze /deza/ 'these', dat /dat/ 'that', die /di/<br />
'that, which', daar /dar/ 'there', d'r /dar/ 'there, her', dan /dan/ 'than,<br />
then'<br />
Zonneveld (1983) proposed to explain this pattern hy assuming that these<br />
words are optional enclitics. If they are incorporated into the preceding<br />
word they are devoiced.<br />
Encliticization, that is, the prosodie integration <strong>of</strong> function words into a left<br />
host, can be represented as in (33).<br />
A function word may form an co <strong>of</strong> its own, for instance the demonstrative<br />
(33) o><br />
I<br />
F
8.3. CLITICIZATION OF OTHER FUNCTION WORDS 177<br />
die. When the syllable node that it dominates is adjoined to the last foot <strong>of</strong> the<br />
preceding prosodie word, the dominating prosodie nodes will be erased automatically,<br />
because a syllable cannot simultaneously belong to two feet or<br />
prosodie words.<br />
<strong>The</strong> consequence <strong>of</strong> these alternations is that in a sentence like Ik geef er<br />
niet om 'I do not care about it' the word sequence geef er may have four<br />
different phonetic realizations given the fact that the clitic /ar/ has an allomorph<br />
/dar/ which may be subject to devoicing (Gussenhoven 1985: 187):<br />
(34) geef er: [xefar], [xevar], [xeftar], [xevdar]<br />
<strong>The</strong> second form has a |v] derived by Fricative Voice Assimilation. Note that<br />
this rule does not apply to sequences such as gaf-ie 'gave he' with the<br />
obligatory enclitic ie, since there is no prosodie word boundary after the<br />
fricative. Thus, as pointed out in Gussenhoven (1985), [yavi] is impossible.<br />
<strong>The</strong> personal pronoun die, the allomorph <strong>of</strong> ie, has to be marked as being<br />
obligatorily encliticized, hence it always surfaces as [tij. Note that we<br />
observed above that the allomorph ie is also an obligatory enclitic. <strong>The</strong><br />
determiner de always surfaces as [ta] after a word-final /t/, which means<br />
that it is obligatorily encliticized in that position:<br />
(35) (Ik) lees de (krant) 'I read the paper' [lesta], [lezda]<br />
(Hij) leest de (krant) 'He reads the paper' [lesta], *[lezda]<br />
When encliticization does not apply, the function words are prosodically<br />
integrated into the following phonological phrase. This analysis implies that,<br />
for clitics with more than one potential host word, encliticization is optional,<br />
and they may also procliticize to the following word. Except for de and d'r<br />
these /d/-initial function words contain a full vowel, and therefore do not<br />
necessarily require a host word.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule that devoices the first consonant <strong>of</strong> these encliticized function<br />
words is given in (36).<br />
(36) Word-internal Devoicing<br />
[—son] [—son]<br />
[-voice]<br />
Domain: co<br />
| + voice ]<br />
Note that this rule does not apply to obstruents preceded by the clitics /k/ and<br />
A/ when used as proclitics before a voiced obstruent as in 'k ben [kbcn| 'I am'<br />
or 't begint [tbayint] 'it begins'. This supports the idea that such consonantal<br />
proclitics are not integrated into the following prosodie word, but are rather<br />
Chomsky-adjoined to it.<br />
Prepositions always contain at least one full vowel, except te Aa/ 'at'.<br />
Hence, they do not require a host word. Yet, it appears that they do encliticize
178 CONNECTED SPEECH 111: CLITICIZATION<br />
optionally, as is clear for vowel-initial prepositions like op 'on', in 'in', aan<br />
'to', and onder 'under'. <strong>The</strong> relevant phenomena are Prevocalic Schwa Deletion,<br />
/n/-insertion, and Fricative Voice Assimilation. For instance, the<br />
sequence fietste in in the sentence Jan fietste in Polen 'John cycled in<br />
Poland' has the following possible phonetic realizations:<br />
(37) (fietste-inJu, Prevocalic Schwa Deletion: [fitstin]<br />
/n/-insertion:<br />
[fitstamn]<br />
(fietste),,, (in),,,<br />
[fitsta ?m]<br />
Fricative Voice Assimilation can be observed in prepositional phrases with a<br />
postposition (the underlying form <strong>of</strong> bos ends in an /s/):<br />
(38) het bos in '(lit.) the wood into' i.e., 'into the wood' [adbozin]<br />
<strong>The</strong> vowel-initial auxiliary is is also optionally encliticized to the preceding<br />
word. If not, we get a glottal stop before the vowel:<br />
(39) Het gekke is '<strong>The</strong> strange thing is'<br />
/n/-insertion:<br />
[atxckanis]<br />
Prevocalic Schwa Deletion: [atxckisj<br />
No encliticization: [atxeka ?is|<br />
<strong>The</strong> conjunction en 'and' has the weak form [an] in number terms below 100<br />
which are formed by co-ordination. For instance, in Mee-en-twintig '(lit.) two<br />
and twenty' ('twenty-two') we get this weak form <strong>of</strong> en. This schwa-initial<br />
weak form also appears to be incorporated into the preceding prosodie word,<br />
and this triggers Homorganic Glide Insertion: the phonetic form in this case is<br />
[tuejantumtox].<br />
8.4. CONTRACTION<br />
Certain sequences <strong>of</strong> function words can be contracted: dat 'that' + personal<br />
pronoun, auxiliary/modal verb + pronoun, and certain auxiliaries preceded by a<br />
pronoun:<br />
(40) dat + pronoun<br />
dat 'k -» [dak l<br />
dat je -» [düja]<br />
dat ze -» [dasaj<br />
dat we —» [doua]<br />
<strong>The</strong> regularity involved here is that it is the final HI <strong>of</strong> dat that is deleted before<br />
the clitic. We also find even stronger forms <strong>of</strong> contraction like [duj] for datje<br />
and [duu| for dat we.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> pronouns it is the weak form 'k that induces contraction,<br />
causing deletion <strong>of</strong> the final consonant <strong>of</strong> the first word:
(41) modal verb/auxiliary + pronoun<br />
wil 'k 'want I' —> [uik]<br />
zal 'k 'will I' -> [zak]<br />
kan 'k 'can I' —> (kurjk]<br />
moet 'k 'must I' -> [muk]<br />
mag 'k 'may I' —> [mak]<br />
heb 'k 'have I' -» [hek]<br />
8-4- CONTRACTION 179<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> je, the final consonant <strong>of</strong> the first word can be deleted, and<br />
even the final schwa <strong>of</strong> the pronoun. Such forms are typically sub-standard<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong>:<br />
(42) wil je (uijaj, [uij]<br />
zul je [zYJo], [ZYJ]<br />
kan je [kujo], [kaj|<br />
moetje [muja], [muj|<br />
mag je (no contraction)<br />
heb je [hejal, [hej|<br />
ben je [bejs|, [bej]<br />
<strong>The</strong> generalization that can be made is that the first <strong>of</strong> two adjacent consonants<br />
deletes:<br />
(43) [+cons] -> 0 /(... — [+cons] . . . )„,<br />
This formulation <strong>of</strong> the rule presupposes that the second word is encliticized to<br />
the preceding word. <strong>The</strong> rule is lexically governed: it only applies to a specific<br />
set <strong>of</strong> verbs + pronouns. Alternatively, one may list these contracted forms as<br />
such in the lexicon. After application <strong>of</strong> consonant deletion, it is also possible<br />
to delete the final schwa. Without consonant deletion, deletion <strong>of</strong> the schwa<br />
would lead to ill-formed word-final consonant clusters like -nj and -tj.<br />
As pointed out by Gussenhoven (1985), forms <strong>of</strong> the verbs hebben 'to have'<br />
and zijn 'to be' contract with preceding pronouns: 14<br />
(44) ik heb 'I have' [ikep]<br />
'k heb 'I have' [kep]<br />
je hebt 'you have' U e P t ]<br />
hij heeft 'he has'<br />
[helft]<br />
ze heeft 'she has' [zeft]<br />
we hebben 'we have' [ueban]<br />
ze hebben 'they have' [zebon]<br />
<strong>The</strong> disappearance <strong>of</strong> the /h/ is predictable: in such clitic + verb combinations<br />
the /h/ will be preceded or followed by another consonant, whereas it is<br />
impossible for the /h/ to occur in consonant clusters. For instance, the form<br />
/zheft/ for ze heeft is phonotactically impossible.<br />
14 According to Gussenhoven (1985) the verb hoeven 'to need' may also be subject to contraction,<br />
for instance, in the idiolect <strong>of</strong> the author <strong>of</strong> that article.
l80<br />
CONNECTED SPEECH III: CLITICIZATION<br />
Note that contraction does not apply to all /hAinitial words. For instance, ye<br />
houdt 'you hold' cannot be pronounced as [jout].<br />
<strong>The</strong> only complication left is that in hij heeft 'he has' it is the diphthong that<br />
survives whereas normally the vowel <strong>of</strong> the clitic pronoun is dropped. If the<br />
diphthong <strong>of</strong> hij were deleted, the resulting contracted form would be homophonous<br />
with the phonetic form <strong>of</strong> heeft 'has'.<br />
<strong>The</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> contraction in combination with the use <strong>of</strong> weak forms <strong>of</strong><br />
pronouns leads to a number <strong>of</strong> alternative phonetic realizations <strong>of</strong> word<br />
sequences that may be quite distant from their written forms, as in:<br />
(45) Ik heb het hem (gezegd) '(lit.) I have it him told' ('I told it to him')<br />
[ikhcpatam], [ikheptam], [ikepotam], [ikeptam], fkcpatom], [keptam]<br />
<strong>The</strong> verb form is 'is' can appear in the form /s/, but only after function<br />
words, which suggests that it is to be interpreted as a form <strong>of</strong> contraction in<br />
function-word sequences. 15<br />
(46) Dat is jammer 'That's a pity' [dots], [das]<br />
Jan is ziek 'John's ill' *[jans], [jams]<br />
Hij is ziek 'He's ill'<br />
[hcis]<br />
Zij is rijk 'She's rich'<br />
[zeis]<br />
Contracted forms with /s/ can also undergo further contraction, that is, they<br />
may also exhibit reduction in the preceding function word, as in:<br />
(47) Dat's (jammer) 'That's a shame' [das]<br />
Dit's (lekker) 'This is nice' [dis]<br />
Wat's dat? 'What's that?<br />
[wazdat] or [wastat]<br />
<strong>The</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> consonant deletion (43) takes care <strong>of</strong> these contraction cases as<br />
well. As will be clear again from the data presented here, contraction is a<br />
lexically governed process. For instance, we do not find consonant deletion in<br />
a lexical word:<br />
(48) (De) kat is (ziek) [katis], *[kats], *[kas]<br />
Since contraction is restricted here to pronouns + is, it is possible to list the<br />
contracted forms in the lexicon, although certain phonological generalizations<br />
about the contraction patterns can be made, as shown above.<br />
" Contraction is not possible when there is a movement <strong>of</strong> deletion site in the sequence <strong>of</strong><br />
function words, as in:<br />
(a) Ik weet niet wie zij / is '1 do not know who she is'<br />
in which the sequence ùj is cannot be realized as [zeis]. This suggests sensitivity to the presence <strong>of</strong><br />
traces and also that contraction should not be interpreted as a prosodie rule since prosodie rules are<br />
not sensitive to the presence <strong>of</strong> empty elements in syntactic (surface) structure (Nespor and Vogel<br />
1986)<br />
However, as pointed out in Gussenhoven (1985: 182) contraction is also impossible when the<br />
movement site follows the sequence <strong>of</strong> function words. This point is supported by the fact that in<br />
the English equivalent <strong>of</strong> (a), with SVO word order, contraction <strong>of</strong> she is to she's is also<br />
impossible, although the trace <strong>of</strong> who follows the sequence <strong>of</strong> function words. This matter<br />
therefore deserves further investigation.
ORTHOGRAPHY<br />
9.1. INTRODUCTION<br />
At first sight, it may seem rather strange to deal with the orthography <strong>of</strong> a<br />
language at the end <strong>of</strong> a book on its phonology rather than at the beginning.<br />
<strong>The</strong> reason behind this organization <strong>of</strong> the book is that the orthography <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> cannnot be understood properly without knowledge <strong>of</strong> the phonological<br />
system <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> as described in the preceding chapters. In particular, the<br />
syllable structure <strong>of</strong> words plays a crucial role in the orthographic representations<br />
<strong>of</strong> vowels and consonants. Moreover, <strong>Dutch</strong> does not always represent<br />
the phonetic form <strong>of</strong> words. Instead, some more abstract level <strong>of</strong> phonological<br />
representation is reflected by the spelling, and this more abstract level appears<br />
to be only definable in terms <strong>of</strong> the typology <strong>of</strong> phonological rules developed<br />
in Chapters 4 to 7.<br />
9.2. THE CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN SOUNDS AND LETTERS<br />
<strong>The</strong> first problem for <strong>Dutch</strong> orthography is the lack <strong>of</strong> a sufficient number <strong>of</strong><br />
letters for its sounds. This applies in particular to vowels: there are only five<br />
vowel letters (;', u, e. o, a) for the thirteen <strong>Dutch</strong> vowels, the diphthongs not<br />
included. This has the effect that there is no one-to-one correspondence<br />
between sounds and letters. <strong>The</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> one-to-one correspondence is<br />
increased by the fact that the history <strong>of</strong> words also plays a role in their<br />
spellings. This does not only apply to loan-words that <strong>of</strong>ten keep their original<br />
spelling, but also to native words, the spelling <strong>of</strong> which may reflect an older<br />
stage <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>, as will be illustrated below. <strong>The</strong> historical background <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> orthography is discussed in detail in Booij et al. (1979).<br />
<strong>The</strong> spelling <strong>of</strong> the consonants is more straightforward. Complications only<br />
arise because there are two digraphs, ch for /x/, and ng for /rj/, and because <strong>of</strong><br />
the etymology effect. A survey <strong>of</strong> the spelling <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Dutch</strong> consonants is given<br />
in Table 9.1.<br />
Ambisyllabic consonants, that is, intervocalic consonants occurring after a<br />
short vowel, are spelled as geminates, but digraphs cannot be geminated (this<br />
also applies to vowel digraphs):
182 OK lHOOKAPHY<br />
TABLE 9.1. 'I'he x/>fllinf><br />
<strong>of</strong> 'consonants<br />
Consonant<br />
/f/<br />
/v/<br />
/s/<br />
/Jj/<br />
/3j/<br />
M<br />
/Y/<br />
/P/<br />
/b/<br />
A/<br />
/d/<br />
/k/<br />
/ku/<br />
As/<br />
/m/<br />
/n/<br />
/nj/<br />
/O/<br />
/I/<br />
/r/<br />
/o/<br />
/j/<br />
Spelling<br />
f<br />
v<br />
s<br />
ch<br />
g<br />
P<br />
b<br />
t<br />
d<br />
k<br />
kw<br />
ks<br />
m<br />
n<br />
"J<br />
ng<br />
1<br />
r<br />
w<br />
j<br />
Special cases<br />
ph (/7/ïoenix 'id.')<br />
v (veertig 'forty',<br />
vijftig 'fifty')<br />
c (cent 'id.')<br />
ç (facade 'id.')<br />
se (.scene 'id.')<br />
sch (suffix -isch as in logisch 'logical')<br />
7. (zestig 'sixty', zeventig 'seventy'<br />
ch (chef 'id.')<br />
sh (.v/iilling 'id.')<br />
s (analyse 'analysis', fuse 'phase')<br />
g (horloge 'watch')<br />
j (y'ury 'id.')<br />
gh (yojç/iurt 'id'.)<br />
th (thee 'tea')<br />
ddh (BoeMha 'Buddha')<br />
c (café 'id.')<br />
ch (i/iristen 'Christian')<br />
qu U/m>tient 'id.')<br />
qu (quiz 'id.')<br />
cc (accent 'id.')<br />
x (tari 'id.')<br />
gn (campa^rte 'campaign')<br />
n before velar consonants (ba/ik 'id.')<br />
uw after ie (niewn' 'new') and ee (leeuw 'lion')<br />
i after vowels (moo; 'beautiful')<br />
ij in proper names (Boo/) 'id.')<br />
y (rovaal 'generous')<br />
ill (ta;7/iet 'bankrupt')<br />
(D<br />
kikker /kikar/ 'frog'<br />
jekker /jckar/ 'coat'<br />
hutten /hvtan/ 'huts'<br />
botten /bDtan/ 'bones'<br />
bakker /bukar/ 'baker'
9-2. CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN SOUNDS AND LETTERS 183<br />
but:<br />
lachen /luxon/ 'to laugh'<br />
/.ingen //.irpn/ 'to sing'<br />
<strong>The</strong> spelling <strong>of</strong> short vowels is straightforward (Table 9.2). However, the<br />
spelling <strong>of</strong> long vowels is complicated (Table 9.3). <strong>The</strong> generalization is that<br />
long vowels are spelled as single letters in open syllables (including word-final<br />
position), and as geminates in closed syllables, that is, in syllables in which the<br />
vowel is followed by at least one consonant. However, oe and eu cannot be<br />
geminated because they are digraphs. Moreover, the geminate form <strong>of</strong> / is ic<br />
rather than /;'. In the case <strong>of</strong> /e/, it is also spelled as a geminate ee in word-final<br />
position in order to avoid confusion with the schwa which is spelled as e in that<br />
position. In the case <strong>of</strong>/i/ the geminate spelling ie is used in open syllables as<br />
well, namely in native words.<br />
TABLE 9.2. 'l lic spelling n/' slmrl wntr/.v<br />
Short vowels<br />
/i/<br />
/e/<br />
/Y/<br />
hl<br />
/u/<br />
Vowel Spelling<br />
i<br />
e<br />
u<br />
o<br />
a<br />
Long vowels before a consonantal digraph are spelled as geminates,<br />
although from the phonological point <strong>of</strong> view they may stand in an open<br />
syllable. <strong>The</strong>refore, a word like- \-ooi-hcm /voxom/ 'smart' is spelled with<br />
oo. <strong>The</strong> reason is that before consonantal digraphs a single vowel letter is<br />
interpreted as a short vowel, as pointed out above.<br />
<strong>The</strong> schwa is usually spelled as c. Exceptions are words like monnik 'monk'<br />
and suffixes such as -ig /ay/ where / is used, and -lijk, where ij stand for the<br />
schwa. In the indefinite determiner ecu /on/, the schwa is represented by the<br />
geminate ee. In geographical names such as Dokkiini 'id.' the schwa is spelled<br />
as ;/. Since the schwa patterns with long vowels, we do not find consonantal<br />
geminate letters after letters standing for schwa, as illustrated by the following<br />
words:<br />
(2) bezemen 'to sweep' /bezomon/<br />
monmken 'monks' /mnnokon/<br />
Dokkumcr '<strong>of</strong> Dokkum' /dnkomor/<br />
<strong>The</strong> three diphthongs <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> are spelled as sequences <strong>of</strong> two letters (Table<br />
9.4). Complications arise, because etymology plays a role in their spelling. <strong>The</strong><br />
diphthong /ti/ is spelled as ei when it derives historically from Proto-Germanic<br />
/ui/, and as // when it derives from long /i/. Thus, we get orthographical
184 ORTHOGRAPHY<br />
TABLE 9.3. <strong>The</strong> spelling <strong>of</strong> long vowels<br />
Vowel<br />
Spelling<br />
/i/<br />
i (in open syllables, e.g. liter 'litre')<br />
ie (in closed syllables and in native words, e.g. Piet 'Pete', P/'eter<br />
'Peter')<br />
y (in loan-words, e.g. nrythe 'myth')<br />
ij (only in byzonder 'special')<br />
/y/ u (in open syllables and before /w/, for example, vuren 'fires', «w<br />
'your')<br />
mi (in closed syllables, e.g. v««r 'fire')<br />
/u/<br />
oe<br />
ou (in loan-words, e.g. dowane 'customs')<br />
/e/<br />
e (in open syllables, e.g. beter 'better')<br />
ee (in closed syllables and at the end <strong>of</strong> a (prosodie) word, e.g. beel<br />
'bite', tr<strong>of</strong>ee 'trophy', meewarig 'compassionate')<br />
é (in loan-words, e.g. café 'id.')<br />
er (in loan-words, e.g. diner 'dinner')<br />
ai (in loan-words, e.g. container 'id.')<br />
ae (in loan-words, e.g. /4esopus 'id.')<br />
M<br />
eu<br />
oe (in loan-words, e.g. «edeem 'oedema')<br />
lol<br />
o (in open syllables)<br />
00 (in closed syllables)<br />
eau (in loan-words, e.g. bureau 'desk')<br />
01 (in geographical names, e.g. O/rschot 'id.')<br />
au (in loan-words, e.g. auto 'car')<br />
/a/<br />
a (in open syllables)<br />
aa (in closed syllables)<br />
minimal pairs like leiden 'to lead' versus lijden 'to suffer'. <strong>The</strong> same applies to<br />
the diphthong /ou/ which is spelled as ou when it derives from the sequence<br />
/ol/, and ou or au otherwise. Sometimes, the <strong>of</strong>f-glide [u] at the end <strong>of</strong> the<br />
diphthong is also represented in the spelling.<br />
<strong>The</strong> consequence <strong>of</strong> this system is that many orthographical forms have to<br />
be memorized by the writer <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> since for many words, their orthographic<br />
form is not predictable from their phonological form.<br />
Sequences <strong>of</strong> vowel letters may cause problems as to their proper interpretation.<br />
For instance, the sequence ei occurs in both gein /yein/ 'fun', where it<br />
stands for a diphthong, and in geind /yaind/ 'collected', where it stands for the<br />
sequence schwa + /!/. <strong>The</strong>refore, <strong>Dutch</strong> spelling uses diaeresis, two dots above<br />
a vowel letter, to indicate the proper interpretation, as in gein versus geïnd.<br />
Another example is reëel /reel/ 'real' versus reeën /rean/ 'deer' (pi.) (cf.<br />
Wester 1985 for detailed discussion <strong>of</strong> the diaraesis system). A related<br />
principle concerns the spelling <strong>of</strong> /i/ before schwa: when /i/ is spelled as ie
9-3- DEGREES OF ABSTRACTNESS IN SPELLING 185<br />
TABLE 9.4. <strong>The</strong> spelling <strong>of</strong> diphthongs<br />
Diphthong<br />
lt\l<br />
/ou/<br />
/cey/<br />
Spelling<br />
ei (e.g. ei 'egg')<br />
ij (e.g. //' 'water')<br />
ou (e.g. no« 'now')<br />
au (e.g. au 'ouch!')<br />
ouw (e.g., gouw 'province')<br />
auw (e.g., nauw 'narrow')<br />
ui (e.g. ui 'onion')<br />
eui (in loan-words like fautfwil 'armchair')<br />
eu (e.g. in neuron 'id.')<br />
in word-final position, and does not bear word stress, it is reduced to i. Thus we<br />
get the following difference:<br />
(3) genie 'genius' genieën (pi.)<br />
versus<br />
olie 'oil' oliën (pi.)<br />
A final complication is the use <strong>of</strong> the diacritic '. This diacritic is used to<br />
represent the genitive suffix /s/ after a stem ending in s. Thus we get:<br />
(4) Jans boek 'Jan's book' (= the book <strong>of</strong> Jan)<br />
versus<br />
Jans' boek 'Jans's book' (= the book <strong>of</strong> Jans)<br />
When the plural suffix /s/ is added to a word ending in a single vowel letter, the<br />
corresponding letter s is preceded by the diacritic ' in order to guarantee the<br />
correct phonetic interpretation <strong>of</strong> the vowel letter as standing for a long vowel:<br />
kano's 'canoes', pyjama's 'pyjamas', rabbi's 'id.', reçus 'receipts'.<br />
9.3. DEGREES OF ABSTRACTNESS IN SPELLING<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> orthography abstracts away from the effects <strong>of</strong> certain phonological<br />
rules. For instance, the spelling <strong>of</strong> the word hond 'dog' represents the underlying<br />
form /hond/ instead <strong>of</strong> the phonetic form [hont]. Traditionally, this kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> abstractness is described as the 'principle <strong>of</strong> uniformity' which says that<br />
morphemes should always have the same orthographical form. However, as we<br />
will see below, this principle is not applied consistently in <strong>Dutch</strong> orthography.<br />
Crucial for a proper characterization <strong>of</strong> the degree <strong>of</strong> abstractness <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
spelling is the rule typology as presented in the preceding chapters (cf. Booij<br />
1987ft). <strong>The</strong> first generalizations are: (a) the effects <strong>of</strong> the rules <strong>of</strong> connected<br />
speech including those <strong>of</strong> voice assimilation are never represented in the<br />
spelling; (b) the effects <strong>of</strong> the morpholexical rules <strong>of</strong> word phonology are<br />
always represented in the spelling.
186 ORTHOGRAPHY<br />
For instance, <strong>Dutch</strong> spelling abstracts away from the effects <strong>of</strong> the rules <strong>of</strong><br />
Regressive and Progressive Voice Assimilation, whether they apply in compounds<br />
or in phrases. Also, the insertion <strong>of</strong> schwa in coda clusters is never<br />
represented. On the other hand, the allomorphy <strong>of</strong> the diminutive suffix is<br />
always represented in <strong>Dutch</strong> spelling. This makes sense since there are<br />
sometimes two allomorphs, as in the case <strong>of</strong> bloempje 'little flower' versus<br />
bloemetje 'bunch <strong>of</strong> flowers'. In other words, by representing the effects <strong>of</strong><br />
morpholexical rules in the spelling, it is guaranteed that the phonological form<br />
<strong>of</strong> a word can be recovered from its orthographical form.<br />
As far as the effects <strong>of</strong> the P-rules <strong>of</strong> word phonology are concerned, things<br />
are more complicated because these effects are partially represented in the<br />
spelling.<br />
<strong>The</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> Final De voicing are only represented orthographical ly for<br />
underlying /z/ and /v/, that is, they are spelled as s and ƒ respectively when<br />
devoiced. In the case <strong>of</strong>/b/, /d/ and /y/ it is always the underlying form that is<br />
spelled:<br />
(5) hl dief/div/[dif]—dieven [divan] 'thief/thieves'<br />
/z/ kaas /kaz/ |kas|—kazen |kazan] 'cheese/cheeses'<br />
/b/ tob /tob/ [top]—tobben [tsban] 'to toil' (l pers. sg./pl.)<br />
/d/ zaad /zad/ [zat)—zaden [zadan] 'seed/seeds'<br />
/y/ vlag /vldv/ |vlux|—vlaggen [vluyan] 'flag/flags'<br />
A related complication is that /v/ and /z/ are even spelled as .v and / in pasttense<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> verbs with a voiced fricative in stem-final position, although<br />
these fricatives are always voiced in that position:<br />
(6) beefde /bev+da/ [bevda] 'shivered' (sg.)<br />
raasde /ra/.+da/ (razdoj 'raged' (sg.)<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> Nasal Assimilation, its effect on the place <strong>of</strong> articulation <strong>of</strong><br />
nasal consonants is not represented for the palatal and the velar nasal, but it is<br />
represented for the bilabial nasal:<br />
(7) [m] damp [dump) 'id.'<br />
versus<br />
[n] Spanje [spanjDJ 'Spain', [rjl bank [bunk] 'id.'<br />
<strong>The</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> the rule <strong>of</strong> Degemination are not represented in the spelling,<br />
except when we would get a geminate consonant at the end <strong>of</strong> a (prosodie)<br />
word. Compare:<br />
(8) voedde /vud+da/ |vuda] 'fed' (pasi)<br />
achtte /uxt+ta/ [axtoj 'considered' (past)<br />
wordt /uord+t/ [uDrt| 'becomes'<br />
versus<br />
eet /et+t/ [etj 'eats'<br />
gevoed /ya+vud+d/ lyovut] 'fed' (part.)<br />
(iets) vies /vi/,+s/ |vis| '(something) dirty'
9-4- SPELLING AND HIGHER-ORDER LINGUISTIC STRUCTURE 187<br />
In the last example, the /z/ is devoiced, and hence spelled as .v. This would give<br />
rise to the letter sequence ss, which is subsequently subject to degemination in<br />
the orthographical sense. On the other hand, the sequence dt is kept, although it<br />
is also subject to degemination in the phonological sense, and realized as [t],<br />
because <strong>Dutch</strong> orthography does not represent the effect <strong>of</strong> Final Devoicing on<br />
/d/. In other words, -dt represents the underlying form <strong>of</strong> the phonological<br />
derivation.<br />
As far as the hiatus rules <strong>of</strong> word phonology are concerned, a difference has<br />
to be made between Prevocalic Schwa Deletion and Homorganic Glide Insertion.<br />
<strong>The</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> the first rule are always represented in spelling, the effects<br />
<strong>of</strong> the second rule never. We do find intervocalic glides spelled in words like<br />
koi'ien [kujan] 'cows' and vlooien (vlojanj 'fleas', but this is precisely because<br />
these glides are unpredictable, the predictable glide in these cases being the<br />
[v]. Table 9.5 summarizes the way in which the effects <strong>of</strong> the P-rules <strong>of</strong> word<br />
phonology are represented orthographically:<br />
TABLE 9.5. .Vnnrv <strong>of</strong> orthographical representation <strong>of</strong> P-rule<br />
effects<br />
P-rule Effect represented Effect not represented<br />
Final Devoicing for /v, z/ for /b, d, y/<br />
Laryngeal Spreading<br />
always<br />
Nasal Assimilation for [m| for Iji.rj]<br />
Degemination word-linal position word-internal position<br />
Prevocalic Schwa Deletion always<br />
Homorganic Glide Insertion<br />
always<br />
9.4. SPELLING AND HIGHER-ORDER LINGUISTIC STRUCTURE<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> orthography also provides syntactic and semantic information. Capital<br />
letters mark the beginning <strong>of</strong> sentences and proper names. Punctuation is used<br />
to mark the boundaries between certain syntactic constituents (e.g. clauses and<br />
appositional and parenthetical constituents), and spacing is used to mark word<br />
boundaries. Compounds are always written as one word. That is, the fact that<br />
compounds are one word from the grammatical point <strong>of</strong> view is represented in<br />
the spelling. This is different from English where many compounds are spelled<br />
with word-internal spaces. This means that in English spelling, spacing <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
reflects prosodie structure rather than grammatical structure (recall that compounds<br />
consist <strong>of</strong> two or more prosodie words). However, there is also a<br />
tendency among <strong>Dutch</strong> writers to write compounds with internal spaces<br />
between the prosodie words.<br />
Hyphenation, the use <strong>of</strong> hyphens in word-splitting, on the other hand, is<br />
based on the prosodie structure <strong>of</strong> words, not on their morphological structure
l88<br />
ORTHOGRAPHY<br />
(as is the case in English) as is illustrated by the hyphenation <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
morphemic and its <strong>Dutch</strong> counterpart:<br />
(9) English: morphem-ic<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong>: mor-femisch or morfe-misch<br />
That is, in <strong>Dutch</strong> the hyphen has to coincide with a syllable boundary. In the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> consonantal geminates and consonantal digraphs after short vowels the<br />
hyphen is inserted in the middle <strong>of</strong> the sequence, except for the digraph ch:<br />
(10) baker ba-ker 'nurse'<br />
bakker bak-ker 'baker'<br />
zanger zan-ger 'singer'<br />
lachen la-chen 'to laugh'<br />
In sum, the spelling conventions <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> illustrate that orthography<br />
represents a lot more than just the spoken forms <strong>of</strong> words.
REFERENCES<br />
ABBREVIATIONS<br />
CLS<br />
IULC<br />
J L<br />
JoP<br />
LB<br />
Lg.<br />
LI<br />
LIN<br />
NLLT<br />
Ntg.<br />
Ph.<br />
Sp.<br />
YM<br />
Papers from the nth Regional Meeting <strong>of</strong> the Chicago Linguistic Society<br />
Indiana University Linguistics Club<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Linguistics<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Phonetics<br />
Leuvense Bijdragen<br />
Language<br />
Linguistic Inquiry<br />
Linguistics in the Netherlands<br />
Natural Language and Linguistic <strong>The</strong>ory<br />
De Nieuwe Taalgids<br />
<strong>Phonology</strong> (Yearbook)<br />
Spektator, tijdschrift voor Neerlandistiek<br />
Yearbook <strong>of</strong> Morphology, edited by Geert Booij and Jaap van Marie<br />
ANDERSON, J. (1986), '<strong>The</strong> English Prosody /h/', in D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek (eds.),<br />
Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries (Berlin: Mouton de<br />
Gruyter), 799-809.<br />
ANDERSON, S. R. (1974), <strong>The</strong> Organisation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> (New York: Academic Press).<br />
— (1979), 'Notes on the Development <strong>of</strong> Phonological <strong>The</strong>ory', in E. Fischer-<br />
J0rgensen, J. Rischel, and N. Thorsen (eds.), Proceedings <strong>of</strong> the 9th Int. Congress <strong>of</strong><br />
Phonetic Sciences, Copenhagen, 1979 (Copenhagen: Institute <strong>of</strong> General Linguistics),<br />
133-42.<br />
ARCHANGELI, D. (1984), Underspecification in Yawelmani <strong>Phonology</strong> and Morphology,<br />
MIT Ph. D. dissertation (reprinted New York: Garland Press 1988).<br />
— (1991), 'Syllabification and Prosodie Templates in Yawelmani', NLLT 9:<br />
231-84.<br />
ARONOFF, M. (1976), Word Formation in Generative Grammar (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT<br />
Press).<br />
BACKHUYS, K.-J. (1989), 'Adjectival Compounds in <strong>Dutch</strong>', in H. Bennis and A. van<br />
Kemenade (eds.), LIN 1989 (Dordrecht: Foris), 1-10.<br />
BECKMAN, M. E. (1986), Stress and Non-stress Accent (Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
— and PIERREHUMBERT, J. (1986), 'Intonational Structure in English and Japanese',<br />
Ph., 3: 255-309.<br />
BERENDSEN, E. (1983), 'Final Devoicing, Assimilation, and Subject Clitics in <strong>Dutch</strong>',<br />
in H. Bennis and W. U. S. van Lessen Kloeke (eds.), LIN 1983 (Dordrecht: Foris),<br />
21-30.<br />
- (1986), <strong>The</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> Cliticization (Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
— and Os, E. DEN (1987), 'Glide Insertion: Domains, Speech Rate and Phonetic<br />
Prominence', in F. Beukema and P. Coopmans (eds.), LIN 1987 (Dordrecht: Foris),<br />
13-20.
ICO<br />
REFERENCES<br />
BERENDSEN, .E. and ZONNEVELD, W. (1984), 'Nederlandse schwa-invoeging op z'n<br />
Deens', Sp., 14: 166-9.<br />
BERG, B. VAN DEN (1958), Foniek van het Nederlands (Den Haag: Van Goor Zonen).<br />
1470), 'Het woordaccent van afleidingen met het prefix on-', Ntg. Van<br />
Haeringen-issue, 1-18.<br />
BERG, R. VAN DEN, GUSSENHOVEN, C., and RIETVELD, T. (1992), 'Downstep in <strong>Dutch</strong>:<br />
Implications for a Model', in Dogherty and Ladd (1992), 335-58.<br />
BtxMj, G. E. (1977), <strong>Dutch</strong> Morphology. A Study <strong>of</strong> Word Formation in Generative<br />
Grammar (Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
(1980), 'De onderliggende vorm van de velaire nasaal', LB, 69. 1-10.<br />
(I981«), Generatieve fonologie van hel Nederlands (Utrecht/Antwerpen: Het<br />
Spectrum).<br />
(1981/)), 'Rule Ordering, Rule Application and the Organization <strong>of</strong> Grammars',<br />
in Dressier et al. (1981), 45-56.<br />
(1982«), 'Lexicale fonologie en de organisatie van de morfologische component',<br />
Sp., 12: 169-88; English translation in E. Gussmann (ed.), Kulcx und the<br />
Lexicon (Lublin: Catholic University <strong>of</strong> Lublin, 1987), 43-65.<br />
(1982ft), 'Fonologische en fonetische aspecten van klinkerreductie', Sp., 11:<br />
295-301.<br />
— (1982r), Hiërarchische fonologie. Inaugural lecture (Amsterdam: Vrije<br />
Universiteit).<br />
(1983), 'Principles and Parameters in Prosodie <strong>Phonology</strong>', Linguistics, 21:<br />
249-80.<br />
(1984), 'Syllabestructuur en verkleinwoordvorming in het Nederlands', Glot, 7:<br />
207-26.<br />
— (1985a), 'Coordination Reduction in Complex Words: A Case for Prosodie<br />
<strong>Phonology</strong>', in Van der Hulst and Smith (1985), 143-60.<br />
(1985ft), 'Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong>, Final Devoicing, and Subject Pronouns in<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong>', in H. Bennis and F. Beukema (eds.), LIN 1985 (Dordrecht: Foris), 21-6.<br />
(1986), 'Form and Meaning in Morphology: <strong>The</strong> Case <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> "Agent<br />
Nouns" ', Linguistics, 24: 503-17.<br />
( 1987«), 'Clitisatie in het Nederlands', Sp.. 16: 219-28.<br />
(1987/7), '<strong>The</strong> Reflection <strong>of</strong> Linguistic Structure in <strong>Dutch</strong> Spelling', in Ph. A.<br />
Luelsdorff (ed.), Orthography and <strong>Phonology</strong> (Amsterdam: Benjamins), 215-24.<br />
(1988«), 'Polysemie en polyfunctionaliteit bij de-nominale woordvorming'.<br />
Sp., 17: 268-76.<br />
(1988ft), 'On the Relation between Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong> and Prosodie <strong>Phonology</strong>',<br />
in P. M. Bertinetto and M. Loporcaro (eds.), Certamen Phonologicum<br />
(Torino: Sellier), 63-76.<br />
-(1988e), 'Review <strong>of</strong> Nespor and Vogel ( 1986)',.//., 24: 515-25.<br />
- ( I989a), 'On the Representation <strong>of</strong> Diphthongs in Frisian', JL, 25: 319-32.<br />
(1989ft), 'Complex Verbs and the Level Ordering Hypothesis', YM<br />
(Dordrecht: Foris), 21-30.<br />
(1990a), '<strong>The</strong> Relation between Morphology and Syntax: Separable Complex<br />
Verbs in <strong>Dutch</strong>', YM 1990, (Dordrecht: Foris), 45-63.<br />
(1990ft), '<strong>Dutch</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> and Morphology', in F. Aerts and Th. van Els<br />
(eds.), <strong>Dutch</strong> LinguistK .v (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press), 38-49.
REFERENCES<br />
ICI<br />
- (1992a), 'Review <strong>of</strong> Inkelas and Zec (1990)'. Ph., 9: 145-52.<br />
— (1992/j), 'Compounding in <strong>Dutch</strong>', Rivisla ai Linguistica, 4: 37-59.<br />
— (1992e), 'Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong> and Prosodie <strong>Phonology</strong>', in Dressler et al.<br />
(1992), 49-62.<br />
— (1993), 'Against Coronal Undcrspecification: <strong>The</strong> Case <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>', in H.<br />
Demeersseman and Th. de Jong (eds.), Jaarboek Corpusgebaseerde Woordanalyse<br />
1993 (Amsterdam: Vakgroep Taalkunde, Vrije Universiteit), 11-20.<br />
— HAMANS, C., VERHOEVEN, G., BALK, F., and VAN MINNEN, C. M. (1979), Spelling<br />
(Groningen: Wolters-Noordh<strong>of</strong>f).<br />
and LIEBER, R. (1993), 'On the Simultaneity <strong>of</strong> Morphological and Prosodie<br />
Structure', in S. Hargus and E. Kaisse (eds.). Studies in Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong> (San<br />
Diego: Academic Press), 23-44.<br />
and RUBACH, J. (1984), 'Morphological and Prosodie Domains in Lexical<br />
<strong>Phonology</strong>', Ph., 1: 1-28.<br />
— (1987), 'Postcyclic versus Postlexical Rules in Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong>'. /./,<br />
18: 1-44.<br />
- (1991), 'Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong>', in Bright (1991), ii, 293-6.<br />
BRIGHT, W. (ed.) (1991), International Encvclopedia <strong>of</strong> Linguistics, 4 vols. (New York:<br />
Oxford University Press).<br />
BROKCKE, M. VAN DEN, HEUVEN, V. VAN, and ZONNEVELD, W. (eds.) (1983), Sound<br />
Strut-lures. Studies for Antonic Cohen (Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
BROSELOW, E. ( 1991 ), '<strong>The</strong> Structure <strong>of</strong> Fricative-Stop Onsets', Department <strong>of</strong> Linguistics,<br />
SUNY at Stony Brook, MS.<br />
— (1992), 'Parametric Variation in Arabic Dialect <strong>Phonology</strong>', in E. Broselow, M.<br />
Eid, and J. J. McCarthy (eds.). Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics IV (Amsterdam:<br />
Benjamins), 7-45.<br />
BROWMAN, Ch., and GOLDSTEIN, L. (1990), 'Tiers in Articulatory <strong>Phonology</strong>, with some<br />
Implications for Casual Speech', in Kingston and Beekman (1990), 341-76.<br />
CAIRNS, Ch. (1988), 'Phonotactics, markedness, and lexical representations', Ph.. 5:<br />
209-36.<br />
CAMMKNCJA, J. and REENEN, P. T. VAN (1980), 'Review <strong>of</strong> Trommelen and Zonneveld<br />
1979, G/wr, 3: 183-9.<br />
CARSTAIRS, A. (1988), 'Some Implications <strong>of</strong> Phonologically Conditioned Suppletion',<br />
YM 1988 (Dordrecht: Foris), 67-94.<br />
CHOMSKY, N. (1986), Barriers (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press).<br />
- and HALLE, M. (1968), <strong>The</strong> Sound Pattern <strong>of</strong> English (New York: Harper &<br />
Row).<br />
CLEMENTS, G. N. (1985), '<strong>The</strong> Geometry <strong>of</strong> Phonological Features', Ph., 2: 225-52.<br />
( 1989), 'On the Representation <strong>of</strong> Vowel Height', Department <strong>of</strong> Linguistics,<br />
Cornell University, MS.<br />
— (1990), '<strong>The</strong> Role <strong>of</strong> the Sonority Cycle in Core Syllabification', in Kingston<br />
and Beekman (1990), 283-333.<br />
and HIIMK, E. V. (1993), '<strong>The</strong> Internal Orgam/ation <strong>of</strong> Speech Sounds', CRNS,<br />
Paris and Department <strong>of</strong> Linguistics, Ohio State University MS.<br />
— and KKYSER, S. J. (1983), CV <strong>Phonology</strong>. A Generative <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> the S\lUihle<br />
(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press).
192 REFERENCES<br />
COHEN, A. (1958), 'Het Nederlands diminutiefsuffix, een morfonologische proeve',<br />
Ntg., 51:40-5.<br />
— and 'T HART, J. (1967), 'On the Anatomy <strong>of</strong> Intonation', Lingua, 19: 177-92.<br />
— EBELING, C. L., FOKKEMA, K., and HOLK, A. F. G. VAN (1959), Fonologie van het<br />
Nederlands en hel Fries, 2nd edn. ('s Gravenhage: Martinus Nijh<strong>of</strong>f [1961]).<br />
COHN, A. C. (1989), 'Stress in Indonesian and Bracketing Paradoxes',NLLT, 7: 167-216.<br />
COLLIER, R. (1989), 'On the <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> Intonation', in F. J. Heyvaert and F.<br />
Steurs (eds.), Worlds behind Words (Leuven: Leuven University Press), 245-60.<br />
— and 'T HART, J. (1981), Cursus Nederlandse intonatie (Leuven: Acco).<br />
COLLINS, B., and MEES, I. (1981), <strong>The</strong> Sounds <strong>of</strong> English and <strong>Dutch</strong> (Leiden:<br />
Universitaire Pers).<br />
CoMBRiNK, J. G. H., and DE STADLER, L. G. (1987), Afrikaanse Fonologie (Johannesburg:<br />
Macmillan).<br />
DAVIS, S. (1991), 'Coronals and the Phonotactics <strong>of</strong> Non-adjacent Consonants in<br />
English', in Paradis and Prunet (1991), 49-60.<br />
DEBROCK, M. (1978), 'Is the Fortis-Lenis Feature Really Redundant in <strong>Dutch</strong>?', LB, 67:<br />
457-72.<br />
DEKEYSER, X. 1978. 'Some Considerations on Voicing with Special Reference to<br />
Spirants in English and <strong>Dutch</strong>', in J. Fisiak (ed.). Recent Development in Historical<br />
<strong>Phonology</strong> (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter), 99-122.<br />
DOGHERTY, G., and LADD, D. R. (eds.) (1992), Papers in Laboratory <strong>Phonology</strong> II.<br />
Gesture, Segment, Prosody (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).<br />
DRESSLER, W. U. (1974), 'Methodisches zu Allegro-regeln', in W. U. Dressler and F.<br />
Mareä (eds.), Phonologica 1972 (München: Fink Verlag), 219-34.<br />
- (1977), 'Phono-morphological Dissimilation', in Dressler et al. (1977), 41-8.<br />
- LUSCHÜTZKY, H., PFEIFFER, O. E., and RENNISON, J. R. (1992), Phonologica 1988<br />
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).<br />
PFEIFFER, O. E., and HEROK, T. (eds.) (1977), Phonologica I97f> (Innsbruck:<br />
Institut für Sprachwissenschaft).<br />
RENNISON, J. R., and DOGIL, G. (eds.) (1981), Phonologica 19X0 (Innsbruck:<br />
Institut für Sprachwissenschaft).<br />
EEFTING, W. Z. F. (1991), '<strong>The</strong> Effect <strong>of</strong> "Information Value" and "Accentuation" on<br />
the Duration <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> Words, Syllables, Segments', Journal <strong>of</strong> the Acoustical Society<br />
<strong>of</strong> America, 89: 412-24.<br />
EIJKMAN, L. P. H. (1955), Phonetiek van het Nederlands (Haarlem: De Erven Bohn).<br />
EWEN, C. J. (197H), '<strong>The</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Diminutive in <strong>Dutch</strong>: A Dependency<br />
Account', Lingua, 45: 141-73.<br />
— (1982), '<strong>The</strong> Internal Structure <strong>of</strong> Complex Segments', in Van der Hulst and<br />
Smith (1982), 27-68.<br />
FIDELHOLTZ, J. (1975), 'Word Frequency and Vowel Reduction', CLS, II: 200-13.<br />
GOLDSMITH, J. (1990), Autoxegmental and Metrical Phonologv (Oxford: Basil<br />
Blackwell).<br />
GUSSENHOVEN, C. (1978)i 'Het Nederlandse diminutief-suffix: schwa-insertie nader<br />
bekeken', Ntg., 71: 206-11.<br />
- (1980), 'Review' <strong>of</strong> Trommelen and Zonneveld (1979), Gramma, 4: 174-83.<br />
-(I983a), 'Stress Shift and the Nucleus', Linguistics, 21: 303-39; repr. in<br />
Gussenhoven (1984), 291-332.
REFERENCES<br />
IÇ3<br />
- (1983/J), 'Stress Shift as a Rhetorical Device', Linguistics, 21: 603-19; repr. in<br />
Gussenhoven (1984), 332^18.<br />
— (1984), On the Grammar and Semantics <strong>of</strong> Sentence Accents (Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
- (1985), 'Over de fonologie van Nederlandse clitica', Sp., 15: 180-200.<br />
(1988), 'Adequacy in Intonational Analysis', in Van der Hulst and Smith<br />
(1988), 95-122.<br />
(1991), 'Tone Segments in the Intonation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>', in Shannon and Snapper<br />
(1991), 139-55.'<br />
(1992a), 'Sentence Accents and Argument Structure', in I. G. Roca (ed.),<br />
<strong>The</strong>matic Structure, its Role in Grammar (Berlin: Foris), 79-106.<br />
— (1992/j), 'Intonational Phrasing and the Prosodie Hierarchy', in Dressier et al.<br />
(1992), 89-100.<br />
(1992c), 'Illustrations <strong>of</strong> the IPA: <strong>Dutch</strong> ', Journal <strong>of</strong> the International Phonetic<br />
Association, 22: 45-7.<br />
and BROEDERS, A. (1976), <strong>The</strong> Pronunciation <strong>of</strong> English. A Course for <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
Learners (Groningen: Wolters-Noordh<strong>of</strong>-Longman).<br />
and BRKMMLK, R. H. ( 1983), 'Voiced Fricatives in <strong>Dutch</strong>: Sources and Presentday<br />
Usage', North Western European Language Evolution, 2: 55-71.<br />
and RIETVELD, A. C. M. (1992), 'Intonation Contours, Prosodie Structure, and<br />
Preboundary Lengthening', JoP, 20: 283-303.<br />
GUSSMANN, E. (1992), 'Resyllabification and Delinking: <strong>The</strong> Case <strong>of</strong> Polish Voicing',<br />
LI, 23: 29-56.<br />
GUY, G. R. (1980), 'Variation in the Group and the Individual: <strong>The</strong> Case <strong>of</strong> Final Stop<br />
Deletion', in Labov (1980), 1-36.<br />
HAAS, W. DE (1985), 'Ritmische accentverschuiviing in samenstellende afleidingen in<br />
het Nederlands', Glot, 8: 129-58.<br />
— (1986), 'Partial Syllabification and Schwa Epenthesis in <strong>Dutch</strong>', Gramma, 10:<br />
143-62.<br />
- (1991), 'De notie "stress minimalisatie" en klemtoonaantrekking', Sp., 20:<br />
245-72.<br />
HAERINGEN, C. B. VAN (1958), 'De plaats van de ie, oe en uu in het Nederlandse<br />
klinkerstelsel', repr. in id., Gramarie (Assen: Van Gorcum), 1962, 280-7.<br />
— (1955), 'Is tat juist, op tie manier?', Taal en Tongval, repr. in id., Gramarie<br />
(Assen: Van Gorcum, 1962), 207-16.<br />
HAI.L, T. A. (1989), 'Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong> and the Distinction <strong>of</strong> German (ç] and [x]', Ph.,<br />
6: 1-18.<br />
— ( 1992), Syllable Structure and Syllahle-related Processes in German (Tübingen:<br />
Niemeyer).<br />
(1993), 'On Coronal Underspecification', in H. van der Hulst and J. van de<br />
Weijer (eds.), Proceedings <strong>of</strong> the First Holland Institute <strong>of</strong> Generative Linguistics<br />
<strong>Phonology</strong> Conference (Leiden: Holland Institute <strong>of</strong> Generative Linguistics, forthcoming).<br />
HALLE, M. (1991), 'Phonological Features', in Bright (1991) iii, 207-11.<br />
— and CLEMENTS, G. N. (1983), Problem Book in <strong>Phonology</strong> (Cambridge, Mass.:<br />
MIT Press).<br />
— and KENSTOWIC/, M. (1991), '<strong>The</strong> Free Element Condition and Cyclic versus<br />
Non-cyclic Stress', LI, 22: 457-501.
194 REFERENCES<br />
HALLE, M. and LADEFOGED, P. (1988), 'Some Major Features <strong>of</strong> the International<br />
Phonetic Alphabet', Lg., 64: 577-82.<br />
— and VERGNAUD, J.-R. (1987), An Ksxay un Stress (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT<br />
Press).<br />
HARCIUS, S. (1988), <strong>The</strong> Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> Sekani (New York: Garland).<br />
HARRIS, J. (1987), 'Non-structure-preserving Rules in Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong>: Southeastern<br />
Bantu harmony', Lingua, 73: 255-92.<br />
— (1989), 'Towards a Lexical Analysis <strong>of</strong> Sound Change in Progress', JL, 25:<br />
35-56.<br />
'T HART, J. (1969), 'Fonetische steunpunten', Nig., 62: 168-74.<br />
- and COHEN, A. (1973), 'Intonation by Rule: A Perceptual Quest ',JoP, 1: 309-27.<br />
— and Con IKK, R. (1975), 'Integrating Different Levels <strong>of</strong> Intonational Analysis'.<br />
JoP, 3: 235-55.<br />
and COHEN, A. (1990), A Perceptual Study <strong>of</strong> Intonation. An E\peri<br />
mental-Phonetic Approach to Speech Melody (Cambridge: Cambridge University<br />
Press).<br />
HAYES, B. (1981), A Metrical <strong>The</strong>or\ <strong>of</strong> Stress Rules (Bloomington, Ind.: IULC; repr.<br />
New York. Garland Press, 1984).<br />
- (1982), 'Extrametricality and English stress', /./, 13: 227-76.<br />
- (1984), '<strong>The</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> Rhythm in English', LI, 15: 33-74.<br />
- (1986), 'Inalterability in CV-<strong>Phonology</strong>', Lg., 62: 321-53.<br />
(1989), 'Compensatory Lengthening in Moraic <strong>Phonology</strong>', LI, 20: 253-306.<br />
(1990), 'Diphthongisation and Coindexing', Ph., 1: 31-72.<br />
(1992), 'Comments on Chapter 10', in Dogherty and Ladd (1992), 280-6.<br />
HEEROMA, K. (1959), 'De plaats van de ie, oe en uu in het Nederlandse klinkersysteem',<br />
Ntg., 52: 297-304.<br />
HIRMANS, B. (1992), 'On the Representation <strong>of</strong> Quasi-long vowels in <strong>Dutch</strong> and<br />
Limburgian', in R. Bok-Bennema and R. van Hout (eds.), LIN 1992 (Amsterdam:<br />
Benjamins), 75-86.<br />
Hi i VEN, V. VAN ( 1986), 'Phonetic Correlates <strong>of</strong> Stress Patterns in <strong>Dutch</strong> (Compound)<br />
Adjectives', in F. Beukema and A. Hulk (eds.), LIN 1986 (Dordrecht: Foris), 79-88.<br />
(1987), 'Stress Patterns in <strong>Dutch</strong> (Compound) Adjectives: Acoustic Measurements<br />
and Perception Data', Phonetica. 44: 1-12.<br />
— and Hoos, A. (1991), 'Hiatus Deletion, Phonological Rule or Phonetic Coarticulation?',<br />
in F. Drijkoningen and A. van Kemenade (eds.), LIN 1991 (Amsterdam:<br />
Benjamins), 61-70.<br />
HOI.KSI.MA, J., and ZONNEVELD, R. VAN (1984), 'Een autusegmentele theorie van hel<br />
Nederlandse woordaccent', Sp., 13: 450-72.<br />
Hooi'iR, J. B. (1972), '<strong>The</strong> Syllable in Generative <strong>Phonology</strong>', Lg., 48: 525-40.<br />
--(1976), An Introduction to Natural (ienerative <strong>Phonology</strong> (New York:<br />
Academic Press).<br />
HULST, H. VAN DER (1980), "On the Formulation <strong>of</strong> Phonological Rules', in S. Daalder<br />
and M. Gerritsen (eds.), LIN 1980 (Amsterdam: North Holland), 10- 19.<br />
— (1984), Syllable Structure ami Stress in <strong>Dutch</strong> (Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
(1985), 'Ambisyllabicity in <strong>Dutch</strong>', in H. Bennis and F. Beukema (eds.), LIN<br />
1985 (Dordrecht: Foris), 57-66.
REFERENCES 195<br />
— and SMITH, N. (eds.) (1982), <strong>The</strong> Structure <strong>of</strong> Phonological Representation*.<br />
(Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
— (eds.) (1985), Advances in Non-linear Phonologv (Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
— (eds.) (1988), Autosegmental Studies in Pilch Accent (Dordrecht:<br />
Foris).<br />
HYMAN, L. 1985. A <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Phonological Weight (Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
INKELAS. S., and ZEC, D. (eds.) (1990), <strong>The</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong>-Syntax Connection (Chicago:<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press).<br />
ITÔ, J. (1986), 'Syllable <strong>The</strong>ory in Prosodie <strong>Phonology</strong>', University <strong>of</strong> Amherst, Mass.<br />
Ph. D. dissertation.<br />
- (1989), 'A Prosodie <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Epenthesis', NLLT 7: 217-60.<br />
— and MKSTER, R. A. (1992), 'Weak Layering and Word Binarity', Linguistics<br />
Research Center, University <strong>of</strong> California at Santa Cruz MS.<br />
IVERSON, G., and SALMONS. J. (1992), '<strong>The</strong> Place <strong>of</strong> Structure Preservation in German<br />
Diminutive Formation', Ph., 9: 137-44.<br />
JACOBS, H., and WEIJER, J. VAN DE ( 1992), 'On the Formal Description <strong>of</strong> Patalisation', in<br />
R. Bok-Bennema and R. van Hout (eds.), LIN 1992 (Amsterdam: Benjamins), 125-<br />
35.<br />
JANSON, T. (1986), 'Cross-linguistic Trends in the Frequency <strong>of</strong> CV Sequences', Ph., 3:<br />
179-95.<br />
JoNGLMUKcii.K, W., and HEUVEN, V. VAN (1991), '<strong>The</strong> Distribution <strong>of</strong> (Word-Initial)<br />
Glottal Slops in <strong>Dutch</strong>', in F. Drijkoningen and A. van Kemenade (eds.), LIN 1991<br />
(Amsterdam: Benjamins), 101-10.<br />
KAGIK, R ( 1989), A Metrical <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Stress and Deslressing in English and <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
(Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
— and Visen, E. (1988), 'Metrical Constituency and Rhythmic Adjustments', Ph.,<br />
5: 21-71.<br />
-and ZONNEVELD, W. (1986), 'Schwa, Syllables and Extrametricality', <strong>The</strong><br />
Linguistic Review, 5: 197-222.<br />
KEATING, P. (1991), 'Coronal places <strong>of</strong> articulation', in Paradis and Prunet (1991), 29-48.<br />
KENSTOWIC/. M.. and RUBACH, J. (1987), '<strong>The</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> Syllabic Nuclei in Slovak',<br />
Lg., 63: 463-97.<br />
KERCKVOORDB, C. VAN (1993), An Introduction to Middle <strong>Dutch</strong> (Berlin: Mouton de<br />
Gruyter).<br />
KINGSTON, J., and BECKMAN, M. E. (eds.) (1990), Papers in Laboratory <strong>Phonology</strong> I<br />
Hctut'cn the Grammar and Physics <strong>of</strong> Speech (Cambridge: Cambridge University<br />
Press).<br />
Kii'ARSKY, P. (1968), 'Linguistic Universals and Linguistic Change', in E. Bach and R.<br />
Harms (eds.), l/niversals in Linguistic <strong>The</strong>ory (London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston),<br />
170-202.<br />
— (1982), 'From Cyclic <strong>Phonology</strong> to Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong>', in Van der Hulst and<br />
Smith (1982), i, 131-75.<br />
- (1985), 'Some Consequences <strong>of</strong> Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong>', Ph., 2: 85-138.<br />
KLAVANS, J. (1985), '<strong>The</strong> Independence <strong>of</strong> Syntax and <strong>Phonology</strong> in Cliticization', Lg.,<br />
61: 95-121.<br />
Km HM u, G. A. T. (1979), 'Paradigmatische invloeden op fonetische processen', in T.<br />
Hoekstra and H. van der Hulst (eds.). Morfologie in Nederland (Clot-special), 51-70.
196 REFERENCES<br />
KOHLER, K. J. (1990), 'Segmental Reduction in Connected Speech in German: Phonological<br />
Facts and Phonetic Explanations', in W. J. Hardcastle and A. Marchai (eds.),<br />
Speech Production and Speech Modelling (Dordrecht: Kluwer), 69-92.<br />
— (1991), '<strong>The</strong> Phonetics/<strong>Phonology</strong> Issue in the Study <strong>of</strong> Articulatory Reduction',<br />
Phonetica, 48: 180-92.<br />
Koou, J. G. (1977), 'Schwa Insertion in <strong>Dutch</strong>: <strong>Phonology</strong> or Morphology?', in Dressier<br />
et at. (1977), 65-70.<br />
— and NIET, M. VAN DER (1985), 'Stress, Stress Shift, and Morphology: <strong>The</strong> Case<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> -haar', in Van der Hulst and Smith (1985), 101-15.<br />
KOOPMANS-VAN BsiNUM, F. J. (1969), 'Nog meer fonetische zekerheden', Ntg., 62:<br />
245-50.<br />
— (1980), Vowel Contrast Reduction. An Acoustic and Perceptual Study <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong><br />
Vowels in Various Speech Conditions (Amsterdam: Academische Pers).<br />
(1982), 'Akoestische en perceptieve aspecten van klinkercontrastreductie en de<br />
roi van de fonologie', Sp., 11: 284-94.<br />
KutERA, H. (1973), 'Language Variability, Rule Interdependence, and the Grammar <strong>of</strong><br />
Czech', LI, 4: 499-521.<br />
LABOV, W. (1972), Sociolinguiltic Patterns (Philadelphia: University <strong>of</strong> Pennsylvania<br />
Press).<br />
— (ed.) (1980), Locating Language in Time and Space (New York: Academic-<br />
Press).<br />
LADD, R. D. (1986), 'Intonational Phrasing: <strong>The</strong> Case for Recursive Prosodie Structure',<br />
Ph., 3: 311^0.<br />
— (1992), 'An Introduction to Intonational <strong>Phonology</strong>', in Dogherty and Ladd<br />
(1992), 321-34.<br />
LADEFOGED, P. (1982), A Course in Phonetics, 2nd edn. (New York: Harcourt, Brace,<br />
Jovanovich).<br />
LAHIRI, A., and EVERS, V. (1991), 'Palatali/.ation and Coronality', in Paradis and Prunet<br />
(1991), 79-100.<br />
— and KOOREMAN, J. (1988), 'Syllable Weight and Quantity in <strong>Dutch</strong>', Papers<br />
from the West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics, 1: 217-28.<br />
LANGEWEG, S. J. (1986), '"Roots", "Words" and the Stress Behaviour <strong>of</strong> Non-native<br />
Words in <strong>Dutch</strong>', in F. Beukema and A. Hulk (eds.), LIN 1986 (Dordrecht: Foris),<br />
151-60.<br />
- (1988), '<strong>The</strong> Stress System <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>', University <strong>of</strong> Leiden Ph. D. dissertation.<br />
LEVIN, J. (1985), 'A Metrical <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Syllabicity', MIT, Ph. D dissertation.<br />
LIBERMAN, M., and PRINCE, A. (1977), 'On Stress and Linguistic Rhythm', LI, 8: 249-336.<br />
LIEBER, R. (1989), 'On Percolation', YM 1989 (Dordrecht: Foris), 95-138.<br />
LINDAU, M. (1978), 'Vowel Features', Lg., 54: 541-63.<br />
LOMBARD:, L. (1991), 'Laryngeal Features and Laryngeal Neutralization', University <strong>of</strong><br />
Massachusetts at Amherst Ph. D. dissertation.<br />
LOOTS, M. (1983), 'Syntax and Assimilation <strong>of</strong> Voice in <strong>Dutch</strong>', in Van den Broecke<br />
Van Heuven, and Zonneveld (1983), 173-82.<br />
MCCARTHY, J. J. (1981), 'A Prosodie <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Non-concatenative Morphology', LI, 12:<br />
373-118.<br />
- (1986), 'OCP-effects: Gemination and Anti-gemination', LI, 17: 207-63.<br />
— (1988), 'Feature Geometry and Dependency: A Review', Phonetica, 43: 84-1 OH.
REFERENCES<br />
IQ7<br />
— and PRINCE, A. (1990), 'Foot and Word in Prosodie Morphology', NLLT, 8:<br />
209-83.<br />
and TAUB, A. (1992), 'Review' <strong>of</strong> Paradis and Prunet (1991), Ph., 9: 363-72.<br />
MALIKOUTI-DRACHMAN, A., and DRACHMAN, G. (1992), 'Greek Clitics and Lexical<br />
<strong>Phonology</strong>', in Dressier et al. (1992), 197-206.<br />
MARLE, J. VAN (1980), '<strong>The</strong> Stress Patterns <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> Simplex Words: A First Approximation',<br />
in Zonneveld el al. (1980), 89-128.<br />
— (1982), 'Een niet-generaliserende analyse van schwa-deletie', Sp., 11: 326-41.<br />
— (1985), On the Paradigmatic Dimension <strong>of</strong> Morphological Creativity<br />
(Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
MARTIN, W. (1968), 'De verd<strong>of</strong>fing van gedekte en ongedekte e in niet-ho<strong>of</strong>dtonige<br />
positie bij Romaanse leenwoorden in het Nederlands', Ntg., 61: 162-81.<br />
MENERT, L. (1988), 'Effects <strong>of</strong> Speech Rate and Experimental Method on Voice<br />
Assimilation in <strong>Dutch</strong>', in P. Coopmans and A. Hulk (eds.), LIN 1988 (Dordrecht:<br />
Foris), 121-7.<br />
MUSTER, A., and ITÔ, J. (1989), 'Feature Predictability and Underspecification: Palatal<br />
Prosody in Japanese Mimetics', Lg., 65: 258-93.<br />
MODEL, J. (1991), Grammatische analyse. Syntactische verschijnselen van het<br />
Nederlands en Engels (Dordrecht: ICG Publications).<br />
MOHANAN, K. P. (1991), 'On the Bases <strong>of</strong> Radical Underspecincation', NLLT, 9:<br />
285-326.<br />
MOULTON, W. G. (1956), 'Syllabic Nuclei and Final Consonant Clusters in German', in<br />
M. Halle (ed.), For Roman Jakobson (<strong>The</strong> Hague: Mouton), 372-81.<br />
— (1962), '<strong>The</strong> Vowels <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong>: Phonetic and Distributional classes'. Lingua,<br />
11: 294-313.<br />
NEUT, A. (1985), 'Clitics in Arboreal <strong>Phonology</strong>', in Van der Hulst and Smith (1985),<br />
179-92.<br />
— (1990), 'Prosodie Structures and Phonetic Findings. <strong>The</strong> Case <strong>of</strong> Equally<br />
Stressed Adjectives', in R. Bok-Bennema and P. Coopmans (eds.), LIN 1990<br />
(Dordrecht: Foris), 113-22.<br />
and HEUVRN, V. VAN (1992), 'Rules and Exceptions in Word Stress', in R. Bok-<br />
Bennema and R. van Hout (eds.), L1N 1992 (Amsterdam: Benjamins), 185-96.<br />
and ZONNEVELD, W. ( 1981 ). 'De aantrekkingskracht van -baar', Clot, 4: 215-28.<br />
NESPOR, M., and VOGEL, I. (1986), Prosodie <strong>Phonology</strong> (Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
NEU, H. (1980), 'Ranking <strong>of</strong> Constraints on /t,d/ Deletion in American English', in<br />
Labov (1980), 37-54.<br />
NEVIS, J. (1988), Finnish Particle Clitics and General Clitic <strong>The</strong>ory (New York:<br />
Garland).<br />
NOLAN, F. (1992), '<strong>The</strong> Descriptive Role <strong>of</strong> Segments: Evidence from Assimilation', in<br />
Dogherty and Ladd (1992), 261-80.<br />
Noon:n(X)M, S. G. (1972), 'Production and Perception <strong>of</strong> Vowel Duration. A Study <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Durational Properties <strong>of</strong> Vowels in <strong>Dutch</strong>', University <strong>of</strong> Utrecht Ph. D. dissertation.<br />
— and COHEN, A. ( 1976), Spreken en verstaan. Een inleiding tot de experimentele<br />
fonetiek, 2nd edn. (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1984).<br />
ODDEN, D. (1990), '<strong>Phonology</strong> and its Interaction with Syntax and Morphology', Studies<br />
in the Linguistic Sciences, 20: 69-105.<br />
(1991), 'Vowel Geometry', Ph., 8: 261-89.
198 REFERENCES<br />
PADGETT, J. (1991), 'Stricture in Feature Geometry', University <strong>of</strong> Massachusetts at<br />
Amherst Ph. D. dissertation.<br />
— (1992), 'Stricture and Nasal Place Assimilation', Linguistics Research Center,<br />
University <strong>of</strong> California at Santa Cruz MS.<br />
PARADIS, C., and PRUNET, J. F. (1989), 'On Coronal Transparency', Ph., 6: 317-48.<br />
— (eds.) (1991), <strong>The</strong> Special Stains oj'Coronals. Internal anil Internal Evidence<br />
(San Diego: Academic Press).<br />
PESETSKY, D. (1985), 'Morphology and Logical Form', LI, 16: 193-246.<br />
POSER, W. J. (1989), '<strong>The</strong> Metrical Foot in Diyari', Ph., 6: 117-48.<br />
— (1990), 'Evidence for Foot Structure in Japanese', Lg., 66: 78-105.<br />
POSTAL, P. M. (1968), Aspect* oj Phonological <strong>The</strong>ory (New York: Harper and Row).<br />
PRINCE, A. (1983), 'Relating to the Grid', LI, 14: 19-100.<br />
PULLEYBLANK, E. G. (1989), '<strong>The</strong> Role <strong>of</strong> Coronal in Articulator Based Features'. ( 7 S,<br />
25: 379-93.<br />
REENEN, P. TH. VAN (1986), '<strong>The</strong> Vocalization <strong>of</strong>/!/ in Standard <strong>Dutch</strong>, a Pilot Study <strong>of</strong><br />
an Ongoing Change', in F. Beukema and A. Hulk (eds.), LIN I9H6, Dordrecht: Foris,<br />
189-98.<br />
RHMSDIJK, H. C. VAN (1978), A Case Study in Syntactic Markedness (Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
RiETVhLu, A. C. M. (1983), 'Syllaben, klemtonen en de automatische detectie van<br />
beklemtoonde syllaben in het Nederlands', Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen,<br />
Ph.D. dissertation.<br />
- and LOMAN, H. G. (1985), '/H/, stemhebbend <strong>of</strong> stemloos'. (Hot. 8: 275-85.<br />
ROCA, I. (1986), 'Secondary Stress and Metrical Rhythm', Ph., 3: 341-70.<br />
—— forthcoming. Generative <strong>Phonology</strong> (London: Routledge).<br />
RUBACH, J., and Boou, G. E. (1985), 'A Grid <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Stress in Polish'. Lingua, 66:<br />
281-319.<br />
- (1990a), 'Syllable Structure Assignment in Polish', Ph., 7: 121-58.<br />
- (1990A), 'Edge <strong>of</strong> Constituent Effects in Polish', NLLT, 8: 427-63.<br />
SADOCK, J. M. (1991), Autoleiical Syntax. A <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Parallel Grammatical Kepir<br />
sentalions (Chicago: Chicago University Press).<br />
SAGEY, E. (1986), '<strong>The</strong> Representation <strong>of</strong> Features and Relations in Non-linear <strong>Phonology</strong>';<br />
MIT Ph.D. dissertation (repr. New York: Garland; 1990).<br />
SAPIR, E. (1917), 'Review' <strong>of</strong> C. C. Uhlenbeck. lit'/ passieve karakter van het verbum<br />
transitivum <strong>of</strong> van het verbum aclionis in de talen van Noord-Amerika', International<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> American Linguistics, 1: 82-6.<br />
Sou IN, B., and STERIADE, D. (1986), 'On Geminates', LI, 17: 691-744.<br />
SCHVII.KI INC,, S. F. (1976), Aspect* <strong>of</strong> English Sentence Sires* (Austin, Tex.: Texas<br />
University Press).<br />
SCHOUTEN, M. E. H. (1981), 'Het verschil tussen hot en hou, een vergeefse speurtocht',<br />
Ntg., 74: 537-46.<br />
SCHULTINK, H. (1964), 'De bouw van nieuwvormingen met her-'. Tijdschrift voor<br />
Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde, 80: 151-84.<br />
- (1979), 'Reacties op "stress clash'", Sp., 8: 195-208.<br />
- (1980), 'Boundaries, word classes and the accentuation <strong>of</strong> derived words in<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong>', in Zonneveld, Van Coetsem, and Robinson (1980), 205-22.<br />
SELKIRK, E. O. (1982), '<strong>The</strong> Syllable', in Van der Hulst and Smith (1982), part II:<br />
337-84.
199<br />
— ( 1984«), 'On the Major Class Features and Syllable <strong>The</strong>ory', in M. Aronott and<br />
R. Oehrle (eds.), Language Sound Structure (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press), 107-36.<br />
— (1984/7), <strong>Phonology</strong> and Synta\. I hi' Relation between Sound and Structure.<br />
Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.<br />
- (1986), 'On Derived Domains in Sentence <strong>Phonology</strong>', Ph., 3: 371-405.<br />
SHANNON, TH. F. ( 1991 ), 'On the Relation between Morphology and Syllable Structure:<br />
Universal Preference Laws in <strong>Dutch</strong>', in Shannon and Snapper (1991), 173-205.<br />
— and SNAPPER, J. P. (eds.) (1991), <strong>The</strong> Berkeley ('(inference on <strong>Dutch</strong> Linguistics<br />
1989 (Lanham, Md.: University Press <strong>of</strong> America).<br />
Sus, I. H. (1985), '<strong>The</strong> Voiced-Voiceless Distinction and Assimilation <strong>of</strong> Voice in<br />
<strong>Dutch</strong>'. Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen, Ph.D. dissertation.<br />
— and COHEN, A. (1969), 'On the Complex Regulating the Voiced-Voiceless<br />
Distinction', Language and Speech, 12: 80-102, 137-55.<br />
and HEIIGTEN, M. VAN (1989), 'Voiced-Voiceless Distinction in <strong>Dutch</strong> Fricatives',<br />
in H. Bcnnis and A. van Kemenade (eds.), LIN 1989 (Dordrecht: Foris),<br />
123-32.<br />
SIOOTWEG, A. (198K), 'Metrical Prominence and Syllable Duration', in P. Coopmans<br />
and A. Hulk (eds.), LIN 1988 (Dordrecht: Foris), 139-48.<br />
SLUIJTER, A. (1992), 'Lexical Stress and Focus Distribution as Determinants <strong>of</strong><br />
Temporal Structure', in R. Bok-Bennema and R. van Hout (eds.), LIN 1992<br />
(Amsterdam: Benjamins), 247-60.<br />
SIIYTKKS, W. A. M. (1992), 'Representing Diphthongs', Katholieke Universiteit<br />
Nijmegen, Ph. D. dissertation.<br />
SMITH, N. (1976), '-Aar', LB, 65: 485-96.<br />
— BOI.OC.NESI, B., LEEUW, F. VAN DER, RUTTEN, J., and Wir. H. DE (1989), 'Apropos<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>Dutch</strong> Vowel System, 21 Years On', in H. Bennis and A. van Kemenade (eds.),<br />
LIN 1989 (Dordrecht: Foris), 133^42.<br />
SPENCER, A. (1991), Morphological <strong>The</strong>ory (Oxford: Blackwell).<br />
STIKIADE, D. (1982), Greek Prosodies and the Nature <strong>of</strong> Syllabification, MIT, Ph.D.<br />
dissertation (repr. New York: Garland Press. 1988).<br />
- (1987), 'Redundant Values'. CLS Parasession, 339-62.<br />
-(1991), 'Syllables', in Bright (1991), iv, 106-11.<br />
SIKI.IKSTKA, N., and (ÏRAAI-, TJ. in (1979), 'Het kenmerk [+kort] bij hoge gespannen<br />
vocalen', Taalkundig Bulletin van liet Nederlands Instituut Groningen, 9: 40-7.<br />
SIUÏTERHEIM, C. F. P. (1978), 'Enkele grepen uit de sjwa-problematiek',G/t>f, 1: 213-34.<br />
TIIKSMA, P. M. (1985), Frisian Reference Grammar (Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
T(K)RN, M. C. VANDEN (1982), 'Tendenzen bij de beregeling van de verbindingsklank in<br />
nominale samenstellingen', Ntg., 75: 24-33, 153-60.<br />
lors, (i. A. J. ( 1974), ' Assimilation <strong>of</strong> Voice in <strong>Dutch</strong>. A Generative Approach', LB 63:<br />
143-51.<br />
TROMMELEN, M. ( 1983). 'Phonological Properties <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Dutch</strong> Velar Nasal', in Van den<br />
Broecke, Van Heuven, and Zonneveld (eds.), 259-69.<br />
(1984), <strong>The</strong> Syllable in <strong>Dutch</strong> (Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
— and ZoMvii viii). W. ( 1979), Inleiding in de generatieve fonologit (Muiderberg:<br />
Coutinho).<br />
( 1987), 'On ie, uu and tie: <strong>Dutch</strong> Vowel Length Re-examined', in G. de
20O<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Haan and W. Zonneveld (eds.), Formal Parameters <strong>of</strong> Generative Grammar, III,<br />
Yearbook 1987 (Dordrecht: ICG Printing), 71-82.<br />
(1989a), Klemtoon en metrische fonologie (Muiderberg: Coutinho).<br />
(19896), 'Stress, Diphthongs, r in <strong>Dutch</strong>', in H. Bennis and A. van<br />
Kemenade (eds.), LIN 1989 (Dordrecht: Foris), 143-52.<br />
VENNEMANN, TH. (1972), 'Rule Inversion', Lingua, 29: 209-42.<br />
VERHOEVEN, G. (1974), 'Onregelmatigheid van klankveranderingen als gevolg van<br />
lexicale geleidelijkheid', Sp., 4: 29-41.<br />
VIJVER, R. F. H. E. VAN DE (1993), 'A Main Stress First Approach to Metrical Stress<br />
Rules', University <strong>of</strong> Leiden MA thesis.<br />
VISCH, E. A. M. (1989), A Metrical <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Rhythmic Stress Phenomena (Dordrecht:<br />
Foris).<br />
VOGEL, I., and SCALISE, S. (1982), 'Secondary Stress in Italian', Lingua, 58: 213-42.<br />
VRIES, J. W. DE (1975), Lexicale morfologie van het werkwoord in modern Nederlands<br />
(Leiden: Universitaire Pers).<br />
et al. (1974), 'De slot-t in consonantclusters te Leiden: een sociolinguistisch<br />
onderzoek'. Forum der Letteren, 15: 235-49.<br />
WANG, W. (1968), 'Vowel Features, Paired Variables and the English Vowel Shift', Lg.,<br />
44: 694-708.<br />
WESTER, J. (1985), 'Language Technology as Linguistics: A Phonological Case Study <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> Spelling', in H. Bennis and F. Beukema (eds.), L1N 1985 (Dordrecht: Foris),<br />
205-12.<br />
WIESE, R. (1996), <strong>The</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong> <strong>of</strong> German (Oxford: Clarendon Press).<br />
WIJK, N. VAN (1939), Phonologie. Een ho<strong>of</strong>dstuk uit de structurele taalwetenschap ('s<br />
Gravenhage: Marti nus Nijh<strong>of</strong>f).<br />
WILLIAMS. E. (1981), 'On the Notions "lexically related" and "head <strong>of</strong> a word'", LI,<br />
12: 245-74.<br />
WISSING, D. P. (1982), Algemene en Afrikaanse generatiewe fonologie (Johannesburg:<br />
Macmillan).<br />
YIP, M. (1991), 'Coronals, Consonant Clusters, and the Coda Condition', in Paradis and<br />
Prunet (1991), 61-78.<br />
ZEC, D. (1988), 'Sonority Constraints on Syllable Structure', Stanford University Ph.D.<br />
dissertation.<br />
— and INKELAS, S. (1990), 'Prosodically Constrained Syntax', in Inkelas and Zee<br />
(1990), 365-78.<br />
ZONNEVELD, R. M. VAN (1985), 'Word Rhythm and the Janus Syllable', in Van der Hulst<br />
and Smith (1985), 133-42.<br />
ZONNEVELD, W. (1978), A Formal <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Exceptions in Generative <strong>Phonology</strong><br />
(Dordrecht: Foris).<br />
— (1983), 'Lexical and Phonological Properties <strong>of</strong> <strong>Dutch</strong> Voicing Assimilation',<br />
in Van den Broecke, Van Heuven, and Zonneveld (1983), 297-312.<br />
and TROMMELEN, M. (1980), 'Egg, Onion, Ouch. On the Representation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Dutch</strong> Diphthongs', in Zonneveld et al. (1980), 265-92.<br />
COETSEM, F. VAN, and ROBINSON, O. W. (eds.) (1980), Studies in <strong>Dutch</strong> <strong>Phonology</strong><br />
(<strong>The</strong> Hague: Nijh<strong>of</strong>f).<br />
ZWAARDEMAKER, H., and EIJKMAN, L. P. H. (1928), Leerboek der Phonetiek (Haarlem: De<br />
Erven Bohn).
REFERENCES 201<br />
ZWART, J. W. (1992), 'Notes on Clitics in <strong>Dutch</strong>', paper presented at the ESF workshop<br />
on clitics, Lund, 22 May 1992.<br />
ZWICKY, A. M. (1972), 'On Casual Speech', CLS, 8: 600-15.<br />
(1977), On Clitics (Bloomington, Ind.: IULC).
INDEX<br />
Afrikaans 2<br />
ambisyllabicity 32. 131, 181<br />
anterior l l<br />
apical l l<br />
appendix 26-9, 49, 60, 121, 127, 128<br />
approxinianl 8, 10. 25, 38, 43<br />
Arabic 98<br />
aspirated K)<br />
bilabial X<br />
bracketing paradox<br />
casual speech 125 6<br />
Chomsky-adjunction 145, 170-73, 177<br />
circumfix 48<br />
clitic 47-9, 165-80<br />
climbing 168<br />
directional 174<br />
special 167<br />
Clitic Group 143, 170 n.<br />
coda 23<br />
constraint 40 3<br />
compensatory lengthening 149<br />
complex segment 39 n., 41, 128<br />
compound 49-52<br />
adjectival 118-19<br />
tonnai 1 16<br />
nominal 115 18<br />
prosodie 59<br />
prepositional 1 19<br />
verbal 117<br />
Compound Stress Rule I 15-23<br />
conjunction reduction 50-2<br />
Consonant Cluster Condition 44-5<br />
constraint:<br />
cross-over I OK<br />
cross-syllabic 44-5<br />
sequential 43-6<br />
pansyllabic 42-3<br />
continuant 10<br />
contoid 10<br />
contour segment 137<br />
contraction 174, 178-80<br />
( 'oronal 11<br />
C V rule 30-1<br />
Czech 132 n.<br />
/d/-deletion 91-2<br />
degemination 68-9, 151, 186<br />
determiner 48. 165-6, 176<br />
diaeresis 184<br />
diminutive 15, 48. 57-8, 69-73, 140, 147,<br />
152, 154. 186<br />
/d/-insertion 74—5<br />
diphthong 5. 7, 18-19, 33-4, 44, 87, 90-1,<br />
106, 131, 167, 183 5<br />
diphthongi/.ation 15. 100<br />
distributed 1 1<br />
Dominance 145<br />
Dorsal 11-12<br />
downstep I 19<br />
/d/-weakening 90-2<br />
Elsewhere Principle 59. 71 n.. 75. 104. 123<br />
enclisis. sec enclitic<br />
enclitic 170-9<br />
English 44, 46, 50 n., 108-10. 124 n.,<br />
130 n., 132 n., 144, 153-4, 180 n.<br />
extrametricality 46 n., 102 105<br />
Extrametricality Rule 102<br />
last speech rule 124, 137<br />
feature:<br />
binary 9<br />
geometry 9 10<br />
laryngeal 10<br />
major class 9<br />
manner 10<br />
monovalent 10 n.<br />
percolation 76, 124<br />
privative 10 n., I 1 n.. 33, 79 n.<br />
supralaryngeal 10-12<br />
Final Devoicing 32-3, 55-7. 59-60. 92-3,<br />
174-5<br />
focus 155-9<br />
foot 98, 101. 134, 143 n.<br />
French 6, 40 n.. 99-100, 103<br />
frequency effect 130<br />
Fricative Voice Assimilation 146-7, 173^4,<br />
177-8<br />
Frisian 2<br />
gapping 50 J<br />
geminate 28 9. 58. 6.3 n.. 182-3, 186<br />
partial 127<br />
German 1-2, 27, 65, 94, 175
204 INDEX<br />
Germanic 99-100, 103-04<br />
glide 13, 33, 66-7<br />
glottal stop insertion 65, 151<br />
grid 98<br />
Hammock Principle 105, 108, 164<br />
hiatus rule 65-8<br />
Homorganic Glide Insertion 65-7, 91, 120,<br />
138, 150-1, 165-6, 178, 187<br />
hyphenation 187-8<br />
Iambic Reversal 162-3<br />
/iAdeletion 138-9<br />
Indonesian 50 n., 72<br />
Intermediate Phrase 144 n.<br />
Intonational Phrase 144-7<br />
intrusive stop 137<br />
Italian 108 n., 170 n.<br />
Japanese 98, 144, 171 n.<br />
Labial 12<br />
labiodental 11<br />
laminai 11<br />
laryngeal 10<br />
Laryngeal Spreading 62-4, 187<br />
lateral 10, II n.<br />
Latin 74, 78, 99, 103^*<br />
Learned Vowel Backing 18, 54, 77<br />
level ordering 124<br />
lexical diffusion 89<br />
Lexical <strong>Phonology</strong> 54<br />
licensing 32-3, 60, 63<br />
parasitic 36 n., 63<br />
linking 127-8<br />
Linking Constraint 32 n., 63 n.<br />
linking phoneme 51, 86<br />
Main Stress Rule 99-105, 109-10, 112-13,<br />
I 15, 120, 124<br />
masking effect 125, 154<br />
Maximal Onset 31<br />
Minimal Rhyme Constraint 25, 26, 31, 94<br />
monitoring 125, 126, 141, 147<br />
Morpheme Structure Condition 34, 43, 45<br />
MP-rule, see morpholexical rule<br />
nasal:<br />
coronal 64-5, 139-^tl, 148-9<br />
velar 35-6, 40, 43^t, 80, 92<br />
Nasal Assimilation 57, 64-5, 71, 78, 147-8,<br />
186<br />
Nasal Deletion 149<br />
native 75-6, 86-93<br />
/n/-deletion 139^1, 148-50, 152, 165, 172<br />
/^-insertion 166, 171, 178<br />
non-native 75-6, 78, 80-6<br />
Noun Phrase Stress Rule 117-18, 123<br />
nucleus 23<br />
Obligatory Contour Principle 14<br />
obstruent 9, 10<br />
onset 23, 26<br />
constraint 35-9<br />
Optimal Grid Principle 99, 102, 105-6, 108,<br />
112, 116-17, 120, 124, 133<br />
Optimal Grid Rule, see Optimal Grid<br />
Principle<br />
palatalization 95, 151-2<br />
past participle 63<br />
past tense 61-2, 91-2<br />
Phonological Phrase 143-6<br />
pitch accent 97<br />
Place Constraint 42<br />
Polish 50 n., 60, 108, 175<br />
prefix 48-51<br />
boundary 30, 145<br />
native 120-3<br />
non-native 119-20<br />
prepositions 119, 122, 177-8<br />
Prevocalic Schwa Deletion 49, 54, 57, 62,<br />
67-8, 145, 150-1, 165-6, 172, 178, 187<br />
proclisis, see proclitic<br />
proclitic 170^t, 177<br />
Progressive Voice Assimilation 59-60<br />
Prosodie Hierarchy 143<br />
prosodie incorporation 170<br />
P-rule, see automatic phonological rule<br />
quantity sensitive, sec syllable weight<br />
Regressive Voice Assimilation 58-61, 146,<br />
176, 186<br />
resyllabification 55-6, 165, 171-2, 174<br />
retiming 137, 139, 142, 149, 154<br />
rhyme 23<br />
constraint 33-5<br />
rule:<br />
allophonic 93-5<br />
automatic phonological 57<br />
cyclic 56-7, 77, 82-3, 109-10<br />
morpholexical 54, 57, 58, 69-93<br />
postlexical 126<br />
typology 185-6<br />
variable 126, 132, 146, 153<br />
Sanskrit 128<br />
schwa 5, 19-20, 24, 26, 46 n., 47-9, 74, 86<br />
-deletion 72, 89, 125-6, 128-30<br />
-epenthesis 124, 127-8<br />
-insertion 71, 84<br />
Schwa Restriction 99<br />
segment structure rule 12<br />
sentence accent 154-61, 166<br />
Sentence Accent Assignment Rule 156-9
separable complex verb 114, 157<br />
Serbo-Croatian 174<br />
sonorant 9-10<br />
Sonority Ranking Hierarchy 25<br />
Sonority Sequencing Generalization 24, 27,<br />
129<br />
Spanish 108<br />
speech rate 125-6<br />
Stray Consonant Adjunction 27 n.<br />
stress 96<br />
grid 98<br />
main 99-104<br />
primary 97<br />
secondary 97-9, 101 n., 105-8<br />
clash 99, 109, 115<br />
Stress Erasure Convention 109, 112-13,<br />
124<br />
Stress Retraction 161-2<br />
Strict Cycle Condition 57<br />
Strict Layer Hypothesis 144-5, 170-1<br />
structure preservation 94 n., 126 n.<br />
suffix 48-51<br />
cohering 49-51, 111-12<br />
competing 74<br />
cyclic 110, 113-14<br />
native 111-14<br />
non-cohering 49-51, 111-12<br />
non-cyclic 112<br />
non-native 75-6, 110<br />
stress-bearing 113<br />
stress-neutral 111-13<br />
stress-shifting 114-15<br />
syllabicity 24<br />
syllabification 29-33<br />
continuous 35<br />
direction <strong>of</strong> 31<br />
syllable 22-6<br />
contact 31 n., 45-6, 86<br />
stray 134<br />
weight 101 n., 106-8, 153 n.<br />
INDEX 205<br />
Syllable-final Devoicing, see Final<br />
Devoicing<br />
/t/-deletion 72-3, 152^<br />
tone:<br />
boundary 160<br />
contour 160<br />
Trochaic Reversal 99, 107, 116-17, 161<br />
truncation rule 85<br />
underspecification 12-13, 74 n.<br />
Uniform Applicability Condition 32, 36, 60,<br />
63<br />
Utterance 143<br />
Velar Nasal Constraint 36<br />
via rule 79, 89<br />
vocoid 13, 25, 33<br />
voice, see laryngeal<br />
voice assimilation, see Fricative Voice<br />
Assimilation; Progressive Voice<br />
Assimilation; Regressive Voice<br />
Assimilation; Word-internal Devoicing<br />
vowel:<br />
deletion 84<br />
duration 5, 97<br />
height 16-18<br />
length 5, 13-16<br />
lengthening 18, 72, 80-3, 87-8, 93^<br />
marginal 6, 16, 17<br />
nasal 6<br />
nasalized 148-50<br />
reduction 14, 85, 87, 106-7, 109, 113,<br />
120, 125-6, 130-5, 167<br />
shortening 81 n., 136-7<br />
word:<br />
grammatical 30<br />
prosodie 27-9, 37, 47-52, 111, 131<br />
Word-internal Devoicing 177<br />
word-level rule 55, 94-5, 174-5