GRST 211 PDF

CONTENTS
Medical Terminology from Head to Toe
1. Breaking Down Medical Terms, Building Up Medical Definitions

2. Using Prefixes, Bases, and Suffixes to Describe the Body
3. Head
4. Skin, Hair, and Nails
5. Eyes
Review of Chapters 1–5
6. Ears
7. Nose
8. Mouth
9. Throat and Neck
10. Shoulders and Arms
11. Hands and Fingers
12. Chest, Back, and Spine
13. Lungs
14. Heart, Blood, Lymph, and Spleen
15. Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas
16. Stomach
17. Abdomen and the Digestive Organs
18. Kidneys and Bladder
19. Female Reproductive Parts
20. Male Reproductive Parts
Review of Chapters 16 – 20
21. Hips and Legs
22. Feet and Toes
23. Greek and Latin Terminology: Singular and Plural Nouns
24. Latin Anatomical Terminology
25. Latin Anatomical Terminology Examples
Review of Chapters 21 – 25
Final Review
CHAPTER 1
Breaking Down Medical Terms, Building Up Medical Definitions
Medical terminology can be both intimidating and bewildering. It embraces more terms than anyone could
likely ever memorize, many of them defying comprehension by their length and complexity. However, you
should not despair, for there is a solution. Do not attempt to memorize them all. Instead, master a method
of analysis that you can apply to all sorts of new terms that you might encounter, no matter how strange or
how lengthy they are. Luckily, the method of analysis is not too difficult. It relies on the fact that many of
the medical terms we have today were devised according to a regulated system of rules. If we know the
rules, and we apply the system in reverse, we can simply break down troublesome terms into their basic
building blocks and then build up the sense of them. Then, distinguishing cardiomalacia, cardiomegaly, and
cardiometry becomes a breeze, and confronting a word such as hepatocholangioenterostomy no longer fills
us with dread.
You might wonder why terms were devised this way in the first place, if we have to break them
down before we can make any sense of them. The answer lies in the history of how medical language and
terminology evolved. A detailed knowledge of this is not necessary for our present task, but a summary will
highlight some features that will make the task more understandable.
Where Did Medical Terminology Come From?

The earliest medical writings of the Western world date back to the ancient Greek world of Hippocrates in
the fifth century BCE. While the Greeks did develop a medical terminology of a sort, much of it was based
around commonplace language and ideas. The term catarrh, for instance, developed in Greek as a
combination of the words for ‘down’ and ‘flow,’ while the term thorax originally described a piece of armor
that covered the chest. When Greek medicine was transplanted to Rome in the first century CE, Roman
writers wanted to compose medical texts in their own language, Latin. Like the Greeks, they had everyday
words that served for some technical purposes, but they were hampered by not having an extensive medical
language of their own. Their solution was to simply borrow Greek terms and Latinize them, or to take Greek
concepts and equate them to Latin ones – for example, they mimicked the Greek idea that ‘mouth’ could be
used to mean the opening of any body part and just substituted the Latin word for ‘mouth’ in place of the
Greek one.
Latin, along with its Latinized Greek elements, became the dominant medical language throughout
Europe, at least in the written tradition, and continued to be so for many centuries. Throughout this time,
more and more ordinary Latin and Greek words, but especially Latin, were given a specific medical
meaning. Practitioners who could demonstrate mastery of the language might, whether rightly or not, claim
some superiority or higher professionalism over those who could not. To be able to read and write Latin,
and to some extent Greek, was the hallmark of an educated person.
By the nineteenth century, however, Europeans started writing about medicine in their own
languages in place of Latin, although they still incorporated the Latin and Latinized Greek medical terms,
with only minor modifications. This era also witnessed a huge rise in ‘scientific medicine,’ which, combined
with a steady increase in journal publication, encouraged the development of a fresh specialist medical
vocabulary. Latin largely provided the basis for a new anatomical nomenclature, while Greek especially
became the vehicle for a multitude of systematically developed compounded terms of the type
hepatocholangioenterostomy. In a time when Greek and Latin were still believed to be important elements
of a proper education throughout Europe, it made sense to develop new terminology in a language common
to all.
Gradually, however, beginning in the twentieth century, English started to dominate as the global
language for international medical communication, and new terms are now generally based on everyday
English, with some national variation. However, the older Greek and Latin terminology remains firmly
entrenched in the medical discipline and shows no sign of going away soon.
What do we learn from this history? Well, we learn that a huge percentage of medical terminology is
derived from Greek and Latin. It falls basically into three types:
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i) Greek and Latin terms that have entered the English language in an anglicized form. Some of them,
for example sperm, artery, and nerve, were incorporated so long ago that we have ceased to think
of them as foreign.
ii) Terms that have entered the English language in their original form. Some terms such as ganglion
are Greek, but the majority are Latin terms used in anatomy, such as sacrum, vena cava, and fossa
ovalis.
iii) Compound terms that were systematically devised. Many utilize Greek base words, as in
oligomenorrhea, since the Greek language is particularly suited to forming compounds. However,
Latin compounds, such as labiogingival, do occur, as do hybrid terms such as neonatal that mix
Latin and Greek elements.
The first type should pose few problems, at least to English speakers. We will spend a little time on the
second type, but concentrate mostly on the third type, the compound terms, since these are the most
troublesome and the most numerous.
So, on to compound medical terms, and our first objective; breaking them down into plain English that we
can understand.
Breaking Down Medical Terms

Compound medical terms, no matter how long and how complex they are, can be reduced to individual
word parts that are the building blocks of terminology. There are just three types of word part – the base,
the suffix, and the prefix.
Base
The base carries the basic meaning and sense of a word. In the term psychiatry, for example, ‘psych’ is the
base, with the meaning ‘mind.’ It has this same meaning whether we find it in psychology, psychopath, or
psychic (a note to students of Greek and Latin, bases in medical terminology generally have only one
meaning, perhaps two, not the many variants we see in the ancient languages). Bases always make some
sort of sense on their own, since they are modified nouns (‘things’), adjectives (‘describing’ words), or verbs
(‘doing’ words), but their endings are missing. They just need something added to them to make full sense
again. Almost all medical terms include a base; those that do not are not derived from Greek and Latin, and
do not concern us here. A term can include more than one base, as in psychosomatic, for example, where
the bases are ‘psych’ and ‘som,’ meaning ‘mind’ and ‘body,’ respectively. Several bases may share the same
meaning; ‘ment,’ for instance, also means ‘mind,’ but is derived from Latin, whereas ‘psych’ comes from
Greek.
Suffix
The suffix is added to the end of the base to make meaningful sense. It can be as little as one letter, often a
few letters, sometimes more. Just like the bases, almost all medical terms include a suffix, and those that do
not are not derived from Greek and Latin, and do not concern us here. The suffix usually makes no sense
on its own, but added to the end of the base it forms a complete noun, adjective, or verb. For example, the
suffix ‘osis’ makes no sense on its own, but in combination means ‘abnormal condition of’; when added to
the base ‘psych,’ we get psychosis, the noun that means ‘abnormal condition of the mind.’ Occasionally, a
word might have two suffixes following each other. Several suffixes might have the same meaning; ‘ic’ and
‘al’ for example, both mean ‘pertaining to.’ These suffixes make adjectives when added to the end of the
base, as in ‘psychic’ and ‘mental,’ each meaning ‘pertaining to the mind.’
Prefix
A prefix can be added to the front of the base. It can be as little as one letter, often a few letters, sometimes
more. Not all medical terms include a prefix. The prefix does not make sense on its own; it modifies or adds
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extra information about the base, telling us how, where, or to what degree something occurs. Prefixes are
derived from Greek and Latin adverbs (tell us ‘how,’ ‘where,’ or ‘when’), or prepositions (tell us ‘where’).
The prefix ‘endo,’ for example, means ‘within,’ so ‘endopsychic’ can be understood as ‘pertaining to within
the mind.’ Occasionally, a word might have two prefixes following each other, but this is not common.
The following table summarizes the prefix, base, and suffix, and their normal use in compound terms:
prefix base suffix

Position in word beginning middle end
Is it essential? no yes yes
More than one? hardly ever often sometimes
Function adds extra information carries the basic completes the sense
about the base – often meaning – a modified of the base – in
how, where, or to what noun, adjective, or combination, the
degree verb with a bit missing suffix and base make
a noun, adjective, or
verb
There is one more element of the compound term we need to consider. It is not a word part, but an aid to
pronunciation; the combining vowel.
Combining Vowel
Consider the word psychotic. We saw above that ‘psych’ is a base that means ‘mind.’ We have not met it
yet, but ‘tic’ is another suffix that means ‘pertaining to.’ Putting the two together would give us ‘psychtic,’
a rather difficult term to pronounce. Therefore, a combining vowel, ‘o’ in this case, is added to the end of
the base to make pronunciation easier. This happens a lot, especially where the base ends with a consonant
and the suffix (or another base) starts with a consonant, but in some other odd instances as well. The
combining vowel is very often an ‘o,’ but sometimes it might be one of the other vowels (a, e, i, u) or y. It
adds nothing at all to the meaning. The combining vowel is always considered as added to the end of the
base, not the beginning of the suffix.
Recognizing the Word Parts

So, when faced with the compound medical term, what do you do?
i) Identify all the parts. It is a good idea to write the term out, so that you can mark the parts (bracket
them, circle them, whatever works for you) as you identify them.
ii) You know that there will be at least one base and a suffix, so find them first. Mark them. Remember,
there might be a combining vowel between the base and suffix.
iii) Still have something left over? There probably is not a second suffix, but is there a second base (or
even more)? Remember, there might be a combining vowel between the bases. Is there a prefix?
Mark everything.
iv) Make sure that nothing is left over. If you have extra letters after marking prefixes, bases, suffixes,
and combining vowels, you have gone wrong somewhere and need to start again.
v) When you have identified all the word parts, accounted for any combining vowels, and there is
nothing left over, write down the meaning of each individual part. Then, go on to build up the
definition.
Building Up Medical Definitions

So, you have all the word parts identified, and you have their meanings. Now you need to put them together.
In many cases, you will have just one base and suffix, perhaps also a prefix. Remember, combining vowels
do not have a meaning of their own, and do not alter the meaning of anything.
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i) In all cases, BEGIN WITH THE SUFFIX. This is an important point, and it gets the definition off
to the right start. It will tell you whether the whole medical term is a noun, an adjective, or a verb.
ii) If you only have a base and a suffix, then the base comes next.
iii) If you have a base, a suffix, and a prefix, then the prefix, since it modifies the base, usually comes
next, then the base last of all.
You might need to add in little words, such as ‘the’ and ‘of,’ just to make the definition sound right. Here
is an example with just a base and a suffix:
combining
prefix base suffix
vowel
psych osis
psychosis
‘mind’ ‘abnormal condition’
definition order = suffix-base = ‘abnormal condition of the mind’
Here, we have a base and a suffix, but also a combining vowel because the base ends with a consonant, and
the suffix starts with a consonant:
combining
prefix base suffix
vowel
psych tic
psychotic o
‘mind’ ‘pertaining to,
definition order = suffix-base = ‘pertaining to the mind’
This example has a prefix, a base, and a suffix:
combining
prefix base suffix
vowel
endo psych ic
endopsychic
‘within’ ‘mind’ ‘pertaining to’
definition order = suffix-prefix-base = ‘pertaining to within the mind’
So, the suffix always comes first in the definition, then generally the prefix if there is one, then the base.
The combining vowels only help with pronunciation.
What if there is more than one base? For the most part, terms with more than one base follow exactly the
same rules. Break the word down into the word parts, build up the definition in the order suffix-prefix(if
there is one)-bases. Sometimes, however, the exact relationship between the two bases requires a bit of
common sense to be applied. We will meet some terms like this, and we will discuss the different ways of
dealing with them as we come across them.
Do not worry if this chapter is a little overwhelming at this stage. It will become a lot clearer when you have
learned some prefixes, bases, and suffixes to practice with, but do make sure that you understand what
prefixes, bases, and suffixes are, and what they contribute to a medical term, before moving on.
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Using Prefixes, Bases, and Suffixes to Describe the Body
Before we go on to look at the body from head to toe, we are going to look at how the body as a whole is
described, imagining we are looking at someone standing in front of us, or lying on a hospital bed. This will
give us the opportunity to go through how information is presented in the chapters, so that you know exactly
what has to be memorized and what has to be understood.
Most of the new prefixes and suffixes will be introduced in the first half of the book. These will be in tables
at the beginning of the chapters. You must memorize all of the prefixes and suffixes, and all of their
meanings. You will use them over and over again, not just in the chapter they are introduced.
Whenever a new term is introduced, try and think of an everyday term that might help you remember the
meaning. Write it in the margin of the page.
Here are the prefixes and suffixes to learn for this chapter.
Prefixes
Remember, the prefix is added to the front of the base. It modifies or adds extra information about the base,
telling us how, where, or to what degree something happens. Not all terms have a prefix. In the tables, the
prefixes (italicized) are followed by a hyphen, because they go before another word part, almost always a
base. Some prefixes have more than one meaning; you must learn all the prefixes and all of their meanings.
1. ambi-, ambo- ‘both’

2. apo- ‘away from’
3. contra- ‘opposite,’ against’
4. ecto- ‘outside,’ ‘outer’
5. endo- ‘inside,’ ‘inner’
6. inter- ‘between’
7. intra- ‘within’
8. meso- ‘middle’
9. sub- ‘below,’ ‘underneath’
10. super- ‘upper,’ ‘above,’ ‘beyond’
11. trans- ‘across,’ ‘through’
Because we are looking at ways of describing the body, a lot of these prefixes tell us where something
occurs. ambi- and ambo- are just alternative forms of the same prefix.
Suffixes
Remember, the suffix is added to the end of the base to make meaningful sense. The base and suffix together
form a complete noun, adjective, or verb. All of the compound terms we will be looking at have a suffix. In
the tables, the suffixes are preceded by a hyphen, because they go after another word part, almost always a
base. Some suffixes have more than one meaning; you must learn all the suffixes and all of their meanings.
1. -ad ‘toward’
2. -an ‘pertaining to’
3. -al ‘pertaining to’
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4. -ary ‘pertaining to’

5. -ial ‘pertaining to’
6. -ic ‘pertaining to’
7. -ion ‘action,’ ‘condition,’ ‘act of’
8. -ior ‘pertaining to’
9. -ous ‘pertaining to,’ ‘like,’ ‘full of,’ ‘having’
10. -tic ‘pertaining to’
11. -verse ‘to turn,’ ‘to travel,’ ‘turned’
You will find that a lot of suffixes mean ‘pertaining to.’ They form an adjective (‘describing’ word) when
combined with a base. A suffix such as -ion forms a noun (‘thing’) when combined with a base. The suffix
-verse is a little unusual, since it is actually a base (VERS-) and suffix (-e) combined, but we will treat it for
the moment as if it is a regular suffix. It can form a verb or verb part (‘doing’ word) when combined with a
base, but can also form a noun or an adjective. The suffix -e does not have a meaning of its own.
Bases
Every chapter introduces some new bases. The bases (capitalized) are followed by a hyphen, because they
go before another word part, either another base or a suffix. Each base is then followed by a definition, or
several related definitions. Then, below the entry, are one or more examples of its use in a compound term,
showing how it can combine with other word parts, and sometimes some further explanation or comments.
You do not need to memorize the compound terms, they are here as examples. If you learn all of your
prefixes, bases, and suffixes, you will never need to memorize the meaning of compound terms. However,
do make sure that you understand what the individual word parts are, and how they are combined. Some
bases have two meanings that are entirely different – these are marked as (i) and (ii) in the definition line;
you must learn all the bases and all of their meanings.
1. VENTR- ‘front,’ ‘abdomen,’ ‘belly’

ventral (VENTR-al) – pertaining to the front
ventrad (VENTR-ad) – toward the front
2. DORS- ‘back’
mesodorsal (meso-DORS-al) – pertaining to the middle of the back
dorsoventral (DORS-O-VENTR-al) – pertaining to the front and back
dorsad (DORS-ad) – toward the back
The front side of the body is the ventral surface or ventral section. The back side of the body is the dorsal
surface or dorsal section. Inside the body, there is the ventral cavity at the front of the body, and the dorsal
cavity at the back. If you lie on your back, you are in a dorsal position. If you move toward the front, you
are moving in a ventrad direction, and if you move toward the back, you are moving in a dorsad direction.
3. ANTER- ‘front,’ ‘before’

anterior (ANTER-ior) – pertaining to the front
4. POSTER- ‘back,’ ‘behind’

posterior (POSTER-ior) – pertaining to the back
5. FRONT- ‘front,’ ‘forehead’

frontal (FRONT-al) – pertaining to the front
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Anterior and posterior also relate to the front and back of the body, just like ventral and dorsal, but they also
have a special meaning. This is because they are originally Latin comparative adjectives that mean
something like ‘nearer’ and ‘further.’ Therefore, if a structure is anterior, it means it is nearer to the front,
while a posterior structure is further to the back. Lots of things in the body occur in pairs, so you might find
an anterior and posterior pair, like the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments in the knee. There is also a
very particular use of the term frontal; the frontal bone of the skull, which forms the forehead and top of the
skull.
6. LATER- ‘side’
contralateral (contra-LATER-al) – pertaining to the opposite side
ambilateral (ambi-LATER-al) – pertaining to both sides
7. MEDI- ‘middle,’ ‘midline’

median (MEDI-an) – pertaining to the middle
mediad (MEDI-ad) – toward the middle
8. MES- ‘middle,’ ‘midline’

mesal (MES-al) – pertaining to the middle
mesial (MES-I-al) – pertaining to the middle
Both MES- and MEDI- have the same meaning; they are just derived from Greek and Latin forms,
respectively. If you are interested as to which terms have come to us from Greek and which from Latin, any
good medical dictionary will tell you, but you do not need to know for our purposes. Note that the combining
vowel in mesial is ‘i.’
9. CENTR- ‘center,’ ‘mid-point’

apocentric (apo-CENTR-ic) – pertaining to away from the center
10. DEXTR- ‘right,’ ‘right-handed’

dextrad (DEXTR-ad) – toward the right
11. SINISTR- ‘left,’ ‘left-handed’

sinistrad (SINISTR-ad) – toward the left
12. LAEV- ‘left,’ ‘left-handed’

LEV- ‘left,’ ‘left-handed’
levoversion (LEV-O-VERS-ion) – action of turning to the left
LAEV- is the British spelling of LEV-; you will probably come across both forms. Both bases LEV- and
SINISTR- indicate the left. Like MES- and MEDI- above, they are derived from Greek and Latin forms,
respectively. The term levoversion has two bases, LEV- and VERS-; remember we said that many
compound terms have more than one base. The combining vowel ‘o’ is added to the base LEV- to make
pronunciation easier, since LEV- ends with a consonant and VERS- begins with a consonant. We will often
see the combining vowel appear between bases, and between bases and suffixes; remember, it is very often
the letter ‘o.’
13. SUPER- ‘above,’ ‘in the top part of’

superior (SUPER-ior) – pertaining to above
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14. INFER- ‘below,’ ‘in the bottom part of’

inferior (INFER-ior) – pertaining to below
Like anterior and posterior, superior and inferior are comparative Latin adjectives, and they can mean
something like ‘higher’ and ‘lower.’ Therefore, if a structure is superior, it is closer to the higher up part of
something, while an inferior structure is closer to the lower down part of something. Again, you can find
things in the body in pairs, such as the superior and inferior venae cavae, the veins that carry blood into the
heart.
15. CEPHAL- ‘head’

cephalic (CEPHAL-ic) – pertaining to the head
intracephalic (intra-CEPHAL-ic) pertaining to within the head
cephalad (CEPHAL-ad) – toward the head
caudocephalad (CAUD-O-CEPHAL-ad) – toward the head from the tail
16. CAUD- ‘tail’ (in humans, the ‘tail bone’ or ‘coccyx’)

caudal (CAUD-al) – pertaining to the tail
caudad (CAUD-ad) – toward the tail
cephalocaudad (CEPHAL-O-CAUD-ad) – toward the tail from the head
Both caudocephalad and cephalocaudad include two bases; in each case, the combining vowel ‘o’ is added
to the first of the two bases to make pronunciation easier.
17. PROXIM- ‘near to,’ ‘near a point of attachment,’ ‘near the beginning of a structure’
proximal (PROXIM-al) – pertaining to near to the point of attachment
18. DIST- ‘away from,’ ‘away from a point of attachment,’ ‘away from the beginning of a
structure’
distal (DIST-al) – pertaining to away from the point of attachment
The terms proximal and distal are often used about limbs and bones, and we can usually think in terms of
closer to, or further away from, the trunk of the body. The most distal parts of the arms and legs are the
finger- and toe-tips; their most proximal parts are where they meet the shoulders and hips. The distal end of
the shin bone is at the ankle joint, while its proximal end is at the knee joint.
19. INTERN- ‘inside’

internal (INTERN-al) – pertaining to the inside
20. EXTERN- ‘outside’

external (EXTERN-al) – pertaining to the outside
21. FACI- ‘face,’ ‘surface’

-FICI- ‘face,’ ‘surface’
facial (FACI-al) – pertaining to the face
superficial (super-FICI-al) – pertaining to the upper surface
Here, there are alternative base forms, FACI- and -FICI-, both with the same meanings; the form -FICI-
only occurs in the middle of a term, never at the beginning. Note also that we are using the prefix super-
here, and not the base SUPER-. The prefix is modifying the base, telling us something extra about it; in this
case, it tells us where something occurs – the upper part of the surface. Structures that are on or near the
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surface of the body are termed superficial or external; structures that are below or inside the body are termed
deep or internal.
22. PARIET- ‘wall’ (usually, of a body cavity)

parietal (PARIET-al) – pertaining to a cavity wall
interparietal (inter-PARIET-al) – pertaining to between cavity walls
intraparietal (intra-PARIET-al) – pertaining to within cavity walls
transparietal (trans-PARIET-al) – pertaining to across cavity walls
Remembering the difference between the prefixes inter- and intra- can be tricky. Think of everyday words
that might help you distinguish them. Write them in the margin of the page. There is also a very particular
use of the term parietal; the parietal bones of the skull. These two bones form the upper sides and back of
the skull; they each have four ‘walls’ (edges), and together they ‘house’ a large part of the brain.
23. AX- ‘axis,’ ‘central line’

axial (AX-ial) – pertaining to a central line
subaxial (sub-AX-ial) – pertaining to below the central line (of the body)
A lot of the bases we have looked at here relate to dividing the body into two parts; front and back, top and
bottom, and left and right. Medical terminology often talks about the body as if imaginary planes, like flat
sheets of glass, pass through the body to create these parts. If you think of these planes occupying the axial
lines that go through the central lines of the body, there are three positions they can occupy, one horizontal
plane and two vertical planes. These planes got their special names, transverse, coronal, and sagittal, using
the next three bases.
24. VERS- ‘travel,’ ‘turn’

VERT- ‘travel,’ ‘turn’
transverse (trans-VERS-e/trans-verse) – travel across
version (VERS-ion) – the action of turning
If our imaginary plane passes through the central line of the body horizontally at the abdomen, it cuts the
body into the superior and inferior sections. The imaginary plane is termed the transverse plane. Sometimes,
bases (and prefixes and suffixes) can have alternate spellings, depending on what other word parts they
combine with, as here with VERS- and VERT-. Memorize all the forms that are listed. We saw above that
the base VERS- and the suffix -e create the term -verse, which is often considered to be a suffix in its own
right.
25. CORON- ‘crown,’ ‘like a crown’

coronal (CORON-al) – pertaining to like a crown
coronary (CORON-ary) – pertaining to like a crown
26. SAGITT- ‘arrow’

sagittal (SAGGIT-al) – pertaining to an arrow
Both the coronal plane and sagittal plane got their names in a more complicated way than the transverse
plane. The form CORON- has come to mean something circular like a crown you wear on your head, or
anything that encircles something else. Some of the bones of the human skull are held together by fibrous
bands known as sutures; one of these is the coronal suture. It travels approximately from between eye and
ear on one side, going across the top of the head, down to between eye and ear on the other side, in roughly
a circular route (probably how you would wear a tiara, rather than a crown). If our imaginary plane passes
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through the central line of the body, lined up in exactly the same direction as the coronal suture, it cuts the
body into the anterior and posterior (or, ventral and dorsal) sections. The imaginary plane is termed the
coronal plane. Anything that is ‘coronary’ acts like a crown in that it encircles something; so, coronary
nerves, blood vessels, and ligaments surround other anatomical structures.
The sagittal plane also gets its name from a suture in the skull. The sagittal suture joins the parietal
bones (see above), traveling perpendicular to the coronal suture and from the front of the skull to the back.
Assuming that you were facing your enemy in olden times, and not running away, if you were shot by an
arrow, it pierced you from front to back; this is how sagittal has come to have a special meaning of
‘pertaining to the direction front to back.’ If our imaginary plane passes through the central line of the body,
lined up in exactly the same direction as the sagittal suture, it cuts the body into the left and right sections.
The imaginary plane is termed the sagittal plane.
27. MORPH- ‘form,’ ‘shape’

morphic (MORPH-ic) – pertaining to shape
morphous (MORPH-ous) – pertaining to shape
morphotic (MORPH-O-tic) – pertaining to shape
In morphotic, the combining vowel ‘o’ is added to the base to make pronunciation easier, since both base
and suffix begin with a consonant.
28. DERM- ‘skin,’ ‘layer’

DERMAT- ‘skin,’ ‘layer’
endodermic (endo-DERM-ic) – pertaining to an inside layer
mesodermic (meso-DERM-ic) – pertaining to a middle layer
ectodermic (ecto-DERM-ic) – pertaining to an outside layer
These three terms can be applied to the layers of tissues in the developing embryo. According to one
classification system (now somewhat discredited), a predominance of any one tissue affects the physique of
an individual. Thus, those who have a predominance of endodermic tissue are described as endomorphic
(endo-MORPH-ic), and are physically rounded, those with a predominance of ectodermic tissue are
described as ectomorphic (ecto-MORPH-ic) and are physically slender, while those with a predominance
of mesodermic tissue are described as mesomorphic (meso-MORPH-ic), and are physically well
proportioned.
Finally, two bases that relate to the body as a whole (or, the main body of a structure):
29. SOM- ‘body’

SOMAT- ‘body’
somal (SOM-al) – pertaining to the body
somatic (SOMAT-ic) – pertaining to the body
30. CORP- ‘body’

CORPOR- ‘body
CORPUS- ‘body’
corporal (CORPOR-al) – pertaining to the body
Some Things to Note

Do not worry that there are several ways of saying the same thing. There are lots of suffixes, for example,
that mean ‘pertaining to.’ Just accept that this is how it is. In addition, we have seen that there are sometimes
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terms derived from both Greek and Latin that mean pretty much the same. Again, just accept it, and learn
both forms.
We said in the last chapter that terms with more than one base can sometimes be challenging to deal with.
This chapter introduced four compound terms that include two bases – dorsoventral, levoversion,
caudocephalad, and cephalocaudad. All have the format BASE-BASE-suffix, with a combining vowel
between the bases. How do we deal with them? After breaking the term into its component parts, begin, as
always, with the suffix and the base nearest it; we will call this the ultimate base (i.e. the last), we will call
the one before it the penultimate (i.e. the next to last). So, beginning with the suffix and the ultimate base:
dorsoventral (DORS-O-VENTR-al) – pertaining to the front …

levoversion (LEV-O-VERS-ion) – action of turning …
caudocephalad (CAUD-O-CEPHAL-ad) – toward the head …
cephalocaudad (CEPHAL-O-CAUD-ad) – toward the tail …
We can ignore the combining vowel because it adds nothing to the sense. The problem now is how the
penultimate base relates to the rest of the term. Often you will find that the two bases can be linked with the
word ‘and.’ This works perfectly for dorsoventral:
dorsoventral (DORS-O-VENTR-al) – pertaining to the front and back
The suffix -al is actually completing the sense of both bases. Sometimes, however, ‘and’ just will not work.
In the term levoversion, it obviously makes no sense at all. In caudocephalad and cephalocaudad, it might
initially seem plausible, but when we think about it, we cannot be moving in opposite directions at the same
time. In these cases, the suffix is only completing the sense of the ultimate base; the penultimate base is
actually giving us more information about the ultimate base. We just have to apply a bit of common sense
and think about what is the most likely meaning:
levoversion (LEV-O-VERS-ion) – action of turning to the left

caudocephalad (CAUD-O-CEPHAL-ad) – toward the head from the tail
Do not worry, this becomes much easier with practice and you will start to see patterns of certain types of
compound terms that will help you figure this out. The most important thing for the moment is to make sure
you memorize all of the prefixes, bases, and suffixes, including any variable spellings, and all of their
possible meanings, and to fully understand how the individual word parts are combined in the examples.
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Head
Now we will begin our journey through the body, beginning with the head. As always, whenever a new term
is introduced, try and think of an everyday term that might help you remember the meaning. Write it in the
margin of the page.
Prefixes
1. a- ‘without,’ ‘not,’ ‘non-’
2. anti- ‘against,’ ‘opposite’
3. circum- ‘around’
4. de- ‘down,’ ‘downward,’ ‘away from,’ ‘from,’ ‘without,’ ‘out of’
5. dys- ‘bad,’ ‘painful,’ ‘difficult,’ ‘abnormal’
6. en- ‘in,’ ‘inward’
7. epi- ‘upon,’ ‘on the surface’
8. eu- ‘good,’ ‘well,’ ‘normal’
9. hyper- ‘over,’ ‘above,’ ‘more than normal’
10. hypo- ‘below,’ ‘deficient,’ ‘less than normal’
11. peri- ‘around,’ ‘near’
Suffixes
1. -al, -eal, -ial ‘pertaining to’
2. -alis, -aris ‘pertaining to’
3. -ar ‘pertaining to,’ ‘having the character of’
4. -ate ‘pertaining to,’ ‘having,’ ‘having the shape of,’ ‘to (…)’
5. -etic ‘pertaining to’
6. -ety ‘condition,’ ‘state,’ ‘quality’
7. -ia ‘condition of,’ ‘quality of,’ ‘state of,’ ‘act of’
8. -ile ‘pertaining to,’ ‘able to’
9. -ity ‘condition,’ ‘state,’ ‘quality’
10. -ive ‘pertaining to,’ ‘tending to’
11. -oid ‘resembling,’ ‘shaped,’ ‘like,’ ‘shaped like’
12. -orium ‘place for’
13. -osis ‘process of,’ ‘condition of,’ ‘abnormal condition of’
14. -sia, -sis, ‘process of,’ ‘condition of,’ ‘act of’
15. -ure ‘result of,’ ‘act of’
16. -y ‘condition of,’ ‘quality of,’ ‘state of,’ ‘act of’
Note how suffixes can have alternative forms; the suffixes -al, -eal, and -ial are just different forms of the
same suffix. Likewise, the suffixes -sia and -sis both have the same origin and mean the same; the suffix -
osis is also related to them. The form -aris is more common than -alis after bases that have the letter ‘l’ close
to the end, but, in most cases, there are no simple rules to explain why one form of the suffix is preferred
over another in any particular term. You need to learn the alternative forms.
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The bases introduced in each chapter are presented according to the body part. They are not organized
according to body systems, so you get a mix of terms relating to bones, organs, diseases, and more. Other
general bases are also introduced, so that we can make more compound terms.
Sometimes, you have to use a bit of common sense to fully understand a compound term, even after you
have broken it down and then built up the individual parts. After some terms, I also give a dictionary type
definition; you do not have to memorize them, but make sure that you understand how the basic meaning
of the compound term has been extended to suit a specific circumstance.
Bases
1. CRANI- ‘cranium’ (skull or, more correctly, the part of the skull that does not include the
jawbone)
craniate (CRANI-ate) – pertaining to the cranium
circumcranial (circum-CRANI-al) – pertaining to around the cranium
epicranial (epi-CRANI-al) – pertaining to on the surface of the cranium
The skull is made up of the cranium and the mandible (jawbone).
2. TEMPOR- (i) ‘temple’(side of the head, behind and above the ear): (ii) ‘time’
temporal (TEMPOR-al) – pertaining to the temple, pertaining to time
temporalis (TEMPOR-alis) – pertaining to the temple, pertaining to time
temporoparietal (TEMPOR-O-PARIET-al) – pertaining to the parietal and temporal bones or
regions
The base TEMPOR- can mean both temple and time. You have to decide from context which is most
suitable; in medical language, it is most likely to be the temple. There is also a very particular use of the
term temporal; the temporal bones, the two bones that form the lower sides of the cranium, behind and above
the ears. We came across the frontal and parietal cranial bones (CRANI-al – relating to the cranium) in
Chapter 2, where their medical terms made specific uses of the bases FRONT- and PARIET-. Remember,
these are very specific uses and not the only occasions where you might come across these bases.
3. OCCIPIT- ‘occiput’ (back of the head)

occipital (OCCIPIT-al) – pertaining to the occiput
perioccipital (peri-OCCIPIT-al) – pertaining to around the occiput
occipitotemporal (OCCIPIT-O-TEMPOR-al) – pertaining to the temporal and occipital bones
or regions
Again, there is a very particular use of the term occipital; the occipital bone, the large bone at the back of
the cranium that extends to the underside.
4. SPHEN- ‘wedge’
sphenoid (SPHEN-oid) – shaped like a wedge
sphenocephalic (SPHEN-O-CEPHAL-ic) – pertaining to a head that is wedge shaped
sphenofrontal (SPHEN-O-FRONT-al) – pertaining to the frontal and sphenoid bones or regions
Yet again, a very particular use of the term sphenoid; the sphenoid bone is a large bone at the base and sides
of the cranium, which also forms part of the eye sockets. Is it wedge shaped? Depends on how you visualize
a wedge; a regular trapezium is probably the closest technical description of the shape, but it also looks a
little like a butterfly. On each side of the sphenoid, a pair of bony plates, the medial and lateral pterygoid
plates, project downward.
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5. PTER- ‘wing’
PTERYG- ‘wing’
pterous (PTER-ous) – having wings
pterygoid (PTERYG-oid) – resembling a wing
apterygial (a-PTERYG-ial) – pertaining to without wings
The following two bases also relate to bones of the cranium, or their associated regions. You will probably
only ever come across these bases in compound terms relating to the head and these bones.
6. ETHM- ‘sieve’
ethmoid (ETHM-oid) – resembling a sieve
The ethmoid bone, located behind the nose, has a lot of open spaces in it, just like a sieve.
7. ZYGOMAT- ‘yoke’
zygomatic (ZYGOMAT-ic) – pertaining to a yoke
The zygomatic bone, the cheek bone that extends to the edge of the eyes socket, is shaped somewhat like
the yoke you might place on oxen ploughing land. The base ZYG-, which gives us the term zygote, also
means ‘yoke.’
8. SQUAM- ‘scale’
squamous (SQUAM-ous) – having scales
While in zoology this base does have the meaning ‘scale,’ in medical terminology its sense has been
extended to ‘scale shaped’ or ‘scale-like,’ so the term squama can mean both a thin plate of bone (i.e. a
scale-like piece of bone) and a cell that is shaped like a thin scale. The frontal, occipital, and temporal bones
all have squamous regions:
SQUAM- ‘scale-like bone,’ ‘scale-like cell,’ ‘squama’

squamous (SQUAM-ous) – having scale-like bone, having scale-like cells
squamofrontal (SQUAM-O-FRONT-al) – pertaining to the frontal bone squama
squamotemporal (SQUAM-O-TEMPOR-al) – pertaining to the temporal bone squama
9. LAMBD- ‘Greek letter lambda’ (λ)

lamdoid (LAMBD-oid) – shaped like the Greek letter lambda
The lambdoid suture (sutures are fibrous band between cranial bones), between the occipital and parietal
bones, is shaped like the Greek letter lambda, sort of an upside down ‘Y.’
10. SIGM- ‘Greek letter sigma’ (ϛ)

sigmoid (SIGM-oid) – shaped like the Greek letter sigma
Another base coming from the Greek alphabet, anything that is sigmoid is shaped like the Greek letter sigma,
that is ‘S’ shaped. The sigmoid sinus (a sinus is a hollow channel) of the cranium travels through an ‘S’-
shaped channel.
11. CAV- ‘hollow space’

cavity (CAV-ity) condition of a hollow space
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Notice how the suffix -ity forms a noun when added to a base. The cranial cavity, inside the cranium,
contains the brain and related structures.
12. CEREBR- ‘cerebrum’ (largest part of the brain)

cerebral (CEREBR-al) – pertaining to the cerebrum
intracerebral (intra-CEREBR-al) – pertaining to within the cerebrum
13. CEREBELL- ‘cerebellum’ (the posterior part of the brain)

cerebellar (CEREBELL-ar) – pertaining to the cerebellum
14. ENCEPHAL- ‘brain’

encephalic (ENCEPHAL-ic) – pertaining to the brain
encephaloid (ENCEPHAL-oid) – resembling the brain or brain substance
periencephalic (peri-ENCEPHAL-ic) – pertaining to around the brain
We met the base CEPHAL- ‘head’ in Chapter 2. ENCEPHAL- is actually a compound of CEPHAL- with
the prefix en- meaning ‘in,’ but it has also become used as a base in its own right.
15. LOB- ‘lobe’

lobate (LOB-ate) – having lobes
sublobar (sub-LOB-ar) – pertaining to below a lobe
A lobe is a division or extension of an organ or part.
16. FISS- ‘split,’ ‘splitting’

fissure (FISS-ure) – the result of splitting
fissile (FISS-ile) – able to be split
Notice how the suffix -ure forms a noun when added to a base. A fissure is a deep slit or cleft; in the brain,
a fissure divides the cerebrum into left and right lobes.
17. THALAM- ‘chamber,’ ‘thalamus’

thalamic (THALAM-ic) – pertaining to the thalamus
hypothalamic (hypo-THALAM-ic) – pertaining to below the thalamus
The base THALAM- comes from the Greek word for a bedroom, especially a bridal chamber. The great
physician Galen compared the layout of a Greek house to the layout of the brain; since the bridal chamber
played a central and crucial role in the ancient household, he gave the name thalamus to the structure he
saw fulfilling a central and crucial role in the functioning of the brain. The hypothalamus is located below
the thalamus.
18. MENING- ‘membrane,’ ‘meninges’

meningeal (MENING-eal) – pertaining to the meninges
submeningeal (sub-MENING-eal) – pertaining to below the meninges
The base MENING- is used almost exclusively about the membrane layers that surround the brain and spinal
cord, the meninges.
19. ARACHN- ‘spider,’ ‘spider’s web’

arachnoid (ARACHN-oid) – resembling a spider’s web
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One of the meninges is the arachnoid, a delicate spider’s web-like layer. Beneath the arachnoid is the
subarachnoid (sub-ARACHN-oid) space. In Greek mythology, Arachne was a mortal women who boasted
that she could weave better than anyone, even the immortals, prompting the goddess Athena to challenge
Arachne to a contest. According to the version told by Ovid, Arachne’s weaving was not only stunningly
beautiful, but depicted all the ways that the gods had abused mortals. Athena was enraged and turned
Arachne into a spider and condemned her to weave for evermore, hence the link between ARACHN- and
spider.
20. LIMB- ‘border,’ ‘edge’

limbic (LIMB-ic) – pertaining to the edge
circumlimbal (circum-LIMB-al) – pertaining to around the edge
The limbic lobe in the brain forms a border around the connection between the two parts of the cerebrum.
21. GYR- ‘circle,’ ‘coil’

gyroidal (GYR-oid-al) – pertaining to shaped like a coil, i.e. spiral
Note that the term gyroidal is unusual in that it has two suffixes.
22. SULC- ‘groove,’ ‘furrow’

sulcate (SULC-ate) – having grooves
sulcal (SULC-al) – pertaining to a groove
The surface of the cerebrum is highly convoluted, with elevated folds and narrow grooves. Each fold is
called a gyrus (plural gyri), and each groove is called a sulcus (plural sulci).
23. CINGUL- ‘girdle,’ ‘belt,’ ‘structure that surrounds’

cingulate (CINGUL-ate) – pertaining to a structure that surrounds
The limbic lobe is sometimes called the cingulate gyrus because it has the form of a curved, encircling layer.
24. AMYGDAL- ‘almond’

amygdaloid (AMYGDAL-oid) – resembling an almond
The amygdaloid body is an almond-shaped structure in each temporal lobe. The tonsils are sometimes also
called amygdalae because of their almond shape.
25. PITUIT- ‘mucus,’ ‘phlegm,’ ‘discharge’

pituitary (PITUIT-ary) – pertaining to a discharge
pituitous (PITUIT-ous) – full of mucus
The pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain, got its name because it produces and discharges
secretions; these secretions are now known to be hormones.
26. MENT- (i) ‘mind,’ ‘reason’: (ii) ‘chin’

mental (MENT-al) – pertaining to the mind, pertaining to the chin
amentia (a-MENT-ia) – condition of being without reason or mental capacity
dementia (de-MENT-ia) – condition of being out of one’s mind, i.e. loss of mental capacity
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Though they both have the base MENT-, there is no link between the words for mind and chin. You have
to decide from context which of the two is most suitable.
27. PSYCH- ‘mind’

psychosis (PSYCH-osis) – abnormal condition of the mind
psychotic (PSYCH-O-tic) – pertaining to the mind
28. THYM- ‘emotion,’ ‘mind’

dysthymia (dys-THYM-ia) – condition of difficult emotion, i.e. depression
euthymia (eu-THYM-ia) – condition of good emotion
hypothymia (hypo-THYM-ia) – condition of less than normal emotion, i.e. depression
hyperthymia (hyper-THYM-ia) – condition of more than normal emotion, i.e. mania
Both dysthymia and hypothymia are mood disorders characterized by depression, while hyperthymia is a
heightened emotional response that is less intense than a manic disorder. Euthymia represents moderation
of mood, neither manic nor depressed. The thymus gland was known to the ancient Greeks, but why they
gave it this name is not clear. It may be because of its physical location in the chest, which was thought to
be one of the seats of emotion.
29. PHREN- (i) ‘mind’: (ii) ‘diaphragm’

phrenic (PHREN-ic) – pertaining to the mind, pertaining to the diaphragm
phrenetic (PHREN-etic) – pertaining to the mind, pertaining to the diaphragm
hypophrenia (hypo-PHREN-ia) – condition of less than normal mental ability
The phren is a difficult entity to pin down. The ancient Greeks first thought of it as occupying a space
around the heart; then it seems to have moved to the midriff area and the diaphragm. However, since both
the heart and diaphragm were also associated with the emotions, the concept of the phren was extended to
include the mind also. The English words frenetic, frantic, and frenzy are all derived from phren, but with
the everyday sense of violent emotions or madness. Ancient Greeks and Romans did believe that an
inflammation of the phren produced a serious illness with some symptoms similar to madness.
30. SCHIS- ‘split,’ ‘division’

SCHIST- ‘split,’ ‘division’
SCHIZ- ‘split,’ ‘division’
schizophrenia (SCHIZ-O-PHREN-ia) – condition of a mind that is split
schizencephaly (SCHIZ-ENCEPHAL-y) – state of the brain matter with (abnormal) division
31. SAN- ‘healthy,’ ‘sound’

SANIT- ‘healthy,’ ‘sound’
sanity (SAN-ity) – condition of (being) healthy, usually in regard to mental health
sanitorium (SANIT-orium) – a place for (becoming) healthy
32. MAN- (i) ‘frenzy’: (ii) ‘hand’: (iii) ‘thin,’ ‘loose’

mania (MAN-ia) – condition of frenzy
hypomania (hypo-MAN-ia) – a condition of below frenzy, i.e. a milder form of mania
antimanic (anti-MAN-ic) – pertaining to against frenzy, i.e. to counteract mania
This base has three unrelated meanings; we will look at ‘hand’ and ‘thin’/‘loose’ in later chapters.
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33. PRESS- ‘to press,’ ‘pressing’

depression (de-PRESS-ion) – condition of downward pressing, i.e. feeling of hopelessness
antidepressive (anti-de-PRESS-ive) – pertaining to against downward pressing, i.e.
counteracting feeling of hopelessness
Notice here how important context is. If we are discussing someone’s mental state, then depression no doubt
means a feeling of one’s mood being pressed down, i.e. a feeling of hopelessness. However, if we are
discussing a type of bone injury, a depression fracture of the skull is one in which the bone fragment presses
downward and inward. Notice that antidepressive is unusual in that it has two prefixes.
34. PHOR- ‘to bear,’ ‘to carry,’ ‘bearing’

euphoria (eu-PHOR-ia) – condition of good bearing, i.e. exaggerated happiness
dysphoria (dys-PHOR-ia) – condition of difficult bearing, i.e. depression
35. PHOB- ‘fear’

phobia (PHOB-ia) – condition of fear
arachnophobic (ARACHN-O-PHOB-ic) – pertaining to a fear of spiders
36. PHIL- ‘loving,’ ‘affinity to,’ ‘craving for’

dermatophilic (DERMAT-O-PHIL-ic) – pertaining to loving the skin, i.e. pertaining to a
product that is supposedly good for the skin
arachnophilia (ARACHN-O-PHIL-ia) – condition of loving spiders
hyperphilia (hyper-PHIL-ia) – condition of more than normal craving, i.e. a compulsive desire
for sex
37. ANXI- ‘worry’

anxious (ANXI-ous) – full of worry
hyperanxiety (hyper-ANXI-ety) – condition of more than normal worry
38. MNE- ‘to remember’

amnesia (a-MNE-sia) – condition of without memory
Many words with the ‘mn’ combination, such as amnesty and mnemonic, have something to do with
memory. In Greek mythology, Mnemosyne was the goddess of memory and remembrance, and her name is
reflected in words associated with her.
Some More Things to Learn

Some BASE-suffix pairs occur together so regularly that they are often treated as one suffix. To distinguish
them from regular suffixes, we call them compound suffixes. Four examples that you have met in this
chapter are MAN-ia, MNES-ia, PHIL-ia, and PHOB-ia, which form the compound suffixes -mania, -mnesia,
-philia, and -phobia, respectively. It is helpful to memorize all the compound suffixes, but not absolutely
necessary, as you can always build them up from their individual base and suffix parts.
1. -mania ‘condition of madness,’ ‘compulsion,’ ‘obsession’

2. -mnesia ‘condition of memory,’ ‘memory’
3. -philia ‘condition of attraction,’ ‘attraction,’ ‘abnormal craving for’
4. -phobia ‘condition of fear,’ ‘abnormal fear of’
Here are some new bases to learn that can be used with these compound suffixes.
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39. ANDR- ‘man,’ ‘male’

andromania (ANDR-O-mania) – obsession about men
androphilia (ANDR-O-philia) – attraction to men
androphobia (ANDR-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of men
40. GYN- ‘woman,’ ‘female’

GYNAEC- ‘woman,’ ‘female’
GYNEC- ‘woman,’ ‘female’
gynophobia (GYN-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of women
gynephilia (GYN-E-philia) – attraction to women
gynecomania (GYNEC-O-mania) – obsession about women
Note the combining vowel in gynephilia is ‘e.’
41. NECR- ‘death,’ ‘dead’

necromania (NECR-O-mania) – obsession about death or dead bodies
necrophilia (NECR-O-philia) – abnormal craving for dead bodies
necrophobia (NECR-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of death or dead bodies
42. XEN- ‘foreign’

xenomania (XEN-O-mania) – obsession about foreign things or people
xenophilia (XEN-O-philia – attraction to foreign things or people
xenophobia (XEN-O-phobia) – abnormal fear (or distrust) of foreign things or people
43. PSEUD- ‘false’

pseudomnesia (PSEUD-O-mnesia) – memory that is false
44. CRYPT- ‘hidden’

cryptomnesia (CRYPT-O-mnesia) – memory that is hidden, i.e. subconscious memory
We saw in Chapter 2 that the suffix -verse is actually made up of the base VERS- and the suffix -e. We can
add -verse to the list of compound suffixes, but remember it is unusual because the suffix -e really has no
meaning in itself.
We have now seen more compound terms that include two bases. Remember, apply the suffix to the ultimate
base and make sense of that part of the term first. You may be able to then apply the suffix to the other base
as well, using the word ‘and’ to join the two bases, like we did with temporoparietal, occipitotemporal, and
sphenofrontal in this chapter, and dorsoventral in a previous chapter. Sometimes, however, you cannot do
this, as we saw with levoversion, caudocephalad, and cephalocaudad earlier. In this chapter, we also came
across the terms sphenocephalic, gyrencephalic, schizophrenia, schizencephaly, and arachnophobia and we
cannot join the bases with ‘and’ in any of these cases and still make real sense. This is where common sense
has to come in again. I suggest always starting your definition off with the ultimate base and its suffix, then
think about what extra information the penultimate base could be adding to your definition. Remember, all
bases are derived from nouns, adjectives, or verbs, just with their end bits missing. The penultimate base
often describes the ultimate base in some way, or it might indicate the circumstance associated with it –
how, when, or where. Therefore, our definition order becomes suffix-ULTIMATE BASE-PENULTIMATE
BASE. Sometimes, you might end up with a fairly clumsy definition; my definition ‘pertaining to a brain
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that has coils,’ for example, is certainly not elegant, but you can always adjust this afterward if you choose
to.
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Skin, Hair, and Nails
Prefixes
1. amphi-, ampho- ‘both,’ ‘on both sides’
2. an- ‘without,’ ‘not,’ ‘non-’
3. dia- ‘through,’ ‘apart,’ ‘in a line’
4. extra-, extro- ‘outside of,’ ‘beyond’
5. in- ‘in,’ ‘into,’ ‘over’
6. meta- ‘after,’ ‘change,’ ‘transition’
7. non- ‘not’
8. ob- ‘toward,’ ‘in front of,’ ‘against’
9. par- ‘beside,’ ‘beyond,’ ‘abnormal’
10. per- ‘through’
11. poly- ‘many,’ ‘much’
12. re- ‘again and again,’ ‘backward’
13. semi- ‘half,’ ‘partly’
14. syn- ‘together,’ ‘with,’ ‘concurrent’
amphi-/ampho- and extra-/extro- are just alternative forms of the same prefix.
Suffixes
1. -aceous ‘pertaining to,’ ‘belonging to,’ ‘having’
2. -atic ‘pertaining to’
3. -ation ‘process’
4. -atory ‘pertaining to’
5. -cle ‘small’
6. -cyte ‘cell’
7. -escent ‘beginning to be,’ ‘becoming’
8. -esis ‘condition,’ ‘abnormal condition,’ ‘process’
9. -gen ‘that which produces’
10. -in ‘substance’
11. -ment ‘action of,’ ‘product of’
12. -oma ‘tumor,’ ‘mass’
13. -ose ‘full of,’ ‘having the quality of’
14. -ula ‘small’
15. -um ‘structure,’ ‘substance’
Bases
First, some bases relating to the skin and to the tissue immediately below it (the subcutaneous tissues).
Remember, we saw in Chapter 2 the bases DERM- and DERMAT- also mean ‘skin.’ Make sure that you
have learned them.
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1. CUT- ‘skin’
CUTANE- ‘skin’
cuticle (CUT-I-cle) – small skin, i.e. an edge of skin covering the nail bed, or a thin layer of
skin
cutaneous (CUTANE-ous) – pertaining to the skin
subcutaneous (sub-CUTANE-ous) – pertaining to below the skin
extracutaneous (extra-CUTANE-ous) – pertaining to outside of the skin, i.e. not affecting the
skin
Note the combining vowel in cuticle is ‘i.’ We have two bases meaning skin, DERM-/DERMAT- and CUT-
/CUTANE-; as we have seen previously, this is because one term has been derived from Greek and the other
from Latin.
2. TECT- ‘to cover’

TEG- ‘to cover’
tectorium (TECT-orium) – a place for covering, i.e. a covering structure or layer
integument (in-TEG-U-ment) – product of over covering, i.e. something that covers or
encloses, especially a skin or membrane
This base provides another common name for the skin, the integument or integumentary layer. Note the
combining vowel in integument is ‘u.’
3. SARC- ‘flesh,’ ‘soft tissue’

sarcoma (SARC-oma) – tumor of the soft tissues
sarcoid (SARC-oid) – resembling flesh
In medicine, SARC- generally relates to the muscular and connective tissues. A sarcoma is a malignant
(cancerous) tumor. Sarcoid was, at one time, also a term for a tumor similar to a sarcoma; hence this term,
which is still in use:
sarcoidosis (SARC-oid-osis) – abnormal condition of tumors of the soft tissues (it also affects
many different organs of the body, and even the bones of the feet and hands)
Note that the term sarcoidosis is unusual in that it has two suffixes.
4. THEL- (i) ‘nipple’: (ii)‘cellular layer,’ ‘tissue’

epithelium (epi-THEL-I-um) – structure on the surface tissue, i.e. a tissue that covers all
surfaces, including the skin (where it called the epidermis)
Although this base means nipple, you will rarely come across it in this context. Back in the seventeenth
century, when no other suitable Greek or Latin term could be found, its meaning was extended to mean a
‘cellular layer’ or ‘tissue.’ Not everyone agreed with the choice, as you can read about in later medical
discussions, but the term stuck. Notice that the combing vowel in epithelium is ‘i.’
5. CYT- ‘cell’
cytoid (CYT-oid) – resembling a cell
Remember that we saw that the base VERS- plus the suffix -e formed a new suffix -verse. Well, a similar
thing happens with the base CYT-. When the suffix -e is added to it, it forms the suffix -cyte; we can think
of it as a compound suffix. Remember, the suffix -e does not have a meaning of its own.
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6. HIST- ‘tissue’
HISTI- ‘tissue’
histoid (HIST-oid) – resembling tissue
histiocyte (HISTI-O-cyte) – cell within tissue, i.e. an immune cell that destroys foreign
substance that remains within the tissue
7. KERAT- (i) ‘horn,’ ‘horny tissue’: (ii) ‘cornea’ (of the eye)
keratin (KERAT-in) – substance (composed of) horny tissue, i.e. a hard, fibrous protein
keratosis (KERAT-osis) – abnormal condition of the horny tissue
keratoid (KERAT-oid) – resembling horny tissue, resembling corneal tissue
Keratin is the main structural component of the outer layer of the skin (epidermis), as well as the hair, nails,
and the cornea of the eye.
8. MELAN- ‘black’
melanin (MELAN-in) – substance that is black
More specifically, melanin is a dark pigment that occurs in the outer layer of the skin, the hair, and the
colored part of the eye.
9. COLL- ‘glue’
colloid (COLL-oid) – like glue
collagen (COLL-A-gen) – that which produces glue
Collagen is a major protein in the white fibers of connective tissue. When it is boiled down, it produces
gelatin, a glue-like substance. Note the combining vowel in collagen is ‘a.’
10. ELAST- ‘flexible,’ ‘stretchy’

elastin (ELAST-in) – substance that is stretchy
elastoma (ELAST-oma) – a mass composed of elastic (tissue)
nonelastic (non-ELAST-ic) – pertaining to not flexible
Elastin is a major protein of connective tissues in flexible structures such as the large blood vessels, tendons,
and ligaments. Both collagen and elastin are found in the lower level of the skin (dermis).
11. SUD- ‘sweat’

SUDOR- ‘sweat’
sudation (SUD-ation) – process of sweating
sudoresis (SUDOR-esis) – abnormal condition of sweating
12. FER- ‘to bear,’ ‘to carry,’ ‘to produce’

dorsiferous (DORS-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to carrying on the back
sudoriferous (SUDOR-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to producing sweat
Sweating occurs through the sudoriferous glands located in the lower level of the skin. Note the combining
vowel in both of these terms is ‘i.’
13. HIDR- ‘sweat’

synhidrosis (syn-HIDR-osis) – condition of concurrent sweating, i.e. the association of
sweating along with some other symptom
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anhidrosis (an-HIDR-osis) – condition of without sweat, i.e. the inability to sweat normally
We met the prefix a-, meaning ‘without’ or ‘not,’ previously in the term amnesia. Here, it takes the form
an- because it precedes the letter ‘h.’ There are several prefixes that have alternative forms depending on
whether they go before a base starting with a consonant or one starting with a vowel or an ‘h.’ This is
explained further in the ‘some things to note’ section below. Both of the bases SUD- and HIDR- mean
‘sweat’; again, this is because one term has been derived from Greek and the other from Latin. Diaphoresis
(dia-PHOR-esis) also means sweating; if we break the term apart, it literally means ‘condition of through
carrying.’ The act of sweating can also be termed perspiration:
14. SPIR- (i) ‘to breathe’: (ii) ‘coil’

perspiration (per-SPIR-ation) – process of through breathing, i.e. excretion through (the skin)
respiratory (re-SPIR-atory) – pertaining to again and again breathing, i.e. the continual process
of breathing
spiroid (SPIR-oid) – resembling a coil
SPIR- has two unconnected meanings, ‘to breathe’ and ‘coil.’ You have to decide from context which of
the two is most suitable.
15. LIP- ‘fat’

lipocyte (LIP-O-cyte) – cell containing fat
lipoma (LIP-oma) – tumor containing fat (cells)
16. ADIP- ‘fat’

adiposis (ADIP-osis) – abnormal condition of fat (deposit), i.e. obesity
adipose (ADIP-ose) – full of fat
17. STEAR- ‘fat’

STEAT- ‘fat’
stearic (STEAR-ic) – pertaining to fat
steatosis (STEAT-osis) – abnormal condition of fat (deposit)
We have three bases here that all mean ‘fat,’ two derived from Greek and one from Latin. The subcutaneous
tissue lies immediately below the skin; one of its major purposes is to store fat that functions as an energy
reserve, and as an insulating and protective layer. The fat is stored in adipose tissue containing adipocytes
or lipocytes (both terms are in use).
Now some bases related to the hair and nails:
18. TRICH- ‘hair’

schizotrichia (SCHIZ-O-TRICH-ia) – condition of hair that is split (at the ends)
melanotrichous (MELAN-O-TRICH-ous) – pertaining to hair that is black
amphitrichous (amphi-TRICH-ous) – pertaining to on both sides hair, i.e. hair, or hair-like
structures, at both ends
This last term, amphitrichous, is a bit awkward to define in the order that we have been using, suffix-prefix-
BASE, but, if you think about it, it still makes sense and you can adjust your final definition to something
closer to normal English.
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19. PIL- ‘hair’

pilose (PIL-ose) – full of hair, i.e. hairy
piliferous (PIL-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to bearing or producing hair
depilation (de-PIL-ation) – process of without hair, i.e. process for removal of hair
Note the combining vowel in piliferous is ‘i.’
20. MEDULL- ‘innermost part,’ ‘medulla’

medullary (MEDULL-ary) – pertaining to the innermost part
21. CORT- ‘outer layer,’ ‘cortex’

CORTIC- ‘outer layer,’ ‘cortex’
cortical (CORTIC-al) – pertaining to the outer layer
22. FOLL- ‘sac,’ ‘container’

follicle (FOLL-I-cle) – small sac, i.e. a small cavity or sac
Derived from the term for a bellow or leather purse, a follicle is a group of cells that contain a small cavity
or sac; another structure often grows within the cavity. Every hair on the human body grows within a hair
follicle. Note the combining vowel in follicle is ‘i.’ The hair itself is composed of three layers; an inner
medulla and an outer cortex, covered by the cuticle, a layer of dead cells containing keratin.
23. SEB- ‘grease,’ ‘tallow’

sebum (SEB-um) – substance (that is like) grease, i.e. sebum
sebaceous (SEB-aceous) – pertaining to grease, i.e. pertaining to sebum
Sebum is secreted by sebaceous glands in the skin onto the hair shaft to lubricate and protect it.
24. UNGU- ‘nail’

ungual (UNGU-al) – pertaining to a nail or nails
unguiferate (UNGU-I-FER-ate) – pertaining to bearing nails
polyunguia (poly-UNGU-ia) – condition of many nails, i.e. having extra nails on fingers or
toes
Note the combining vowel in unguiferate is ‘i.’
25. ONYCH- ‘nail’

paronychia (par-ONYCH-ia) – condition beside the nail, i.e. an infection of the skin just next
to the nail
polyonychia (poly-ONYCH-ia) – condition of many nails, i.e. having extra nails on fingers or
toes
melanonychia (MELAN-ONYCH-ia) – condition of a nail that is black
The prefix par- in paronychia is the alternative form of the prefix para-, which you have not met yet, used
here because the base that follows begins with a vowel; see ‘some more things to learn’ below.
26. LUN- ‘moon,’ ‘moon shaped’

lunate (LUN-ate) – pertaining to moon shaped
semilunar (semi-LUN-ar) – pertaining to half-moon shaped
lunula (LUN-ula) – small moon, i.e. the crescent moon-shaped whitish area of the nail
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When meaning ‘moon shaped,’ LUN- almost always means crescent shaped, like a crescent moon. The base
LUN- also gave rise to the English terms lunacy and lunatic, since it was once believed that madness was
influenced by the phases of the moon.

We saw above that the prefix anis just a modified form of the prefix a- that we had met previously. The
form anis used when the following base begins with a vowel, or the letter ‘h.’ This is done to avoid hiatus,
the slight pause that occurs when two vowel sounds are next to each other without a consonant between
them. This does not happen only with a-; many of the Greek prefixes that end with a vowel have alternative
forms to use before bases that begin with vowels or the letter ‘h.’ Usually, this involves dropping off the
final vowel of the prefix (unlike a-, which adds on an ‘n’). This process is known as elision. We do
something similar in the English language when we shorten ‘I am’ to I’m’ or ‘you are’ to ‘you’re,’ although
we actually elide the vowel of the following word. Note, however, that the practice is inconsistent;
sometimes elision does occur, sometimes it does not, even with a prefix that normally undergoes elision. In
general, Latin prefixes do not elide. From now on, the list of prefixes you have to learn will include any
alternative forms. Here are the prefixes that you have already met that are included in this type:
1. a-, an- ‘not,’ ‘without,’ ‘non-’

2. anti-, ant- ‘against,’ ‘opposite’
3. apo-, ap- ‘away from’
4. dia-, di- ‘through,’ ‘apart,’ ‘in a line’
5. ecto-, ect- ‘outside,’ ‘outer’
6. endo-, end- ‘inside,’ ‘inner’
7. epi-, ep- ‘upon,’ ‘on the surface’
8. hypo-, hyp- ‘below,’ ‘deficient,’ ‘less than normal’
9. meta-, met- ‘after,’ ‘change,’ ‘transition’
10. para-, par- ‘beside,’ ‘beyond,’ ‘abnormal’
Note that the alternative form of dia- still ends in a vowel. The prefix peri- never elides, so there is no
possibility of confusing it with the prefix per-.
We have now seen several instances of different bases meaning the same thing, often because we have bases
derived from both Greek and Latin languages. Occasionally, both bases can be combined with the same
suffix to create terms with the same meaning, as we saw with steatosis and adiposis, but this is not common
and you should not rely on this being the case.
The skin, hair, and nails are often described by their color. We saw the base MELAN- meaning ‘black’
above; here are some more bases that indicate color for you to memorize:
27. CHRO- ‘color’

CHROM- ‘color’
CHROMAT- ‘color’
metachroic (meta-CHRO-ic) – pertaining to change in color
dyschromia (dys-CHROM-ia) – condition of abnormal color, i.e. discoloration, especially of
skin or nails
achromatic (a-CHROMAT-ic) – pertaining to without color
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28. NIGR- ‘black’

nigrescent (NIGR-escent) – beginning to be black
29. ALB- ‘white’

ALBID- ‘white,’ ‘whitish’
albescent (ALB-escent) – beginning to be white
People suffering from albinism lack pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes (or, the eyes only), caused by
abnormal melanin production. You may come across the terms albicans and nigricans, meaning ‘whitish’
and ‘blackisk,’ respectively.
30. LEUC- ‘white’

LEUK- ‘white’
leukotrichia (LEUK-O-TRICH-ia) – condition of hair that is white
leukocyte (LEUK-O-cyte) – cell that is white, i.e. a white (blood) cell
The alternative spelling LEUC- (where the ‘k’ of the Greek form is replaced by ‘c’) is occasionally used.
31. CAN- ‘white,’ ‘gray’

CAND- ‘white,’ ‘glowing white’
canescent (CAN-escent) – beginning to be white or gray
A term you might come across in relation to hair is canities, which means ‘whiteness or grayness of the hair
due to diminishing pigment.’
32. POLI- ‘gray’

trichopoliosis (TRICH-O-POLI-osis) – condition of graying of the hair
This base can also be found in terms relating to the gray matter of the central nervous system (the nerve cell
structures that are not coated with the white lipoprotein myelin), as opposed to the white matter (the nerve
cell structures that are coated with the white lipoprotein myelin).
33. ERYTHR- ‘red’

erythrodermic (ERYTHR-O-DERM-ic) – pertaining to skin that is red
erythrocyte (ERYTHR-O-cyte) – cell that is red, i.e. a red blood cell
34. RUB- ‘red’

RUBR- ‘red’
rubeosis (RUB-E-osis) – condition of red (discoloration of the skin)
rubricyte (RUBR-I-cyte) – cell that is red, i.e. a red blood cell (in an immature stage)
Note the combining vowels ‘e’ and ‘i.’
35. ROSE- ‘rosy-red,’ ‘pink’

roseate (ROSE-ate) – having rosy-red (coloration)
36. RHOD- ‘rosy-red’

rhodescent (RHOD-escent) – beginning to be rosy-red
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The metal rhodium is not itself rosy-red, but one of the salts from which the first extractions of the metal
were made is; this prompted its discoverer to name the new element after the Greek for rose. The light-
sensitive pigment in the eye, commonly known as ‘visual purple,’ is called rhodopsin, and appears reddish-
purple.
37. PURPUR- ‘purple’

purpuric (PURPUR-ic) – pertaining to a purple (condition), i.e. pertaining to purpura, a
condition that at one stage is characterize by a purple discoloration of the skin
purpuriferous (PURPUR-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to producing (visual) purple
Note the combining vowel ‘i.’
38. PORPHYR- ‘purple’

porphyrin (PORPHYR-in) – substance that is purple
porphyria (PORPHYR-ia) – condition of purple, i.e. the condition porphyria
Porphyrins are naturally occurring organic compounds, many of which are characterized by their purple
color. In the condition porphyria, excessive excretion of porphyrins can result in urine and feces that turn
purple when exposed to the air, or in purple lesions on the skin.
39. FUSC- ‘brown,’ ‘dark’

fuscin (FUSC-in) – substance that is brown, i.e. a brown pigment in the retina of the eye
obfuscate (ob-FUSC-ate) – to cause to (bring) toward darkness, i.e. to cause things to be unclear
40. CIRRH- ‘yellow,’ ‘tawny’

cirrhosis (CIRRH-osis) – condition of yellow (discoloration)
The term cirrhosis originated with the yellow discoloration of a diseased liver. We generally call the yellow
discoloration of the skin that occurs through liver degeneration jaundice, a term derived from the French
language, although we will meet a base meaning jaundice in a later chapter.
41. FLAV- ‘golden yellow,’ ‘reddish yellow’

flavin (FLAV-in) – substance that is reddish yellow, i.e. a variety of yellow pigment
You might just come across the term flavedo; it is quite outdated now, but it means a yellowing of the skin.
42. LUTE- ‘yellow’

lutein (LUTE-in) – substance that is yellow, i.e. a chemical substance isolated from egg yolk
You will most likely come across this base in relation to the corpus luteum, the ‘yellow body,’ a structure
formed in the ovary after ovulation:
luteal (LUTE-al) – pertaining to the corpus luteum
43. XANTH- ‘yellow’

xanthosis (XANTH-osis) – condition of yellowing (of the skin)
44. CHLOR- ‘green’

chlorosis (CHLOR-osis) – condition of green (discoloration of the skin)
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The gas chlorine got its name because of its yellow-green color. You will find the base CHLOR- meaning
‘chlorine’ in many chemical terms.
45. GLAUC- ‘bluish-gray,’ ‘silvery-gray’

glaucescent (GLAUC-escent) – beginning to be bluish-gray
Most of the terms you will come across using this base relate to the condition glaucoma, an eye disease
referred to by the ancient Greeks. Why they named it this is unclear; it may refer to a bluish-gray haze seen
in the pupil of an affected eye, although this is more likely indicative of cataracts than the condition
glaucoma as we understand it today.
46. CYAN- ‘blue’

cyanosis (CYAN-osis) – condition of blue (discoloration of the skin)
Some other color-related bases that you might come across, though not very often, are TEPHR- and CINER-
/CINE-, both of which actually means ‘ashes,’ but are used in terminology to indicate the color of ashes, i.e.
‘gray.’ Likewise PHAEO-/PHEO-, literally the color of the sky at twilight, is used for ‘gray’ or ‘dusky,’
while EOSIN-, the color of the sky at dawn, indicates a rosy-red hue.
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Eyes
Prefixes
1. ante- ‘before,’ ‘in front of’
2. cata-, cat- ‘down,’ ‘complete’
3. con- ‘together,’ ‘with’
4. ec-, ex- ‘out,’ ‘outside’
5. eiso-, eso- ‘inward,’
6. ento-, ent- ‘inside,’ ‘within’
7. hemi- ‘half’
8. infra- ‘below’
9. multi- ‘many,’ ‘much’
10. post- ‘behind,’ ‘after’
11. pros- ‘toward’
12. supra- ‘above’
Note the forms cata-/cat- and ento-/ent-; these two prefixes have alternative forms depending on whether
the base that follows begins with a consonant or with a vowel, or the letter ‘h.’ Remember, elision does not
occur with all prefixes that end in a vowel; here, the final vowels of hemi-, infra-, and supra- do not normally
elide. The prefix ante- never elides, so there is no possibility of confusing it with anti-/ant- (‘against,’
‘opposite’). The prefix ec- also has the alternative form ex- that is used before vowels and the letter ‘h.’ The
original Greek forms of the prefixes cata-/cat- and ec- were kata-/kat- and ek-, and you might still see these
alternative forms used today. eiso- and eso- are just alternative forms of the same prefix.
Suffixes
1. -duct ‘duct,’ ‘channel,’ ‘tube’
2. -ema ‘condition’
3. -esce ‘to begin,’ ‘to become’
4. -form ‘having the form of,’ ‘like’
5. -gram ‘record’
6. -graph ‘instrument used to record’
7. -iasis ‘state of,’ ‘process of,’ ‘abnormal condition’
8. -iatic ‘pertaining to a state,’ ‘pertaining to a process’
9. -ible, -ibil- ‘able to be’
10. -ical ‘pertaining to’
11. -itis ‘inflammation’
12. -ize ‘to make,’ ‘to affect’
13. -meter ‘instrument used to measure’
14. -scope ‘instrument used to examine’
15. -ual ‘pertaining to’
Note that when the suffix -ible is combined with another suffix after it, its form changes to -ibil-. So, for
example, visible (VIS-ible), but visibility (VIS-ibil-ity).
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Bases
We have seen previously that different bases can have the same meaning. This is also true for some of the
bases here related to the eye and sight, and for many of the bases we will encounter in the remaining chapters.
Be sure to memorize all forms.
1. PHOT- ‘light’
photodermatitis (PHOT-O-DERMAT-itis) – inflammation of the skin (caused by exposure to)
light
photoerythema (PHOT-O-ERYTH-ema) – condition of reddening (of the skin due to) light
photometer (PHOT-O-meter) – instrument to measure light
2. SCOT- ‘darkness’
scotosis (SCOT-osis) – abnormal condition of darkness (in the visual field), i.e. a blind spot
scotophobia (SCOT-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of the darkness
3. BLEP- ‘to see,’ ‘sight’

BLEPS- ‘to see,’ ‘sight’
ablepsia (a-BLEPS-ia) – condition of without sight, i.e. blindness
parablepsy (para-BLEPS-y) – state of beyond (normal) sight, i.e. hallucination, visual illusion
4. VID- ‘to see,’ ‘sight’

VIS- ‘to see,’ ‘sight’
visual (VIS-ual) – pertaining to seeing or sight
visible (VIS-ible) – able to be seen
visibility (VIS-ibil-ity) – state of being able to be seen
xenovision (XEN-O-VIS-ion) – act of seeing strange or foreign (things in the imagination)
Note the change in the form of the suffix -ible to -ibil- in the term visibility, due to the combination of the
two suffixes.
5. OP- ‘eye,’ ‘sight’

OPS- ‘eye,’ ‘sight’
OPT- ‘eye,’ ‘sight’
scotopia (SCOT-OP-ia) – process of sight in the dark, i.e. the adaptation of the eye to seeing in
the dark
hemianopsia (hemi-an-OPS-ia) – condition of half non-sight, i.e. loss of vision in half the visual
field
entoptic (ent-OPT-ic) – pertaining to within the eye
optomeningeal (OPT-O-MENING-eal) – pertaining to the membrane of the eye, i.e. pertaining
to the retina
Note that the term hemianopsia is unusual in that it has two prefixes (actually, we will find it is unusual in
another way later on). Remember, we use the prefix an- instead of a- (meaning ‘not,’ ‘without,’ ‘non-’)
when the following base begins with a vowel or the letter ‘h.’ When the base OP- is combined with the
prefix pros-, we get the new base PROSOP-:
6. PROSOP- ‘face’
prosopic (PROSOP-ic) – pertaining to the face
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7. OCUL- ‘eye,’ ‘sight’

infraocular (infra-OCUL-ar) – pertaining to below the eye
oculofacial (OCUL-O-FACI-al) – pertaining to the face and eyes
postocular (post-OCUL-ar) – pertaining to behind the eye
8. OPHTHALM- ‘eye,’ ‘sight’

exophthalmic (ex-OPHTHALM-ic) – pertaining to an outward eye, i.e. pertaining to an
abnormal protrusion of the eyeball from the socket
xenophthalmia (XEN-OPHTHALM-ia) condition of the eye (caused by a) foreign (body)
anophthalmia (an-OPHTHALM-ia) – condition of without eyes
ophthalmoscope (OPHTHALM-O-scope) – instrument to examine the eyes
ophthalmograph (OPHTHALM-O-graph) – instrument used to record (movement) of the eyes
Note that the prefix ex- is the alternative form of ec- that is used before vowels and the letter ‘h.’
9. ORBIT- ‘wheel track,’ ‘circle,’ ‘ring’

orbital (ORBIT-al) – pertaining to a circular (path)
The base ORBIT- has been given a specific meaning in the orbit of the eye or eye socket, the bony cavity
that contains the eyeball and associated parts:
ORBIT- ‘orbit’ (of the eye)

anteorbital (ante-ORBIT-al) – pertaining to in front of the orbit of the eye
orbitotemporal (ORBIT-O-TEMPOR-al) – pertaining to the temporal and orbital bones and
regions
supraorbital (supra-ORBIT-al) – pertaining to above the orbit of the eye
10. BLEPHAR- ‘eyelid’

ablephary (a-BLEPHAR-y) – state of without eyelids
symblepharosis (sym-BLEPHAR-osis) – abnormal condition of together eyelids, i.e. the upper
and lower eyelids stuck together, or to the eyeball
blepharogram (BLEPHAR-O-gram) – record of eyelid (movement), i.e. the trace on a graph
that records the eyelid movement
11. PALPEBR- ‘eyelid’

postpalpebral (post-PALPEBR-al) – pertaining to behind the eyelid
palpebrate (PALPEBR-ate) – having eyelids
palpebration (PALPEBR-ation) – process with the eyelid, i.e. winking
12. GEN- ‘to produce,’ ‘to beget’

GENIT- ‘to produce,’ ‘to beget’
genesis (GEN-esis) – process of production
adipogenic (ADIP-O-GEN-ic) – pertaining to production of fat
metagenesis (meta-GEN-esis) – process of transitional production, i.e. alternation of
generations
genital (GENIT-al) – pertaining to reproduction
13. CILI- ‘eyelid,’ ‘eyelash,’ ‘hair-like structures’

ciliary (CILI-ary) – pertaining to the eyelid or eyelashes
ciliogenesis (CILI-O-GEN-esis) – process of production of eyelashes or hair-like structures
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multiciliate (multi-CILI-ate) – having many hair-like structures
The ciliary body of the eye is actually within the eyeball itself; it contains muscles that can change the shape
of the eye lens.
14. JUNCT- ‘to join’

conjunctive (con-JUNCT-ive) – pertaining to together joined, i.e. joining, connecting
We get the term conjunctiva from this base, the name for the delicate membrane that lines the eyelid and
covers part of the surface of the eyeball, in effect connecting the eyelid and eyeball. We can think of
CONJUNCTIV- as a base:
15. CONJUNCTIV- ‘conjunctiva’ (membrane of the eye)

conjunctival (CONJUCTIV-al) – pertaining to the conjunctiva
conjunctivitis (CONJUNCTIV-itis) – inflammation of the conjunctiva
conjunctivoma (CONJUNCTIV-oma) – tumor of the conjunctiva
16. SCLER- ‘hard,’ ‘firm,’ ‘thick’

sclerodermal (SCLER-O-DERM-al) – pertaining to skin that is hard or thick
scleronychia (SCLER-ONYCH-ia) – condition of hardening or thickening of the nails
We get the term sclera from this base, the name for the firm outer coating of the eyeball:
SCLER- ‘sclera’ (the white of the eye)

scleritis (SCLER-itis) – inflammation of the sclera
17. CORN- ‘horn’

CORNE- ‘horn’
corneous (CORNE-ous) – pertaining to horn
cornual (CORN-ual) – pertaining to horn
We saw in the previous chapter that the base KERAT- ‘horn’ was related to the cornea of the eye, since
parts of the cornea contain the hard, fibrous protein keratin; likewise, the base CORN-/CORNE-, also
meaning ‘horn’, relates to the cornea:
CORNE- ‘cornea’ (of the eye)

corneal (CORNE-al) – pertaining to the cornea
corneoscleral (CORNE-O-SCLER-al) – pertaining to the sclera and cornea
18. RET- ‘net,’ ‘network’

retiform (RET-I-form) – like a net
Note the combining vowel in retiform is ‘i.’ We get the term retina from this base, the name for the photo-
sensitive layer of the eye characterized by a network of blood vessels. We can think of RETIN- as a base:
19. RETIN- ‘retina’ (of the eye)

retinitis (RETIN-itis) – inflammation of the retina
retinosis (RETIN-osis) – abnormal condition of the retina
retinoschisal (RETIN-O-SCHIS-al) – pertaining to a split or rupture within the retina
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20. CHOR- ‘membrane’

CHORI- ‘membrane’
choroid (CHOR-oid) – like a membrane
chorioid (CHORI-oid) – like a membrane
Two specific membranes related to this base are the chorion, one of the fetal membranes, and the choroid,
a membrane that is part of the internal structure of the eye.
CHORI- ‘chorion,’ ‘choroid’

CHORION- ‘chorion’
CHOROID- ‘choroid’
chorionic (CHORION-ic) – pertaining to the chorion
choroidal (CHOROID-al) – pertaining to the choroid
choroiditis (CHOROID-itis) – inflammation of the choroid
21. TROCH- ‘wheel,’ ‘round shaped,’ ‘pulley shaped’

TROCHLE- ‘pulley shaped’
trochoid (TROCH-oid) – like a wheel, i.e. revolving or rotating
trochocephalia (TROCH-O-CEPHAL-ia) – condition of the head that is (abnormally) round
shaped, i.e. an abnormally round head due to premature fusion of the cranial bones
We get the term trochlea from this base, the name for any structure in which a loop acts like a pulley for a
tendon to run through, or a grooved structure that acts like a pulley wheel. In the eye, the trochlea is a fibrous
loop in the eye orbit through which the tendons of the eye muscles pass:
TROCHLE- ‘trochlea’
trochlear (TROCHLE-ar) – pertaining to a trochlea
trochleiform (TROCHLE-I-form) – like a trochlea
22. CYST- ‘bladder,’ ‘cyst,’ sac’

cystitis (CYST-itis) – inflammation of the (urinary) bladder
cystic (CYST-ic) – pertaining to a bladder, cyst or sac
23. PHAC- (i) ‘lentil bean’: (ii) ‘eye lens’

PHAK- (i) ‘lentil bean’: (ii) ‘eye lens’
phacoid (PHAC-oid) – resembling a lentil bean, resembling an eye lens
phakoma (PHAK-oma) – tumor associated with the eye lens
phacocystic (PHAC-O-CYST-ic) – pertaining to the sac (containing) the eye lens
The phacocyst (the sac containing the eye lens) is more commonly called the lens capsule.
24. LENT- (i) ‘lentil bean’: (ii) ‘eye lens’

LENTICUL- (i) ‘lentil bean’: (ii) ‘eye lens’
lentiform (LENT-I-form) – having the form of a lentil seed, having the form of an eye lens
lenticular (LENTICUL-ar) – pertaining to a lentil, pertaining to a lens
In both Greek and Latin, the eye lens got its name because it resembles a lentil bean in shape and size. Note
the combining vowel in lentiform is ‘i.’ The base LENTICUL- is actually a diminutive form of LENT-,
meaning ‘small lentil,’ ‘small lens.’
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25. IRID- ‘rainbow’

IRIS- ‘rainbow’
iridesce (IRID-esce) – to become like a rainbow, i.e. having rainbow-like colors
We get the term for the iris of the eye from this base. In Greek mythology, Iris was the goddess of the
rainbow and messenger of the gods. Supposedly, the iris of the eye gets its name because, like the rainbow,
it can be many different colors.
IRID- ‘iris’ (colored portion of the eye)

IRIS- ‘iris’ (colored portion of the eye)
iridesis (IRID-esis) – abnormal condition of the iris
iridoschisal (IRID-O-SCHIS-al) – pertaining to a split or rupture within the iris
irisopsia (IRIS-OPS-ia) – condition of seeing rainbow colors (around objects)
26. UV- ‘grape’

uviform (UV-I-form) – like a grape
uvula (UV-ula) – small grape, i.e. uvula, a small grape-like structure
Note the combining vowel in uviform is ‘i.’ The term uvula generally refers to the pendulous mass at the
back of the mouth that shows some resemblance to a small grape on a stem. We can think of UVUL- as a
base:
27. UVUL- ‘uvula’

uvulitis (UVUL-itis) – inflammation of the uvula
In the eye, the iris, ciliary body, and the choroid are collectively called the uvea. The term derives from this
base for grape, presumably due to some similarities in size and appearance between the two. We can think
of UVE- as a base:
28. UVE- ‘uvea’

uveal (UVE-al) – pertaining to the uvea
uveitis (UVE-itis) – inflammation of the uvea
uveomeningitis (UVE-O-MENING-itis) – inflammation of the meninges and the uvea
29. STEN- ‘narrow,’ ‘contracted’

dermostenosis (DERM-O-STEN-osis) – condition of contraction of the skin
sclerostenosis (SCLER-O-STEN-osis) – condition of contraction caused by hardening or
thickening (of tissue)
stenophobia (STEN-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of narrow (spaces)
30. TON- ‘tone,’ ‘tension,’ ‘stretching’

tonia (TON-ia) – condition of tone, i.e. normal condition of tone or tension in a muscle
atony (a-TON-y) – quality of without tone, i.e. quality of a muscle that has lost its strength or
firmness
hypertonic (hyper-TON-ic) – pertaining to more than normal tone or tension, i.e. pertaining to
a muscle in a state of extreme tension, causing inability to stretch
catatonia (cata-TON-ia) – condition of complete tension, i.e. a complete rigidity of the muscles
resulting in lack of mobility, a symptom of a particular behavioral abnormality or mental
impairment
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31. COR- ‘pupil’ (of the eye)

CORE- ‘pupil’ (of the eye)
dyscoria (dys-COR-ia) – condition of abnormal pupil or pupils
stenocoriasis (STEN-O-COR-iasis) – state of the pupil marked by narrowing, i.e. constriction
of the pupil
32. PUPILL- ‘pupil’

interpupillary (inter-PUPILL-ary) – pertaining to between the pupils, i.e. generally pertaining
to the distance between the pupils
pupillatonia (PUPILL-a-TON-ia) – condition of without tone in the pupil, i.e. the pupil lacks
the ability to contract
Both Greek and Latin terms for the pupil derive from words for a ‘little doll’ or ‘puppet,’ since, supposedly,
if you look into someone’s pupil, you see a puppet-like reflection of yourself. The term pupillatonia is
unusual in that there is a base preceding the prefix.
33. LACRIM- ‘tears’

lacrimatory (LACRIM-atory) – pertaining to tears
lacrimal (LACRIM-al) – pertaining to tears
lacrimation (LACRIM-ation) – process of (producing) tears
34. DACRY- ‘tears’

dacryogenic (DACRY-O-GEN-ic) – pertaining to producing tears
dacryocystic (DACRY-O-CYST-ic) – pertaining to the sac related to tears, i.e. pertaining to
the lacrimal sac
dacryocystitis (DACRY-O-CYST-itis) – inflammation of the sac related to tears, i.e.
inflammation of the lacrimal sac
35. VITR- ‘glass’

VITRE- ‘glass’
vitric (VITR-ic) – pertaining to glass
vitreous (VITRE-ous) – like glass
One specific use of this base is in the term vitreous humor, the gelatinous, glassy-like, fluid between the
lens and retina in the eye:
VITR- ‘vitreous humor’

VITRE- ‘vitreous humor’
vitritis (VITR-itis) – inflammation of the vitreous humor
vitreoretinal (VITRE-O-RETIN-al) – pertaining to the retina and the vitreous humor
36. HYAL- ‘glass’

hyalophobia (HYAL-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of glass (objects)
hyaloid (HYAL-oid) – resembling glass, i.e. glassy, translucent appearance
Like VITR- and VITRE-, this base is also used about the gelatinous, glass-like, fluid between the lens and
retina in the eye:
HYAL- ‘vitreous humor’

hyalitis (HYAL-itis) – inflammation of the vitreous humor
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hyalosis (HYAL-osis) – abnormal condition of the vitreous humor
37. AQU- ‘water,’ ‘watery fluid’

AQUE- ‘water,’ ‘watery fluid’
aquaphobia (AQU-A-phobia) – abnormal fear of water
aqueduct (AQUE-duct) – a duct or channel that carries water
aqueous (AQUE-ous) – like water, i.e. watery
Note the combining vowel in aquaphobia is ‘a.’ The aqueous humor is the watery fluid between the lens
and cornea in the eye.
38. MEI- ‘lesser,’ ‘smaller’

MI- ‘lesser,’ ‘smaller’
meiosis (MEI-osis) – process of making lesser, i.e. process of cell division in which the number
of chromosomes is lessened
miosis (MI-osis) – process of making smaller, i.e. process of constriction (of the pupil)
miotic (MI-O-tic) – pertaining to the process of miosis
The opposite of miosis of the pupil is mydriasis, a widening of the pupil.
39. MYOP- ‘short-sighted,’ ‘near-sighted’

myopia (MYOP-ia) – condition of near-sightedness
myopic (MYOP-ic) – pertaining to near-sightedness
This base originates from the Greek meaning ‘contracted eye,’ since those who are short-sighted often partly
close their eyes, or squint, in order to try and focus on distant objects. The opposite condition is hyperopia
(hyper-OP-ia), literally ‘condition of more than normal sight,’ or far-sightedness, in which sufferers have
difficulty focusing on near objects.
40. TROP- ‘to turn,’ ‘turning’

phototropic (PHOT-O-TROP-ic) – pertaining to turning (in response) to the light
esotropia (eso-TROP-ia) – condition of inward turning, i.e. a condition of the eyes in which
one or both eyes turn inward

In Chapter 3, we noted that some base-suffix pairs occur together so regularly that they are often treated as
one compound suffix. There we saw -phobia, -philia, -mania, and -mnesia; here we will look at some more.
First, three that use some of the bases we have just learned:
1. -blepsia ‘condition of sight’

2. -opia ‘condition of sight’
3. -opsia ‘condition of sight’
Now, three others compound suffixes using new bases (these new bases need to be memorized):
41. GRAPH- ‘to write,’ ‘to record’

dysgraphia (dys-GRAPH-ia) – condition of bad or difficult writing, i.e. inability to write
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42. METR- (i) ‘measurement’: (ii) ‘womb,’ ‘uterus’

metrical (METR-ical) – pertaining to measurement
metricize (METR-ic-ize) – to make pertaining to measurement
Note that the term metricize is unusual in that it has two suffixes. We will come back to METR- meaning
‘womb’ or ‘uterus’ in a later chapter.
43. SCOP- ‘to view,’ ‘to examine’

optoscopic (OPTO-SCOP-ic) – pertaining to examination of the eye
All three of these bases are regularly combined with the suffix -y (‘quality of,’ ‘state of,’ ‘act of’) to form -
graphy, -metry, and -scopy:
4. -graphy ‘process of recording’

5. -metry ‘process of measuring’
6. -scopy ‘process of examining with an instrument’
We have already seen how the final vowel of some prefixes gets dropped when the prefix is added to a base
beginning with a vowel or the letter ‘h.’ We called this process elision. Something similar happens with
some prefixes that end in a consonant; however, in this case, the change occurs when the following base
also begins with a consonant. The six prefixes that we have met so far that this applies to are con-, en-, in-,
syn-, ob-, and sub-. When they go before bases that begin with certain consonants, the final consonant of
the prefix changes to something closer to the beginning consonant of the base. This happens because, in
speaking, the tongue anticipates what sound is coming next. This process is called assimilation, with the
consonants similar or identical to each other.
Therefore, for con-,

when the base begins with l, con- becomes col-
when the base begins with b, con- becomes com-
when the base begins with m, con- becomes com-
when the base begins with p, con- becomes com-
when the base begins with r, con- becomes cor-
For en-, when the base begins with l, en- becomes el-
when the base begins with b, en- becomes em-
when the base begins with m, en- becomes em-
when the base begins with p, en- becomes em-
when the base begins with r, en- becomes er-
For in-, when the base begins with l, in- becomes il-
when the base begins with b, in- becomes im-
when the base begins with m, in- becomes im-
when the base begins with p, in- becomes im-
when the base begins with r, in- becomes ir-
For syn-, when the base begins with l, syn- becomes syl-
when the base begins with b, syn- becomes sym-
when the base begins with m, syn- becomes sym-
when the base begins with p, syn- becomes sym-
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when the base begins with s, syn- becomes sys- or sy-
For ob-, when the base begins with c, ob- becomes oc-
when the base begins with f, ob- becomes of-
when the base begins with g, ob- becomes og-
when the base begins with p, ob- becomes op-
For sub-, when the base begins with c, sub- becomes suc-
when the base begins with g, sub- becomes sug-
when the base begins with p, sub- becomes sup-
when the base begins with r, sub- becomes sur-
It is not as difficult as it looks. Note how all the prefixes ending in the letter ‘n’ behave in a similar way.
Just be aware that if you come across a prefix that you do not immediately recognize, it may be an
assimilated form. From now on, the various forms will be listed in the tables of prefixes that you memorize.
This seems like a good place to have a review of the prefixes and suffixes we have learned so far, and to
remind ourselves of the basic techniques of building up medical definitions.
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REVIEW
Prefixes
Here are all the prefixes we have come across so far, including any alternative forms that occur because of
elision, assimilation, or any other pronunciation change. Remember, prefixes are often prepositions that tell
us ‘where’ something happens (its location or direction), or adverbs that tell us ‘how’ something happens
(its degree, amount or quality), or ‘when.’ Some prefixes can act as both preposition and adverb; ante-, for
example, can mean both ‘before, in front of’ in the sense of location, but also in the sense of time.
1. a-, an- ‘without,’ ‘not,’ ‘non-’

9. con-, col-, com-, cor- ‘together,’ ‘with’
10. contra- ‘opposite,’ ‘against’
16. eiso-, eso- ‘inward’
17. en-, el-, em-, er- ‘in,’ ‘inward’
23. hemi- ‘half’
26. in-, il-, im-, ir- ‘in,’ ‘into’
32. multi- ‘many,’ ‘much’
33. non- ‘not’
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REVIEW

38. poly- ‘many,’ ‘much’
42. semi- ‘half,’ ‘partly’
43. sub-, suc-, sug-, sup-, sur- ‘below,’ ‘underneath’
46. syn-, syl-, sym-, sys-, sy- ‘together,’ ‘with,’ ‘concurrent’
Adjective-forming Suffixes
All of these suffixes form an adjective when added to a base.

2. -ad ‘toward’
8. -ate ‘pertaining to,’ ‘having,’ ‘having the shape,’ ‘to (…)’
18. -ile ‘pertaining to,’ ‘able to’
21. -oid ‘resembling,’ ‘shaped,’ ‘like,’ ‘shaped like’
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REVIEW
Note that -ate can also form a verb, the infinitive ‘to do (something)’ when combined with a base.
Noun-forming Suffixes
All of these suffixes form a noun when added to a base:

44. -osis ‘process of,’ condition of,’ ‘abnormal condition of’
46. -sia, -sis ‘process of,’ ‘condition of,’ ‘act of’
These two suffixes also form nouns when added to a base, but they form a special type of noun called a
diminutive, something that expresses the small size of the thing in question:
50. -cle ‘small’

51. -ula ‘small’
We can also add our compound suffixes here, since they also form nouns when added to a base:

53. -cyte ‘cell’
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REVIEW

60. -philia ‘condition of attraction,’ ‘abnormal craving for’
Note that the suffix -verse can also form an adjective or a verb.
Verb-forming Suffixes
All of these suffixes form a verb when added to a base:


So, just to review the approach we have used. Suppose that you have broken down your compound term
into its individual word parts, prefix(es), suffix(es), base(s), and combining vowel(s), you have accounted
for everything in the term and is nothing left over, in what order do you build up your word?
BASE-suffix
The simplest case is just one base and one suffix. Remember, there must be a suffix to complete the sense
of the base. Always start with the suffix – this is going to tell you whether your compound term is a noun,
adjective, or verb. Then, add in your base, and add in any little words such as ‘the’ or ‘of’ you need to make
sense:
frontal (FRONT-al) – pertaining to the front
Sometimes, you might have to add a little more to make a good definition. This is probably the most difficult
part because you have to apply a bit of common sense. Here, for example,
steatosis (STEAT-osis) – abnormal condition of fat
Steatosis does mean abnormal condition of fat, but is it likely that the fat itself is abnormal? A more likely
case is that it is a condition in which an abnormal amount of fat is deposited, so you can adjust your definition
to reflect this:
steatosis (STEAT-osis) – abnormal condition of fat deposit
This expansion of the term can be difficult at first but, when you have seen a lot more examples, it will
become easier.
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REVIEW
BASE-CV-suffix
Sometimes, there might be a combining vowel between your base and suffix if the base ends with a
consonant and the suffix begins with a consonant. This is to make pronunciation easier. Remember, we
always think of the combining vowel as being added to the end of the base, not the beginning of the suffix.
Combining vowels are often ‘o,’ but they can be the other vowels or the letter ‘y.’ Always start with the
suffix, then add in your base. Add in any words necessary to make good sense. The combining vowel does
not add anything to the definition, but be sure that you can recognize it:
morphotic (MORPH-O-tic) – pertaining to form or shape

collagen (COLL-A-gen) – that which produces glue
BASE-BASE-suffix (and BASE-CV-BASE-suffix, BASE-BASE-CV-suffix)

Since the combining vowel adds nothing to the definition, we can consider all these cases together.
Remember, a combining vowel may occur between bases, or between base and suffix. This is a little more
complicated because of the two bases, since sometimes the exact relationship between the two is not explicit.
Always start with the suffix, then add the ultimate base (the last base); we can be pretty certain that the
suffix completes its sense. Often the suffix applies to both bases and we can just join them with the word
‘and’:
temporoparietal (TEMPOR-O-PARIET-al) – pertaining to the parietal and temporal bones or

regions
Sometimes, the suffix cannot apply to both bases; here, for example,
cephalocaudad (CEPHAL-O-CAUD-ad) – toward the tail…the head
‘toward the tail and the head’ at the same time is very unlikely, and we have to supply a bit of common
sense to make a useful definition. Remember to add in any words necessary to make good sense:
Here is another example, with no combining vowel:
gyrencephalic (GYR-ENCEPHAL-ic) – pertaining to the brain…coil
Again, ‘pertaining to the brain and a coil’ does not seem very likely, and we have to use a bit of common
sense to get a good definition.
gyrencephalic (GYR-ENCEPHAL-ic) – pertaining to a brain that has coils, i.e. a brain with
many folds
This all becomes easier with practice.
BASE-suffix-suffix (including any terms with combining vowels)

Occasionally, there may be more than one suffix. Here are three examples we have seen:

visibility (VIS-ibil-ity) – state of being able to be seen
metricize (METR-ic-ize) – to make pertaining to measurement
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REVIEW
Start with the last suffix, add the other suffix, and then add the base. Add in any words necessary to make
good sense. It is as if you are making a single suffix out of the two suffixes, and then applying it to your
base. This will work for almost all cases, even if there is more than one base. If combining vowels are
involved, they do not alter the definition.
prefix-BASE-suffix (including any terms with combining vowels)

Remember, the prefix adds extra information about the base. Always start with the suffix, then add the
prefix, and then add in your base. Add in any words necessary to make good sense.
nonelastic (non-ELAST-ic) – pertaining to not flexible
prefix-BASE-BASE-suffix (including any terms with combining vowels)

We have not come across any compound terms of this type yet. They do exist and we will talk about them
when we meet them.
prefix-prefix-BASE-suffix (including any terms with combining vowels)

The inclusion of more than one prefix in a term is unusual, but does occur occasionally. We have already
seen, for example:
antidepressive (anti-de-PRESS-ive) – pertaining to against downward pressing, i.e.

counteracting feeling of hopelessness
In most cases, always start with the suffix, then add the first prefix, then the second prefix, and then add in
your base. Add in any words necessary to make good sense.
Rule-breakers and Oddities

Remember, these are general rules. Like any language, rules get broken sometimes. There will also be
oddities. We have already seen, for example:
pupillatonia (PUPILL-a-TON-ia) – condition of without tone in the pupil, i.e. the pupil lacks
In this case, a base precedes a prefix-BASE-suffix combination. We will talk about other rule-breakers and
oddities as we meet them.
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Ears
Prefixes
1. ana-, an- ‘up,’ ‘upward,’ ‘again’
2. dis-, dif-, di- ‘apart,’ ‘away from,’ ‘separation’ ‘lack of’
3. enanti- ‘opposite’
4. ex-, ef-, e- ‘out,’ ‘outside,’ ‘from’
5. exo-, ex- ‘outside,’ ‘outer,’ ‘external’
6. in-, il-, im-, ir- ‘not’
7. juxta- ‘close to’
8. pre-, prae- ‘in front of,’ ‘before’
9. pro- ‘in front of,’ ‘forward’
10. se- ‘away,’ ‘aside’
11. ultra- ‘beyond’
We have met the prefix in-, il-, im-, ir- previously, where it had the meanings ‘in,’ ‘into,’ ‘on,’ and ‘upon.’
Here, it has a completely unrelated meaning, ‘not.’ It follows the same rules of assimilation that we looked
at earlier. The prefix dis undergoes some changes depending on the first letter of the base that follows; it
becomes dif- before ‘f,’ and di- before ‘b,’ ‘d,’ ‘g,’ ‘l,’ ‘m,’ ‘n,’ ‘r,’ and ‘v.’ The prefix ex- also undergoes
some changes; as a general rule, ex- before vowels, the letter ‘h,’ and some consonants, ef- before ‘f,’ e-
before most consonants. Do not try and memorize these changes, just be aware of them so you are not
confused when a prefix appears in an unfamiliar form. Two of the prefixes that end in a vowel, ana- and
exo-, may undergo elision before a base that begins with a vowel or the letter ‘h.’ Note that it is possible for
some confusion between an-, the elided form of ana-, and an-, the elided form of a- (remember, because a-
is in itself only a single vowel, when it elides it must add something, rather than remove something). In most
cases, context will help you make the correct choice.
Suffixes
1. -able, -abil- ‘able to be’
2. -ac ‘pertaining to’
3. -ance, -ancy ‘state of’
4. -ature ‘system composed of’
5. -culus ‘small’
6. -ent ‘pertaining to’
7. -er ‘person who (does…),’ ‘thing that (does…)’
8. -fic ‘causing,’ ‘making’
9. -ician ‘specialist’
10. -ics, -tics ‘art of,’ ‘science of,’ ‘study of’
11. -id ‘pertaining to,’ ‘having’
12. -ine ‘pertaining to’
13. -ism ‘condition of’
14. -ist ‘person who (does…),’ ‘specialist’
15. -ization ‘process of making’
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16. -ory ‘having the function of’
Note that when the suffix -able is combined with another suffix after it, its form changes to -abil-. So, for
example, permeable (per-ME-able), but permeability (per-ME-abil-ity).
Bases
Here are our bases relating to the ear, hearing, and sound:
1. AUD- ‘to hear,’ ‘hearing’

AUDI- ‘to hear,’ ‘hearing’
AUDIT- ‘to hear,’ ‘hearing’
audile (AUD-ile) – pertaining to hearing; also, able to hear, i.e. a person who understands better
what they hear rather than what they see
audiometry (AUDI-O-metry) – process of measuring hearing
auditory (AUDIT-ory) – having the function of hearing
2. ACOU- ‘hearing,’ ‘sound’

ACOUS- ‘hearing,’ ‘sound’
acoumeter (ACOU-meter) – instrument used to measure hearing
anacousia (an-ACOUS-ia) – condition of not hearing, i.e. deafness
acousticophobia (ACOUS-tic-O-phobia) – abnormal fear pertaining to sound
Note that acousticophobia is unusual in that it has two suffixes; also, since the first one ends with a consonant
and the second one starts with a consonant, a combining vowel is added to the first suffix. This follows
exactly the method we outlined in the last chapter for BASE-suffix-suffix. Start with the final suffix, add
the other suffix, and then add the base; add in any words necessary to make good sense, and if combining
vowels are involved, they do not alter the definition.
3. SON- ‘sound’
asonia (a-SON-ia) – condition of without sound, i.e. deafness
ultrasonography (ultra-SON-O-graphy) – process of recording with beyond (normal) sound,
i.e. visualizing internal structures using reflected high frequency sound waves
sonographer (SON-O-GRAPH-er) – person who records with sound, i.e. specialist who uses
high-frequency sound waves for diagnosis
dissonance (dis-SON-ance) – state of separation of sound, i.e. a disagreement or discord of
sound
4. AUR- ‘ear’
dextraural (DEXTR-AUR-al) – pertaining to the right ear
auriscopy (AUR-I-scopy) – process of examining the ear with an instrument
auricle (AUR-I-cle) – small ear
Note the combining vowel in auriscopy and in auricle is ‘i.’ The term dextraural may refer to a person who
prefers to use his or her right ear when answering the phone; a person who prefers to use his or her left ear
can be called levoaural or sinistraural (remember, we came across two bases that mean ‘left’). The term
auricle is applied to the part of the outer ear that projects outward from the head, but also to the small, ear-
shaped projections found in the heart. We can think of AURICUL- as a base:
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5. AURICUL- ‘auricle,’ ‘outer ear’

auricular (AURICUL-ar) – pertaining to the outer ear, pertaining to an auricle
preauricular (pre-AURICUL-ar) – pertaining to in front of the outer ear, pertaining to in front
of the auricle
auriculocranial (AURICUL-O-CRANI-al) – pertaining to the cranium and the outer ear
auriculoid (AURICUL-oid) – shaped like the outer ear
6. OT- ‘ear’
endotitis (end-OT-itis) – inflammation of the inner ear
prootic (pro-OT-ic) – pertaining to in front of the ear
parotid (par-OT-id) – pertaining to beside the ear
Notice that in endotitis, the prefix endo- has elided to end- because the following base begins with a vowel,
and para- has elided to par- in parotid. The prefix pro- does not elide, hence the term prootic, with a slight
pause in pronunciation between pro- and -OT-ic.
7. PENN- ‘feather,’ ‘wing’

PINN- ‘feather,’ ‘wing’
penniform (PENN-I-form) – like a feather or wing
pinnate (PINN-ate) – pertaining to a feather or wing, having feathers or wings
Note the combining vowel in penniform is ‘i.’ Because it is a projecting body part, like a feather or wing,
the outer part of the ear is sometimes called the pinna, an alternative to auricle:
PINN- ‘pinna,’ ‘auricle’ (the outer ear)

pinnal (PINN-al) – pertaining to the pinna
The pinna is made up from elastic cartilage and overlying skin.
8. CHONDR- ‘granule,’ ‘cartilage’

synchondrosis (syn-CHONDR-osis) – condition of (a joint) with cartilage, i.e. a joint where
cartilage is the connection medium between the bones
hypochondriac (hypo-CHONDR-I-ac) – pertaining to below the cartilage region (of the
breastbone)
hypochondriasis (hypo-CHONDR-iasis) – abnormal condition below the cartilage region (of
the breastbone), i.e. an abnormal condition affecting the hypochondriac region
The hypochondrium is the part of the abdomen below the cartilaginous breastbone but above the navel. The
ancient Greeks believed that this was the place where the bodily humors that caused melancholy resided.
When the term hypochondriasis, or hypochondria, first entered medical vocabulary, it was applied to any
condition that was believed to be caused by an imbalance of the humors in that region, including disorders
of the stomach and digestive system, as well as anxiety and gloominess. Today, the term is used for a
condition in which sufferers worry morbidly about having serious illnesses, despite there being no medical
evidence of illness.
9. HELIC- ‘spiral,’ ‘helix’

helicine (HELIC-ine) – pertaining to a spiral or helix
helicoid (HELIC-oid) – resembling a spiral or helix
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The outer curled edge of the auricle (or pinna) is termed the helix; the inner rim of the edge is termed the
antihelix.
10. FOSS- ‘ditch,’ ‘trench,’ ‘to dig’

efossion (e-FOSS-ion) – action of removal by digging, i.e. digging out or up
In anatomy, a pit, a trench-like depression, or a hollow in the surface of a structure in the body is called a
fossa:
FOSS- ‘fossa’
fossula (FOSS-ula) – a little fossa, i.e. a small depression or hollow
In the ear, the triangular fossa is a shallow depression between two parts of the antihelix.
11. SCAPH- ‘boat shaped’

scaphocephalism (SCAPH-O-CEPHAL-ism) – condition of the head being boat shaped, i.e. a
condition in which the cranial bones fuse abnormally, resulting in a long narrow head (like
an inverted boat)
scaphoid (SCAPH-oid) – shaped like a boat
In the ear, the scaphoid fossa is a boat-shaped groove inside the helix.
12. TUBER- ‘swelling,’ ‘nodule’

tubercle (TUBER-cle) – small swelling
In the ear, the tubercle is a small bump on the helix, sometimes called Darwin’s tubercle because he
mentions it in his famous work, Descent of Man. We can think of TUBERCUL- as a base:
13. TUBERCUL- ‘tubercle,’ ‘small swelling or nodule’

tuberculitis (TUBERCUL-itis) – inflammation of any tubercle
tuberculosis (TUBERCUL-osis) – abnormal condition of the tubercles
More specifically, tuberculosis is a disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, often
located in the lungs.
14. CONCH- ‘sea-shell,’ ‘spiral shell’

conchate (CONCH-ate) – pertaining to a sea-shell
conchiform (CONCH-I-form) – having the form of a spiral shell
In anatomy, a concha is a structure similar in shape to a sea-shell. Note the combining vowel in conchiform
is ‘i.’ In the ear, the concha is an area of the auricle (or pinna) between helix and antihelix. In the nose, the
conchae (this is the plural of concha) are long, thin spongy bones that are curved like a sea-shell:
CONCH- ‘concha’
conchitis (CONCH-itis) – inflammation of a concha
conchoscope (CONCH-O-scope) – an instrument used to examine the conchae
Sometimes, the conchae are called turbinates:
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15. TURBIN- ‘cone shaped,’ ‘spiraled’

turbinate (TURBIN-ate) – having cone shaped (features)
turbinated (TURBIN-ated) – composed of spiraled (parts)
turbinectomy (TURBIN-ectomy) – surgical removal of a turbinated (bone)
16. MAST- ‘breast’

amastia (a-MAST-ia) – condition of without breasts
mastoid (MAST-oid) – resembling a breast
Just behind the outer ear, there is a bony projection from the temporal bone; because this rounded bone was
thought to resemble a breast, it was termed the mastoid process (see below for the term ‘process’). We can
think of MASTOID- as a base:
17. MASTOID- ‘mastoid process’

mastoiditis (MASTOID-itis) – inflammation of the mastoid process
premastoidal (pre-MASTOID-al) – pertaining to in front of the mastoid process
18. CED- ‘to go,’ ‘ to be in motion’

CESS- ‘to go,’ ‘to be in motion’
antecedent (ante-CED-ent) – pertaining to before going, i.e. going before
processive (pro-CESS-ive) – tending to forward moving
secession (se-CESS-ion) – act of away moving, i.e. a withdrawal
In anatomy, processes (singular process, pro-CESS, literally ‘to go forward or in front of’) are bony
projections that provide attachment points for muscles and ligaments. Just below the ear, the temporal
styloid process, a slender and pointed piece of bone, projects down and forward from the temporal bone:
19. STYL- ‘column,’ ‘pillar’

styloid (STYL-oid) – resembling a column
styliform (STYL-I-form) – having the form of a column
Note the combining vowel in styliform is ‘i.’ We can think of STYLOID- as a base:
20. STYL- ‘styloid process’

STYLOID- ‘styloid process’
stylomastoidal (STYL-O-MASTOID-al) – pertaining to the mastoid and styloid processes (of
the temporal bone)
styloiditis (STYLOID-itis) – inflammation of a styloid process
Note that there are also styloid processes associated with bones other than the temporal bone.
21. ME- ‘to go,’ to pass,’ ‘to travel’

permeation (per-ME-ation) – process of through passage, i.e. process of passing through
something
permeable (per-ME-able) – tending to (allow) through passage, i.e. permitting passage of
substances
impermeable (im-per-ME-able) – tending to not (allow) through passage, i.e. not permitting
passages of substances
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Notice that impermeable is unusual in that it has two prefixes. We can use the same method we used
previously for terms of this sort (prefix-prefix-BASE-suffix) – start with the suffix, then add the first prefix,
then the second prefix, and then add in your base. Remember, the prefix in- becomes im- when the following
base begins with the letter ‘p,’ due to the process of assimilation. In anatomy, the term meatus (literally,
something that is traveled) is applied to a bodily passage or channel, especially the external opening of a
canal:
22. MEAT- ‘opening,’ ‘passageway,’ ‘meatus’

meatal (MEAT-al) – pertaining to an opening, pertaining to a meatus
meatoscopy (MEAT-O-scopy) – process of examining a meatus with an instrument
meatometry (MEAT-O-metry) – process of measuring a meatus
In the ear, the canal leading from the outer ear to the middle ear is called the external auditory meatus. Just
in front of it, on the external ear, is a triangular piece of cartilage, called the tragus. It gets its name from the
Greek word for ‘goat,’ tragos, since this part of the ear often becomes hairy (especially in old age), just like
a goat’s beard. The only other medical terms associated with tragos that you may come across are
tragomaschalia, a condition of having armpits that smell like a goat, tragopodia, a condition of the feet and
knees like a goat (‘knock knees’), and tragophonia, a condition of the voice that makes it sound like a
bleating goat.
23. TYMPAN- ‘drum,’ ‘stretched membrane’

tympanal (TYMPAN-al) – pertaining to a drum
tympanism (TYMPAN-ism) – condition of (being like) a drum, i.e. a condition in which the
abdomen is stretched like a drum due to gas in the intestinal cavity
In the ear, the membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear is termed the tympanic membrane
(eardrum), while the tympanic cavity is a small chamber surrounding the bones of the middle ear:
TYMPAN- ‘tympanic membrane,’ ‘tympanic cavity’

tympanotemporal (TYMPAN-O-TEMPOR-al) – pertaining to the tympanic cavity and the
temporal region or bone
tympanitis (TYMPAN-itis) – inflammation of the tympanic membrane
tympanometry (TYMPAN-O-metry) – process of measuring (movement of) the tympanic
membrane
tympanogenous (TYMPAN-O-GEN-ous) – pertaining to production by the tympanic cavity,
i.e. originating in the tympanic cavity
24. MYRING- ‘tympanic membrane’

myringitis (MYRING-itis) – inflammation of the tympanic membrane
myringoscope (MYRING-O-scope) instrument used to examine the tympanic membrane
25. OSS- ‘bone’

OSSE- ‘bone’
ossature (OSS-ature) – system composed of bones, i.e. a skeletal framework
ossicle (OSS-I-cle) – small bone
osseous (OSSE-ous) – pertaining to bone
In the ear, there are three ossicles in the tympanic cavity, the malleus (‘hammer’), incus (‘anvil’), and stapes
(‘stirrup’). They got their names because they resemble the shapes of a hammer and anvil, and a stirrup;
malleus and incus are both Latin words, but the word stapes is a fairly modern invented word because the
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ancient Greeks and Romans did not use stirrups when riding. The auditory ossicles are responsible for
transmitting vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear.
26. LABYRINTH- ‘labyrinth,’ ‘maze’

labyrinthine (LABYRINTH-ine) – pertaining to a labyrinth
In Greek mythology, the Labyrinth was a vast underground maze created for King Minos on the island of
Crete. The Minotaur – part bull, part man – was confined to its depths, feasting on the flesh of the seven
youths and seven maidens that were sent every year from Athens to Minos as recompense for an old crime.
The hero Theseus entered the Labyrinth, unwinding a ball of thread as he went, killed the Minotaur, and
was able to find his way out by following the thread back to the entrance. In anatomy, several structures that
are characterized by numerous interconnecting chambers and canals are termed labyrinths. The inner ear,
composed of the vestibule, semicircular ducts, and cochlea, is termed a labyrinth:
LABYRINTH- ‘inner ear’

labyrinthitis (LABYRINTH-itis) – inflammation of the inner ear
27. VESTIBUL- ‘vestibule,’ ‘entrance’

vestibulate (VESTIBUL-ate) – having a vestibule
vestibular (VESTIBUL-ar) – pertaining to a vestibule
In anatomy, a vestibule (or, vestibulum) is a small entrance to a canal. In the ear, the vestibule is the entrance
to the inner ear.
28. COCHLE- ‘snail-shell,’ ‘spiral shell’

cochleous (COCHLE-ous) – like a snail-shell
cochleate (COCHLE-ate) – pertaining to a snail-shell
In the inner ear, the cochlea is a spiral-shaped canal surrounding a core of spongy bone:
COCHLE- ‘cochlea’
cochlear (COCHLE-ar) – pertaining to the cochlea
cochleitis (COCHLE-itis) – inflammation of the cochlea
vestibulocochlear (VESTIBUL-O-COCHLE-ar) – pertaining to the vestibule and cochlea
29. CANAL- ‘channel’

canaliform (CANAL-I-form) – having the form of a channel
canaliculus (CANAL-I-culus) – a small channel, a canaliculus
In anatomy, a canal is a channel or duct, usually a tubular structure. In the ear, the semicircular canals are
bony structures housing the semicircular ducts that play a vital role in balancing the body. Note the
combining vowel in both canaliform and canaliculus is ‘i.’ A canaliculus is a small canal or channel in the
body. The suffix -culus is another of the diminutive forming suffixes such as -cle, and -ula. We can think of
CANALICUL- as a base:
30. CANALICUL- ‘canaliculus,’ ‘small channel’

canalicular (CANALICUL-ar) – pertaining to a canaliculus
canaliculization (CANALICUL-ization) – process of making canaliculi (plural of canaliculus),
or small channels, in a tissue
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31. AMPULL- ‘flask,’ ‘bottle’

ampulliform (AMPULL-I-form) – having the form of a flask or bottle
In anatomy, an ampulla is a flask-shaped enlargement of a canal or duct:
AMPULL- ‘ampulla’
ampullitis (AMPULL-itis) – inflammation of an ampulla
juxtaampullary (juxta-AMPULL-ary) – pertaining to close to an ampulla
ampullula (AMPULL-ula) – small ampulla
In the ear, each of the semicircular canals has an ampulla, a flask-shaped enlargement, at one end.
Remember, some prefixes that end in a vowel do not elide, that is they do not lose their final vowel when
they are joined to a base that begins with a vowel. The prefix juxta- does not elide, so here we get the slightly
odd looking term juxtaampullary. You might come across it in its hyphenated form juxta-ampullary; both
forms are correct. Using a hyphen occurs most often when the prefix ends in the same vowel that the base
begins with, as we have here.

Here are some bases to learn that relate to pain, disease, and treatment:
32. ALG- ‘pain’

algogenesis (ALG-O-GEN-esis) – process of producing pain
otalgia (OT-ALG-ia) – condition of pain in the ear, i.e. earache
algophobia (ALG-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of pain
33. ALGES- ‘pain sensation’

analgesic (an-ALGES-ic) – pertaining to without pain sensation, i.e. something that alleviates
pain
algesimetry (ALGES-I-metry) – process of measuring pain sensation
hyperalgesia (hyper-ALGES-ia) – condition of more than normal pain sensation
34. AGR- ‘pain,’ ‘painful seizure’

cephalagra (CEPHAL-AGRa) – pain in the head
ophthalmagra (OPHTHALM-AGRa) – pain in the eyes
The base AGR- is unusual in that you will probably never come across it other than in the combination
AGRa, which is actually an unmodified Greek noun and not a true BASE-suffix combination. It is probably
better to think of it only as one of the compound suffixes.
35. ODYN- ‘pain’

otodynia (OT-ODYN-ia) – condition of pain in the ear, i.e. earache
anodynia (an-ODYN-ia) – condition of (being) without pain
cephalodynic (CEPHAL-ODYN-ic) – pertaining to pain in the head
36. DOL- ‘pain’

DOLOR- ‘pain’
indolent (in-DOL-ent) – pertaining to not painful, i.e. causing little pain
dolorific (DOLOR-I-fic) – causing pain
Note the combining vowel in dolorific is ‘i.’
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37. NOS- ‘disease,’ ‘sickness’

nosogenic (NOS-O-GEN-ic) – pertaining to producing disease
gynenosia (GYN-E-NOS-ia) – condition of disease that (affects) women (mostly)
nosometry (NOS-O-metry) – process of measuring disease, i.e. the quantification of the extent
of a disease in a population
Note the combining vowel in gynenosia is ‘e.’
38. MORB- ‘disease’

morbid (MORB-id) – pertaining to disease
morbigenous (MORB-I-GEN-ous) – pertaining to the production of disease
Note the combining vowel in morbigenous is ‘i.’
39. PATH- ‘disease,’ ‘suffering,’ ‘feeling’

andropathy (ANDR-O-PATH-y) – state of a disease that (affects) men (mostly)
enantiopathic (enanti-O-PATH-ic) – pertaining to opposite feelings
exopathic (exo-PATH-ic) – pertaining to an external disease, i.e. a disease originating outside
the body
40. AESTHE- ‘to feel,’ ‘sensation,’ ‘feeling’

ESTHE- ‘to feel,’ ‘sensation,’ ‘feeling’
anaesthetic (an-AESTHE-tic) – pertaining to the condition of without sensation
acouesthesia (ACOU-ESTHE-sia) – condition of sensation of sound, i.e. the sense of hearing
hyperphotesthesia (hyper-PHOT-ESTHE-sia) – condition of more than normal sensation to
light
anacatesthesia (ana-cat-ESTHE-sia) – condition of up down sensation, i.e. a sensation of
hovering
The term anacatesthesia is unusual in that it has two prefixes, but we can use the same method to build up
the term that we described earlier. Start with the suffix, then add the first prefix, then the second prefix, and
then add in your base; add in any words necessary to make good sense. Note that the prefix cata- has
undergone elision to cat- because the following base begins with a vowel. Hyperphotesthesia is the first
term we have come across that has the format prefix-BASE-BASE-suffix. How do we go about building up
our medical term? We know that we should start with the suffix, since this is going to tell us whether the
compound term is a noun, adjective, or verb. Here, the suffix -sia tells us we are dealing with a noun, a
‘condition.’ With only one base, we would know that the prefix is adding more information about it, and
we would move to it next, but here, how do we know which base, or bases, the prefix is modifying?
Unfortunately, there is no rule, and we have to use some common sense. If we forget about the prefix for
the moment and concentrate on the relationship between the bases and the suffix, using the method we have
seen earlier, the suffix could be applying to ESTHE- only, or both PHOT- and ESTHE- (almost impossible
for it to be applying to PHOT- only because a suffix applies at least to the base closest to it). Therefore, our
choices are ‘condition of sensation to light’ and ‘condition of sensation and light.’ The second option really
does not make sense, so let us assume that we are talking about a condition of sensation to light. Now
looking at our prefix, hyper- (‘more than normal’), is ‘condition of sensation to more than normal light’ or
‘condition of more than normal sensation to light’ more likely? It is not an obvious choice, since both make
some sense. However, if we think about it, surely everyone would experience a sensation to more than
normal light and this would not be considered a ‘condition’ worthy of note. On the other hand, being more
sensitive to light than normal would be considered a notable condition, and this gives us our answer. Not
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easy, but not impossible to build up our medical term if you apply some common sense. We will look closely
at other prefix-BASE-BASE-suffix type terms as we meet them.
41. THERAP- ‘to provide treatment,’ ‘treatment’

THERAPEUT- ‘treatment’
therapist (THERAP-ist) – specialist who provides treatment
therapeutic (THERAPEUT-ic) – pertaining to treatment
therapeutician (THERAPEUT-ician) – specialist who provides treatment
42. IATR- ‘physician,’ ‘medical treatment’

psychiatry (PSYCH-IATR-y) – act of medical treatment of the mind
psychiatrics (PSYCH-IATR-ics) – art of medical treatment of the mind
dermiatric (DERM-IATR-ic) – pertaining to the medical treatment of skin
iatrophobia (IATR-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of physicians
Here are some more compound suffixes, using these new bases and some bases we learned previously.
Remember, it is helpful to memorize all the compound suffixes because they occur so regularly, but you
can also always build them up from their individual base and suffix parts.
1. -agra ‘pain,’ ‘painful seizure’

2. -algesia ‘sensation of pain’
3. -algia ‘painful condition’
4. -acousia ‘condition of hearing’
5. -esthesia ‘condition of sensation’
6. -genesis ‘production’
7. -genic ‘producing,’ ‘produced’
8. -genous ‘producing,’ ‘produced’
9. -iatrics, -iatry ‘medical treatment’
10. -nosia ‘disease’
11. -odynia ‘painful condition’
12. -pathia, -pathy ‘disease,’ ‘treatment of disease’
13. -therapia, -therapy ‘treatment’
Most of these compound suffixes are noun-forming suffixes, except for -genic and -genous, which are
adjective-forming suffixes.
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Nose
Prefixes
1. mal- ‘bad,’ ‘inadequate’
Suffixes
1. -ant ‘pertaining to’
2. -or ‘person who (does…),’ ‘thing that (does…)’
3. -plasm ‘formed substance,’ ‘growth’
4. -tome ‘instrument used to cut’
Bases
1. OLFACT – ‘smell,’ ‘sense of smell’
olfactor (OLFACT-or) – thing that has a sense of smell, i.e. nose
olfaction (OLFACT-ion) – the act of smelling
olfactory (OLFACT-ory) – having the function of smelling
The olfactory apparatus, including the olfactory bulb, olfactory tract, olfactory nerve cells, and olfactory
membranes, is the sensory unit that gets information about any odor carrying molecules that enter the nose.
2. OSM- ‘smell,’ ‘sense of smell’

anosmia (an-OSM-ia) – condition of without a sense of smell
osmatic (OSM-atic) – pertaining to the sense of smell
parosmia (par-OSM-ia) – condition of abnormal sense of smell
In the term parosmia, the final vowel of the prefix para- has elided, but you may also come across the term
paraosmia, with no elision. The combination of the base OSM- with the suffix -ia is a fairly common one;
we can add this to our list of compound suffixes.
3. OSPHRES- ‘smell,’ ‘sense of smell’

OSPHRESI- ‘smell,’ ‘sense of smell’
hyperosphresia (hyper-OSPHRES-ia) – condition of more than normal sense of smell
osphresiophobia (OSPHRESI-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of (bad) smells
4. ODOR- ‘odor,’ ‘smell’

malodorous (mal-ODOR-ous) – full of bad odor
deodorant (de-ODOR-ant) – pertaining to without odor
odorimetry (ODOR-I-metry) – process of measuring odor
Note the combining vowel in odorimetry is ‘i.’
5. NAS- ‘nose’
nasal (NAS-al) – pertaining to the nose
nasociliary (NAS-O-CILI-ary) – pertaining to the eyelids and nose
nasoscope (NAS-O-scope) – instrument used to examine the nose
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6. RHIN- ‘nose’
-RRHIN- ‘nose’
rhinaesthesia (RHIN-AESTHE-sia) – condition of sensation in the nose, i.e. sense of smell
rhinalgia (RHIN-algia) – painful condition of the nose
rhinotome (RHIN-O-tome) – instrument used to cut the nose
rhinoplasm (RHIN-O-plasm) – formed substance for the nose, i.e. repair material for
reconstruction of the nose, although the term is most often seen as an outdated alternative
to rhinoplasty
The form -RRHIN- only occurs in the middle of a term, never at the beginning.
7. NAR- ‘nostril’
internarial (inter-NAR-ial) – pertaining to between the nostrils
nariform (NAR-I-form) – having the form of nostrils
Note the combining vowel in nariform is ‘i.’ The nares are the external openings, or nostrils, of the nose;
each flared part of the nostril, at the outer edge of the nose, is called an ala (plural alae):
8. AL- ‘wing’
alar (AL-ar) – pertaining to a wing or winged structure
alinasal (AL-I-NAS-al) – pertaining to the wings of the nose
In anatomy, the term ala can be applied to any wing-like, or wing-shaped, part of a structure.
9. SEPT- (i) ‘dividing wall’: (ii) seven

septal (SEPT-al) – pertaining to a dividing wall
In anatomy, a dividing wall between two cavities or areas of soft tissue is called a septum. In the nose, the
nasal septum is a wall of cartilage that divides the nasal cavity into two sides:
SEPT- ‘septum’
septate (SEPT-ate) – having a septum
eseptate (e-SEPT-ate) – being without a septum
septonasal (SEPT-O-NAS-al) – pertaining to the nasal septum
We will look at the meaning ‘seven’ in another chapter.
10. MUC- ‘mucus’

mucous (MUC-ous) – pertaining to mucus
mucocutaneous (MUC-O-CUTANE-ous) – pertaining to the skin and mucous membrane
The nasal cavity is lined with membranes that produce mucus, a secretion that consists of the protein mucin,
various cells, and inorganic salts. Mucus prevents the underlying tissues from drying out and, along with
the hairs in the nostrils, it traps inhaled particles such as dust, smoke, and pollen, along with bacteria and
fungal spores, and prevents them from traveling to the lungs. In anatomy, a mucus-producing membrane
that lines certain bodily structures is termed a mucosa. We can think of MUCOS- as a base:
11. MUCOS- ‘mucosa,’ ‘mucous membrane’

mucosal (MUCOS-al) – pertaining to a mucosa
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Profuse discharge of mucus from the nose is called coryza. Here are two more bases that mean ‘mucus,’
although they are rarely used about mucus in the nasal cavity:
12. BLENN- ‘mucus’

blennophthalmia (BLENN-OPHTHALM-ia) – condition of the eyes (caused by) mucus, i.e.
usually an inflammation of the conjunctiva
blennogenic (BLENN-O-genic) – producing mucus
13. MYX- ‘mucus’

myxoid (MYX-oid) – resembling mucus
myxocyte (MYX-O-cyte) – cell in mucus (producing tissue)
The abnormal amount of mucus that is produced by an inflamed respiratory system (breathing system) is
generally called phlegm, especially if it is voided through the mouth:
14. PHLEGM- ‘phlegm,’ ‘inflammation’

phlegmasia (PHLEGM-A-sia) – condition of inflammation
phlegmy (PHLEGM-y) – (having the) quality of phlegm
Ancient Greek medical theory believed that the body was composed of four humors, or fluids. Phlegm was
one of the four, the others being yellow bile, black bile, and blood, although sometimes the two biles were
classed as one and a watery substance, hydrops, made up the fourth. When the four humors were in balance
and properly mixed, the body was healthy; imbalance, or the separation of one humor from the rest, caused
sickness.
15. SIN- ‘curve,’ ‘cavity’

sinuate (SIN-U-ate) – having a curved (shape)
Note the combining vowel in sinuate is ‘u.’ In anatomy, a sinus is usually a hollow cavity, or channel leading
to a cavity. Four pairs of sinuses are related to the nose; they are called the paranasal sinuses. We can think
of SINUS- as a base:
16. SIN- ‘sinus’

SINUS- ‘sinus’
perisinuous (peri-SIN-U-ous) – pertaining to around a sinus
sinusitis (SINUS-itis) – inflammation of the sinuses
rhinosinusopathy (RHIN-O-SINUS-O-pathy) – disease of the sinuses and nose

Here are some more bases to learn. We will see that they all have compound suffixes associated with them.
17. PLAS- ‘to form,’ ‘to mold’

PLAST- ‘to form,’ ‘to mold’
hyperplasia (hyper-PLAS-ia) – condition of more than normal formation (of tissue)
anaplasty (ana-PLAST-y) – act of again formation, i.e. restoring or reforming body parts,
reconstructive surgery
rhinoplasty (RHIN-O-PLAST-y) – act of forming the nose, i.e. reconstructive surgery of the
nose
theleplasty (THEL-E-PLAST-y) – act of forming the nipple, i.e. reconstructive surgery of the
nipple
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Note the combining vowel in theleplasty is ‘e’; sometimes, you might see this term with ‘y’ as the combining
vowel – thelyplasty.
18. CENTE- ‘to puncture’

ophthalmocentesis (OPHTHALM-O-CENTE-sis) – process of puncturing the eye, i.e. process
of puncturing the eye in order to drain it
tympanocentesis (TYMPAN-O-CENTE-sis) – process of puncturing the tympanic membrane,
i.e. process of puncturing the tympanic membrane in order to drain the ear
craniocentesis (CRANI-O-CENTE-sis) – process of puncturing the cranium, i.e. process of
puncturing the cranium to reduce the size of an enlarged fetal head to aid delivery
You will probably only ever come across the base CENTE- in the combination CENTE- and the suffix -sis,
but the compound suffix -centesis is fairly widespread.
19. TOM- ‘to cut,’ ‘to slice,’ ‘section’

tomography (TOM-O-graphy) – process of recording sections (of the body)
tomophopbia (TOM-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of being cut, i.e. fear of surgical operations
ototomy (OT-O-TOM-y) – act of cutting the ear, i.e. dissection of the ear
If we add the suffix -e (which has no meaning) to this base, we get the suffix -tome meaning ‘instrument
used to cut.’ Since it really is a base and suffix combined, we will add it to our list of compound suffixes,
along with -verse and -cyte.
20. ECTOM- ‘to cut out,’ ‘to cut away’

adipectomy (ADIP-ECTOM-y) – act of cutting out fat
blepharectomy (BLEPHAR-ECTOM-y) – act of cutting away the eyelid
craniectomy (CRANI-ECTOM-y) – act of cutting out (part of) the cranium
ECTOM- is actually a compound of TOM- with the prefix ec- meaning ‘out,’ but it has also become used
as a base in its own right.
21. STOM- ‘mouth,’ ‘opening’

STOMAT- ‘mouth,’ ‘opening’
dacryocystostomy (DACRY-O-CYST-O-STOM-y) – act of (creating) an opening in the sac
related to tears, i.e. act of creating an opening in the lacrimal sac
anastomosis (ana-STOM-osis) – process of up-opening, i.e. process of opening up, creation of
an opening between two normally separate structures in order to join them
stomatodynia (STOMAT-odynia) – painful condition of the mouth
stomatitis (STOMAT-itis) – inflammation of the mouth
The term dacryocystostomy is the first term we have come across that has three bases (BASE-BASE-BASE-
suffix), but we can begin by approaching it the same way we did for terms with two bases (BASE-BASE-
suffix). Remember, the combining vowels add nothing to the sense, so we can ignore them. Start with the
suffix, then add in the base that is closest to it, since we can be pretty certain that the suffix completes its
sense. Remember to add in any words necessary to make good sense. So, we have ‘act of (creating) an
opening.’ With terms of two bases, we then considered whether the suffix also applied to the base that was
next closest, and whether we could just join the two bases with the word ‘and.’ Here, that would give us
‘act of (creating) an opening and the sac,’ which does not make a great deal of sense. In this instance, we
might suspect that any extra bases are going to tell us how or where we are creating an opening. Since ‘act
of (creating) an opening with a sac’ seems unlikely, we might consider the alternative ‘act of (creating) an
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opening in the sac,’ and this certainly seems to make reasonable sense. We are then left with a base that
means ‘tears.’ Again, joining this base with the word ‘and’ does not seem right, since the ‘act of (creating)
an opening in the sac and tears’ is nonsense. However, if we use a little common sense, we can come up
with the ‘act of (creating) an opening in the sac related to tears,’ which does indeed make sense, especially
as we have seen earlier that the ‘sac related to tears’ is the lacrimal sac. So, as terms get longer, we do have
to think more closely about how bases relate to one another, but the process of building up the definition is
not an impossible one. Let us make dacryocystostomy even longer:
conjunctivodacryocystostomy (CONJUNCTIV-O-DACRY-O-CYST-O-STOM-y)
Use the same approach as before, beginning with the suffix and the base closest to it, then working backward
through the bases, ignoring combining vowels. You might end up with the definition ‘act of (creating) an
opening in the sac related to tears and the conjunctiva.’ This makes some sense, but seems to imply we are
making an opening in two places. Since openings generally begin at one place and end at another, an even
more sensible definition is ‘act of (creating) an opening between the sac related to tears and the conjunctiva,’
and this is, in fact, the definition of conjunctivodacryocystostomy. If you found this process a little
intimidating, do not worry, it all comes with practice, and the more terms you look at, the more patterns you
will see emerging. Any term using STOM-y, the ‘act of (creating) an opening,’ for example, generally
involves either one other base that situates the opening in one particular location, or two other bases that
situate the opening as occurring between one location and another. So when you see the term
dacryocystorhinostomy, you will quite quickly recognize the format and the meaning ‘act of (creating) an
opening between the nose and sac related to tears.’
In anatomy, a stoma (plural stomas or stomata) is an opening or pore in the body, including artificial
openings.
STOM- ‘stoma’
stomal (STOM-al) – pertaining to a stoma
22. CLEI- ‘to close’

CLEIST- ‘closed’
corecleisis (CORE-CLEI-sis) – condition of closure of the pupil of the eye
cleistophobia (CLEIST-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of closed (spaces)
23. CLAS- ‘to break,’ ‘fragment’

aclasia (a-CLAS-ia) – condition of without a break, i.e. continuity between normal and
abnormal body tissues
aclassis (a-CLAS-sis) – condition of without a break, i.e. continuity between normal and
abnormal body tissues
histoclastic (HIST-O-CLAS-tic) – pertaining to breaking (down) of tissue
In the term aclassis, a base ending with ‘s’ is followed by a suffix beginning with ‘s.’ In this case, both of
the letters ‘s’ are retained, but this is quite unusual. More commonly, the final ‘s’ of the base gets dropped.
For example:
trichoclasis (TRICH-O-CLA(S)-sis) – condition of breakage of the hair
24. DE- ‘to bind’

syndesis (syn-DE-sis) – condition of together binding, i.e. fusion
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25. PEX- ‘to fasten,’ ‘to fix’

adipopexia (ADIP-O-PEX-ia) – state of fixing fat (in the body), i.e. state of fat storage
retinopexy (RETIN-O-PEX-y) – act of fastening the retina, i.e. act of repair of detached retina
Another term for fixing fat in the body is lipopexis. It looks as if the suffix in this term is -is, but this is not
the case. We saw above with trichoclasis that, when two ‘s’ letters come together, one at the end of the base,
the other at the beginning of the suffix, the ‘s’ from the base often gets dropped. Here we are concerned
with the letter ‘x’ at the end of the base, but the sound of this letter in ancient Greek was always ‘ks.’ The
sound of what we have is LIP-O-PEKS-sia and the final ‘s’ sound of -PEKS does indeed get dropped. This
still leaves us with a ‘ks’ combination which is rendered by the letter ‘x.’ The suffix, then, in this term is
actually -sis, it is just hidden.
26. LY- ‘to loosen,’ ‘dissolving’

lipolysis (LIP-O-LY-sis) – process of dissolving fat, i.e. process of splitting up, or
decomposition, of fat
dermatolysis (DERMAT-O-LY-sis) – process of loosening of the skin
dialysis (dia-LY-sis) – process of apart dissolving, i.e. process of dissolving, filtration, or
separation
27. CLY- ‘to wash’

clysis (CLY-sis) – process of washing, i.e. process of an infusion of fluid
28. TRIB- ‘to rub,’ ‘to crush

TRIPS- ‘to rub,’ to crush’
tribometer (TRIB-O-meter) – instrument used to measure rubbing (friction)
cephalotripsy (CEPHAL-O-TRIPS-y) – act of crushing the head, i.e. crushing the head of a
fetus to effect delivery
Here are some compound suffixes using these new bases. They can all relate to medical procedures, as well
as other less specific processes. Remember, it is helpful to memorize all the compound suffixes because
they occur so regularly, but you can also always build them up from their individual base and suffix parts.
1. -centesis ‘surgical puncturing,’ ‘puncturing’

2. -clasia, -clasis ‘surgical fracture,’ ‘breaking,’ ‘rupture’
3. -cleisis ‘surgical closure,’ ‘closure’
4. -clysis ‘therapeutic infusion of liquid,’ ‘irrigation’
5. -desis ‘surgical fusion,’ ‘binding’
6. -dialysis ‘surgical dissolving,’ ‘surgical separation,’ ‘filtration’
7. -ectomy ‘surgical removal,’ ‘removal’
8. -lysis ‘surgical dissolving,’ ‘surgical separation,’ ‘loosening’
9. -pexis, -pexy ‘surgical fastening,’ ‘fixing’
10. -plasia, -plasty ‘surgical reshaping,’ ‘formation’
11. -stomy ‘making a surgical opening,’ ‘making an opening’
12. -tripsy ‘surgical crushing,’ ‘crushing’
13. -tomy ‘surgical cutting,’ ‘cutting’
In addition, here is the compound suffix we mentioned earlier:
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14. -osmia ‘condition of sense of smell’
The final two new bases for this chapter do have compound suffixes of a sort associated with them, but they
also have a couple of unusual features:
29. RHAPH- ‘to stitch,’ ‘to suture’

-RRHAPH- ‘to stitch,’ ‘to suture’
blepharorrhaphy (BLEPHAR-O-RRHAPH-y) – act of suturing the eyelid
rhinorrhaphy (RNIN-O-RRHAP-y) – act of suturing the nose
The form -RRHAPH- only occurs in the middle of a term, never at the beginning. The base RHAPH- rarely
appears in medical terminology; you will probably only ever come across it in the term rhaphe, the ridge
that forms a seam between two structures.
30. RHE- ‘to flow’

-RRH- ‘to flow’
rheoencephalography (RHE-O-ENCEPHAL-O-graphy) – process of recording brain (blood)
flow
cryptorrhetic (CRYPT-O-RRH-etic) – pertaining to flow that is hidden, i.e. pertaining to
secreting internally
catarrhal (cata-RRH-al) – pertaining to down flow, i.e. pertaining to catarrh, the increased flow
of mucus
The form -RRH- only occurs in the middle or end of a term, never at the beginning.
The first unusual feature of these bases, the compound suffixes:
15. -rrhage ‘excessive flow,’ ‘excessive discharge’

16. -rrhagia ‘excessive flow,’ ‘excessive discharge’
17. -rrhaphy ‘surgical suture’
18. -rrhea ‘flow,’ ‘discharge’
19. -rrhexis ‘rupture’
The compound -rrhaphy is formed quite regularly from the modified base -RRHAPH- and the suffix -y. The
others are much closer to their original Greek forms and do not use any of our regular suffixes. They are not
true compound suffixes in the way we have described them so far, but they are fairly common and you
should memorize them. You will not be able to build them up from their individual base and suffix parts.
The second unusual feature is the ‘rrh,’ the form that appears in the middle of terms; we also saw it
associated with the base RHIN-, where we see the form -RRHIN- in the middle of words, and in the term
CIRRH-osis. We will see it with other bases later. It looks quite strange to users of the English language. It
is not necessary to know why it comes about, just be sure to recognize it and know what bases it is associated
with. However, for those who are interested, it occurs because of certain peculiarities of the Greek language
from which the relevant bases are derived. Ancient Greek had no equivalent of our letter ‘h.’ Vowels at the
beginning of the word could be pronounced with a release of breath, a process called aspiration, or not. It is
like the difference between the pronunciation of ‘hour’ and ‘our,’ but Greek indicated the difference with a
mark placed over the vowel. The Greek equivalent of the letter ‘r’ was also aspirated whenever it was at the
beginning of a word, so something like ‘r-h,’ the sound that we get at the beginning of the word ‘rhythm.’
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If any sort of prefix that ended in a vowel was added in front of such a word, the letter ‘r’ was duplicated,
the second ‘r’ being aspirated, the first one not, giving us ‘rrh.’ This is just a rule of ancient Greek
pronunciation that we have to accept.
In general, the practice has been to reflect the ancient rules in the spelling of medical terminology, even if
we do not really attempt to pronounce it, hence the ‘rrh’ combination in the middle of words. However,
there is some inconsistency, and increasingly you might see ‘rh’ replacing the ‘rrh’ form, as in, for example,
cirhosis, rhinorhaphy, and cryptorhetic.
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Mouth
Prefixes
1. ab-, a- ‘away from’
2. ad-, ac-, af- etc. ‘toward,’ ‘near’
3. retro- ‘behind,’ ‘backward’
The prefix ab- undergoes some changes depending on the first letter of the base that follows; as a general
rule, ab- before vowels and the letter ‘h,’ a- before consonants. Note that there is the possibility of confusion
with the prefix a-/an-. The prefix ad- undergoes assimilation before certain consonants – remember, we said
that sometimes the final consonant of a prefix changes to something closer to the beginning consonant of
the base when the tongue anticipates what sound is coming next. In fact, ad- assimilates before lots of
consonants, so you may come across it as ac-, af-, ag-, al-, an-, ap-, ar-, as-, or at-, or it may even be
shortened just to a-. Do not try and memorize the list, just be aware that if you come across a prefix that you
do not immediately recognize, it may be an assimilated form.
Suffixes
1. -culum ‘small’
2. -tion ‘act of,’ ‘process of’
3. -ulum ‘small’
4. -ulus ‘small’
5. -uncle ‘small’
Bases
We will look here mostly at the anatomy of the mouth and at things related to the sense of taste. Although
speech is delivered through the mouth, we will consider that in the next chapter when we look at the throat
and voice-box. Remember, we have already seen the base STOM- meaning ‘mouth’ or ‘opening,’ and recall
that the base MENT- means ‘chin’ as well as ‘mind.’
1. OR- ‘mouth,’ ‘opening’

OS- ‘mouth,’ ‘opening’
suboral (sub-OR-al) – pertaining to below the mouth
orad (OR-ad) – toward the mouth
aborad (ab-OR-ad) – toward away from the mouth, i.e. in a direction away from the mouth
osculum (OS-culum) – small opening, i.e. a pore
2. GEUS- ‘to taste,’ ‘sense of taste’

ageusia (a-GEUS-ia) – condition of without sense of taste
hypergeusesthesia (hyper-GEUS-ESTHE-sia) – condition of more than normal sensation to
taste
Note that hypergeusesthesia has the format prefix-BASE-BASE-suffix. The procedure for building up the
term is exactly the same as we used previously for the term hyperphotesthesia. The combination of the base
GEUS- with the suffix -ia is a fairly common one; we can add this to our list of compound suffixes.
3. GUST- ‘to taste’

gustation (GUST-ation) – process of tasting
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gustatory (GUST-atory) – pertaining to taste
4. GLOSS- ‘tongue,’ ‘language’

GLOTT- (i) ‘tongue,’ ‘language’: (ii) ‘glottis’
glossectomy (GLOSS-ectomy) – surgical removal of the tongue
glossodynia (GLOSS-odynia) – painful condition of the tongue
aglossostomia (a-GLOSS-O-STOM-ia) – condition of without mouth and tongue
xenoglossia (XEN-O-GLOSS-ia) – condition of (knowing) a language that is foreign, i.e. the
supposed ability to communicate in an unlearned language
hypoglottal (hypo-GLOTT-al) – pertaining to below the tongue, i.e. pertaining to on the
underside of the tongue
Like hypergeusesthesia, aglossostomia also has the format prefix-BASE-BASE-suffix. The procedure for
building up the term is largely the same as we used previously, but common sense dictates some slightly
different choices have to be made along the way. Let us go through the process. Start with the suffix, as
always; -ia tells us we are dealing with a noun, a ‘condition.’ As we did previously, let us forget about the
prefix for the moment, since we need to establish the relationship between the bases before we can figure
out whether the prefix modifies the penultimate base, the ultimate base, or both. We can be pretty certain
that the suffix is applying at least to STOM-, since this is the base closest to it; so, ‘condition of the mouth
(or, opening).’ What about the other base, GLOSS-; can the two bases be joined with ‘and,’ or is the
penultimate base providing extra information such as to ‘how’ or ‘where’ about the ultimate base? Certainly
‘condition of the mouth and tongue’ makes sense, and is more sensible than either ‘condition of the mouth
with the tongue’ or ‘condition of the mouth in the tongue,’ so let us choose ‘condition of the mouth and
tongue.’ Now, we have to consider the prefix a-, ‘without’; it must modify both bases, since nothing else
makes sense, giving us ‘condition of without mouth and tongue.’ We will look at the meaning ‘glottis’ for
the base GLOTT- in the next chapter.
5. LINGU- ‘tongue,’ ‘language’

lingual (LINGU-al) – pertaining to the tongue, pertaining to language
faciolingual (FACI-O-LINGU-al) – pertaining to the tongue and face
retrolingual (retro-LINGU-al) – pertaining to behind the tongue, pertaining to the backward
part of the tongue
sublingual (sub-LINGU-al) – pertaining to underneath the tongue
6. PAPILL- ‘nipple,’ ‘papilla’

retinopapillitis (RETIN-O-PAPILL-itis) – inflammation of the (optic) papilla and the retina
papilliferous (PAPILL-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to bearing papillae, i.e. pertaining to having
nipples, papules, or pimples
papillectomy (PAPILL-ectomy) – surgical removal of a papilla
Note the combining vowel in papilliferous is ‘i.’ Any small nipple-like projection may be termed a papilla
(plural papillae). The tongue is covered with papillae; they give the tongue its characteristic rough texture.
There are four types of papillae on the tongue; three of the types house taste buds, the fourth type is
concerned with gripping food to help move it around the mouth.
7. FREN- ‘bridle,’ ‘rein’

By extension, the term frenum has the medical meaning of a connecting fold of a membrane that limits the
movement between a fixed part and a movable part:
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FREN- ‘frenum’
frenate (FREN-ate) – having a frenum
frenotomy (FREN-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of a frenum
frenulum (FREN-ulum) – small frenum
In the mouth, there are frenula (plural of frenulum) beneath the tongue, and inside the lower and upper lips.
8. CAR- ‘flesh,’ ‘meat’

CARN- ‘flesh,’ ‘meat’
caruncle (CAR-uncle) – small (piece of) flesh, i.e. a small, fleshy outgrowth
carnose (CARN-ose) – having the quality of flesh
carnophobia (CARN-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of meat
In the mouth, there is a caruncle on either side of the frenulum beneath the tongue.
9. BUCC- ‘cheek’
intrabuccal (intra-BUCC-al) – pertaining to within the cheek
bucconasal (BUCC-O-NAS-al) – pertaining to the nose and cheeks
buccolingual (BUCC-O-LINGU-al) – pertaining to the tongue and cheeks
10. LABI- ‘lip’

LABR- ‘lip’
labiate (LABI-ate) – having lips
labioplasty (LABI-O-plasty) – surgical reshaping of the lips
labiograph (LABI-O-graph) – instrument used to measure lip (movement during speaking)
labral (LABR-al) – pertaining to a lip, or lip-like part
The term labium can indicate any lip-like structure; so, the inner and outer folds either side of the vagina
are termed the labia (plural of labium). Likewise, the term labrum may signify a lip or lip-like structure.
11. CHEIL- ‘lip’

acheilia (a-CHEIL-ia) – condition of without a lip or both lips
cheilectomy (CHEIL-ectomy) – surgical removal of a lip
cheilitis (CHEIL-itis) – inflammation of the lip
In case you were wondering, the vertical groove that extends from above the upper lip to the nose is termed
the philtrum. The ancient Greeks called it the philtron, the same word they used for a love charm or potion;
remember, we saw the base PHIL- is associated with love. We do not know what prompted the link; perhaps
they saw this part of the body as a particularly erogenous zone, maybe a love potion might be trickled down
the philtrum and into the mouth of a sleeping object of desire.
12. STAPHYL- ‘grape,’ ‘bunch of grapes’

We saw previously that the small piece of flesh hanging down at the back of the mouth got the name uvula
because of its resemblance to a small grape (UV-ula) on a stem. This was the name given to it by the ancient
Romans, but the ancient Greeks also likened the structure to a grape and called it staphyle. Today, we rarely
see this noun applied to the structure itself – we prefer the term uvula – but the base STAPHYL- occurs
fairly often in compound terms related to the uvula:
STAPHYL- ‘uvula’
staphylotomy (STAPHYL-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of the uvula
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staphyloschisis (STAPHYL-O-SCHI(S)-sis) – condition of a split uvula
Note how the final ‘s’ of the base in staphyloschisis is dropped because the following suffix also begins
with an ‘s.’
13. PALAT- ‘roof of the mouth,’ ‘palate’

palatine (PALAT-ine) – pertaining to the palate
palatoglossal (PALAT-O-GLOSS-al) – pertaining to the tongue and palate
palatoschisis (PALAT-O-SCHI(S)-sis) – condition of a split palate, i.e. cleft palate
Note how the final ‘s’ of the base in palatoschisis is dropped because the following suffix also begins with
an ‘s.’
14. URAN- ‘roof of the mouth,’ ‘palate’

uranoplasty (URAN-O-plasty) – surgical reshaping of the palate
uranorrhaphy (URAN-O-rrhaphy) – surgical suture of the palate
uranoschisis (URAN-O-SCHI(S)-sis) – condition of split palate, i.e. cleft palate
The medical meaning of this base was in use in ancient Greece; its source is the term ouranos, the heavens,
but its meaning was extended to include anything that was shaped like the vault of heaven, such as a tent, a
ceiling, or the roof of the mouth. Note how the final ‘s’ of the base in uranoschisis is dropped because the
following suffix also begins with an ‘s.’ The combination of the base SCHI(S)- with the suffix -sis is a very
common one; we can add this to our list of compound suffixes.
15. GNATH- ‘jaw’

dysgnathic (dys-GNATH-ic) – pertaining to abnormal jaw (development)
perignathic (peri-GNATH-ic) – pertaining to around the jaw
prognathous (pro-GNATH-ous) – having a forward (jutting) jaw, i.e. jaw that projects beyond
the upper part of the face
The jaw is the term applied to the bones that contain the teeth, namely the two upper jaw bones and the
single lower jaw bone.
16. MAXILL- ‘upper jaw bone,’ ‘maxilla’

admaxillary (ad-MAXILL-ary) – pertaining to near the upper jaw bone
hemimaxillectomy (hemi-MAXILL-ectomy) – surgical removal of half the upper jaw bone
inframaxillary (infra-MAXILL-ary) – pertaining to below the upper jaw bone
17. MANDIBUL- ‘lower jaw bone,’ ‘mandible’

mandibular (MANUDIBUL-ar) – pertaining to the lower jaw bone
mandibulectomy (MANDIBUL-ectomy) – surgical removal of the lower jaw bone
mandibulofacial (MANDIBUL-O-FACI-al) – pertaining to the facial and lower jaw bones
The mandible, or lower jaw, is the only moveable bone in the skull. Processes (bony projections) provide
attachment points for muscles and ligaments; each side of the mandible has a coronal process (remember,
CORON-al ‘pertaining to like a crown,’ ‘crown-shaped’) and a condylar process:
18. CONDYL- ‘knuckle,’ ‘knob’

This base refers to the knuckle of a joint, or any hard, bony knob, but you will probably only ever come
across it in relation to a condyle, the rounded bump at the end of a bone where it meets with another bone:
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CONDYL- ‘condyle’
condylar (CONDYL-ar) – pertaining to a condyle
condylectomy (CONDYL-ectomy) – surgical removal of a condyle
condylotomy (CONDYL-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of a condyle
19. RAM- ‘branch’

ramiform (RAM-I-form) – having the form of a branch
Note the combining vowel in ramiform is ‘i.’ In anatomy, the individual divided parts, or branches, of a
structure may be termed a ramus. The horizontal part of the mandible extends upward on either side into a
mandibular ramus:
RAM- ‘ramus’
ramitis (RAM-itis) – inflammation of a ramus
ramulus (RAM-ulus) – small ramus, i.e. terminal branch of a ramus
20. GINGIV- ‘gum’

labiogingival (LABI-O-GINGIV-al) – pertaining to the gums and lips
gingivalgia (GINGIV-algia) – painful condition of the gums
gingivoglossitis (GINGIV-O-GLOSS-itis) – inflammation of the tongue and gums
21. DENT- ‘tooth’

interdental (inter-DENT-al) – pertaining to between the teeth
denticle (DENT-I-cle) – small tooth, i.e. a small tooth or tooth-like projection
dedentition (de-DENT-I-tion) – process of (becoming) without teeth, i.e. loss of teeth
Note the combining vowel in both denticle and dedentition is ‘i.’
22. ODONT- ‘tooth’

endodontics (end-ODONT-ics) – study of inside the teeth, i.e. dentistry dealing with teeth roots
and dental pulp
odontonecrosis (ODONT-O-NECR-osis) – process of the death of a tooth
23. SALIV- ‘spit,’ ‘saliva’

salivary (SALIV-ary) – pertaining to saliva
salivation (SALIV-ation) – process of (producing) saliva
24. SIAL- ‘spit,’ ‘saliva,’ ‘salivary gland’

asialia (a-SIAL-ia) – condition of without saliva
sialic (SIAL-ic) – pertaining to saliva
sialostenosis (SIAL-O-STEN-osis) – abnormal condition of narrowing of the salivary gland
25. PTY- ‘spit,’ ‘saliva’

ptysis (PTY-sis) – act of spitting
26. PTYAL- ‘saliva,’ ‘salivary gland’

hyperptyalism (hyper-PTYAL-ism) – condition of excessive saliva
ptyalogenic (PTYAL-O-genic) – producing saliva
ptyalography (PTYAL-O-graphy) – process of recording salivary gland (form and functioning)
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We have now seen quite a few suffixes that form the special type of nouns called diminutives, terms that
express the small size of the thing in question. You might have noticed that some of these suffixes are very
similar, except for their last one or two letters. This is because these different endings indicate whether the
noun in question is masculine, feminine, or neuter, something that is very important for both Greek and
Latin nouns, hardly important at all for their English translations. Here are some forms we have already
come across, and some new ones:
1. -culus, -cula, -culum ‘small’

2. -ellus, -ella, -ellum ‘small’
3. -illus, -illa, -illum ‘small’
4. -ulus, -ula, -ulum ‘small’
These are the remaining suffixes for ‘small’ that you are likely to come across in medical terminology;
again, some we have already seen, some are new. Memorize them all.
5. -cle ‘small’
6. -idium ‘small’
7. -il ‘small’
8. -ium ‘small’
9. -ole ‘small’
10. -ule ‘small’
12. -unculus ‘small’
Sometimes, the forming of diminutive involves some alteration to the base. For example, the term
cerebellum, which actually means ‘small brain,’ is a contracted form of the base CEREBR- and the suffix -
ellum. Similarly, ocellus, a ‘small eye’ (generally a simple eye, or eye-spot), is a contracted form of the base
OCUL- and the suffix -ellus.
Since we have now looked at all the diminutive forming suffixes, here are some new bases to learn that
indicate size and quantity:
27. MULT- ‘many,’ ‘much’

multicavous (MULT-I-CAV-ous) – full of empty spaces - many (of them), i.e. full of many
empty spaces
multidentate (MULT-I-DENT-ate) – having teeth - many of them, i.e. having many teeth
multocular (MULT-OCUL-ar) – pertaining to eyes - many (of them), i.e. having many eyes
28. POLY- ‘many’, ‘much’

polyblennia (POLY-BLENN-ia) – condition of mucus - much (of it), i.e. condition of excessive
mucus
polycoria (POLY-COR-ia) – condition of the pupil of the eye - many (of them), i.e. condition
of having more than one pupil in the eye
polyhidria (POLY-HIDR-ia) – condition of sweat - much (of it), i.e. condition of excessive
sweating
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29. HEMI- ‘half’

hemiglossectomy (HEMI-GLOSS-ectomy) – surgical removal of the tongue - half (of it), i.e.
surgical removal of one side of the tongue
hemicephalgia (HEMI-CEPH-algia) – painful condition of the head - half (of it), i.e. headache
on one side of the head
hemiopalgia (HEMI-OP-algia) – painful condition of the eyes - half (of them), i.e. pain in one
eye
Note how we have to apply some common sense here; while pain in half of the head makes sense, pain in
half of the eye does not.
30. SEMI- ‘half,’ ‘partly’

semilenticular (SEMI-LENTICUL-ar) – having the character of the lens of the eye - (in one)
half, i.e. a lens that is convex like the lens of the eye on one side only
The base SEMI- is the Latin equivalent of HEMI- and, in general, is used in compound terms with Latin
derived bases, while HEMI- appears in compound terms with Greek-derived bases. The majority of
compound terms have Greek origins, so you will not see SEMI- very often in medical terminology.
The first thing you probably noticed about these four bases is that we have already seen the prefixes multi-
, poly-, hemi-, and semi- with exactly the same meanings. What is going on? Well, if you look up these
terms in medical dictionaries, you might find them listed as prefixes, or as bases, or even as both, and these
entries might well not agree with entries in regular dictionaries. Sometimes, there is just no agreement as to
what constitutes a prefix or a base. From my viewpoint, any word part that indicates size or quantity is
almost always derived from an adjective and must, therefore, be classified as a base, and this includes multi-
, poly-, hemi-, and semi-; remember, prefixes are generally prepositions and adverbs, and bases are
adjectives, nouns, or verbs with their endings missing.
So why did I include those four word parts amongst the prefixes? Well, since these four particularly are
often cited as prefixes, it gives me an opportunity to bring up this point, and also to illustrate how much like
prefixes these parts behave. If we look at the examples above with multi-, poly-, hemi-, and semi-, notice
how awkwardly our definitions turn out using our normal procedure for BASE-BASE-suffix terms (suffix
first, added to ultimate base, add in penultimate base to make best sense); how much simpler it would be if
we thought of them as prefix-BASE-suffix type terms and built up the definition accordingly (generally,
suffix first, then prefix, and then base). You will find that this is especially true of a lot of terms that include
word parts indicating size or quantity. This is due partly to the fact that many of these terms are in regular
use in everyday language, as well as in medical and scientific terminology, but also because very often the
word part indicating size or quantity comes at the beginning of the term. However, irrespective of this, and
irrespective of ease of definition building, you should think of these word parts as bases.
To summarize, then. All the word parts presented here that indicate size and quantity are classified as
BASES. Although the initial definition might be awkward, it is still perfectly possible to build up the
definition using the regular approach for BASE-BASE-suffix type terms. We will deal with more
complicated situations as we come across them.
Here are some new bases that indicate size and quantity:
31. OLIG- ‘few,’ ‘scanty’

olighidrosis (OLIG-HIDR-osis) – abnormal condition of sweating that is scanty
oligoptyalism (OLIG-O-PTYAL-ism) – condition of saliva that is scanty
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oligotrichosis (OLIG-O-TRICH-osis) – abnormal condition of the hair that is scanty
32. PLUR- ‘many,’ ‘more’

plurocular (PLUR-OCUL-ar) – pertaining to eyes - many of them
33. PLEO- ‘more,’ ‘excessive,’ ‘multiple’

PLEIO- ‘more,’ ‘excessive,’ ‘multiple’
pleochroic (PLEO-CHRO-ic) – pertaining to colors that are multiple
pleocytosis (PLEO-CYT-osis) – abnormal condition of the cells that are excessive (in number),
i.e. abnormal condition of more than the normal number of cells
pleiomorphous (PLEIO-MORPH-ous) – pertaining to forms that are many
34. PAN- ‘all,’ ‘entire’

PANT- ‘all,’ ‘entire’
pansclerosis (PAN-SCLER-osis) – abnormal condition of hardening of an entire (organ or part)
panencephalitis (PAN-ENCEPHAL-itis) – inflammation of the brain - all of it, i.e.
inflammation of both the gray and white matters of the brain
pantophobia (PANT-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of all things
pantaphobia (PANT-a-phobia) – abnormal non-fear of all things, i.e. total fearlessness
Note the almost identical forms of pantophobia and pantaphobia, yet the exact opposite definitions; see how
important one letter can be. Pantaphobia is unusual in that a base precedes the prefix. We have already seen
the same format in pupillatonia (PUPILL-a-TON-ia) – remember, phobia is really PHOB-ia. The method
for building up the definition is leave the base that precedes the prefix till last, treat the remaining prefix-
BASE-suffix in the normal manner (always start with the suffix, then add the prefix, then add in your base)
and then add in the other base last. We will see if this works for all terms of this sort as we progress.
35. MACR- ‘large,’ ‘long’

macroblepharia (MACR-O-BLEPHAR-ia) – condition of the eyelid that is (abnormally) large
macrocephalic (MACR-O-CEPHAL-ic) – pertaining to a head that is (abnormally) large
macrognathia (MACR-O-GNATH-ia) – condition of the jaw that is (abnormally) large
36. MAGN- ‘large,’ ‘great’

magnisonant (MAGN-I-SON-ant) – pertaining to a sound that is large
37. MICR- ‘small’

microdontia (MICR-ODONT-ia) – condition of the teeth that are (abnormally) small
microsomia (MICR-O-SOM-ia) – condition of the body that is (abnormally) small
microscopic (MICR-O-SCOP-ic) – pertaining to viewing (something) small
38. MEGA- ‘large,’ ‘great’

MEGAL- ‘large’
megaprosopia (MEGA-PROSOP-ia) – condition of the face that is (abnormally) large
megalgia (MEG(A)-algia) – painful condition (that is) great, i.e. a very severe pain
rhinomegaly (RHIN-O-MEGAL-y) – state of an (abnormally) large nose
Both MICR- and MEGA- have very specific meanings in the metric and SI systems of measurement; we
will deal with these in a later chapter. Note how the final ‘a’ of the base in megalgia is dropped because the
following suffix also begins with an ‘a.’ This base along with the one that follows are unusual among these
size and quantity bases in that they can appear both at the beginning and end of the term. The combination
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of the base MEGAL- with the suffix -y is a very common one; we can add this to our list of compound
suffixes.
39. PEN- ‘deficiency,’ ‘decrease’

penalgesia (PEN-algesia) – sensation of pain decrease, i.e. a reduction in pain points
sarcopenia (SARC-O-PEN-ia) – condition of deficiency of flesh, i.e. loss of muscle mass
lipopenia (LIP-O-PEN-ia) – condition of deficiency of fats (in the body)
leukocytopenia (LEUK-O-CYT-O-PEN-ia) – condition of deficiency of cells that are white,
i.e. condition of deficiency of white blood cells
The combination of base PEN- with the suffix -ia is a very common one: we can add this to our list of
compound suffixes:
1. -geusia ‘condition of sense of taste’

2. -megaly ‘enlargement’
3. -penia ‘deficiency’
4. -schesis ‘fissure’
In addition, here are some bases that indicate quality:
40. HOL- ‘whole,’ ‘entire’

holotrichous (HOL-O-TRICH-ous) – having hair, or hair-like structures, over the entire (body)
holosoamtic (HOL-O-SOMAT-ic) – pertaining to the body - the whole of it, i.e. pertaining to
the entire body
41. HOM- ‘same,’ ‘similar’

HOME- ‘same,’ ‘similar’
homodontic (HOM-ODONT-ic) – pertaining to teeth that are all the same (in form)
homogenesis (HOM-O-genesis) – production of (offspring) similar (to parents)
homeopathy (HOME-O-pathy) – treatment of disease with similars, i.e. treatment of disease
based on the principle that ‘likes are cured by likes’
42. IS- ‘equal,’ ‘same’

isochromatic (IS-O-CHROM-atic) – pertaining to a color that is the same, i.e. pertaining to a
uniform color
isocoria (IS-O-COR-ia) – condition of the pupils being the same (size)
isothymia (IS-O-THYM-ia) – condition of emotion that is equal, i.e. condition of emotional
equilibrium
43. ANIS- ‘unequal,’ ‘different’

anisocoria (ANIS-O-COR-ia) – condition of the pupils being unequal (in size)
anisognathous (ANIS-O-GNATH-ous) – having jaws of unequal (size)
anisopia (ANIS-OP-ia) – condition of sight that is different (in each eye)
More correctly, ANIS- is a combination of the prefix an- (‘not’) and the base IS-, but it is often treated as a
base in its own right.
44. ALL- ‘other,’ ‘different’

allesthesia (ALL-ESTHE-sia) – condition of sensation at a different (place from the stimulus)
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allochroism (ALL-O-CHRO-ism) – condition of color being different, i.e. condition of change

of color of skin or hair
45. HETER- ‘other,’ ‘different’

heterodontic (HETER-ODONT-ic) – pertaining to teeth that are different (in form), i.e.
pertaining to teeth of varying shape
heterotrichosis (HETER-O-TRICH-osis) – abnormal condition of hair that is different (colors)
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Throat and Neck
Prefixes
There are no more prefixes to learn.
Suffixes
1. -acious ‘tending to,’ ‘inclined to’
2. -ence ‘state of’
3. -ian ‘pertaining to’
Bases
1. CERVIC- ‘neck’
cervicalgia (CERVIC-algia) – painful condition of the neck
cervical (CERVIC-al) – pertaining to the neck
In anatomy, the term ‘neck’ is applied to many body parts that have a constricted or narrowed portion. The
base CERVIC- may indicate the neck of the uterus, bladder, or tooth, as well as the area between head and
torso. You may have to rely on context to figure out which neck is being referred to, or common sense may
help you:
cervicobuccal (CERVIC-O-BUCC-al) – pertaining to the cheek (side) of the neck (of a tooth)
Here, for example, the base BUCC- suggests the cheek and mouth area, so there is a pretty good chance that
the term is referring to the neck of a tooth. Compare this term:
cervicooccipital (CERVIC-O-OCCIPIT-al) – pertaining to the occiput and the neck
The inclusion of the base for the occiput (back of the head) guides us toward understanding the neck as the
area between head and torso. There are seven cervical bones in the neck area of the spine. The topmost is
called the atlas, named after Atlas in Greek mythology, because the bone supports the head just as the god
Atlas was made to support the heavens.
2. TRACHEL- ‘neck’
trachelodynia (TRACHEL-odynia) – painful condition of the neck
tracheleal (TRACHEL-eal) – pertaining to the neck
Some ambiguity also applies to this base; TRACHEL- may be used about the neck of the uterus (rarely the
bladder or tooth), as well as the area between head and torso. Again, common sense can sometimes help:
trachelectomy (TRACHEL-ectomy) – surgical removal of the neck (of the uterus)
It is fairly unlikely that the neck between head and torso would be surgically removed, so here we can safely
guess that the neck of the uterus is meant. For this next term, we can apply the same reasoning we used for
cervicooccipital:
trachelooccipital (TRACHEL-O-OCCIPIT-al) – pertaining to the occiput and the neck
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You may see these terms, cervicooccipital and trachelooccipital, hyphenated as cervico-occipital and
trachelo-occipital.
3. COLL- ‘neck’
decollate (de-COLL-ate) – to (take) away from the neck, i.e. to decapitate, to behead
This base rarely appears in compound terms, but the noun collum is a common anatomical term; like the
two previous bases, it can mean the neck between head and torso, or any neck-like portion of an organ or
structure, especially the narrowed sections of bones. The collarbone, the bone between shoulder and ribcage,
takes its common name from this base.
4. CLEID- ‘key,’ ‘hook’

Because they thought the collar-bone was shaped like the hook that fastened a door, the ancient Greeks gave
the bone the same name as the hook, kleis:
CLEID- ‘collar-bone’
cleidagra (CLEID-agra) – painful seizure in the collar-bone
cleidocranial (CLEID-O-CRANI-al) – pertaining to the cranium and collar-bone
cleidotripsy (CLEID-O-TRIPS-y) – act of crushing the collar-bone, i.e. act of crushing the
collar-bones of a fetus to effect delivery
5. CLAV- ‘key,’ ‘clavicle,’ ‘collar-bone’

CLAVICUL- ‘clavicle,’ ‘collar-bone’
clavicular (CLAVICUL-ar) – pertaining to the clavicle
subclavian (sub-CLAV-ian) – pertaining to below the clavicle
The Romans used the same idea as the Greeks and named the collar-bone clavicula, ‘little key.’ We use the
term clavicle today. Both CLAV- and CLAVICUL- are used to denote the clavicle.
6. JUGUL- ‘neck,’ ‘throat’

jugular (JUGUL-ar) – pertaining to the neck or throat
Two pairs of jugular veins return deoxygenated blood from the head and face back to the heart. The two
carotid arteries supply the head and face with oxygenated blood. The base CAROT- has nothing to do with
location; it comes from the Greek word meaning ‘to plunge into a deep sleep,’ since compression of the
arteries can cause unconsciousness.
7. GUTTUR- ‘throat’
guttural (GUTTUR-al) – pertaining to the throat
gutturonasal (GUTTUR-O-NAS-al) – pertaining to (sound produced from) nose and throat
8. PHARYNG- ‘throat,’ ‘pharynx’

pharyngeal (PHARYNG-eal) – pertaining to the pharynx
pharyngectomy (PHARYNG-ectomy) – surgical removal of the pharynx
pharyngoscope (PHARYNG-O-scope) – instrument used to examine the pharynx
oropharyngeal – (OR-O-PHARYNG-eal – pertaining to the oropharynx
The pharynx is the passageway that leads from the nasal and oral cavities toward the larynx (voice-box); it
is divided into three areas – the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.
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9. TONSILL- ‘tonsil’
tonsillitis (TONSILL-itis) – inflammation of the tonsil
tonsillotome (TONSILL-O-tome) – instrument used to cut the tonsil
peritonsillar (peri-TONSILL-ar) – pertaining to around the tonsil
The term tonsil is applied to several structures in the body, but most often refers to the palatine tonsils, the
two rounded lumps at the back of the throat. Because of their almond-like shape, these tonsils are sometimes
referred to as the amygdalae (remember the base AMYGDAL- meaning ‘almond’).
10. ADEN- ‘gland’

polyadenous (POLY-ADEN-ous) – having glands - many of them
adenomegaly (ADEN-O-megaly) – enlargement of a gland
adenoid (ADEN-oid) – resembling a gland
The adenoids are masses of soft tissue at the upper end of the throat behind the nose; they are part of the
immune system. They are present at birth and enlarge during childhood, but they tend to shrink during
adulthood. Like the palatine tonsils, they are similar to the lymph glands of the neck, armpits, and groin but,
as their name suggests, they are not true glands. Their more scientific name is the pharyngeal tonsils.
11. LARYNG- ‘voice-box,’ ‘larynx’

laryngeal (LARYNG-eal) – pertaining to the larynx
laryngorrhea (LARYNG-O-rrhea) – (excessive) discharge from the larynx
laryngostenosis (LARYNG-O-STEN-osis) – abnormal condition of narrowing of the larynx
The larynx is that part of the windpipe (airway) where sound production occurs. It is made up from a
framework of cartilages and elastic membranes.
12. GLOTT- (i) ‘tongue,’ ‘language’: ‘glottis,’ ‘mouth of the windpipe,’

glottitis (GLOTT-itis) – inflammation of the glottis
infraglottic (infra-GLOTT-ic) – pertaining to below the glottis
Located at the upper part of the larynx, the glottis comprises the vocal cords and the space between them.
The epiglottis, a lid-like piece of cartilage, folds over the entrance to the windpipe during swallowing so
that no food can enter the lungs. Remember, we looked at this base previously, where it had the meaning
‘tongue.’
13. THYR- ‘oblong shield’

thyroid (THYR-oid) – resembling an oblong shield
In ancient Greece, the thyreos was a shield that was shaped like a door (the term derives from the word for
‘door’); Galen used the term thyroid about the cartilage in the larynx that has this oblong form and, in the
seventeenth century, the term was applied to the gland in the neck that is similarly shaped:
THYR- (i) ‘thyroid gland’: (ii) thyroid cartilage

THYROID- (i) ‘thyroid gland’: (ii) thyroid cartilage
thyromegaly (THYR-O-megaly) – enlargement of the thyroid gland
thyrotomy (THYR-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of the thyroid gland or the thyroid cartilage
thyroiditis (THYROID-itis) – inflammation of the thyroid gland
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You will find that most of the compound terms using this base relate to the thyroid gland, simply because it
experiences more disorders than does the thyroid cartilage. As always, you will have to rely on common
sense and context to help you where there is any ambiguity.
14. HY- ‘Greek letter upsilon’ (

hyoid (HY-oid) – shaped
The -shaped bone that supports the tongue got the name hyoid in antiquity because its shape resembles
the Greek letter upsilon. The base HY- is used today to indicate this bone:
HY- ‘hyoid bone’

hyoglossal (HY-O-GLOSS-al) – pertaining to the tongue and the hyoid bone
hyopharyngeal (HY-O-PHARYNG-eal) – pertaining to the pharynx and the hyoid bone
15. PHAS- ‘speech,’ ‘to talk’

dysphasia (dys-PHAS-ia) – condition of abnormal or difficult speech
cryptophasic (CRYPT-O-PHAS-ic) – pertaining to speech that is hidden, i.e. pertaining to
speech that is unintelligible to outsiders
16. PHRAS- ‘speech,’ ‘to talk’

polyphrasia (POLY-PHRAS-ia) – condition of speech - much of it, i.e. condition of excessive
talkativeness
hypophrasic (hypo-PHRAS-ic) – pertaining to less than normal speech, i.e. pertaining to speech
that is absent or slower than normal
17. PHEM- ‘speech,’ ‘to talk’

aphemic (a-PHEM-ic) – pertaining to without speech
paraphemia (para-PHEM-ia) – condition of abnormal speech, i.e. speech using wrong or
inappropriate words
18. LAL- ‘speech,’ ‘to talk’

alalia (a-LAL-ia) – condition of without speech, i.e. an inability to speak
laliatry (LAL-iatry) – medical treatment of speech (disorders)
lalopathy (LAL-O-pathy) – disease or disorder (affecting) speech
19. LOQU- ‘speech,’ ‘to talk’

multiloquacious (MULTI-LOQU-acious) – tending to speak much
sialoquence (SIA(L)-LOQU-ence) – state of speaking and (producing) saliva, i.e. state of
spitting while speaking
Note that the final letter ‘l’ of the base SIAL- has been dropped because the following base also begins with
the letter ‘l.’ The base LOQU- does not occur very often in medical terminology, although very common in
non-technical terms. It does, however, give us a Latin equivalent of a Greek term we mentioned earlier,
tragophonia, a condition of the voice that makes it sound like a bleating goat. So, in case you wondered,
capriloquism (capra is Latin for ‘goat’) is the word you want.
20. VOC- ‘speech,’ ‘voice,’ ‘to talk’

vocal (VOC-al) – pertaining to the voice
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Here is another base, again a Latin one, that is more commonly found in non-technical vocabulary. Likewise
the base FA-/FANT- ‘speech,’ ‘to talk,’ from which we get the word ‘infant,’ literally ‘a non-speaking’
person.
21. PHON- ‘speech,’ ‘voice,’ ‘sound’

aphonic (a-PHON-ic) – pertaining to without voice
euphonous (eu-PHON-ous) – having a good sound
22. LOG- ‘speech,’ ‘word’

dyslogia (dys-LOG-ia) – condition of abnormal speech
logorrhea (LOG-O-rrhea) – flow of words, i.e. excessive talkativeness
logamnesia (LOG-a-MNE-sia) – condition of without memory of words
adenology (ADEN-O-LOG-y) – act of speech about glands, i.e. the study of glands
Logamnesia is another example of a compound term where a base precedes the prefix. We have already
seen pupillatonia and pantaphobia; note that all three involve the prefix a-. Exactly the same method for
building up the definition can be used here – leave the base that precedes the prefix till last, treat the
remaining prefix-BASE-suffix in the normal manner (always start with the suffix, then add the prefix, then
add in your base) and then add in the other base last. The combination of the base LOG- and the suffix -y
is extremely common and we can add -logy to our list of compound suffixes; literally meaning ‘the act of
speech or discourse’ about something it has come to mean ‘study of.’ Likewise, LOG- and the suffix -ist
gives us the compound suffix -logist, ‘one who studies.’
1. -logist ‘one who studies’

2. -logy ‘study of’

Here are some new bases that are regularly associated with bases meaning ‘speech’:
23. BRADY- ‘slow’

bradylalia (BRADY-LAL-ia) – condition of speech that is (abnormally) slow
bradylogia (BRADY-LOG-ia) – condition of speech that is (abnormally) slow
bradyphasia (BRADY-PHAS-ia) – condition of speech that is (abnormally) slow
bradyphrasia (BRADY-PHRAS-ia) – condition of speech that is (abnormally) slow
24. TACHY- ‘fast’

tachylalia (TACHY-LAL-ia) – condition of speech that is (abnormally) fast
tachylogia (TACHY-LOG-ia) – condition of speech that is (abnormally) fast
tachyphasia (TACHY-PHAS-ia) – condition of speech that is (abnormally) fast
tachyphrasia (TACHY-PHRAS-ia) – condition of speech that is (abnormally) fast
25. COPR- ‘dung,’ ‘filth,’ ‘feces’

coprolalia (COPR-O-LAL-ia) – condition of speech that is filthy, i.e. an uncontrollable use of
obscene language
coprophasia (COPR-O-PHAS-ia) – condition of speech that is filthy, i.e. an uncontrollable use
of obscene language
coprophemia (COPR-O-PHEM-ia) – condition of speech that is filthy, i.e. an uncontrollable
use of obscene language
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coprophrasia (COPR-O-PHRAS-ia) – condition of speech that is filthy, i.e. an uncontrollable

use of obscene language
26. CAC- ‘bad’

cacolalia (CAC-O-LAL-ia) – condition of speech that is bad, i.e. an uncontrollable use of
obscene language
27. ECH- ‘returned sound,’ ‘repetition’

echolalia (ECH-O-LAL-ia) – condition of speech repetition, i.e. condition of involuntary
repetition of words spoken by others
echophrasia (ECH-O-PHRAS-ia) – condition of speech repetition, i.e. condition of involuntary
repetition of words spoken by others
In Greek mythology, the nymph Echo was only able to speak the last words spoken to her by someone else.
This was a punishment from Hera, wife of Zeus, because Echo had tried to help Zeus hide his infidelities
from his wife. When Echo fell in love with Narcissus, a youth doomed to love only himself, she was unable
to tell him her feelings. When Narcissus died, Echo wasted away from sadness, till all that was left of her
was her voice, still repeating the last words of others.
In the last chapter, we looked at some bases that indicate size, quantity, and quality. We saw that, in almost
all cases, these bases occur at the beginning of a compound term and act almost like prefixes. Here are some
bases related to number and quantity; these also occur at the beginning of the term. Remember, you should
still deal with the suffix and ultimate base first, and then add in any other bases. The resulting translation
may be clumsy, but it will be accurate; you can always make it more elegant once you know exactly what
it means.
28. MON- ‘one,’ ‘single’

monesthetic (MON-ESTHE-tic) – pertaining to a sensation - a single one
29. UN- ‘one,’ ‘single’

uniocular (UN-I-OCUL-ar) – pertaining to the eye - one of them
Note the combining vowel in uniocular is ‘i.’
30. HAPL- ‘single’

haplopia (HAPL-OP-ia) – condition of sight (that forms a) single (image), i.e. condition of
sight where an object viewed by two eyes is seen as a single image
31. PROT- ‘first,’ ‘original,’ ‘primitive’

protomorphic (PROT-O-MORPH-ic) – pertaining to the shape that is (the most) primitive
32. PRIM- ‘first’

primigeneal (PRIM-I-GEN-eal) – pertaining to produced first, i.e. characteristic of the first
formation
Note the combining vowel in primigeneal is ‘i.’ The terms gravida and para are used about women who
have been pregnant or have given birth respectively. When preceded by a base designating a number, this
indicates the number of times a woman has been pregnant (to the stage of viability of the fetus) or has given
birth:
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primigravida (PRIM-I-GRAVIDA) – a woman who has been pregnant for the first time
primipara (PRIM-I-PARA) – a woman who has given birth for the first time
Note the combining vowel in primigravida and primipara is ‘i.’ We will look properly at the bases GRAVID-
and PAR- in later chapters. Although they are not true compound suffixes, we will add -para and -gravida
to our list.
1. -gravida ‘woman who is, or has been, pregnant’

2. -para ‘woman who has given birth’
33. DI- ‘two,’ ‘twice’

DICH- ‘in two’
dicephaly (DI-CEPHAL-y) – condition of the head - two of them (in conjoined twins), i.e.
condition of two separate heads in conjoined twins
dichotomy (DICH-O-tomy) – cutting into two, i.e. division into two parts
34. BI- (i) ‘two,’ ‘twice,’ ‘double’: (ii) ‘life,’ ‘living’

BIN- ‘double,’ ‘pair’
bilabial (BI-LAB-ial) – pertaining to the lips - two of them
binotic (BIN-OT-ic) – pertaining to the ears - a pair of them
We will look at the second meaning of BI- in a later chapter.
35. DEUT- ‘second’

DEUTER- ‘second’
deutogenic (DEUT-O-GEN-ic) – pertaining to produced second, i.e. pertaining to subsequent
formation
deuteropathy (DEUTER-O-pathy) – disease that is second(ary to the initial disease)
36. SECOND- ‘second,’ ‘following’

SECUND- ‘second,’ ‘following’
secondary (SECOND-ary) – pertaining to second (in importance)
secundigravida (SECUND-I-gravida) – a woman who has been pregnant a second time
secundipara (SECUND-I-para) – a woman who has given birth a second time
Note the combining vowel in secundigravida and secundipara is ‘i.’
37. GEMIN- ‘twin,’ ‘paired,’ ‘born at the same time’

GEMELL- ‘twin,’ ‘paired,’ ‘born at the same time’
geminate (GEMIN-ate) – having paired (structures)
gemellipara (GEMELL-I-para) – a woman who has given birth to twins
Note the combining vowel in gemellipara is ‘i.’
38. TRI- ‘three’

trisulcate (TRI-SULC-ate) – having grooves - three of them
trigeminal (TRI-GEMIN-al) – pertaining to born at the same time - three, i.e. threefold
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You will probably only ever come across the term trigeminal in relation to the fifth cranial nerve, which
takes the name trigeminal because it is made up of three different branches of nerve.
39. TERTI- ‘third’

TERN- ‘three each’
tertian (TERTI-an) – pertaining to the third
tertigravida (TERTI-gravida) – a woman who has been pregnant a third time
ternary (TERN-ary) – pertaining to three each, i.e. pertaining to something composed of three
units
The term tertian may be used about the third stage of a disease, or to a recurring symptom, which appears
every third day inclusively, i.e. every 48 hours. Note the combining vowel in tertigravida is ‘i.’ In practice,
the more general terms multigravida and multipara are used about women who have been pregnant, or given
birth, more than once.
40. TETR- ‘four’

tetramastous (TETR-A-MAST-ous) – having breasts - four (of them)
41. QUADR- ‘four’

quadritubercular (QUADR-I-TUBERCUL-ar) – pertaining to tubercles - four (of them)
Note the combining vowel in quadritubercular is ‘i.’ This term is generally used about molar teeth that have
four tubercles or cusps
42. QUART- ‘fourth’

QUATERN- ‘four each’
quartan (QUART-an) – pertaining to the fourth
quartigravida (QUART-I-gravida) – a woman who has been pregnant a fourth time
quaternary (QUATERN-ary) – pertaining to four each, i.e. pertaining to something composed
of four units
Quartan is another term used about a recurring symptom; this time, one which appears every four days
inclusively, i.e. every 72 hours. Note the combining vowel in quartigravida is ‘i.’
43. PENT- ‘five’

pentapterous (PENT-A-PTER-ous) – having wings - five (of them)
Not a term you are really likely to encounter in human medical terminology, but it gets the idea across. We
have not met the base DACTYL- (‘finger,’ ‘toe’) yet, but you will find pentadactyly (PENT-A-DACTYL-
y) is a term in medical terminology – condition of the fingers or toes - five (on each hand or foot). If we
think of ‘digit’ for the base DACTYL-, we can get around the problem of four fingers and a thumb. Note
the combining vowel in pentapterous is ‘a.’
44. QUINQUE- ‘five’

quinquetubercular (QUINQUE-TUBERCUL-ar) – pertaining to tubercles - five (of them)
Again, a term used about molar teeth.
45. QUINT- ‘fifth’

QUIN- ‘five each’
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quintan (QUINT-an) – pertaining to the fifth, i.e. recurring every five days inclusively
quintipara (QUINT-I-para) – a woman who has given birth a fifth time
quinary (QUIN-ary) – pertaining to five each, i.e. pertaining to something composed of five
units
Note the combining vowel in quintipara is ‘i.’
You are unlikely to come across the bases for the numbers beyond five in medical terminology, but I include
them here, just for completeness. Where I could find no medical term that uses them, I have used a suffix
common in mathematics, -gon (from the base GON- meaning ‘angle’ or ‘corner’) familiar in the term
polygon, for a geometrical figure with ‘many angles.’
46. HEX- ‘six’

hexagon (HEX-A-gon) – (geometrical figure with) six angles
Note the combining vowel in hexagon is ‘a.’
47. SEX- ‘six’

sexdigitate (SEX-DIGIT-ate) – having digits - six (of them)
We have not met the base DIGIT- yet, meaning ‘fingers’ or ‘toes, but it seem to be one of the few medical
terms that uses the base SEX-.
48. SEXT- ‘sixth’

sextan (SEXT-an) – pertaining to the sixth, i.e. recurring every six days inclusively
sextigravida (SEXT-I-gravida) – a woman who has been pregnant a sixth time
Note the combining vowel in sextigravida is ‘i.’
49. HEPT- ‘seven’

heptachromic (HEPT-A-CHROM-ic) – pertaining to colors - seven (of them)
Used about the ability to see the seven colors of the spectrum. Note the combining vowel in heptachromic
is ‘a.’
50. SEPT- (i) ‘dividing wall’: (ii) ‘seven’

septan (SEPT-an) – pertaining to seven, i.e. recurring every six days inclusively
septigravida (SEPT-I-gravida) – a woman who has been pregnant seven times
Note the combining vowel in septigravida is ‘i.’ Note also the subtle change; the term uses the base for the
cardinal number SEPT- (‘seven’) as opposed to the base for the ordinal number (‘seventh’). There is some
inconsistency with the formation of the terms using -para and -gravida with the larger numbers. Be careful
not to confuse this base with SEPT- meaning ‘dividing wall’ that we saw in a previous chapter; you will
have to rely on context to help you.
51. SEPTIM- ‘seventh’

septimal (SEPTIM-al) – pertaining to the seventh (in a series)
52. OCT- ‘eight’

octan (OCT-an) – pertaining to eight, i.e. recurring every eight days inclusively
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octipara (OCT-I-para) – a woman who has given birth eight times
Note the combining vowel in octipara is ‘i.’
53. OCTAV- ‘eighth’

I can find no compound terms using this base, but the eighth cranial nerve is sometimes called the octavus
nerve.
54. ENNE- ‘nine’

enneagon (ENNE-A-gon) – (geometrical figure with) nine angles
More commonly called a nonagon. Note the combining vowel in enneagon is ‘a.’
55. NOVEM- ‘nine’

November.
All I could come up with. The original Roman calendar had ten months, and November was the ninth month
(preceded by QUINTilis, SEXTilis, SEPTember, and OCTober and followed by DECember).
56. NON- ‘ninth’

nonipara (NON-I-para) – a woman who has given birth a ninth time
Note the combining vowel in decipara is ‘i.’
57. DEC- ‘ten’

decagon (DEC-A-gon) – (geometrical figure with) ten angles
Note the combining vowel in decagon is ‘a.’
58. DECEM- ‘ten’

December.
59. DEC- ‘tenth’

DECIM- ‘tenth
decigravida (DEC-I-gravida) – a woman who has been pregnant a tenth time
Note the combining vowel in decigravida is ‘i.’ In Roman times, if a group of soldiers were guilty of some
crime such as treason or mutiny, their commanders might choose to decimate the group as punishment, that
is killing one tenth of the number.
One last thing. Here are the most common bases used in the metric and SI systems of measurement. You do
not need to memorize them, but it is good to be aware of them. Remember, the bases MICR- and MEGA-
also have the meanings ‘small’ and ‘large.’
MEGA- ‘million’ 106

KILO- ‘thousand’ 103
HECT- ‘hundred’ 102
DECA- ‘ten’ 101
DECI- ‘tenth’ 10−1
CENTI- ‘hundredth’ 10−2
MILLI- ‘thousandth’10−3
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MICR- ‘millionth’ 10−6
The bases CENTI- and MILLI- are unusual in that they have other meanings, ‘hundred’ and ‘thousand,’ in
everyday language. A century, for example, is one hundred years, a millennium one thousand years, while
a centipede traditionally (though not actually) has one hundred legs, a millipede one thousand legs.
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Shoulders and Arms
Suffixes
1. -ated ‘composed of,’ ‘having’
Bases
1. SCAPUL- ‘shoulder blade,’ ‘scapula’
scapular (SCAPUL-ar) – pertaining to the shoulder blade
scapulodynia (SCAPUL-ODYN-ia) – condition of pain in the shoulder blade
The medical term for the shoulder blade, the large triangular bone that lies at the back of the ribs, is the
scapula (plural scapulae).
2. BRACHI- ‘arm’
brachiocephalic (BRACHI-O-CEPHAL-ic) – pertaining to the head and arm
cervicobrachial (CERVIC-O-BRACHI-al) – pertaining to the arm and neck
macrobrachia (MACR-O-BRACH(I)-ia) – condition of the arm that is (abnormally) large
Notice how we have lost the final ‘i’ of BRACHI- in macrobrachia because the suffix that follows it begins
with ‘i.’
3. MEL- ‘limb’
amelia (a-MEL-ia) – condition of without a limb
erythromelalgia (ERYTHR-O-MEL-algia) – painful condition of a limb (accompanied by)
redness of the part
megalomelia (MEGAL-O-MEL-ia) – condition of a limb that is (abnormally) large
‘Limb’ generally refers to arms and legs, although sometimes the term may be expanded to include other
jointed appendages (hands, fingers, feet, and toes).
4. HUMER- ‘upper arm bone,’ ‘humerus’

humeral (HUMER-al) – pertaining to the upper bone of the arm
The medical term for the upper arm bone is the humerus.
5. ULN- ‘ulna’
ulnad (ULN-ad) – toward the ulna
ulnar (ULN-ar) – pertaining to the ulna
The ulna is the longer of the two bones of the lower arm (connected at the little finger side at the wrist)
6. RADI- ‘ray,’ ‘spoke of a wheel,’ ‘radius’

radiate (RADI-ate) – to (extend like) spokes of a wheel, i.e. to spread out in all directions from
the center
radiodermatitis (RADI-O-DERMAT-itis) – inflammation of the skin (caused by exposure to)
rays (of electromagnetic radiation)
radioulnar (RADI-O-ULN-ar) – pertaining to the ulna and radius
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As well as its other meanings, this base means ‘radius’ both in the sense of a line extending from the center
of a circle to its periphery, and the shorter of the two bones of the lower arm (connected at the thumb side
at the wrist). All four of these terms, scapula, humerus, ulna, and radius were used by ancient Romans,
though not necessarily with the exact precision that we use them today. Both the humerus and the ulna got
their names from Greek equivalents. The radius bone may have got its name because it rotates around the
ulna at both the elbow and wrist, or because it has some resemblance to an ancient weaving shuttle, which
was another meaning of the term radius. The term for the pointy bit of the elbow is the olecranon, which
gets its name from the Greek forms of ulna and cranium, because it is actually the head (or skull) of the ulna
bone.
7. CUB- ‘to lie down’

CUBIT- ‘to lie down’
CUMB- ‘to lie down’
cubation (CUB-ation) – process of lying down
decubital (de-CUBIT-al) – pertaining to (occurring) from lying down
procumbent (pro-CUMB-ent) – pertaining to forward lying down, i.e. lying face down
A decubitus ulcer, or bedsore, occurs because of lying down too long in the same position. Since ancient
Romans ate their meals lying down but propped up on one elbow, the elbow, and sometimes the forearm,
got the name cubitum:
CUBIT- ‘elbow,’ ‘forearm’

cubital (CUBIT-al) – pertaining to the elbow or forearm
brachiocubital (BRACHI-O-CUBIT-al) – pertaining to the elbow and arm
8. ANCON- ‘elbow’
anconad (ANCON-ad) – toward the elbow
anconitis (ANCON-itis) – inflammation of the elbow
anconeal (ANCON-eal) – pertaining to the elbow
Anconeal (or anconal) may also mean ‘pertaining to the anconeus muscle,’ a muscle that stabilizes the elbow
during rotation.
9. GLEN- ‘socket of a joint’

glenoid (GLEN-oid) – resembling a socket of a joint
Probably the only time you will come across the base GLEN- is in relation to the shoulder. The shallow
depression on the scapula that engages with the head of the humerus bone is termed the glenoid (sometimes
the glenoid fossa or glenoid cavity):
GLEN- ‘glenoid’
glenohumeral (GLEN-O-HUMER-al) – pertaining to the humerus and the glenoid
10. CORAC- ‘crow’s beak’

coracoid (CORAC-oid) – resembling a crow’s beak
Likewise, probably the only time you will come across the base CORAC- is in relation to the shoulder. The
coracoid process on the scapula gets its name because it has the shape of a crow’s beak (remember, a process
is a bony projection that provides attachment points for muscles and ligaments):
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CORAC- ‘coracoid process’

coracoclavicular (CORAC-O-CLAVICUL-ar) – pertaining to the clavicle and the coracoid
process
11. ACROMI- ‘acromion’

subacromial (sub-ACROMI-al) – pertaining to below the acromion
acromioclavicular (ACROMI-O-CLAVICUL-ar) – pertaining to the clavicle and the acromion
The spine of the scapula (a bony projection) runs obliquely across the posterior surface; the acromion, or
acromial process, lies at its lateral end, where it forms a joint with the clavicle and provides an attachment
point for ligaments and muscles. The term was already in use with the ancient Greeks and means, literally,
‘extremity of the shoulder.’
12. CAPIT- ‘head’

CIPIT- ‘head’
capitate (CAPIT-ate) – having a head(-shape)
capitulum (CAPIT-ulum) – small head
capitellum (CAPIT-ellum) – small head
In an earlier chapter, we came across the base OCCIPIT- with the meaning the ‘back of the head’ or, more
technically, the ‘occiput.’ The term derives from this base, CIPIT-, and the prefix ob-, meaning literally
‘against the head.’ Notice how ob- has assimilated to oc- in front of the letter ‘c’ in CIPIT-. Most medical
compound terms involving the head use the base CEPHAL-, while you will find CAPIT- and CIPIT- more
often in everyday English language (think of capital, decapitate, and precipitate for example). Capitulum
and capitellum, the ‘small heads’ generally refer to head-like structures, such as the head or extremity of a
bone. In Latin, the terms biceps and triceps mean ‘two-headed’ and ‘three-headed,’ respectively, with the
form CEPS being closely related to the base CAPIT- ‘head.’ Since the two major muscles of the upper arm
have two and three ‘heads’ (the head of a muscle is its fixed point or origin, as opposed to the moveable
point of insertion), the terms were adopted to describe them, the biceps being on the anterior side of the
upper arm, the triceps on the posterior. More correctly, the muscles are the biceps brachii and the triceps
brachii, the ‘biceps of the arm’ and ‘triceps of the arm,’ since there are other two- and three-headed muscles
in the body; the leg, in fact, not only has biceps and triceps muscles, but also has a quadriceps.
bicipital (BI-CIPIT-al) – pertaining to heads - two of them, pertaining to the biceps

tricipital (TRI-CIPIT-al) – pertaining to heads - three of them, pertaining to the triceps
Ancient medical writings were often presented in a capite ad calcem manner, literally ‘from head to heel.’
The writers would start by discussing topics related to the head and then proceed down the body. We would
call it, ‘from head to toe’; this book is presented in a capite ad calcem manner.
13. DELT- ‘Greek letter delta’ ( )

deltoid (DELT-oid) – shaped like the Greek letter delta
The deltoid is the large triangular muscle at the rounded part of the shoulder, extending to the upper arm. In
anatomy, the term delta may be used about a flat triangular surface.
14. TRAPEZ- ‘table’

trapezoid (TRAPEZ-oid) – resembling a table
trapezium (TRAPEZ-ium) – small table
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The ancient geometrists developed the term trapezium for a four-sided figure with no parallel sides from
the Greek word for a small table. In anatomy, a trapezium (or sometimes trapezius) is a structure with that
shape:
TRAPEZI- ‘trapezium’
trapeziform (TRAPEZI-form) – having the form of a trapezium
trapeziectomy (TRAPEZI-ectomy) – surgical removal of the trapezium
The trapezius muscle is a roughly diamond-shaped muscle extending from the neck, across the shoulders,
and down the spine. The trapezium bone is an irregularly shaped bone of the hand; trapeziectomy is
performed on this bone, not on the muscle.
Here are some other bases that refer to, or are used about, muscles, bones, and tissues in general, including
those of the arms and shoulders.
15. OST- ‘bone’

OSTE- ‘bone’
dysostosis (dys-OST-osis) – condition of abnormal bone (formation)
osteopenia (OSTE-O-penia) – deficiency of bone (density)
osteolipochondroma (OSTE-O-LIP-O-CHONDR-oma) – tumor of the cartilage (made up of)
fat and bone tissue
The term osteolipochondroma has three bases, but approach it in the same way that we have approached
terms with two bases. Begin with the suffix and the ultimate base – that gets the definition off to the proper
start and we know whether we are dealing with a noun, adjective, or verb. Then, we have to consider the
other two bases. Can we just use the word ‘and’ to link them with the ultimate base? It is possible, but
unlikely that tumors of all three tissues would occur at the same time and, if they did, we would probably
be looking at a specific condition in which that combination of tumors occurred. So, as always, we have to
think of the most likely common sense solution.
16. TEND- ‘to stretch’

TENS- ‘to stretch’
TENT- ‘to stretch’
extendable (ex-TEND-able) – able to be out stretched, i.e. able to be stretched out
tensor (TENS-or) – thing that stretches
extensor (ex-TENS-or) – thing that out stretches, i.e. thing that stretches out
distention (dis-TENT-ion) – condition of apart stretching, i.e. being stretched apart
A muscle that stretches some part of the body is a tensor muscle. A muscle that extends or straightens a
body part is an extensor muscle; the triceps is an extensor muscle in the arm. We also get the word ‘tendon’
from this base, the name for the tough fibrous bands of tissue that connect muscles to bones. The base for
the term tendon has a challenging number of alternative forms:
17. TEN- ‘tendon’

TEND- ‘tendon’
TENDIN- ‘tendon’
TENDON- ‘tendon’
TENON- ‘tendon’
TENONT- ‘tendon’
tenodynia (TEN-odynia) – painful condition of a tendon
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tendotomy (TEND-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of a tendon

tendinoplasty (TENDIN-O-plasty) – surgical reshaping of a tendon
tendonitis (TENDON-itis) – inflammation of a tendon
tenonectomy (TENON-ectomy) – surgical removal of a tendon
tenontology (TENONT-O-logy) – study of tendons
18. LIG- ‘to bind,’ ‘to tie’

ligature (LIG-ature) – system composed of (something) to bind, i.e. something tied around a
structure to constrict it
ligate (LIG-ate) – to bind (something), i.e. to apply a ligature
ligation (LIG-ation) – process of applying a ligature
The bands of fibrous connective tissue that bind bones to other bones are called ligaments. We can think of
LIGAMENT- as a base:
19. LIGAMENT- ‘ligament’

ligamentary (LIGAMENT-ary) – pertaining to ligament
osseoligamentous (OSSE-O-LIGAMENT-ous) – pertaining to ligament and bone
20. DESM- ‘band,’ ‘ligament’

desmitis (DESM-itis) – inflammation of a ligament
desmopathy (DESM-O-pathy) – disease of the ligaments
While the Latin term ligament (or ligamentum) is generally used about the structure itself, the Greek base
DESM- is more commonly found denoting a ligament in compound terms. It is related to the base DE- we
saw previously, meaning ‘to bind.’ You will often find the combination of the prefix syn- with the base
DESM-; literally meaning a ‘banding together,’ SYNDESM- is often used as a base meaning ‘ligament’:
21. SYNDESM- ‘ligament’

syndesmorrhaphy (SYNDESM-O-rrhaphy) – surgical suture of a ligament
syndesmotomy (SYNDESM-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of a ligament
22. FASCI- ‘band,’ ‘fascia’

fasciation (FASCI-ation) – process of (applying) bands, i.e. process of binding with bandages
fasciectomy (FASCI-ectomy) – surgical removal of (strips of) a fascia
fasciodesis (FASCI-O-desis) – surgical fusion of a fascia (to a tendon or other fascia)
A fascia is a band or sheet of fibrous connective tissue enclosing, or separating, muscles and organs.
23. MY- ‘muscle’

MYS- ‘muscle’
MYOS- ‘muscle’
myalgia (MY-algia) – painful condition of a muscle
myogenesis (MY-O-genesis) – production of muscle (cells or tissue)
myopathy (MY-O-pathy) – disease of muscle (tissue)
epimysial (epi-MYS-ial) – pertaining to on the surface of a muscle, i.e. pertaining to the fibrous
covering of a muscle
myositis (MYOS-itis) – inflammation of a muscle
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The ancient Greek word for muscle, from which we get this base, is also the word for a mouse. Supposedly,
there is some resemblance between the shape of certain muscles and mice, so that is why the muscle got its
name.
24. MUSCUL- ‘muscle’

intramuscular (intra-MUSCUL-ar) – pertaining to within the muscle
cervicomuscular (CERVIC-O-MUSCUL-ar) – pertaining to the muscles of the neck
musculature (MUSCUL-ature) – system composed of muscles
The Romans followed Greek usage in this case, and the Latin for muscle uses the same word as that for
‘little mouse’; you will come across this term, musculus, in anatomy.
25. FLECT- ‘to bend’

FLEX- ‘to bend’
reflection (re-FLECT-ion) – act of bending backward, i.e. in anatomy, act of bending or folding
back of a part upon itself
flexion (FLEX-ion) – act of bending
flexor (FLEX-or) – thing that bends
A muscle that bends a body part is a flexor muscle; the biceps is a flexor muscle in the arm.
26. AGON- ‘struggle,’ ‘contest,’ ‘action’

agonism (AGON-ism) – condition of action
antagonism (ant-AGON-ism) – condition of opposite action, i.e. condition of an opposition
between forces
agony (AGON-y) – state of struggle, i.e. state of intense pain
Note how the final ‘i’ of anti- in antagonism has been elided before the vowel of the base. When a muscle
causes a movement to occur, it is called an agonist muscle; when a muscle opposes movement, either
slowing movement down or returning body parts to their original position, it is called an antagonist muscle.
A muscle can change roles depending on the movement involved. Often, agonist and antagonist muscles
work together in what are called antagonistic pairs, where one muscle contracts as the other relaxes; the
biceps and triceps of the arm are an antagonistic pair of muscles.
27. DUC- ‘to lead,’ ‘to draw’

DUCT- ‘to lead,’ ‘to draw’
abducent (ab-DUC-ent) – pertaining to away from (the midline) drawing, i.e. pertaining to
drawing away
adduction (ad-DUCT-ion) – act of toward (the midline) drawing, i.e. act of a movement of a
body part toward the midline of the body
circumduction (circum-DUCT-ion) – act of around drawing, i.e. act of the circular movement
of a body part
A muscle that draws a body part away from the midline of the body is called an abductor; one that draws a
body part toward the midline is called an adductor.
28. LAMIN- ‘thin plate,’ ‘lamina’

laminar (LAMIN-ar) – pertaining to a lamina (thin plate), or having the character of laminae
(thin plates)
laminated (LAMIN-ated) – composed of laminae (thin plates)
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laminitis (LAMIN-itis) – inflammation of a lamina (thin plate)
There are numerous structures throughout the body that are called laminae because of their thin, plate-like
appearance. The term lamella is a diminutive form:
29. LAMELL- ‘ thin plate,’ ‘lamella’
lamellar (LAMELL-ar) – pertaining to a lamella (thin plate), or having the character of lamellae
(thin plates)
Bone lamellae form the basic structural unit of bone.
30. ARTHR- (i) ‘joint’: (ii) ‘speech’

arthritis (ARTHR-itis) – inflammation of a joint
arthropathology (ARTHR-O-PATH-O-logy) – study of the diseases of joints
dysarthria (dys-ARTHR-ia) – condition of abnormal speech, i.e. condition of difficult or
unclear speech
The two meanings of this base were already related in ancient Greek, since both joints and speech were
viewed as made up of distinct parts (bones or words) coming together to make the whole. As always, you
will have to rely on context to help you decide which meaning is required.
31. ARTICUL- (i) ‘joint’: (ii) ‘speech sound’

interarticular (inter-ARTICUL-ar) – pertaining to between joints
articulation (ARTICUL-ation) – process of being jointed, process of (forming) speech sounds
disarticulation (dis-ARTICUL-ation) – process of separate joint, i.e. process of separation at a
joint, amputation
biarticulate (BI-ARTICUL-ate) – having joints - two (of them)
The two meanings of this base also occurred in the Latin language.
32. CRIST- ‘crest’

cristate (CRIST-ate) – having a crest
intercristal (inter-CRIST-al) – pertaining to between crests
In anatomy, a crest, or crista (plural cristae), is an elevated ridge. A ridge or elevation on a bone may be
termed a crest.
33. PHY- ‘to grow’

PHYS- (i) ‘growth,’ ‘nature’: (ii) ‘breath,’ ‘inflation,’ ‘swollen’
physis (PHY-sis) – process of growing
physics (PHYS-ics) – science of nature
physocephaly (PHYS-O-CEPHAL-y) – state of head (being) swollen
epiphysis (epi-PHY-sis) – condition of upon (the rest) growing, i.e. condition of an area of
secondary formation
diaphysis (dia-PHY-sis) – condition of in a line growing, i.e. condition of an area of formation
from one end to another
It is not easy to see at first what these last two terms mean. They refer to the structure of long bones of the
arms and legs; the diaphysis is the long shaft of bone extending from one end to the other, capped top and
bottom by an epiphysis, an area of bone that is initially separate from the shaft and only fuses with it at a
later stage. The degree of epiphyseal (epi-PHYS-eal – pertaining to an epiphysis) fusion between the
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epiphysis and the diaphysis in skeletal remains can be used as an indication of age, since total fusion does
not generally occur before late teens or early twenties. Once you know that these terms are related to bone
structure, figuring out that a symphysis (sym-PHY-sis) is a fusing together of bone, and that an apophysis
(apo-PHY-sis) is an outgrowth of bone becomes easier. Again, you will have to rely on context to help you
decide which meaning is required for the base PHYS-.
34. SPIN- ‘thorn,’ ‘spine’

spinate (SPIN-ate) – having spines
spinalgia (SPIN-algia) – painful condition of the spine
infraspinous (infra-SPIN-ous) – pertaining to below a spine
The link was already made in the ancient world between thorns and spines on plants to spines on animals
and fish, and ultimately to any spine-like structure in humans. Today, spine is not only the everyday word
for the vertebral column or backbone, but any slender, straight projection or ridge may be termed a spine in
anatomy. The spine of the scapula is a bony process that extends obliquely across its posterior surface.

Here are some more bases to learn; they all have common compound suffixes associated with them that
indicate some sort of medical condition:
35. TOP- ‘place,’ ‘position’

topophobia (TOP-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of (certain) places
dystopic (dys-TOP-ic) – pertaining to abnormal position (of a body part)
ectopia (ec-TOP-ia) – condition of outside the (correct) position, i.e. condition of displacement
adenectopy (ADEN-ec-TOP-y) – condition of outside the (correct) position gland, i.e.
condition of displacement of a gland
In adenectopy, we have another term where a base precedes the prefix. We have already seen logamnesia,
pupillatonia, and pantaphobia; all three involved the prefix a-. Now we have a term with the prefix ec-, but
exactly the same method for building up the definition can be used here – leave the base that precedes the
prefix till last, treat the remaining prefix-BASE-suffix in the normal manner (always start with the suffix,
then add the prefix, and then add in your base) and then add in the other base last.
36. TA- ‘to stretch’

TAS- ‘stretching,’ ‘tension’
iridotasis (IRID-O-TA-sis) – condition of stretching the iris (of the eye)
entasia (en-TAS-ia) – condition of inward tension, i.e. a spasm
ectasia (ec-TAS-ia) – condition of outward stretching, i.e. widening or expansion
37. EDE- ‘to swell’

OEDE- ‘to swell’
edesis (EDE-sis) – condition of swelling
The base EDE- (OEDE- is just an alternative spelling) is unusual in that you will probably never come
across it other than in the combination EDEma (OEDEma), which is actually an unmodified Greek noun
meaning ‘swelling,’ and not a true BASE-suffix combination. It is probably better to think of it only as one
of the compound suffixes:
arthredema (ARTHR-edema) – swelling of the joints

lipedema (LIP-edema) – swelling (caused by subcutaneous) fat
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The tragic Greek hero Oedipus supposedly got his name (the Greek form literally means ‘swollen-footed’)
from his scarred and swollen feet, the result of his parents having had his feet bound and pierced as an infant
to prevent him returning home after being abandoned.
38. EME- ‘to vomit’

antiemetic (anti-EME-tic) – pertaining to against the act of vomiting, i.e. pertaining to
preventing vomiting
hyperemesis (hyper-EME-sis) – condition of more than normal vomiting, i.e. condition of
excessive vomiting
dysemesia (dys-EME-sia) – condition of painful vomiting
39. PHRAG- ‘to block,’ ‘to obstruct’

emphraxis (em-PHRAG-sis) – condition of inward blocking, i.e. condition of obstruction
laryngemphraxis (LARYNG-em-PHRAG-sis) – condition of inward blocking of the larynx,
i.e. condition of obstruction or closure of the larynx
adenemphraxis (ADEN-em-PHRAG-sis) – condition of inward blocking of a gland, i.e.
condition of obstruction in a gland
In adenemphraxis, we have another term where a base precedes the prefix. Use exactly the same method for
building up the definition as we did previously – leave the base that precedes the prefix till last, treat the
remaining prefix-BASE-suffix in the normal manner (always start with the suffix, then add the prefix, and
then add in your base) and then add in the other base last. Remember that en- becomes em- before the letter
‘p’ because of the process of assimilation; note also that the final ‘g’ of the base and the ‘s’ of the suffix
have been combined into the letter ‘x’ to make the ‘gs’ sound easier. The ancient Greek term diaphragma
meaning a ‘wall’ or ‘partition,’ was also applied to the muscle that divides the chest from the abdomen. In
modern terminology, the term diaphragm is used about a variety of thin partitions. We can think of
DIAPHRAGM- as a base:
40. DIAPHRAGM- ‘diaphragm’

diaphragmatic (DIAPHRAGM-atic) – pertaining to a diaphragm
diaphragmalgia (DIAPHRAGM-algia) – painful condition of the diaphragm
41. LEP- ‘taking hold,’ ‘to seize’

LEPS- ‘taking hold,’ ‘to seize’
analeptic (ana-LEP-tic) – pertaining to an upward taking hold, i.e. pertaining to a restorative
remedy that strengthens or stimulates
psycholepsy (PSYCH-O-LEPS-y) – state of seizure of the mind, i.e. state of sudden depression
catalepsy (cata-LEPS-y) – state of complete seizure, i.e. state of seizure with total loss of
voluntary movement
42. MALAC- ‘soft’

malacodermous (MALAC-O-DERM-ous) – pertaining to skin that is soft
malacosarcosis (MALAC-O-SARC-osis) – condition of (muscular) tissue that is (abnormally)
soft
osteomalacia (OSTE-O-MALAC-ia) – condition of softening of the bones
craniomalacia (CRANI-O-MALAC-ia) – condition of softening of the cranium
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43. PHTHI- ‘to waste away,’ ‘to decay’

PHTHIS- ‘wasting,’ ‘decay’
ophthalmophthisis (OPHTHALM-O-PHTHI-sis) – condition of decay of the eye
laryngophthisis (LARING-O-PHTHI-sis) – condition of wasting in the larynx
phthisic (PHTHIS-ic) – pertaining to wasting
44. PLEG- ‘blow,’ ‘stroke’

glossoplegia (GLOSS-O-PLEG-ia) – condition of stroke of the tongue, i.e. condition of
paralysis of the tongue
quadriplegic (QUADR-I-PLEG-ic) – pertaining to a stroke of the four (limbs), i.e. pertaining
to paralysis of all four limbs
prosopodiplegia (PROSOP-O-DI-PLEG-ia) – condition of stroke on two sides of the face, i.e.
condition of paralysis of both sides of the face
Note the combining vowel in quadriplegic is ‘i.’ Closely related to this base is:
PLEX- ‘blow,’ ‘stroke,’ ‘seizure’

PLEC- ‘blow,’ ‘stroke,’ ‘seizure’
cataplexy (cata-PLEX-y) – condition of down stroke, i.e. condition of falling-down seizure
phrenoplexia (PHREN-O-PLEX-ia) – condition of seizure of the mind, i.e. condition of a
trance-like state
cataplectic (cata-PLECT-ic) – pertaining to down stroke, i.e. pertaining to a falling-down
seizure
The term phrenoplexia is outdated now, but you may still come across it. Remember, the base PHREN- has
two meanings, ‘mind’ and ‘diaphragm’; we have to use context and common sense to decide which is the
most appropriate. The term apoplexia was already used by the ancient Greeks for a form of madness or
seizure. It is now a fairly obsolete medical description for a cerebral stroke, but the term still persists in
everyday language, usually in the form apoplexy, to denote a fit of extreme anger. You must be careful not
to confuse this base with the base PLEX- we will meet later on, which means ‘to interweave’ or ‘to fold
together.’
45. PTO- ‘falling’

proptosis (pro-PTO-sis) – condition of forward falling, i.e. condition of forward protrusion,
usually of the eye
blepharoptosis (BLEPHAR-O-PTO-sis) – condition of falling of the eyelid, i.e. condition of
drooping eyelid
glossoptosia (GLOSS-O-PTO-sia) – condition of falling of the tongue, i.e. condition of
drooping of the tongue
46. STA- ‘to stand,’ ‘standing’

STAS- ‘standing’
astasia (a-STA-sia) – condition of not standing, i.e. condition of inability to stand
coprostasis (COPR-O-STA-sis) – condition of standing of the feces, i.e. condition of stoppage
of feces evacuation
stasiphobia (STAS-I-phobia) – abnormal fear of standing (and walking)
isostasy (IS-O-STAS-y) – condition of standing equal, i.e. condition of equilibrium
47. STHEN- ‘strength’

hypersthenia (hyper-STHEN-ia) – condition of more than normal strength
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asthenia (a-STHEN-ia) – condition of without strength, i.e. condition of weakness

anisosthenic (anis-O-STHEN-ic) – pertaining to unequal strength (in paired muscles)
Here are the compound suffixes that occur using these bases. Note that asthenia is actually a prefix, base,
and suffix combination. Remember, it is helpful to memorize all the compound suffixes because they occur
so regularly, but you can also always build them up from their individual base and suffix parts. We can also
add -stenosis to this list, which we have seen a few times now in previous chapters.
1. -asthenia ‘weakness’
2. -ectasia, -ectasis ‘expansion,’ ‘widening,’ ‘dilation’
3. -ectopia, -ectopy ‘displacement’
4. -emesia, -emesis ‘vomiting’
5. -emphraxis ‘obstruction’
6. -lepsis, -lepsy ‘seizure’
7. -malacia ‘softening’
8. -(o)edema ‘swelling’
9. -phthisis ‘wasting’
10. -plegia ‘paralysis’
11. -plexia, -plexy ‘seizure’
12. -ptosia, -ptosis ‘drooping,’ ‘prolapse’
13. -stasia, -stasis, -stasy ‘stoppage,’ ‘stagnation’
14. -stenosis ‘narrowing,’ ‘contraction’
We have covered another five chapters since the last review, so this seems like a good place for another
summary of some of the topics we have covered.
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Prefixes
We have now covered all of the prefixes that you are likely to come across. Most of them are prepositions
that indicate ‘where’ something occurs; a few others indicate ‘how’ something is done, or have the meaning
of ‘not.’ Note that hemi-, multi-, poly-, and semi- are no longer listed as prefixes (check Chapter 8 if you
cannot remember why).
1. a-, an- ‘without,’ ‘not,’ ‘non-’

2. ab-, a- ‘away from’
3. ad-, ac-, af- etc. ‘toward,’ ‘near’
6. ana-, an- ‘up,’ ‘upward,’ ‘again’
12. con-, col-, com-, cor- ‘together,’ ‘with’
13. contra- ‘opposite,’ ‘against’
16. dis-, dif-, di- ‘apart,’ ‘away from,’ ‘separation,’ ‘lack of’
20. eiso-, eso- ‘inward’
21. en-, el-, em-, er- ‘in,’ ‘inward’
22. enanti- ‘opposite’
27. ex-, ef-, e- ‘out,’ ‘outside,’ ‘from,’ ‘without’
28. exo-, ex- ‘outside,’ ‘outer,’ ‘external’
32. in-, il-, im-, ir- ‘in,’ ‘into’
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36. juxta- ‘close to’
37. mal- ‘bad,’ ‘inadequate’
40. non- ‘not’
45. pre-, prae- ‘in front of,’ ‘before’
47. pro- ‘in front of,’ ‘forward’
50. retro- ‘behind,’ ‘backward’
51. se- ‘away,’ ‘aside’
52. sub-, suc-, sug-, sup-, sur- ‘below,’ ‘underneath’
55. syn-, syl-, sym-, sys-, sy- ‘together,’ ‘with,’ ‘concurrent’
57. ultra- ‘beyond’
We have seen three ways in which the spelling of the prefix might be altered, depending on the first letter
of the base that follows it:
i. Elision – occurs with certain prefixes that end in a vowel. When the following base begins with a
vowel, or the letter ‘h,’ the final vowel of the prefix is dropped. Since the prefix a- is nothing other
than a vowel, it adds a letter and becomes an-. Not all prefixes that end in a vowel undergo elision,
and the process is not always consistent even with those prefixes that can undergo elision.
ii. Assimilation – occurs with certain prefixes that end in a consonant. When the following base begins
with certain consonants, the final consonant of the prefix changes to something closer to the
beginning consonant of the base.
iii. The prefixes ec- and ex-. The prefix ec- also has the alternative form ex- that is used before vowels
and the letter ‘h.’ The prefix ex- also undergoes some changes; as a general rule, ex-before vowels,
the letter ‘h,’ and some consonants, ef- before ‘f,’ and e- before most consonants. Luckily, these
two prefixes have pretty much the same meaning.
Do be aware of the potential spelling changes. Then, if you come across a prefix that you do not immediately
recognize, think whether it could be an elided or assimilated form. Remember, too, that some prefixes just
have alternative forms.
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Suffixes
There are many, many, many suffixes that you might come across, but maybe you will only ever come
across them once. Here, we are learning the suffixes that get used over and over. We have already met a lot
of them, but we will still continue to add to the list for a few more chapters.
All of these suffixes form an adjective when added to a base:

5. -ad ‘toward’
27. -ile ‘pertaining to,’ ‘able to be’
31. -oid ‘resembling,’ ‘shaped,’ ‘like,’ shaped like’
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Remember, the suffix -ate can also be a verb-forming suffix meaning ‘to do’ or ‘to cause.’

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These diminutive-forming suffixes also make nouns when added to a base:

76. -il ‘small’
78. -ium ‘small’
79. -ole ‘small’
87. -verse ‘to turn,’ ‘to travel’ ‘turned’
Remember, the suffix -ate can also be an adjective-forming suffix.
Compound Suffixes
Some base-suffix pairs occur together so regularly that they are often treated as one suffix, and we have
used the term compound suffix to describe them. Here are the compound suffixes that we have seen, but
bear in mind that this is just a list created for this present task in medical terminology. In a different
discipline, the list of compound suffixes would be quite different.
Most of the compound suffixes we have made are nouns. Here are the ones that relate to the senses and the
mind:

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Here are the ones that relate to medical procedures and treatment:

Here are the ones that express some physical condition:

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47. -schisis ‘fissure’
The -rrh compounds are not true compound suffixes in the way we have described them, but they do occur
quite often, so it is good to be aware of them:

Here are the remaining compound suffixes that form nouns:

These compound suffixes form adjectives:


This is a good time to review what we have learned so far about building up medical definitions.
Combining Vowels
Remember, combining vowels do not add anything to the sense of the term. We have seen that ‘o’ is the
most common of the combining vowels, but that other vowels can perform this function too. You may have
noticed that certain bases and suffixes are always preceded by a particular combining vowel; FER-, -form,
and -fic, for example, are always preceded by the letter ‘i’ as a combining vowel. From now on, we will not
remark on the combining vowels.
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BASE-suffix (including any terms with combining vowels)

Start with the suffix – this is going to tell you whether your compound term is a noun, adjective, or verb.
Then, add the base, and add any little words such as ‘the’ or ‘of’ you need to make sense.
BASE-BASE-suffix, BASE-BASE-BASE-suffix etc. (including any terms with combining vowels)

Many compound terms have more than one base, and they can be the hardest terms to deal with because the
relationship between the bases is not always clear. Sometimes, you can join the bases with the word ‘and,’
sometimes not. You really have to think about the most likely common sense solution. Practice will help
you a lot, as you will start to see certain patterns emerging with particular combinations of suffixes and
bases.
Always start with the suffix and the ultimate (last) base – this gets the definition off to the proper start and
we know whether we are dealing with a noun, adjective, or verb. Then, use common sense to figure out how
to add in the other base(s). In general, and this is not a hard-and-fast rule but I do try to use it if I can, address
the bases in turn reading from right to left (end to start, if you prefer). Add in any little words such as ‘the’
or ‘of’ you need to make sense.
If any of the other bases in a compound term, other than the ultimate base, are adjectival in nature, i.e.
describing words that denote quality, size, and quantity, you may end up with a fairly clumsy definition,
something like ‘having digits - six (of them).’ This is fine; you can always adjust the word order later to
make it sound better, if necessary. However, do adhere to the method outlined for your initial building up
of the definition. It is very tempting to treat these adjectival bases as prefixes, but this can cause problems
in more complicated compound terms.
BASE-suffix-suffix, BASE-BASE-suffix-suffix etc. (including any terms with combining vowels)

Occasionally, there are two suffixes at the end of a term. Make a single suffix from the two, starting with
the ultimate (last) one; this will still tell you whether your compound term is a noun, adjective, or verb.
Then proceed as normal.
BASE-suffix-BASE-suffix (including any terms with combining vowels)

Very occasionally a term may have two suffixes, one at the end of the term and the other somewhere in the
middle. The only term we have come across like this is acousticophobia, but, because it includes what we
have classified as a compound suffix, we looked at it as a BASE-suffix-suffix type term, ACOUS-tic-O-
phobia. If we think of -phobia in its original BASE and suffix form, we have ACOUS-tic-O-PHOB-ia. The
best approach here is to think of the term as two BASE-suffix units, linked by a hyphen. Start with the last
BASE-suffix unit, using the regular method; again, this gets the definition off to the proper start and we
know whether we are dealing with a noun, adjective, or verb. Then, work on the other BASE-suffix unit
with the regular method. Finally, join the two halves together, adding in any little words such as ‘the’ or
‘of’ you need to make sense.
prefix-BASE-suffix (including any terms with combining vowels)

Start with the suffix, then add the prefix, and then add in your base. Add in any words necessary to make
good sense. Remember, the prefix adds extra information about the base.
prefix-BASE-BASE-suffix (including any terms with combining vowels)

These compound terms can be awkward, because it is not always obvious which of the bases the prefix is
modifying. The best approach is usually to leave the prefix till last, and build up the definition in the manner
outlined for BASE-BASE-suffix type terms. Always start with the suffix and the ultimate (last) base, and
use common sense to figure out how to add in the other base. Then, you really have to think about the prefix.
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We have already seen examples where it modifies both bases, as in aglossostomia, and where it modifies
just one, as in hyperphotesthesia and hypergeusesthesia (the ultimate base in both cases). Again, you have
to use common sense to decide what works best. Finally, add in any little words such as ‘the’ or ‘of’ you
need to make sense. We will talk about other terms of this type as we meet them.
prefix-prefix-BASE-suffix (including any terms with combining vowels)

In most cases, always start with the suffix, then add the first prefix, then the second prefix, and then add in
your base. Add in any words necessary to make good sense.
Rule-breakers and Oddities

We have now seen four examples of terms where a base precedes the prefix; pupillatonia, pantaphobia,
logamnesia, and adenectopy. We used the same method in each case – leave the base that precedes the prefix
till last, treat the remaining prefix-BASE-suffix in the normal manner (always start with the suffix, then add
the prefix, and then add in your base) and then add in the other base last.
We will continue to talk about other rule-breakers and oddities as we meet them.
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Hands and Fingers
Suffixes
1. -ator ‘person who (does…),’ ‘thing that (does…)’
2. -ious ‘pertaining to’
Bases
1. CHEIR- ‘hand’
CHIR- ‘hand’
acheiria (a-CHEIR-ia) – condition of (being) without hands
cheiralgia (CHEIR-algia) – painful condition of the hand
chiromegaly (CHIR-O-megaly) – enlargement of the hand or hands
2. MAN- (i) ‘frenzy’: (ii) ‘hand’: (iii) ‘thin,’ ‘loose’

bimanous (BI-MAN-ous) – having hands - two (of them)
sinistromanual (SINISTR-O-MAN-ual) – pertaining to the hand - the left one, i.e. being left-
handed
We have already seen this base with the meaning ‘frenzy’; we will look at the meaning ‘thin,’ ‘loose’ in a
later chapter.
3. PALM- ‘palm of the hand’

palmar (PALM-ar) – pertaining to the palm of the hand
palmaris (PALM-aris) – pertaining to the palm of the hand
4. CARP- ‘wrist’
carpoptosis (CARP-O-ptosis) – drooping of the wrist (due to paralysis)
metacarpal (meta-CARP-al) – pertaining to after the wrist, i.e. pertaining to between the wrist
and the fingers
There are eight carpal bones in each wrist, arranged in two rows of four. Five metacarpal bones extend from
the wrist, one to the base of each of the fingers and the thumb.
Here is a strange compound term:
carpocarpal (CARP-O-CARP-al) – pertaining to the area between two bones of the wrist
You would probably never figure out the definition of this term without knowing that compound terms that
duplicate the same base denote two parts of that structure and the associated area between them. Just
something you have to remember.
5. DACTYL- ‘finger,’ ‘toe’

polydactyly (POLY-DACTYL-y) – condition of the fingers or toes - many of them, i.e.
condition of more than the normal number of fingers or toes
dactyledema (DACTYL-edema) – swelling of the fingers or toes
hyperdactylia (hyper-DACTYL-ia) – condition of more than normal (number of) fingers or
toes
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The combinations of the base DACTYL- with the suffix -y and with the suffix -ia are very common; we
will add these to our list of compound suffixes.
6. DIGIT- ‘finger,’ ‘toe,’ ‘digit’

digital (DIGIT-al) – pertaining to a finger or toe
sexdigitism (SEX-DIGIT-ism) – condition of the digits - (having) six (per hand or foot)
digitiform (DIGIT-I-form) – having the form of a finger or toe
Note that the term digitalis can be a bit misleading. In medical terminology, it generally refers to the digitalis
plant (so-named because of its finger-like flowers), or to the active compound contained in its leaves.
Digitalism is the term used for the symptoms that accompany poisoning by digitalis.
7. PHALANG- ‘phalanx,’ ‘finger bone,’ ‘toe bone’

phalangeal (PHALANG-eal) – pertaining to a finger or toe bone, or to a phalanx
symphalangia (sym-PHALANG-ia) – condition of together finger or toe bones, i.e. condition
of end-to-end fusion of any of the finger or toe bones
tetraphalangeate (TETR-A-PHALANG-E-ate) – having finger or toe bones - four (of them)
The thumb and the big toe each have two bones, the other fingers and toes have three bones each; so, being
teraphalangeate means you have extra finger or toe bones. The anatomical term for each bone is a phalanx
(plural phalanges). The bones got this name because they line up in the hand and foot like the lines of Greek
soldiers in battle order, the original Greek phalanx. Other anatomical structures that involve parts being
lined up are also sometimes termed a phalanx.
8. POLLIC- ‘thumb,’ ‘pollex’

pollical (POLLIC-al) – pertaining to the thumb
pollicization (POLLIC-ization) – process of making (a substitute) thumb
The anatomical term for the thumb is the pollex (plural pollices).
9. ACR- ‘highest point,’ ‘extreme,’ ‘extremity’

acrophobia (ACR-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of high places
acromania (ACR-O-mania) – condition of madness that is extreme, i.e. condition of incurable
insanity
acrocyanosis (ACR-O-CYAN-osis) – abnormal condition of blue discoloration of the
extremities
acroleukopathy (ACR-O-LEUK-O-pathy) – disease (involving) white (patches on) the
extremities
acrocephalopolysyndactyly (ACR-O-CEPHAL-O-POLY-syn-DACTYL-y) – condition of
together fingers or toes - many of them, and a head that is (like) the highest point, i.e.
condition involving several fused fingers or toes and a head that is peak shaped
It will probably take you a few moments to figure out this last term. Not only do we have four bases, but we
have a prefix that is nowhere near the beginning of the term. However, as always, start with the suffix. Then,
since the prefix is preceding the ultimate base, it is almost certain that the prefix is adding information about
this base only, and we can treat this prefix-BASE-suffix triplet as if it is a compound term in isolation. In
fact, just as we noted above that DACTYL- and -y and -ia are common combinations, so too are syn-
DACTYL-y and syn-DACTYL-ia, literally ‘a condition of together fingers or toes,’ more sensibly ‘a fusion
of fingers or toes.’ Now we have to address the other three bases. Often going from right to left with the
bases works; it does here – it is much more likely that we are talking about ‘many fingers or toes,’ than
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‘many extremities’ or ‘many heads.’ So, ‘a condition of many fused fingers or toes.’ Can we join in the
other two bases with ‘and’? Not really, this would not make a lot of sense. How about joining in one base
with ‘and’? That works, especially if we still work from right to left; ‘a condition of many fused fingers or
toes and a head ….’ Then, if we cannot include ACR- with ‘and,’ all we can do is use common sense. Given
its position in the term, it is more likely related to CEPHAL- than to DACTYL-, so we can probably think
that it is modifying ‘head’ in some way. With a little leap of faith, we arrive at ‘head that is (like) the highest
point,’ that is ‘cone shaped’ or ‘peak shaped.’ Again, not easy, but not impossible.
The ‘extremities’ may include any of, or all of, the hands, fingers, feet, and toes.
10. PRON- ‘face downward,’ ‘bending forward’

pronate (PRON-ate) – to turn (to a) face downward (position)
pronation (PRON-ation) – the process of bending forward
pronator (PRON-ator) – thing that bends forward
A pronator muscle turns a body part to the prone (lying face downward, bent forward) position. Pronation
of the palm of the hand moves it from a front facing position to a rear facing position (or, to a downward
facing position, if the elbow is flexed).
11. SUPIN- ‘face upward,’ ‘bending backward’

supinate (SUPIN-ate) – to turn (to a) face upward (position)
supination (SUPIN-ation) – process of bending backward
supinator (SUPIN-ator) – thing that bends backward
A supinator muscle turns a body part to the supine (lying face upward, bent backward) position. Supination
of the palm of the hand moves it from a rear facing position to a front facing position (or, to an upward
facing position, if the elbow is flexed).
12. THIGM- ‘to touch,’ ‘touching’

THIX- ‘touching’
thigmesthesia (THIGM-esthesia) – condition of sensation to touch
thixotropy (THIX-O-TROP-y) – condition of turning (in response to) touching
13. HAPH- ‘touching’

HAPT- ‘to touch,’ ‘touching’
haphalgesia (HAPH-algesia) – painful condition (caused by) touching
haptometer (HAPT-O-meter) – instrument used to measure (sensitivity to) touch
14. TACT- (i) ‘to touch,’ ‘touching’: (ii) ‘order,’ ‘arrangement’

TAG- ‘to touch,’ ‘touching’
TANG- ‘to touch,’ ‘touching’
tactile (TACT-ile) – pertaining to (the sense of) touch
contagious (con-TAG-ious) – pertaining to together touching, i.e. pertaining to disease
transmission through touching together
tangible (TANG-ible) – able to be touched, i.e. real, not imaginary
The original concept of ‘contagion’ precedes modern notions of a communicable disease. We will look at
the meaning ‘order,’ ‘arrangement’ for the base TACT- in a later chapter.
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Here are some new bases to learn. They are mostly derived from adjectives so, like the bases that indicate
size, quantity, and quality, these bases often occur at the beginning of a compound term. They seem to be
like prefixes, but remember, they are bases. You should still deal with the suffix and ultimate base first, then
add in any other bases. The resulting translation may be clumsy, but it will be accurate; you can always
make it more elegant once you know exactly what it means.
15. DOLICH- ‘long’

dolichostenomelia (DOLICH-O-STEN-O-MEL-ia) – condition of the limbs that are narrow
and long, i.e. condition marked by abnormally long and slender hands, fingers, feet, and
toes
dolichomorphic (DOLICH-O-MORPH-ic) – pertaining to a shape that is (abnormally) long,
i.e. pertaining to a body type that is especially long and slender
dolichonychia (DOLICH-ONYCH-ia) – condition of the nails that are (abnormally) long
16. LONG- ‘long’

longilingual (LONG-I-LINGU-al) – pertaining to the tongue - a long one
The Latin base LONG- is used more often in botany and non-human zoology; the Greek base DOLICH- is
generally used to denote ‘long’ in terminology relating to humans.
17. BRACHY- ‘short’

brachydactylia (BRACHY-dactylia) – condition of the fingers that are (abnormally) short
brachyglossal (BRACHY-GLOSS-al) – pertaining to a tongue that is (abnormally) short
brachycheilia (BRACHY-CHEIL-ia) – condition of lips that are (abnormally) short
18. BREV- ‘short’

brevilingual (BREV-I-LINGU-al) – pertaining to the tongue - a short one
Like the base LONG-, the Latin base BREV- is used more often in botany and non-human zoology; the
Greek base BRACHY- is generally used to denote ‘long’ in terminology relating to humans.
19. EURY- ‘wide’

eurygnathism (EURY-GNATH-ism) – condition of the jaw (being) wide
eurycephalic (EURY-CEPHAL-ic) – pertaining to the head that is wide
20. PLATY- ‘flat,’ ‘broad’

platycephalic (PLATY-CEPHAL-ic) – pertaining to a head that is flat
platyglossal (PLATY-GLOSS-al) – pertaining to a tongue that is broad
platyrrhiny (PLATY-RRHIN-y) – condition of the nose (being) broad
Remember, the base -RRHIN- occurs only in the middle of terms; elsewhere the base meaning nose is
RHIN-.
21. PACHY- ‘thick

acropachydermic (ACR-O-PACHY-DERM-ic) – pertaining to skin that is thickened at the
extremities
pachyblepharosis (PACHY-BLEPHAR-osis) – abnormal condition of the eyelid (being)
thickened
pachyotia (PACHY-OT-ia) – condition of the ear (being) thickened
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22. PYCN- ‘thick,’ ‘dense’

PYKN- ‘thick,’ ‘dense’
pyknophrasia (PYKN-O-PHRAS-ia) – condition of speech (characterized by) thickness or
clumsiness
pyknodysostosis (PYKN-O-dys-OST-osis) – condition of abnormal bone (structure
characterized by) thickening
The alternative spelling PYCN- (where the ‘k’ of the Greek form is replaced by ‘c’) is occasionally used.
In pyknodysostosis, we have another compound term where a prefix is within the word. See the discussion
above on the term acrocephalopolysyndactyly.
23. GRAV- ‘heavy’

gravimetric (GRAV-I-METR-ic) – pertaining to measurement by heaviness
The term gravid, meaning literally ‘heavy (with child)’or more commonly ‘pregnant,’ is related to this base:
24. GRAVID- ‘pregnant,’ ‘pregnancy’

gravidic (GRAVID-ic) – pertaining to pregnancy or a pregnant woman
gravidity (GRAVID-ity) – condition of pregnancy
We have used the term gravida in a previous chapter, meaning ‘a pregnant woman.’
25. BAR- ‘weight,’ ‘pressure’

BARY- ‘heavy’
baresthesia (BAR-esthesia) – condition of sensation to weight or pressure
baranesthesia (BAR-an-esthesia) – condition of non-sensation to weight or pressure
bariatrics (BAR-iatrics) – medical treatment of weight, i.e. medical management of obesity
baryphony (BARY-PHON-y) – condition of speech that is heavy, i.e. condition of a heavy,
deep voice, or speech that is heavy and indistinct
In baranesthesia, we have another example of an oddity, a BASE-prefix-BASE-suffix type compound term

(remember, esthesia is a compound suffix made from a base and suffix). We can use exactly the same
method we have seen previously for this type of term – leave the base that precedes the prefix till last, treat
the remaining prefix-BASE-suffix in the normal manner (always start with the suffix, then add the prefix,
and then add in your base) and then add in the other base last.
26. LEPT- ‘thin,’ ‘slender’

leptocephaly (LEPT-O-CEPHAL-y) – condition of the head (being) narrow
leptodactylous (LEPT-O-DACTYL-ous) – pertaining to fingers or toes that are slender
leptorrhinism (LEPT-O-RRHIN-ism) – condition of the nose (being) slender
Remember, the base -RRHIN- occurs only in the middle of terms; elsewhere the base meaning nose is
RHIN-.
27. LEI- ‘smooth’

leiodermia (LEI-O-DERM-ia) – condition of the skin (being abnormally) smooth
leiomyoma (LEI-O-MY-oma) – tumor (derived from the) muscle that is smooth
leiomyosarcoma (LEI-O-MY-O-SARC-oma) – tumor of the soft tissue (derived from) muscle
that is smooth
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Muscle tissue is classified into three types; smooth, cardiac, and skeletal. Smooth muscle is generally
involuntary, meaning it is not under our conscious control, and is found in places such as blood vessels, the
stomach, and the intestines. Remember, a sarcoma (SARC-oma) is a malignant (cancerous) tumor; many
tumors are benign (non-cancerous).
28. MOLL- ‘soft’

mollescent (MOLL-escent) – becoming soft
mollipilose (MOLL-I-PIL-ose) – having the quality of hair that is soft
You may also come across the term mollities, which means ‘characterized by softness.’
29. DUR- ‘hard’

induration (in-DUR-ation) – process of in (a place) hardening, i.e. condition of hardening,
usually of organs or tissues
We have already met the Greek base SCLER- meaning ‘hard’; you are much more likely to come across it
in compound terms than the Latin base DUR-. However, we do find DUR- in the term dura mater; literally
‘hard mother,’ it is a tough membrane that surrounds the brain and spinal cord, the outermost of the three
meningeal layers:
DUR- ‘dura mater’

dural (DUR-al) – pertaining to the dura mater
duraplasty (DUR-A-plasty) – surgical reshaping of the dura mater
duroarachnitis (DUR-O-ARACHN-itis) – inflammation of the arachnoid and the dura mater
Remember, we came across the arachnoid in a previous chapter; it is the meningeal layer that resembles a
spider’s web and it lies beneath the dura mater. The innermost of the three meningeal layers is the pia mater
(literally, ‘tender mother’).
30. ORTH- ‘straight,’ ‘correct’

orthodontics (ORTH-ODONT-ics) – science of teeth correction or straightening, i.e. branch of
dentistry correcting abnormal tooth position
orthomelic (ORTH-O-MEL-ic) – pertaining to limb correction or straightening
anorthographic (an-ORTH-O-GRAPH-ic) – pertaining to writing (that is) not straight or
correct, i.e. pertaining to the loss of the ability to write correctly
It is fairly straightforward in anorthographic to figure out which base the prefix anis modifying.
31. ANKYL- ‘bent,’ ‘stiff,’ ‘fixed’

ankylodactyly (ANKYL-O-dactyly) – condition of the fingers or toes (being) fixed together,
i.e. fusion of the fingers or toes
ankylosis (ANKYL-osis) – abnormal condition of stiffening (of a joint)
ankylostomatic (ANKYL-O-STOMAT-ic) – pertaining to the mouth (being) fixed, i.e.
pertaining to lockjaw, a closing of the jaw and mouth due to spasm
The alternative spelling ANCYL- (where the ‘k’ of the Greek form is replaced by ‘c’) is only occasionally
used.
32. KYPH- ‘bent,’ ‘hump-backed’

kyphosis (KYPH-osis) – abnormal condition of (being) hump-backed
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kyphorrhinotic (KYPH-O-RRHIN-O-tic) – pertaining to a nose that is bent
The alternative spelling CYPH- (where the ‘k’ of the Greek form is replaced by ‘c’) is only occasionally
used.
33. LORD- ‘bent backward’

lordosis (LORD-osis) – abnormal condition of (being) bent backward, i.e. condition of
abnormal curvature of the spine
lordotic (LORD-O-tic) – pertaining to (being) bent backward
34. SCOLI- ‘curved,’ ‘bent’

scoliosis (SCOLI-osis) – abnormal condition of (being) curved, i.e. condition of abnormal
curvature of the spine
scoliokyphosis (SCOLI-O-KYPH-osis) – abnormal condition of (being) hump-backed and
curved, i.e. condition of being hump-backed as well as having an abnormal curvature of
the spine
lordoscoliosis (LORD-O-SCOLI-osis) – abnormal condition of (being) curved and bent
backward, i.e. condition of abnormal curvature of the spine
The alternative spelling SKOLI- is occasionally used.
35. CYRT- ‘curved,’ ‘bent’

KYRT- ‘curved,’ ‘bent’
kyrtometer (KYRT-O-meter) – instrument used to measure curved (surfaces of the body)
cyrtosis (CYRT-osis) – abnormal condition of (being) curved, i.e. condition of abnormal
curvature of the spine
You will find both spellings, KYRT- and CYRT-, for this base. Both scoliosis and cyrtosis are characterized
by a lateral curvature of the spine. This sideways curve may be ‘C’ or ‘S’ shaped. Kyphosis is characterized
by an abnormally rounded upper back, while lordosis is characterized by a significant inward curve of the
spine in the lower back area.
36. CAMP- ‘to bend,’ ‘bent’

CAMPT- ‘to bend,’ ‘bent
CAMPYL- ‘bent,’ ‘curved’
acampsia (a-CAMP-sia) – condition of not bending, i.e. condition of stiffness or rigidity of a
joint
camptomelia (CAMPT-O-MEL-ia) – condition of the limbs (being) bent, i.e. condition of
deformity characterized by curvature of the long bones
camptodactyly (CAMPT-O-dactyly) – condition of the fingers or toes (being) bent
campylognathia (CAMPYL-O-GNATH-ia) – condition of the jaw (being) curved, i.e. a curved
deformity of the jaw
Finally, here are the compound suffixes to add to our list:
1. -dactylia, -dactyly ‘condition of the fingers or toes’

2. -syndactylia, -syndactyly ‘condition of fused fingers or toes’
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Chest, Back, and Spine
Suffixes
1. -fication ‘process of producing,’ ‘process of becoming,’ ‘process of making’
2. -fy ‘to produce,’ ‘to become,’ ‘to make’
Bases
1. RACHI- ‘spine,’ ‘backbone’
RACHID- ‘spine,’ ‘backbone’
-RRHACH- ‘spine,’ ‘backbone’
rachioplegia (RACHI-O-plegia) – paralysis of the spine
rachischisis (RACHI-schisis) – fission of the spine
rachidial (RACHID-ial) – pertaining to the spine
The base RHACHI-, which is closer to the Greek original, has largely been replaced by the form RACHI-,
but you may still come across it occasionally. You might also come across the form -RRHACH-, which
only occurs in the middle of a term, never at the beginning, as in hematorrhacis, the term for a spinal
hemorrhage (you have not met the base HEMAT- yet). We looked at the explanation for this unusual form
in an earlier chapter, when we looked at the bases RHAPH- and RHE-.
2. VERTEBR- ‘spine,’ ‘vertebra’

vertebral (VERTEBR-al) – pertaining to a vertebra, or vertebrae
vertebrectomy (VERTEBR-ectomy) – surgical removal of a vertebra
craniovertebral (CRANI-O-VERTEBR-al) – pertaining to the vertebrae and the cranium
The spinal column is made up of thirty three vertebrae (singular vertebra), the bones that are linked together
to form the backbone, or spine. The term vertebra is related to the base VERT- ‘to turn’; having individual
segments, rather than one rigid bone, allows the torso to turn.
3. SPONDYL- ‘segment of the spine,’ ‘vertebra’

spondylomalacia (SPONDYL-O-malacia) – softening of the vertebrae
spondylalgia (SPONDYL-algia) – painful condition of the spine
spondylous (SPONDYL-ous) – pertaining to a vertebra
4. MYEL- ‘bone marrow,’ ‘spinal cord’

myelogenesis (MYEL-O-genesis) – production of bone marrow
amyelencephalia (a-MYEL-ENCEPHAL-ia) – condition of being without brain and spinal cord
poliomyelitis (POLI-O-MYEL-itis) – inflammation of the spinal cord gray matter
The spinal cord is a bundle of nervous tissue that extends from the brain stem (posterior part of the brain)
to the second lumbar vertebra (just above your navel). Because of some resemblance to bone marrow, the
name myelin was given to the lipoprotein that coats certain nerve cell structures. We can think of MYELIN-
as a base:
5. MYELIN- ‘myelin,’ ‘myelin sheath’

myelinated (MYELIN-ated) – composed of myelin
myelinolysis (MYELIN-O-lysis) – loosening of myelin sheath, i.e. loss of the myelin sheath
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myelinoclasis (MYELIN-O-clasis) – breakage of myelin sheath, i.e. destruction of the myelin

sheath
6. THORAC- ‘chest,’ ‘thorax’

thoracic (THORAC-ic) – pertaining to the chest
thoracocentesis (THORAC-O-centesis) – puncturing of the chest (cavity)
thoracomyodynia (THORAC-O-MY-odynia) – painful condition of the muscles of the chest
The Greek term thorax originally described a piece of armor that covered the chest. There are twelve thoracic
vertebrae in the chest area of the spine. Above these are seven cervical vertebrae; the topmost of these is
called the atlas (we mentioned this in a previous chapter), while the second in line is called the axis, and it
provides the pivot on which the atlas can rotate:
7. AX- ‘axis,’ ‘central line’

adaxial (ad-AX-ial) – pertaining to toward an axis
abaxial (ab-AX-ial) – pertaining to away from an axis
We have already met this base previously, but I want to say a little more about it. In antiquity, the term for
the axis bone was axon; in the nineteenth century, the term axon was given to the long nerve fibers that
project from nerve cells:
AX- ‘axon’
axotomy (AX-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of an axon
axolysis (AX-O-lysis) – loosening of an axon, i.e. destruction of an axon
In almost all cases, the base AX- plus the combining vowel ‘i’ denotes an ‘axis,’ while the same base plus
the combining vowel ‘o’ denotes an axon, but note this exception:
axometer (AX-O-meter) – instrument used to measure (or determine) the axis (of an optical
lens)
8. STETH- ‘chest’
stethomyitis (STETH-O-MY-itis) – inflammation of the muscles of the chest (wall)
stethocyrtometer (STETH-O-CYRT-O-meter) – instrument used to measure the curved (part)
of the chest, i.e. instrument used to measure the curvature of the chest
stethoscope (STETH-O-scope) – instrument used to examine the chest
9. PECTOR- ‘chest’
pectoralis (PECTOR-alis) – pertaining to the chest
pectoral (PECTOR-al) – pertaining to the chest
pectoralgia (PECTOR-algia) – painful condition of the chest
expectorant (ex-PECTOR-ant) – pertaining to out of the chest, i.e. pertaining to promoting the
expulsion of phlegm from the chest area
10. MAZ- ‘breast

mazoplasia (MAZ-O-plasia) – surgical reshaping of the breast
tetramazia (TETR-A-MAZ-ia) – condition of the breasts - (having) four of them
Remember, we have already seen the related base MAST- meaning ‘breast’; it is much more common in
compound terms than MAZ-.
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11. MAMM- ‘breast’

mammary (MAMM-ary) – pertaining to the breast
mammotomy (MAMM-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of the breast
mammectomy (MAMM-ectomy) – surgical removal of the breast
mammilla (MAMM-illa) – small breast, i.e. nipple
12. MAMMILL- ‘nipple’

mammillate (MAMMILL-ate) – having nipples, or nipple-like projections
mammillitis (MAMMILL-itis) – inflammation of the nipple
You may also see the alternative spelling MAMILL- for this base. Remember, we saw the base PAPILL-
meaning ‘nipple’ or ‘papilla’ in a previous chapter.
13. COST- ‘rib’

intercostal (inter-COST-al) – pertaining to between the ribs
costochondral (COST-O-CHONDR-al) – pertaining to the cartilage (attached to the) rib
costiferous (COST-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to bearing ribs
14. STERN- ‘breast bone,’ ‘sternum’

hyposternal (hypo-STERN-al) – pertaining to below the sternum
sternocleidomastoidal (STERN-O-CLEID-O-MASTOID-al) – pertaining to the mastoid
process, clavicle (collar-bone) and sternum
schistosternia (SCHIST-O-STERN-ia) – condition of the sternum (being) split
sternoschisis (STERN-O-schisis) – fission of the sternum
The sternum is the long, flat bone that forms the central portion of the rib-cage. It is shaped somewhat like
a sword, which is reflected in the vocabulary used to describe it. It is made up of the manubrium, a term
derived from MANU- (‘hand’) meaning ‘handle,’ the body, and the xiphoid process, a term related to the
Greek for ‘sword’:
15. XIPH- ‘sword’

xiphoid (XIPH-oid) – resembling a sword
You may come across both XIPH- and XIPHOID- as bases meaning the xiphoid process:
XIPH- ‘xiphoid process’

XIPHOID- ‘xiphoid process’
xiphodynia (XIPH-odynia) – painful condition (in the region of) the xiphoid process
xiphocostal (XIPH-O-COST-al) – pertaining to the ribs and the xiphoid process
xiphoidalgia ( XIPOID-algia) – painful condition (in the region of) the xiphoid process
16. LUMB- ‘loin’

lumbar (LUMB-ar) – pertaining to the loin
supralumbar (supra-LUMB-ar) – pertaining to (the region above) the loin
lumbocostal (LUMB-O-COST-al) – pertaining to the rib and loin (region)
The ‘loin’ is a somewhat imprecise term; it generally indicates the parts of the body below the ribs and
above the hipbones; however, in everyday language, it is often used about the genital area. There are five
lumbar vertebrae in the spine; below them, five vertebrae are fused into a single bone, the sacrum.
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17. SACR- ‘sacred,’ ‘holy’

sacral (SACR-al) – pertaining to (something) holy
Why the sacrum bone (literally, ‘a sacred thing’) got its name is unclear, and we will not go into the
competing theories about its derivation here. In medical terminology, the base SACR- always refers to the
sacrum bone:
SACR- ‘sacrum’
sacral (SACR-al) – pertaining to the sacrum
sacrad (SACR-ad) – toward the sacrum
sacrectomy (SACR-ectomy) – surgical removal (of part) of the sacrum
18. COCCY- ‘cuckoo’

coccycephaly (COCCY-CEPHAL-y) – condition of the head (bearing resemblance to) a
cuckoo’s (beak), i.e. a malformation in which the head looks like a beak when viewed
from the side
The coccyx, or tail bone, is located at the bottom end of the spinal column. It is made up of usually four, but
sometimes three or five, small bones fused together. It takes its name from its supposed resemblance to a
cuckoo’s beak:
COCCY- ‘coccyx,’ ‘tail bone’

COCCYG- ‘coccyx,’ ‘tail bone’
coccyalgia (COCCY-algia) – painful condition of the coccyx
coccygeal (COCCYG-eal) – pertaining to the coccyx
coccygotomy (COCCYG-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of the coccyx
sacrococcygeal (SACR-O-COCCYG-eal) – pertaining to the coccyx and sacrum
Here are some bases that are used in terms describing features associated with bones, including the
vertebrae:
19. FOR- ‘to bore,’ ‘to pierce’

imperforate (im-per-FOR-ate) – having not through piercing, i.e. lacking a normal opening
transforation (trans-FOR-ation) – process of through piercing, i.e. process of piercing through
the fetal head to aid delivery
The term imperforate is another example of a prefix-prefix-BASE-suffix type. We can approach it just as
we have done previously for similar terms; start with the suffix, then add the first prefix, then the second
prefix, then add in your base, and add in any words necessary to make good sense. The result here is quite
clumsy – ‘having not through piercing’ – but it conveys the meaning accurately and then we can adjust it to
make it more elegant if we choose to. The word foramen (plural foramina) is related to the base FOR-; it is
the medical term for an opening or perforation in a bone or other structure that allows muscles, nerves,
arteries, and veins to pass through. We can think of FORAMIN- as a base:
20. FORAMIN- ‘foramen,’ ‘opening’

foraminal (FORAMIN-al) – pertaining to a foramen
foraminotomy (FORAMIN-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of a foramen (to enlarge it)
foraminiferous (FORAMIN-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to bearing foramina, i.e. pertaining to
having foramina
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21. ARC- ‘arch,’ ‘bow’

arciform (ARC-I-form) – (shaped) like an arch
arcual (ARC-ual) – pertaining to an arch
In anatomy, an arcus is any structure that resembles an arch or bent bow. Related to ARC- is the base
ARCUAT-, meaning ‘arched’ or ‘bow shaped.’ Areas of bones, as well as other body structures, may be
termed arcuate if they display an arched form.
22. EMIN- ‘standing out,’ ‘projecting’

eminence (EMIN-ence) – state of projecting
An area of bone that is raised higher than the surrounding area may be named an eminence; the arcuate
eminence, for example, is a prominent portion of the temporal bone. You may also come across the term in
the original Latin form, eminentia.
23. PROMIN- ‘standing out,’ ‘prominent’

prominence (PROMIN-ence) – state of being prominent
An area of bone, tissue, or body part that projects beyond a surface may be named a prominence or, using a
related term, a promontory; the sacral promontory, for example, is a prominent portion of the first sacral
vertebra. You may also come across the term in the original Latin forms, prominentia or promontorium.
There is not a huge difference between an eminence and a prominence.
24. APIC- ‘tip,’ ‘summit,’ ‘apex’

periapical (peri-APIC-al) – pertaining to around the tip
apicoectomy (APIC-O-ectomy) – surgical removal of the tip (of a dental root)
apicolysis (APIC-O-lysis) – surgical separation of the apex (of the lung)
apicostomy (APIC-O-stomy) – making a surgical opening (to reach) the apex (of a dental root)
In anatomy, the apex refers to the tip or extremity of a structure; the sacral apex, for example, is the inferior
(i.e. lower down) end of the sacrum.
25. POR- ‘passage,’ ‘cavity,’ ‘pore’

porous (POR-ous) – full of openings
porencephalitis (POR-ENCEPHAL-itis) – inflammation of the brain (with the formation of)
cavities (within it)
osteoporosis (OSTE-O-POR-osis) – abnormal condition of porous bone, i.e. condition of bones
that are more porous than solid
porotomy (POR-O-tomy) – surgical cutting (to enlarge a body) passage
The brain and spinal cord, enclosed within the skull and vertebral column, together make up the central
nervous system. We have already looked at many of the terms associated with them; here are some bases
associated with the peripheral nervous system that is made up of the cranial and spinal nerves and their
branches. The peripheral nervous system is responsible for communication between the central nervous
system and the rest of the body:
26. NEUR- ‘nerve,’ ‘nervous system,’ ‘tendon’

neurology (NEUR-O-logy) – study of the nervous system
neurectopia (NEUR-ec-TOP-ia) – condition of outside the (correct) position nerve, i.e.
condition of a displacement of a nerve
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odontoneuralgia (ODONT-O-NEUR-algia) – painful condition of the nerves (due to a

decaying) tooth
In neurectopia, we have another term where a base precedes the prefix; we can use exactly the same method
that we used for adenectopy to build up the term. Sometimes, the base NEUR- can be a little tricky. It can,
for example, indicate a specific nerve:
neurochorioretinitis (NEUR-O-CHORI-O-RETIN-itis) – inflammation of the retina, choroid,

and optic nerve
It can also have the meaning ‘nerve’ in the sense of emotion or feeling, as in the sayings ‘you’re getting on
my nerves’ or ‘he’s just a bag of nerves.’ Therefore, a neurosis,
neurosis (NEUR-osis) – abnormal condition of the nerves
may be a psychological disorder marked by anxiety, or a state of nervousness, as well as a functional

condition affecting the nerves or nervous system. In addition, while NEUR- almost always has the meaning
‘nerve’ or ‘nervous system,’ occasionally the meaning ‘tendon’ shows up; an aponeurosis, for example, has
nothing at all to do with the types of neurosis we have just looked at, it is actually a tendon-like structure
that attaches muscles to bones.
27. NERV- ‘nerve’

abnerval (ab-NERV-al) – away from a nerve
adnerval (ad-NERV-al) – near a nerve
While the word ‘nerve’ is exceedingly common in anatomical vocabulary, the base NERV- rarely appears
in medical compound terms.
There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves; each pair either receives sensory information from the body or
sends motor information to the brain:
28. SENS- ‘to feel,’ ‘to perceive,’ ‘sense’

SENT- ‘to feel,’ ‘to perceive,’ ‘sense’
sensory (SENS-ory) – having the function of feeling or perception
hemisensory (HEMI-SENS-ory) – having the function of feeling in half (the body), i.e. loss of
feeling on one side of the body
sentience (SENT-I-ence) – state of feeling, i.e. ability to perceive stimuli
29. MOT- ‘to move,’ ‘movement’

motor (MOT-or) – thing that moves or (causes) movement
motile (MOT-ile) – able to move
oculomotor (OCUL-O-MOT-or) – thing that moves the eye
Thirty one pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord; each of these nerves has both sensory and motor
nerve roots that connect to the cord:
30. RHIZ- ‘root’

-RRHIZ- ‘root’
rhizoid (RHIZ-oid) – resembling a root
rhizotomy (RHIZ-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of a (spinal nerve) root
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rhizomeningomyelitis (RHIZ-O-MENING-O-MYEL-itis) – inflammation of the spinal cord,

meninges, and (spinal nerve) roots
polyrrhizal (POLY-RRHIZ-al) – pertaining to roots - many of them
The form -RRHIZ- only occurs in the middle of a term, never at the beginning.
31. RADIC- ‘root’

radicotomy (RADIC-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of a (spinal nerve) root
radicula (RADIC-ula) – small root, i.e. a radicle
The term radicula is used about the spinal nerve roots; we can think of RADICUL- as a base:
32. RADICUL- ‘spinal nerve root,’ ‘radicle’

radicular (RADICUL-ar) – pertaining to a radicle
radiculalgia (RADICUL-algia) – painful condition of the (sensory) spinal nerve roots
radiculomyelopathy (RADICUL-O-MYEL-O-pathy) – disease of the spinal cord and the spinal
nerve roots
Within the peripheral nervous system, the autonomic nervous system controls involuntary movement, while
the somatic (we have seen SOMAT-ic previously) nervous system controls voluntary movement:
33. AUT- ‘self’

autodermic (AUT-O-DERM-ic) – pertaining to the skin of oneself, i.e. pertaining to one’s own
skin for use in skin grafts
autophilia (AUT-O-philia) – condition of attraction to oneself, i.e. condition of narcissism
(remember the story of Echo and Narcissus)
autophobia (AUT-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of oneself, i.e. fear of being isolated
34. NOM- ‘law,’ ‘custom’

nomogenesis (NOM-O-genesis) – production (according to) law, i.e. evolution according to
predetermined law and not through chance
nomotopic (NOM-O-TOP-ic) – pertaining to the place (that is) customary, i.e. pertaining to the
usual or normal place
autonomic (AUT-O-NOM-ic) – pertaining to the laws of oneself, i.e. pertaining to not being
controlled by external forces
All neural tissue of the nervous system is made up of neurons that generate and conduct electrical impulses,
and neuroglia, cells that perform a range of functions that help neurons do their work. The neuroglia got
their name because they were thought of as the glue that held the nervous system together:
35. GLI- ‘glue’

You will probably never come across this base in any context other than glial or neuroglial cells (glia and
neuroglia refer to the same type of cells):
GLI- ‘glia,’ ‘neuroglia’

glioma (GLI-oma) – tumor (derived from) glia
microglial (MICR-O-GLI-al) – pertaining to small glia
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36. LEMM- ‘cover,’ ‘sheath’

neurilemmitis (NEUR-I-LEMM-itis) – inflammation of the sheath of a nerve, i.e. inflammation
of the neurilemma
myolemmal (MY-O-LEMM-al) – pertaining to the sheath of a muscle (fiber), i.e. pertaining to
a myolemma
trichilemmoma (TRICH-I-LEMM-oma) – tumor (derived from the) sheath of a hair (follicle)
The neurilemma (or sometimes neurolemma) is the protective sheath that surrounds the nerve axon.
37. GANGLI- ‘swelling,’ ‘knot’

You will come across this base in two contexts, associated with clusters of nerve cells or nerve cell bodies,
and with fluid-filled swellings that develop around tendons. The structure, in both cases, is termed a ganglion
(plural ganglia):
GANGLI- ‘ganglion’
GANGLION- ‘ganglion’
ganglioneuroma (GANGLI-O-NEUR-oma) – tumor of nerve (cell) ganglia
gangliate (GANGLI-ate) – having ganglia
ganglionectomy (GANGLION-ectomy) – surgical removal of a ganglion

Here are some more bases related to movement, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and associated structures:
38. THEC- ‘cover,’ ‘sheath’

thecal (THEC-al) – pertaining to a sheath (especially a tendon sheath)
thecitis (THEC-itis) – inflammation of a sheath (of a tendon)
intrathecal (intra-THEC-al) – pertaining to within a sheath
The term theca often, but not always, refers to the sheath or covering of a tendon; intrathecal may refer to
the space between the spinal cord and its protective sheath.
39. FIBR- ‘fiber,’ ‘filament’

fibril (FIBR-il) – small fiber, or a small (component of a) fiber
fibrilla (FIBR-illa) – small fiber, or a small (component of a) fiber
fibromyalgia (FIBR-O-MY-algia) – painful condition of the muscle fibers
fibroma (FIBR-oma) – tumor (derived from) fibrous (tissue)
fibrin (FIBR-in) – substance (composed of) filament (containing protein), i.e. a fibrous protein
involved in blood clotting
Fibers are generally long, slender threads or filaments of tissue, especially connective tissue, or certain
specialized cells of muscles and nerves. Fibrin is a fibrous protein that is important in blood clotting,
produced by the action of a specific enzyme on the glycoprotein (protein containing carbohydrate)
fibrinogen; we can think of FIBRIN- as a base:
40. FIBRIN- ‘fibrin’

fibrinous (FIBRIN-ous) – pertaining to fibrin
fibrinogenesis (FIBRIN-O-genesis) – production of fibrin
fibrinogenopenia (FIBRIN-O-GEN-O-penia) – deficiency of that which produces fibrin, i.e.
deficiency of fibrinogen
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41. IN- ‘fiber’

inogenesis (IN-O-genesis) – production of fibrous tissue
inosclerosis (IN-O-SCLER-osis) – abnormal hardening (due to) fibrous tissue
This base meaning ‘fiber’ has largely been replaced by FIBR-, but you may still come across it. It is almost
always followed by the combining vowel ‘o,’ so you should be able to easily distinguish it from the prefix
in-.
42. BURS- ‘sac,’ ‘pouch,’ ‘bursa’

bursate (BURS-ate) – having a sac(-like receptacle)
bursitis (BURS-itis) – inflammation of a bursa
bursectomy (BURS-ectomy) – surgical removal of a bursa
A bursa is a small sac filled with fluid, often between parts that rub against each other.
43. PONT- ‘bridge’

pontic (PONT-ic) – pertaining to a bridge
In dentistry, a pontic is a false tooth that bridges a gap. In anatomy, a pons is a bridge of tissue that connects
two parts of a structure or organ:
PONT- ‘pons’
pontine (PONT-ine) – pertaining to a pons
cerebellopontine (CEREBELL-O-PONT-ine) – pertaining to the (brainstem) pons and the
cerebellum
ponticulus (PONT-I-culus) – a small pons
44. KINE- ‘to move,’ ‘movement’

KINES- ‘movement’
KINET- ‘movement’
adipokinesis (ADIP-O-KINE-sis) – process of movement of fat (within the body)
eukinesia (eu-KINES-ia) – condition of normal movement
kinesophobia (KINES-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of movement
bradykinetic (BRADY-KINET-tic) – pertaining to moving slowly
If you come across any of these bases beginning with a ‘c’ in place of a ‘k,’ they generally refer to the
movement of motion pictures.
45. TACT- (i) ‘to touch,’ ‘touching’: (ii) ‘order,’ ‘arrangement’

TAX- ‘order,’ ‘arrangement’
TAXI- ‘order,’ ‘arrangement’
barotactic (BAR-O-TACT-ic) – pertaining to arrangement (in response to) pressure, i.e.
pertaining to reaction of bodily tissues to changes in pressure
ataxia (a-TAX-ia) – condition of without order, i.e. condition of lack of co-ordination of the
muscles
ataxiaphasia (a-TAXI-A-PHAS-ia) – condition of speech without order, i.e. condition of
inability to form connected sentences
We have already looked at the meaning ‘to touch,’ ‘touching’ for the base TACT- in an earlier chapter.
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46. CLON- ‘violent motion,’ ‘spasm’

clonic (CLON-ic) – pertaining to violent motion (of a muscle), i.e. pertaining to rapid
contraction and relaxation of a muscle
logoclonia (LOG-O-CLON-ia) – condition of spasmodic (repetition of) words
The term clonus is applied to a muscular spasm that involves rapid contraction and relaxation.
47. TROPH- ‘nourishment,’ ‘nutrition’

atrophy (a-TROPH-y) – condition of non-nourishment, i.e. condition of wasting
amyotrophia (a-MY-O-TROPH-ia) – condition of non-nourishment of muscles, i.e. condition
of wasting of the muscles
dystrophia (dys-TROPH-ia) – condition of abnormal nourishment, i.e. condition of progressive
weakness due to lack of nourishment
trophopathy (TROPH-O-pathy) – disease (due to) nutritional (causes)
The combinations a-TROPH-ia, a-TROPH-y and dys-TROPH-ia, dys-TROPH-y are so common that we
can add atrophia, atrophy and dystrophia, dystrophy to our list of compound suffixes. Like the term asthenia
that we saw previously, they are actually prefix, base, and suffix combinations.
1. -atrophia, -atrophy ‘wasting’

2. -dystrophia, -dystrophy ‘weakness’
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Lungs
Suffixes
1. -ase ‘enzyme’ (chemistry)
2. -ol ‘alcohol’ (chemistry)
3. -one ‘ketone’ (chemistry)
4. -ose ‘sugar’ (chemistry)
5. -ulent ‘full of’
Sometimes, you will come across suffixes from chemistry or biochemistry that indicate certain types of
compounds. We will only look at the more common ones.
Bases
1. HAL- (i) ‘to breathe,’ ‘breath’: (ii) salt
HALIT- ‘breath’
inhalation (in-HAL-ation) – process of in breathing
exhalation (ex-HAL-ation) – process of out breathing
halitosis (HALIT-osis) – abnormal condition of the breath, i.e. condition of foul-smelling
breath
halophilic (HAL-O-PHIL-ic) – pertaining to having an affinity for salt, i.e. pertaining to
needing a high salt concentration to survive
Remember, we have already met the base SPIR- (‘to breathe’) that gives us terms such as respiratory,
respiration, inspiration, and expiration. You are much more likely to come across the base HAL- meaning
‘to breathe/breath’ than ‘salt’; the two meanings come from two unrelated Latin words, but it is easy to
confuse the two and, as always, you will have to rely on context to help you decide on the correct meaning.
2. VENTIL- ‘to fan,’ ‘to set air in motion’

ventilate (VENTIL-ate) – to cause air to be set in motion, i.e. to move gases in and out of the
lungs
hyperventilation (hyper-VENTIL-ation) – process of more than normal movement of air (in
the lungs), i.e. process of extremely rapid or deep breathing leading to increased oxygen
in the blood
hypoventilation (hypo-VENTIL-ation) – process of less than normal movement of air (in the
lungs), i.e. process of extremely slow or shallow breathing leading to decreased oxygen in
the blood
3. PNE- ‘to breathe,’ ‘breath’

apneic (a-PNE-ic) – pertaining to without breathing, i.e. pertaining to momentary suspension
of breathing
tachypneic (TACHY-PNE-ic) – pertaining to breathing (that is) fast
dyspneic (dys-PNE-ic) – pertaining to breathing (that is) difficult
You will very likely come across the form PNEa (or sometimes PNOEa), meaning ‘breathing’ or
‘respiration.’ Like AGRa, which we saw previously, it is actually closer to an unmodified Greek noun than
it is to a BASE-suffix combination. It is probably better to think of it as one of the compound suffixes:
bradypnea (BRADY-pnea) – breathing that is slow
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eupnea (eu-pnea) – breathing that is normal

hyperpnea (hyper-pnea) – breathing that is more than normal, i.e. breathing that is extremely
rapid or deep
Notice how treating -pnea as a compound suffix means we can have terms that seem to have no base. We
know that this cannot really be so, since it is the base that carries the basic meaning and sense of the term.
4. TRACH- ‘rough’
trachyphonia (TRACH-Y-PHON-ia) – condition of the voice that is rough
You will not find this base used a lot in medical terminology, but the ancient medics used it to refer to the
‘rough artery,’ meaning the ‘windpipe’; all arteries were believed to carry air, only the windpipe was the
‘rough artery,’ all others were ‘smooth arteries.’ In later vocabulary, the windpipe was given the name
‘trachea.’ We can think of TRACHE- as a base:
5. TRACHE- ‘windpipe,’ ‘trachea’

tracheoschisis (TRACHE-O-schisis) – fissure into the trachea
tracheotomy (TRACHE-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of the trachea
tracheopharyngeal (TRACHE-O-PHARYNG-eal) – pertaining to the pharynx and trachea
The trachea is the airway below the larynx. A column of C-shaped rings of cartilage provide support for the
trachea, so that it does not collapse when air is drawn through it. Be careful not to confuse this base with
TRACHEL-, ‘neck.’
6. BRONCH- ‘bronchus,’ ‘airway’

bronchoedema (BRONCH-O-edema) – swelling of the bronchi (membranes)
bronchial (BRONCH-ial) – pertaining to the bronchi
bronchostenosis (BRONCH-O-stenosis) – narrowing of a bronchus
bronchiole (BRONCH-I-ole) – small bronchus
The inferior part of the trachea (windpipe) divides into two smaller airways, the left primary bronchus and
the right primary bronchus (plural bronchi). As each primary bronchus enters a lung, it subdivides into
secondary and then tertiary bronchi (also called lobar and segmental bronchi), and finally into small bronchi
called bronchioles. We can think of BRONCHIOL- as a base:
7. BRONCHIOL- ‘bronchiole’
bronchiolitis (BRONCHIOL-itis) – inflammation of the bronchioles
bronchiolectasis (BRONCHIOL-ectasis) – dilation of the bronchioles
While the bronchi contain some cartilage, the bronchioles contain no cartilage at all. The bronchioles
terminate in alveoli, hollow air-sacs lined with the cells in which the gas exchanges associated with
respiration occur. The term alveolus (plural alveoli) is used about several other cavity-like structures in the
body in addition to the respiratory alveoli; the wall of the stomach is lined with alveoli, and the hollow in
which a tooth sits is termed an alveolus.
8. ALVEOL- ‘hollow,’ ‘cavity,’ ‘socket,’ ‘alveolus’

alveolalgia (ALVEOL-algia) – painful condition of (tooth) socket
alveolate (ALVEOL-ate) – having alveoli
alveolitis (ALVEOL-itis) – inflammation of the alveoli
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9. AER- ‘air,’ ‘gas’

aerosis (AER-osis) – abnormal condition of gas or air (in tissues or organs)
anaerogenic (an-AER-O-genic) – producing not gas, i.e. not producing gas
aerodontalgia (AER-ODONT-algia) – painful condition of a tooth (due to) air (pressure)
10. PNEUM- (i) ‘air,’ ‘gas’: (ii) ‘lung’

PNEUMAT- ‘air,’ ‘gas’
pneumarthrosis (PNEUM-ARTHR-osis) – abnormal condition of a joint (containing) air or gas
pneumocephalic (PNEUM-O-CEPHAL-ic) – pertaining to the cranium (containing) air or gas
pneumohypodermal (PNEUM-O-hypo-DERM-al) – pertaining to below the skin air or gas, i.e.
pertaining to subcutaneous air or gas in the tissues
pneumatics (PNEUMAT-ics) – science of (properties of) air and gas
Pneumohypodermal is another example of a term where a base precedes a prefix. Use the same method as
previously – leave the base that precedes the prefix till last, treat the remaining prefix-BASE-suffix in the
normal manner (always start with the suffix, then add the prefix, and then add in your base) and then add in
the other base last.
11. PNEUM- (i) ‘lung’: (ii) ‘air,’ ‘gas’

PNEUMON- ‘lung’
apneumia (a-PNEUM-ia) – condition of (being) without lungs
pneumomalacia (PNEUM-O-malacia) – softening of lung (tissue)
pneumomelanosis (PNEUM-O-MELAN-osis) – condition of blackening of lung (tissue)
pneumonectomy (PNEUMON-ectomy) – surgical removal of a lung
pneumonia (PNEUMON-ia) – condition of the lungs
While the ancient Greek words for ‘air’ and ‘lung’ are different (but related), they each have the base
PNEUM-. Sometimes, it is easy to distinguish which meaning is intended; the PNEUM- in pneumomalacia,
for example, must refer to ‘lung’; however, in apneumia, it is not so clear. You will have to hope that context
will help you.
12. PULM- ‘lung’

PULMON- ‘lung’
pulmograph (PULM-O-graph) – instrument used to record lung (function)
pulmonary (PULMON-ary) – pertaining to the lung
pulmonectomy (PULMON-ectomy) – surgical removal of a lung
bronchopulmonary (BRONCH-O-PULMON-ary) – pertaining to the lungs and bronchi
13. PLEUR- ‘rib,’ ‘side,’ ‘pleura’

pleurapophyseal (PLEUR-apo-PHYS-eal) – pertaining to an outgrowth (on a) rib
pleurocentral (PLEUR-O-CENTR-al) – pertaining to (between) the center and the side (of the
body, i.e. pertaining to one lateral half of the body
pleuritis (PLEUR-itis) – inflammation of the pleura
pleural (PLEUR-al) – pertaining to the pleura
pleuroclysis (PLEUR-O-clysis) – irrigation of the pleura (and pleural cavity)
Each lung is surrounded by a thin membrane called a pleura (plural pleurae). While this base does have
other meanings, ‘rib’ and ‘side,’ it most often refers to the pleurae that enclose the lungs, or to related
membranes in the chest area. Remember we talked about apophysis, ‘an outgrowth (of bone)’ earlier; the
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term pleuroapophyseal is another instance of a term in which a base precedes a suffix, but we can use exactly
the same method as before for building it up.
14. TEL- ‘completion,’ ‘end’

TELE- ‘completion,’ ‘end’
atelectasis (a-TEL-ectasis) – dilation (that is) not complete, i.e. incomplete dilation of a lung
atelencephalia (a-TEL-ENCEPHAL-ia) – condition of non-complete (development of) the
brain
bradyteleokinesis (BRADY-TELE-O-KINE-sis) – process of movement (in which) completion
is slow, i.e. process of movement suddenly halted before conclusion, then completed
slowly
Atelectasis is commonly known as a collapsed lung.
15. BOL- ‘to throw,’ ‘to put’

anabolic (ana-BOL-ic) – pertaining to up throwing, i.e. pertaining to building up
catabolic (cata-BOL-ic) – pertaining to down throwing, i.e. pertaining to breaking down
metabolism (meta-BOL-ism) – condition of change (in) throwing, i.e. condition of change or
transition
The literal definitions here are pretty awkward but you get the idea. Metabolism is the process by which the
body converts what you eat and drink into energy. During the anabolism phase of metabolism, chemical
reactions build small molecules up into large molecules; during catabolism, chemical reactions break large
molecules down into small molecules. More specifically, respiratory metabolism involves the exchange of
respiratory gases in the lungs, the oxidation of foodstuffs, and the production of carbon dioxide.
16. OX- (i) ‘acute,’ ‘sharp,’ ‘pointed,’ ‘acid-tasting’: (ii) ‘oxygen’

OXY- (i) ‘acute,’ ‘sharp,’ ‘pointed,’ ‘acid-tasting’: (ii) ‘oxygen’
oxyblepsia (OXY-blepsia) – condition of sight that is sharp, i.e. condition of sharp-sightedness
oxycephalia (OXY-CEPHAL-ia) – condition of the head (being) pointed
oxypathia (OXY-pathia) – disease that is acute
hyperoxia (hyper-OX-ia) – condition of more than normal oxygen (in the blood and tissues)
The gas oxygen got its name because it was believed, wrongly, that it was an essential element in the
formation of all acids.
17. CAPN- (i) ‘smoke’: (ii) ‘carbon dioxide’

capnomania (CAPN-O-mania) – compulsion to smoke (tobacco products)
capnogram (CAPN-O-gram) – record of (exhaled) carbon dioxide
hypercapnia (hyper-CAPN-ia) – condition of more than normal carbon dioxide (in the blood)
Here are four bases that can be found in medical terms related to respiratory diseases:
18. CONI- ‘dust’

coniosis (CONI-osis) – condition (caused by) dust
dermatoconiosis (DERMAT-O-CONI-osis) – condition (caused by) dust (affecting) the skin
pneumoconiosis (PNEUM-O-CONI-osis) – condition (caused by) dust (affecting) the lungs
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19. SILIC- ‘quartz,’ ‘silica’

silicosis (SILIC-osis) – abnormal condition (caused by) silica, i.e. a respiratory condition
resulting from the inhalation of silica dust
silicotuberculosis (SILIC-O-TUBERCUL-osis) – abnormal condition of the tubercles and
abnormal condition (caused by) silica, i.e. silicosis complicated by tuberculosis (disease
caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
The term pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis is the longest medical term in a dictionary, but

it was really just created to get that distinction. This huge term really does not mean much more than
silicosis; it is a respiratory condition resulting from the inhalation of very fine silica dust and other particles.
20. CALC- ‘limestone,’ ‘calcium,’ ‘pebble’

calcification (CALC-I-fication) – process of producing calcium (salts), i.e. the deposition of
calcium salts in body tissues
calcipenia (CALC-I-penia) – deficiency of calcium (in the body)
calcicosis (CALC-ic-osis) – abnormal condition pertaining to limestone, i.e. a respiratory
condition resulting from the inhalation of limestone dust
calculus (CALC-ulus) – small pebble
The term calcicosis has two suffixes, but we can use the method seen previously. Make a single suffix from
the two, starting with the ultimate (last) one; this tells us whether our compound term is a noun, adjective,
or verb. Then proceed as normal. In medical terminology, a calculus (plural calculi) is a compact mass of
material, usually mineral salts, formed in the body; commonly called a ‘stone,’ it might form in the kidneys,
bladder, or gallbladder. We get the mathematical terms ‘calculus’ and ‘calculation’ from this base because
small pebbles were originally used as counters.
21. ANTHRAC- (i) ‘coal,’ ‘charcoal’: (ii) ‘carbuncle’

anthracosilicosis (ANTHRAC-O-SILIC-osis) – abnormal condition (caused by) silica and coal,
i.e. a respiratory condition resulting from the inhalation of silica and coal dusts
anthracia (ANTHRAC-ia) – condition (characterized by) carbuncles
Anthrax is an acute infection caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis; the disease and the bacterium got
their name from the coal-black sores that are characteristic of the infection.
22. CARB- ‘coal,’ ‘carbon’

carbuncle (CARB-uncle) – literally, small (live) coal, i.e. a fiery-red abscess
carbometry (CARB-O-metry) – process of measuring (exhaled) carbon (dioxide)
The similarity between a red-hot piece of coal and a fiery-red abscess had already been observed before the
time of Galen. Carbon compounds are central to the process of respiration and respiratory metabolism.
23. TUSS- ‘cough’

tussigenic (TUSS-I-genic) – producing a cough
tussive (TUSS-ive) – pertaining to a cough
24. PY- ‘pus’

empyema (em-PY-ema) – condition of inward pus, i.e. condition of pus in the lungs or thoracic
cavity
dacryopyorrhea (DACRY-O-PY-O-rrhea) – discharge of pus (within) the tears
tracheopyosis (TRACHE-O-PY-osis) – abnormal condition of pus in the trachea
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Be careful not to confuse empyema with emphysema (em-PHYS-ema); literally ‘a condition of inward
inflation,’ pulmonary emphysema is a condition in which the alveoli are enlarged, thus trapping air in the
lungs and making full expiration difficult.
25. PUR- ‘pus’

puromucous (PUR-O-MUC-ous) – pertaining to, or full of, mucus and pus
purulent (PUR-ulent) – full of pus

Here is the compound suffix we saw in this chapter:
1. -pnea ‘breathing,’ ‘respiration’
We have also seen some bases in this chapter that are used about chemical elements and compounds; here
are some more to learn, as well as the bases for some common substances. These are mostly bases that you
could not be expected to guess; for example, SIDER- meaning ‘iron.’ If you come across bases such as
fluor- or alumin-, you should be able to figure out the meaning.
26. ACET- (i) ‘sour,’ ‘vinegar’: (ii) ‘acetic acid’ (derivatives)

acetic (ACET-ic) – pertaining to vinegar
acetous (ACET-ous) – like vinegar
acetify (ACET-I-fy) – to make vinegar
acetone (ACET-one) – ketone of acetic acid
27. ACID- ‘sour,’ ‘acid’ (i.e. low pH)

acidophilic (ACID-O-PHIL-ic) – pertaining to having an affinity for acids, i.e. pertaining to
cells or tissues that have an affinity for acid dyes and stains
acidosis (ACID-osis) – abnormal condition of (increased) acidity (in the blood and tissues)
hyperacidity (hyper-ACID-ity) – condition of more than normal acidity
The term alkali, denoting substances at the opposite end of the pH scale to acid, comes from the Arabic
word al-qali, meaning ‘soda-ash.’ In many languages, the element that we know as potassium in English is
called kalium, a term related to alkali; this is why potassium has the chemical symbol K. Similarly, the
alkaline element that English calls sodium is known as natrium in many other languages, and this is why it
has the chemical symbol Na.
28. HYDR- ‘water,’ ‘watery fluid’

hydrophobia (HYDR-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of water
hydrocephalic (HYDR-O-CEPHAL-ic) – pertaining to a brain (affected by) water, i.e.
pertaining to an abnormal accumulation of fluid within the brain, sometimes called ‘water
on the brain’ in everyday language
anhydrous (an-HYDR-ous) – pertaining to without water
Remember, we have also seen the base AQU-, AQUE- meaning ‘water,’ ‘watery fluid.’
29. KAL- ‘potassium’

kaliopenia (KAL-I-O-penia) – deficiency of potassium (in the body)
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30. NATR- ‘sodium’

natriferic (NATR-I-FER-ic) – pertaining to carrying sodium, i.e. pertaining to sodium transport
in the body
31. GLUC- ‘sweet,’ ‘sugar’

GLYC- ‘sweet,’ ‘sugar’
glucolysis (GLUC-O-lysis) – loosening of sugar, i.e. conversion of sugar (usually glucose) to
lactic acid
cytoglucopenia (CYT-O-GLUC-O-penia) – deficiency of sugar (glucose) within the cells
glycorrhea (GLYC-O-rrhea) – discharge of sugar, i.e. excretion of sugar from the body, usually
in the urine
glycol (GLYC-ol) – alcohol (that is) sweet, a common name for both ethylene glycol and
propylene glycol
32. SACCHAR- ‘sweet,’ ‘sugar’

saccharic (SACCHAR-ic) – pertaining to sugar
saccharimeter (SACCHAR-I-meter) – instrument used to measure sugar (in a solution)
sacchariferous (SACCHAR-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to producing sugar
33. AMYL- ‘starch’

amyloid (AMYL-oid) – resembling starch
amylogenesis (AMYL-O-genesis) – production of starch
amylorrhea (AMYL-O-rrhea) – discharge of (undigested) starch
amylase (AMYL-ase) – enzyme (that breaks down) starch
The term amyloid is also used about a number of insoluble and irregularly formed protein compounds that
may form in the body; the condition amyloidosis is characterized by the accumulation of amyloids in organs
and tissues, preventing proper functioning.
34. SIDER- ‘iron’

siderophilous (SIDER-O-PHIL-ous) – pertaining to having an affinity for iron, i.e. pertaining
to absorbing iron in the body
siderodermatic (SIDER-O-DERMAT-ic) – pertaining to skin (that is) iron (oxide, i.e. rust)
colored, i.e. pertaining to a brownish discoloration on the skin due to an iron-complex
deposit
siderogenous (SIDER-O-genous) – producing iron
35. FERR- ‘iron’

ferrotherapy (FERR-O-therapy) – treatment (of disease) using iron
ferrous (FERR-ous) – pertaining to iron
ferrometer (FERR-O-meter) – instrument used to measure (the quantity of) iron (in the blood)
36. THI- ‘sulfur’

thiogenic (THI-O-genic) – producing sulfur
You will mostly see SULF- or SULPH- as the base meaning sulfur, but occasionally you may come across
THI-, which derives from the ancient Greek word for sulfur.
37. ARGYR- ‘silver’

argyria (ARGYR-ia) – condition of silver (poisoning)
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argyrophilic (ARGYR-O-PHIL-ic) – pertaining to having an affinity for silver, i.e. pertaining

to tissues that can bind to silver ions, which can then be reduced to a dark stain
38. ARGENT- ‘silver’

argentophilic (ARGENT-O-PHIL-ic) – pertaining to having an affinity for silver, i.e. pertaining
to tissues that can bind to silver ions, which can then be reduced to a dark stain
39. CHRYS- ‘gold’

chrysotherapy (CHRYS-O-therapy) – treatment (of disease) with gold (salts)
chrysiasis (CHRYS-iasis) – abnormal condition (due to) gold, i.e. condition of skin
discoloration due to therapy using gold salts
40. AUR- ‘gold’

aurotherapy (AUR-O-therapy) – treatment (of disease) with gold (salts)
aurochromodermatic (AUR-O-CHROM-O-DERMAT-ic) – pertaining to skin that is
discolored (due to) gold, i.e. pertaining to skin discoloration due to therapy using gold
salts
41. GALACT- ‘milk’

galactorrhea (GALACT-O-rrhea) – flow of milk, i.e. abnormal flow not associated with
nursing an infant
galactophorous (GALACT-O-PHOR-ous) – pertaining to carrying milk, i.e. pertaining to the
milk ducts
oligogalactia (OLIG-O-GALACT-ia) – condition of milk (being) scanty, i.e. condition of scant
secretion of milk in a nursing mother
42. LACT- ‘milk’

lactiferous (LACT-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to producing milk
lactation (LACT-ation) – process (of secretion) of milk
lactose (LACT-ose) – sugar (found in) milk
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Heart, Blood, Lymph, and Spleen
Suffixes
1. -ative ‘pertaining to,’ ‘tending to’
Bases
1. CARD- (i) ‘heart’: (ii) ‘cardia’ (upper portion of the stomach)
CARDI- (i) ‘heart’: (ii) ‘cardia’ (upper portion of the stomach)
bradycardic (BRADY-CARD-ic) – pertaining to heart (rate that is abnormally) slow
myocardial (MY-O-CARDI-al) – pertaining to the heart muscle
cardioplegia (CARDI-O-plegia) – paralysis of the heart
cardiectomy (CARDI-ectomy) – surgical removal of the cardia (upper portion of the stomach)
Ancient physicians used the term ‘cardia’ (or ‘kardia) about the heart and about the upper part of the stomach
closest to the heart. You are more likely to come across this base with the meaning ‘heart’ but, as always,
you have to use common sense and decide from context which meaning of the two is the most suitable.
2. CORD- (i) ‘heart’: (ii) cord

cordate (CORD-ate) – having the shape of a heart
postcordial (post-CORD-ial) – pertaining to behind the heart
cordectomy (CORD-ectomy) – surgical removal of (an anatomical) cord
Medical terminology uses the base CARDI- to mean ‘heart’ much more frequently than this base. Likewise,
you will probably see the base CHORD- meaning ‘cord,’ as in ‘vocal cord,’ more often, but do be aware
that CORD- can also have this meaning.
3. ATRI- ‘chamber,’ ‘entrance hall’

atrial (ATRI-al) – pertaining to a chamber
Several chambers or cavities within the body are termed atria (singular atrium); there are atria within the
ear, lung, and brain, but you are most likely to come across the ones in the heart. The heart is divided into
four chambers; each of the two larger lower chambers is called a ventricle, while each upper chamber is
called an atrium:
ATRI- ‘atrium’ (chamber of the heart)

interatrial (inter-ATRI-al) – pertaining to between the atria
atriomegaly (ATRI-O-megaly) – enlargement of the atrium
atriotomy (ATRI-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of an atrium
We have met the base VENTR- previously, meaning ‘front,’ ‘abdomen,’ or ‘belly.’ A ventricle, VENTR-I-
cle, is literally a ‘small belly,’ in the sense of a chamber or cavity. Like the atria, there are ventricles in areas
of the body other than the heart, such as the brain and larynx. We can think of VENTRICUL- as a base:
4. VENTRICUL- ‘ventricle’
ventricular (VENTRICUL-ar) – pertaining to a ventricle
ventriculitis (VENTRICUL-itis) – inflammation of a ventricle (of the brain)
ventriculoplasty (VENTRICUL-O-plasty) – surgical reshaping (repair) of a ventricle (of the
heart)
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Remember, we came across the term auricle, meaning ‘little ear,’ ‘outer ear’ but also the ear-shaped
projections within the heart, in an earlier chapter. Very occasionally, you may find the term auricle used as
an alternative name for atrium, as in auriculoventricular, a synonym for atrioventricular.
5. VALV- ‘valve’
VALVUL- ‘valve’
valval (VALV-al) – pertaining to a valve
valvoplasty (VALV-O-plasty) – surgical reshaping of a valve
cardiovalvulitis (CARDI-O-VALVUL-itis) – inflammation of a valve of the heart
In the body, valves are folds of membrane or tissue that act like flaps restricting or directing the flow of
bodily fluids. Flow of blood through the heart is controlled by four valves; the pulmonary valve, the tricuspid
valve, the mitral valve, and the aortic valve:
6. CUSP- ‘point,’ ‘tip’

cuspid (CUSP-id) – having a point or tip
In dentistry, a cusp is one of the elevated points on the chewing surface of a tooth; in anatomy, cusp generally
refers to one of the pointed flaps that make up a heart valve:
CUSP- ‘cusp’
bicuspid (BI-CUSP-id) – having cusps - two of them
tricuspid (TRI-CUSP-id) – having cusps - three of them
multicuspid (MULTI-CUSP-id) – having cusps - many of them
The term multicuspid is usually used about molar teeth that have three or more cusps. The tricuspid valve
of the heart has three cusps, while the mitral valve has two cusps; an alternative name for the mitral valve
is the bicuspid valve. The term mitral comes from the base MITR- meaning ‘turban,’ or ‘headband,’ with
the meaning, specifically, like a bishop’s miter (a tall hat with two points). You will probably only ever
come across the base MITR- in this context.
7. AORT- ‘artery,’ ‘aorta’

aortostenosis (AORT-O-stenosis) – narrowing of the aorta
aortorrhaphy (AORT-O-rrhaphy) – surgical suture of the aorta
Originally meaning any large artery, the term aorta and the base AORT- now refer to the main artery of the
body that originates in the left ventricle and extends downward toward the abdomen.
8. VAS- ‘vessel’
vasoneuropathy (VAS-O-NEUR-O-pathy) – disease of the nerves and (blood) vessels
vasohypertonic (VAS-O-hyper-TON-ic) – pertaining to above normal tension of a (blood)
vessel
vasculum (VAS-culum) – small (blood) vessel
Vasohypertonic is another example of a term in which a base precedes a prefix; remember, leave the base
that precedes the prefix till last, treat the remaining prefix-BASE-suffix in the normal manner (always start
with the suffix, then add the prefix, and then add in your base) and then add in the other base last. The base
VAS- can mean a vessel that carries any fluid, but it almost always indicates a blood vessel. The noun vas
can be used about a vessel, duct or canal that carries liquid, including lymph and semen, as well as blood:
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VAS- ‘vas’
vasal (VAS-al) – pertaining to a vas
vasectomy (VAS-ectomy) – surgical removal (of a section) of the vas (deferens), i.e. excision
of the sperm duct
We can also think of VASCUL- as a base; in practice, it does not really differ from the base VAS- meaning
‘vessel’:
9. VASCUL- ‘vessel’
vasculogenesis (VASCUL-O-genesis) – production of (blood) vessels
vasculature (VASCUL-ature) – system composed of (blood) vessels
10. ANGI- ‘vessel’

angiocarditis (ANGI-O-CARD-itis) – inflammation of the heart and (blood) vessels
angiectopia (ANGI-ectopia) – displacement of a (blood) vessel
cardioangiology (CARDI-O-ANGI-O-logy) – study of the (blood) vessels and the heart
11. ARTER- ‘artery’

ARTERI- ‘artery’
arteritis (ARTER-itis) – inflammation of an artery
arteriole (ARTERI-ole) – a small artery
arteriopathy (ARTERI-O-pathy) – disease of the arteries
12. ANEURYSM- ‘dilation’

This base is really a compound of the prefix ana-, ‘up,’ and the base EURY- meaning ‘wide,’ but the two
were already put together in ancient Greek; we will treat it here as a single base meaning ‘dilation,’ i.e. a
widening up of something. It generally has the specific meaning of a dilation of an artery:
ANEURYSM- ‘dilation of an artery,’ ‘aneurysm’

aneurysmal (ANEURYSM-al) – pertaining to an aneurysm
aneurysmectomy (ANEURYSM-ectomy) – surgical removal of an aneurysm
aneurysmotomy (ANEURYSM-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of an aneurysm
13. VEN- ‘vein’

intravenous (intra-VEN-ous) – pertaining to within a vein
venule (VEN-ule) – a small vein
venoclysis (VEN-O-clysis) – irrigation of a vein, i.e. injection of fluid into a vein
14. PHLEB- ‘vein’

phlebalgia (PHLEB-algia) – painful condition (originating in a) vein
phlebophlebostomy (PHLEB-O-PHLEB-O-stomy) – making a surgical opening between one
vein and another vein
phleboid (PHLEB-oid) – resembling a vein
15. CAPILL- ‘hair,’ ‘hair-like structure’

capillaceous (CAPILL-aceous) – having hair-like structures
capillary (CAPILL-ary) – pertaining to hair or hair-like structures
The smallest blood vessels in the body are less than the thickness of a human hair in size; they are called
capillaries and they connect arterioles to venules. We can think of CAPILLAR- as a base:
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16. CAPILLAR- ‘capillary’

capillarectasia (CAPILLAR-ectasia) – dilation of the capillaries
capillaritis (CAPILLAR-itis) – inflammation of the capillaries
capillaropathy (CAPILLAR-O-pathy) – disease of the capillaries
17. FENESTR- ‘window’

fenestral (FENESTR-al) – pertaining to a window
In medical terminology, a window-like opening may be called a fenestra (plural fenestrae):
FENESTR- ‘opening,’ ‘fenestra’

fenestrated (FENESTR-ated) – having fenestrae
craniofenestrial (CRANI-O-FENESTR-ial) – pertaining to an opening in the skull, i.e.
pertaining to incomplete formation of the bones of the fetal skull
Capillaries with small openings or pores are called fenestrated capillaries; they allow fluid transport across
the capillary wall.
18. LAX- ‘slack,’ ‘loose’

relaxation (re-LAX-ation) – process of again and again slackening, i.e. process of slackening
or loosening
laxative (LAX-ative) – tending to (make) loose, i.e. making loose, usually about the bowels
19. TRACT- ‘to pull,’ ‘to draw together’

contraction (con-TRACT-ion) – act of together drawing, i.e. act of tightening or narrowing
extractor (ex-TRACT-or) – thing that outward pulls, i.e. implement for pulling or drawing
something out
The heart alternately contracts and relaxes in a regular rhythm. A contraction is called systole, and the period
of relaxation between contractions is called diastole:
20. STOL- ‘to send,’ ‘to compress’

STAL- ‘to send,’ ‘to compress’
systolic (sy-STOL-ic) – pertaining to together sending, i.e. pertaining to contraction, pertaining
to systole
diastolic (dia-STOL-ic) – pertaining to apart sending, i.e. pertaining to relaxation, pertaining
to diastole
stalsis (STAL-sis) – process of compression, i.e. process of contraction
Note how the prefix syn- in systolic becomes sy- because the following base begins with an ‘s’ (remember,
this process is called assimilation).
21. RHYTHM- ‘recurring motion,’ ‘rhythm’

-RRHYTHM- ‘recurring motion,’ ‘rhythm’
anisorhythmia (ANIS-O-RHYTHM-ia) – condition of recurring motion (that is) unequal, i.e.
an irregularity of the contraction and relaxation of the heart
bradydysrhythmia (BRADY-dys-RHYTHM-ia) – condition of abnormal rhythm (that is) slow,
i.e. a slower than normal heartbeat
antiarrhythmic (anti-a-RRHYTHM-ic) – pertaining to against without rhythm, i.e. pertaining
to counteracting abnormal heartbeat
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The form -RRHYTHM- only occurs in the middle of a term, never at the beginning; it is not always used,
even in the middle of a term. The term antiarrhythmic has two prefixes; remember, start with the suffix,
then add the first prefix, then the second prefix, and then add in your base. In the term bradydysrhythmia, a
base precedes a prefix; we use exactly the same method as we did previously – leave the base that precedes
the prefix till last, treat the remaining prefix-BASE-suffix in the normal manner (always start with the suffix,
then add the prefix, and then add in your base) and then add in the other base last.
22. POIE- ‘to make’, ‘to form’

angiopoiesis (ANGI-O-POIE-sis) – process of making (blood) vessels
leukopoietic (LEUK-O-POIE-tic) – pertaining to the process of forming white (blood cells)
galactopoiesis (GALACT-O-POIE-sis) – process of making milk
The combination of the base POIE- with the suffix -sis is a fairly common one; we can add this to our list
of compound suffixes.
23. HEM- ‘blood’

HAEM- ‘blood’
HEMAT- ‘blood’
HAEMAT- ‘blood’
glycohemia (GLYC-O-HEM-ia) – condition of blood (containing) sugar
haemorrhagia (HAEM-O-rrhagia) – excessive flow of blood
hematemesis (HEMAT-emesis) – vomiting of blood
haematopoiesis (HAEMAT-O-POIE-sis) – process of making blood
You will likely come across both North American and British spellings of this base. Sometimes, the ‘h’ of
this base is dropped, especially if it occurs after a consonant:
dysaemia (dys-AEM-ia) – condition of abnormal blood

hyperemia (hyper-EM-ia) – condition of more than normal blood
The combination of the base HEM/HAEM, or the modified base EM/AEM, with the suffix -ia, meaning
‘condition of the blood,’ is a common one. We can add this to our list of compound suffixes.
24. AGOG- ‘bringing forth,’ ‘stimulating’

dacryagogic (DACRY-AGOG-ic) – pertaining to stimulating tears
sialagogic (SIAL-AGOG-ic) – pertaining to stimulating saliva
hemagogic (HEM-AGOG-ic) – pertaining to bringing forth blood
You will most often see this base at the end of a term in the form -AGOGue; the ending -ue is an influence
from the French language and not a proper suffix in the way that we are using them here. However, the
ending -agogue, meaning something that stimulates or promotes a flow (hemagogue, for example), is a
common one in medical terminology; we can think of it as one of the compound suffixes.
25. SANGUI- ‘blood’

SANGUIN- ‘blood’
sanguiferous (SANGUI-FER-ous) – pertaining to carrying blood
sanguinopurulent (SANGUIN-O-PUR-ulent) – full of pus and blood
exsanguination (ex-SANGUIN-ation) – process of outside blood, i.e. process of extensive loss
of blood from the body
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The major component of blood is plasma, a pale yellow colored fluid, in which cells such as erythrocytes
(ERYTHR-O-cytes) and leukocytes (LEUK-O-cytes) are suspended. The plasma itself contains nutrients,
proteins, hormones, clotting agents, and some waste products. We have seen the base PLAS-/PLAST-
meaning ‘to form,’ ‘to mould,’ and the suffix -plasm meaning ‘formed substance,’ but we can also think of
PLASM-/PLASMAT- as a base:
26. PLASM- ‘formed substance,’ ‘plasma’

PLASMAT- ‘formed substance,’ ‘plasma’
plasmic (PLASM-ic) – pertaining to plasma
plasmatic (PLASMAT-ic) – pertaining to plasma
This base can also indicate the contents of a cell:
cytoplasmic (CYT-O-PLASM-ic) – pertaining to the formed substances (within a) cell
Blood plasma (i.e. the fluid portion of the blood) that does not contain any clotting agents is a watery
substance called serum (plural sera):
27. SER- ‘watery substance,’ ‘serum’

seropurulent (SER-O-PUR-ulent) – full of pus and serum
serososanguinous (SER-O-SANGUIN-ous) – pertaining to (a discharge of) blood and serum
serology (SER-O-logy) – study of sera
Sometimes, the base SER- is used about other watery substances that resemble blood serum:
serous (SER-ous) – pertaining to serum or pertaining to a watery substance (such as serum)
Serous membranes, for example, excrete substances that resemble serum and act as lubricating agents in the
body.
28. DREPAN- ‘sickle’

drepanocyte (DREPAN-O-cyte) – cell that is sickle shaped
drepanocytosis (DREPAN-O-CYT-osis) – abnormal condition involving cells that are sickle
shaped
A drepanocyte is a sickle- or crescent-shaped red blood cell. Drepanocytosis, or sickle-cell anemia, is a

hereditary blood disorder.
29. THROMB- ‘clot’

thrombocyte (THROMB-O-cyte) – cell that clots (the blood), i.e. a blood platelet
thrombocytopenia (THROMB-O-CYT-O-penia) – deficiency of the cells (responsible for
blood) clotting, i.e. deficiency of blood platelets
thrombosis (THROMB-osis) – condition of a clot (formation), i.e. condition of a clot
(‘thrombus’) within a blood vessel
30. KARY- ‘nucleus’

karyolysis (KARY-O-lysis) – loosening of (the cell) nucleus, i.e. destruction of the cell nucleus
karyorrhexis (KARY-O-rrhexis) – rupture of the (cell) nucleus
megakaryocyte (MEGA-KARY-O-cyte) – cell (with a) nucleus (that is) large
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Megakaryocytes are cells with large amounts of cytoplasm; sections of cytoplasm break apart and are
released into the blood as cell fragments that act as thrombocytes, or blood platelets. When injury occurs,
the thrombocytes clump together at the damage site and decrease the amount of blood loss.
31. BLAST- ‘immature cell’

blastodermic (BLAST-O-DERM-ic) – pertaining to a layer of immature cells
blastoma (BLAST-oma) – mass of immature cells
You will often come across this base acting like a suffix:
erythroblast (ERYTHR-O-blast) – immature cell (that is) red, i.e. an immature red blood cell
hematoblast (HEMAT-O-blast) – immature cell of the blood
myeloblast (MYEL-O-blast) – immature cell of the bone marrow
Although it is not a true compound suffix, we will add -blast to our list.
32. EMBOL- ‘insertion,’ ‘stopper,’ ‘plug’

This base is really a compound of the prefix en-, ‘in,’ and the base BOL- meaning ‘to throw,’ ‘to put,’ but
the two were already put together in ancient Greek; we will treat it here as a single base. Notice how en- has
been assimilated to em- before the consonant ‘b.’
embololalia (EMBOL-O-LAL-ia) – condition of speech that inserts (meaningless words)

embolophrasia (EMBOL-O-PHRAS-ia) – condition of speech that inserts (meaningless words)
embolization (EMBOL-ization) – process of making stoppers, i.e. process of introduction of
substances, usually into the circulatory system, to cause stoppages
The term embolus (plural emboli) was coined to indicate any mass of substance, whether solid, liquid, or
gaseous, that could potentially block a bodily vessel, especially an artery:
EMBOL- ‘embolus’
embolemia (EMBOL-emia) – condition of the blood (carrying) emboli
embolism (EMBOL-ism) – condition of an embolus (blocking a vessel)
embolectomy (EMBOL-ectomy) – surgical removal of an embolus
33. PHAG- ‘to eat,’ ‘to ingest’

dysphagia (dys-PHAG-ia) – condition of difficult eating, i.e. difficulty swallowing
phagocyte (PHAG-O-cyte) – cell (that) ingests, i.e. cell that ingests foreign particles
cheilophagia (CHEIL-O-PHAG-ia) – condition of eating the lip, i.e. condition of biting of the
lip
coprophagy (COPR-O-PHAG-y) – condition of eating feces
The combination of the base PHAG- and the suffix -ia or -y is a common one; we can think of -phagia and
-phagy as compound suffixes meaning ‘condition of eating.’ Sometimes, you will see the suffix -e added to
PHAG-; as we have seen previously, the suffix -e does not have a meaning of its own, but we can treat -
phage as a compound suffix meaning ‘thing that devours’:
heterophage (HETER-O-phage) – thing that devours different (foodstuffs)

lipophage (LIP-O-phage) – thing that devours fat, i.e. a cell that ingests fat
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34. SPHYGM- ‘pulse’

SPHYX- ‘pulse’
sphygmocardiograph (SPHYGM-O-CARDI-O-graph) – instrument used to record heart (beat)
and pulse
anisosphygmia (ANIS-O-SPHYGM-ia) – condition of the pulse being unequal (in the arteries
of two sides of the body)
sphygmoid (SPHYGM-oid) – resembling a pulse
asphyxia (a-SPHYX-ia) – condition of without pulse
We saw the base MAN- meaning ‘frenzy’ and ‘hand’ earlier, and we noted that one other meaning of this
base is ‘thin’ or ‘loose.’ This sense was extended to include ‘gas’ or ‘vapor,’ since the atomic arrangement
within them is pretty ‘loose,’ and then further extended to indicate ‘(gas) pressure.’ Thus, a
sphygmomanometer (SPHYGM-O-MAN-O-meter) is an ‘instrument used to measure the pressure of the
pulse,’ i.e. a blood-pressure meter.
35. LYMPH- ‘spring water,’ ‘watery substance,’ ‘lymph’

lymphatic (LYMPH-atic) – pertaining to lymph
lymphoid (LYMPH-oid) – pertaining to lymph
lymphorrhagia (LYMPH-O-rrhagia) – excessive discharge of lymph (from damaged lymphatic
vessels)
lymphocytopenia (LYMPH-O-CYT-O-penia) – deficiency of the cells (formed in) lymphoid
tissue, i.e. deficiency of lymphocytes
Lymph is a watery fluid that seeps out of capillary walls into spaces among body tissues. It is collected and
then circulated by the lymphatic vessels, and plays a major role in the body’s immune system. The adenoids
and tonsils (i.e. the pharyngeal, lingual, and palatine tonsils) are made up of lymphoid tissue; the thymus
and the spleen are lymphoid organs:
36. SPLEN- ‘spleen’

splenomalacia (SPLEN-O-malacia) – softening of the spleen
splenoptosis (SPLEN-O-ptosis) – drooping of the spleen, i.e. downward displacement of the
spleen
hypersplenia (hyper-SPLEN-ia) – condition of more than normal (sized) spleen
37. LIEN- ‘spleen’

lienal (LIEN-al) – pertaining to the spleen
lienometry (LIEN-O-metry) – process of measuring the spleen
lienectomy (LIEN-ectomy) – surgical removal of the spleen
You are much more likely to come across the base SPLEN- meaning spleen, which has largely replaced the
base LIEN.

Here are the compound suffixes we saw in this chapter:
1. -aemia, -emia ‘condition of the blood’

2. -agogue ‘stimulating,’ ‘promoting flow of’
3. -blast ‘immature cell’
4. -haemia, -hemia ‘condition of the blood’
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5. -phagia, -phagy ‘condition of eating’

6. -phage ‘thing that devours’
7. -poiesis ‘making,’ ‘formation’
Here are some new bases to learn. They all relate in some way to the human life span:
38. NASC- ‘being born,’ ‘birth’

NAT- ‘being born,’ ‘birth’
nascence (NASC-ence) – state of being born
antenatal (ante-NAT-al) – pertaining to before birth
perinatal (peri-NAT-al) – pertaining to around (the time of) birth
39. BI- (i) ‘two,’ ‘twice,’ ‘double’: (ii) ‘life,’ ‘living’

We looked at the first meaning of BI- in a previous chapter; here, we are only concerned with its meaning
‘life,’ ‘living.’
biopsy (BI-OPS-y) – act of sight of living (tissue), i.e. examination of living tissue
biophilia (BI-O-philia) – condition of attraction for life, i.e. the instinct for self preservation
abiotic (a-BI-O-tic) – pertaining to the condition of without life, i.e. pertaining to the absence
of life
40. PAED- ‘child’

PED- (i) ‘child’: (ii) ‘foot’
paediatrics (PAED-iatrics) – medical treatment of children
paedodontics (PAED-ODONT-ics) – study (and treatment) of teeth of children
You will likely come across both British and North American spellings of this base, but only PED- has the
alternate meaning ‘foot,’ which we will come to in a later chapter. A common medical term that might be
confusing is orthopedics:
orthopedics (ORTH-O-PED-ics) – science of child correcting
Originally, orthopedics dealt with the correcting of childhood deformities, but this medical specialty was
extended to include the treatment of all musculo-skeletal problems in all ages of patients.
41. PUBER- ‘coming to maturity’

PUBERT- ‘coming to maturity’
impuberal (im-PUBER-al) – pertaining to not coming to maturity, i.e. immature
postpubertal (post-PUBERT-al) – pertaining to after coming to maturity, i.e. mature
puberty (PUBERT-y) – state of coming to maturity
42. GER- ‘old age’

GERONT- ‘old age’
geriatrics (GER-iatrics) – medical treatment of the aged
gerodermic (GER-O-DERM-ic) – pertaining to skin that is aged
gerontology (GERONT-O-logy) – study of old age
43. SEN- ‘old age’

senile (SEN-ile) – pertaining to old age
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senopia (SEN-opia) – condition of sight (associated with) old age

senescent (SEN-escent) – becoming aged
44. PRESBY- ‘old age’

presbyacousia (PRESBY-acousia) – condition of hearing (associated with) old age
presbyopia (PRESBY-opia) – condition of sight (associated with) old age
presbycardia (PRESBY-CARD-ia) – condition of the heart (associated with) old age
45. THANAT- ‘death’

thanatology (THANAT-O-logy) – study of death and dying
thanatophoric (THANAT-O-PHOR-ic) – pertaining to carrying (toward) death, i.e. pertaining
to leading to death
thanatopsy (THANAT-OPS-y) – act of sight of death, i.e. examination of a dead body
46. MORT- ‘death,’ ‘dead’

premortal (pre-MORT-al) – pertaining to before death
mortification (MORT-I-fication) – process of becoming dead, i.e. process of death of one part
of the body
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Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas
Suffixes
There are no new suffixes to learn.
Bases
1. HEPAT- ‘liver’
hepatomegaly (HEPAT-O-megaly) – enlargement of the liver
hepatorrhexis (HEPAT-O-rrhexis) – rupture of the liver
perihepatitis (peri-HEPAT-itis) – inflammation of (the covering) around the liver
2. GER- ‘to carry,’ ‘to produce’

GEST- ‘to carry,’ ‘to produce’
lactigerous (LACT-I-GER-ous) – pertaining to producing milk
ingestion (in-GEST-ion) – act of into carrying, i.e. act of taking substances into the body
congestive (con-GEST-ive) – tending to together carry, i.e. tending to accumulate a substance
gestation (GEST-ation) – process of carrying (a fetus)
digestion (di-GEST-ion) – act of apart producing, i.e. act of breaking apart food for absorption
We have already seen the base GER- meaning ‘old age,’ but context should help you figure out which base
is meant. The liver, along with the gallbladder and pancreas, is an accessory organ of digestion. All three of
these organs contribute to the process of digestion even though they are not physically part of it. The
combination of di- and GEST- is so common that we can think of DIGEST- as a base:
3. DIGEST- ‘to break apart,’ ‘to dissolve’

indigestible (in-DIGEST-ible) – able to be not broken apart, i.e. not able to be broken down
digestive (DIGEST-ive) – pertaining to breaking apart or dissolving
4. BIL- ‘bile’
biliary (BIL-I-ary) – pertaining to bile
biliptysis (BIL-I-PTY-sis) – condition of saliva (containing) bile
bilitherapy (BIL-I-therapy) – treatment with bile (or bile salts)
bilirubin (BIL-I-RUB-in) – substance (that is) red (in the) bile, i.e. the red bile pigment that is
called bilirubin
Bile is a yellowish-brown or yellowish-green, bitter tasting fluid that is continuously produced by the liver.
Along with bile acids and other fluids, bile contains the pigment bilirubin.
5. ICTER- ‘jaundice,’ ‘icterus’

icterogenic (ICTER-O-genic) – producing jaundice
icterohepatitis (ICTER-O-HEPAT-itis) – inflammation of the liver (characterized by) jaundice
Jaundice, or icterus as it is sometimes called, is a yellow staining of the skin, and of the whites of the eyes.
It is caused by high levels of bilirubin in the blood, and is a symptom of liver disease.
6. CHOL- ‘bile,’ ‘gall’

eucholia (eu-CHOL-ia) – condition of normal bile
cholangiectasis (CHOL-ANGI-ectasis) – dilation of the vessel (that carries) bile, i.e. dilation
of the bile duct
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cholepoiesis (CHOL-E-poiesis) – formation of bile
The pairing of the two bases CHOL- and ANGI- occurs often; together they have the meaning ‘bile duct’:
we can think of CHOLANGI- as a base:
7. CHOLANGI- ‘bile duct’

cholangioma (CHOLANGI-oma) – tumor of the bile duct
cholangioscopy (CHOLANGI-O-scopy) – process of examining the bile duct with an
instrument
Gall is another name for bile; you will find the base CHOL- is also combined with other bases in terms that
indicate the gallbladder and the gallstone. You have met the base CYST- previously, and we can think of
CHOLECYST- as a new base:
8. CHOLECYST- ‘gallbladder’
cholecystectasia (CHOLECYST-ectasia) – dilation of the gallbladder
cholecystopathy (CHOLECYST-O-pathy) – disease of the gallbladder
cholecystopexy (CHOLECYST-O-pexy) – surgical fastening of the gallbladder (to the
abdominal wall)
9. LITH- ‘stone,’ ‘calculus’

lithogenesis (LITH-O-genesis) – production of calculi
lithodialysis (LITH-O-dialysis) – surgical dissolving of a calculus
lithotripsy (LITH-O-tripsy) – surgical crushing of a stone
cholelithic (CHOL-E-LITH-ic) – pertaining to a stone of gall, i.e. pertaining to a gallstone
cholelithotomy (CHOL-E-LITH-O-tomy) – surgical removal of a stone of gall, i.e. surgical
removal of a gallstone
Look back at the base CALC- if you cannot remember where the term calculus comes from.
10. DOCH- ‘receptacle,’ ‘duct’

sialodochoplasty (SIAL-O-DOCH-O-plasty) – surgical reshaping of the receptacle or duct for
saliva, i.e. surgical reshaping or repair of the salivary duct
choledochitis (CHOL-E-DOCH-itis) – inflammation of the receptacle or duct for bile, i.e.
inflammation of the bile duct
The Greek meaning of this base is receptacle; however, in medical terminology, it has also come to mean a
duct that carries a substance away from a receptacle. We can think of CHOLEDOCH- as a base:
11. CHOLEDOCH- ‘bile duct’

choledochectomy (CHOLEDOCH-ectomy) – surgical removal of the bile duct (or part of it)
choledochostomy (CHOLEDOCH-O-stomy) – making a surgical opening into the bile duct
choledochocholedochostomy (CHOLEDOCH-O-CHOLEDOCH-O-stomy) – (joining of) a
surgically opened bile duct (to another part of) surgically opened bile duct
This last term probably caused some difficulty. Remember, we saw something similar with carpocarpal
(CARP-O-CARP-al) – pertaining to the area between two bones of the wrist. We said that compound terms
that duplicate the same base denote two parts of that structure and the associated area between them.
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12. PANCRE- ‘pancreas’

PANCREAT- ‘pancreas’
hypopancreorrhea (hypo-PANCRE-O-rrhea) – flow of less than normal pancreas (secretions)
apancreatic (a-PANCREAT-ic) – pertaining to without a pancreas
cholangiopancreatography (CHOLANGI-O-PANCREAT-O-graphy) – process of recording
the pancreas and bile duct (form and function)
pancreatolithiasis (PANCREAT-O-LITH-iasis) – abnormal condition of stones in the pancreas
The pancreas is a long, flattened, gland in the abdomen that secretes digestive enzymes. Aristotle seems to
have been the first to have used this word, which is actually a combination of the base PAN-, meaning ‘all,’
and a base that you have not met, KREAS- (or, CREAS-), meaning ‘flesh,’ since the pancreas was seen as
an ‘all fleshy’ gland.
13. CRIN- ‘to secrete’

crinogenic (CRIN-O-genic) – producing secretion
endocrinology (endo-CRIN-O-logy) – study of inside secretions, i.e. study of internal
secretions of ductless glands, usually into the circulation system
exocrinologist (exo-CRIN-O-logist) – one who studies external secretions, i.e. one who studies
external secretions made through excretory ducts
The pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine organ in that it secretes digestive components into the
pancreatic duct (exocrine function) and it secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream (endocrine
function). We can think of -crine as a compound suffix made up of the base CRIN- and the suffix -e.
Remember, the suffix -e does not have a meaning of its own.
14. ZYM- ‘fermentation’

zymogenic (ZYM-O-genic) – producing fermentation
zymic (ZYM-ic) – pertaining to fermentation
enzymatic (en-ZYM-atic) – pertaining to inward fermentation, i.e. pertaining to enzyme
activity
The term ‘enzyme’ was created in the 1880s to describe the vital forces involved in turning sugar into
alcohol. Now, we use the term enzyme to describe a substance that accelerates chemical change. The
pancreas secretes the digestive enzyme lipase.
15. ENZYM- ‘enzyme’

enzymopathy (ENZYM-O-pathy) – disease (due to) enzyme (disfunction)
enzymolysis (ENZYM-O-lysis) – loosening (of a substance) by enzymes, i.e. splitting of a
substance by enzyme activity

One of the major functions of the liver is the removal of toxic substances from the body; here are some new
bases to learn that relate to things that can, in some way, be harmful to the body:
16. TOX- ‘poison’

TOXIC- ‘poison’
toxemia (TOX-emia) – condition of the blood being poisonous, i.e. condition of poisonous
substances in the blood
cryptotoxic (CRYPT-O-TOX-ic) – pertaining to poisonous (properties that are) hidden
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toxicodermatitis (TOXIC-O-DERMAT-itis) – inflammation of the skin (caused by) poisonous

material
The original meaning of this base is ‘bow,’ and a toxophilist is someone who loves archery. However, the
sense was also extended to ‘arrow,’ then ‘poisoned arrow’ and, finally, ‘poison.’
17. VENEN- ‘poison’

veneniferous (VENEN-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to carrying poison
venenosalivary (VENEN-O-SALIV-ary) – pertaining to saliva (that is) poisonous
venenation (VENEN-ation) – process of poisoning
18. VIR- ‘poison’

VIRUL- ‘poisonous’
virulent (VIRUL-ent) – pertaining to (being) poisonous
Originally meaning ‘poisonous,’ the term virus was later applied to any agent that caused infectious disease.
It was not until the end of the nineteenth century that the microbes that we know today as viruses were
discovered and were given this name:
VIR- ‘virus’
viropexis (VIR-O-pexis) – fixing of a virus (in a host cell)
virucopria (VIR-U-COPR-ia) – condition of the feces (containing) viruses
antiviral (anti-VIR-al) – pertaining to (working) against a virus
19. BOTUL- ‘sausage’

botuliform (BOTUL-I-form) – having the form of a sausage, i.e. sausage shaped
The source of an outbreak of disease in eighteenth-century Germany was eventually traced to people having
eaten ‘bad’ sausages. The illness was later named botulism, after the Latin word botulus meaning sausage.
Today, we know that this particular type of food poisoning occurs through the toxins released by a particular
bacterium, and is most prevalent in improperly canned or preserved foods:
BOTUL- ‘sausage poisoning,’ ‘botulism’

botulogenic (BOTUL-O-genic) – producing botulism
botulin (BOTUL-in) – substance (that causes) botulism, i.e. the botulism toxin
The botulism toxin is one of the most lethal toxins known, but it also has medicinal use in cases that benefit
from its properties as a muscle relaxant. In the cosmetic industry, it goes under the name ‘botox,’ and is
used to relax wrinkles.
20. ALLANT- ‘sausage’

allantoid (ALLANT-oid) – shaped (like a) sausage
While the term botulism now encompasses poisoning due to the botulism toxin from any source, you might
also come across this base that still retains the specific sense of ‘sausage poisoning’:
ALLANT- ‘sausage poisoning’

allantiasis (ALLANT-iasis) – abnormal condition of sausage poisoning
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21. VERM- ‘worm’

vermiculus (VERM-I-culus) – small worm (or a worm-like structure)
vermiform (VERM-I-form) – like a worm, i.e. worm shaped, sometimes said of the appendix
22. HELMINTH- ‘worm’

helminthology (HELMINTH-O-logy) – study of (intestinal) worms
helminthemesis (HELMINTH-EME-sis) – condition of vomiting worms
helminthophobia (HELMINTH-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of worms
23. ACAR- ‘mite,’ ‘tick’

acarodermatitis (ACAR-O-DERMAT-itis) – inflammation of the skin (caused by) mites
acariasis (ACAR-iasis) – abnormal condition (caused by) mites
acarology (ACAR-O-logy) – study of mites and ticks (and the diseases they transmit)
24. MYI- ‘fly’

myiasis (MYI-A-sis) – condition (caused by) fly (larvae)
Be careful not to confuse this base with MY- meaning ‘muscle; myiasis is probably the only term in medical
terminology where you will come across the base MYI-.
25. BACTERI- ‘staff,’ ‘cane,’ ‘rod’

Though bacteria had first been observed in the seventeenth century, it was not until the nineteenth century
that they got their present name; the name bacteria (singular bacterium) reflects the fact that most of the
earliest discoveries were rod-shaped microorganisms:
BACTERI- ‘bacterium’
bactericholia (BACTERI-CHOL-ia) – condition of the bile (containing) bacteria
antibacterial (anti-BACTERI-al) – pertaining to (working) against bacteria
bacterioclasis (BACTERI-O-clasis) – breakage of bacteria, i.e. fragmentation of bacteria
26. BACILL- ‘rod,’ ‘stick’

bacillar (BACILL-ar) – pertaining to rod(-shaped)
bacilliform (BACILL-I-form) – having the form of a rod, i.e. rod shaped
You will come across this base most often in terms related to bacillus (plural bacilli), the name given to a
rod-shaped bacterium:
BACILL- ‘rod-shaped bacterium,’ ‘bacillus’

bacillosis (BACILL-osis) – abnormal condition (cause by) bacilli
bacillemia (BACILL-emia) – condition of the blood (caused by the presence) of bacilli
necrobacillosis (NECR-O-BACILL-osis) – abnormal condition (caused by) bacilli (that leads
to tissue) death
There is another base that means ‘rod’; it is not directly related to the conditions we are talking about here
but it we will look at it here anyway:
27. RHABD- ‘rod,’ ‘stick’

rhabdoid (RHABD-oid) – shaped (like a) rod
rhabdophobia (RHABD-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of (being beaten by a) stick
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rhabdomyoma (RHABD-O-MY-oma) – a tumor in muscle (that has) rod (shaped cells), i.e. a
tumor in skeletal muscle
rhabdomyolysis (RHABD-O-MY-O-lysis) – loosening of muscles (that have) rod (shaped
cells), i.e. destruction of skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscles are generally composed of long rod-shaped cells; the base RHABD-, often combined with
the base MY-, indicates skeletal muscle.
28. COCC- ‘seed,’ ‘berry’

The original meaning of this base is seed or berry; however, in medical terminology, this has been extended
to ‘berry shaped’ and is often applied to ‘berry-shaped (i.e. round) bacteria’:
COCC- ‘berry shaped,’ ‘coccus’ (a berry-shaped bacterium, plural cocci)

coccal (COCC-al) – pertaining to a coccus
coccoid (COCC-oid) – shaped (like a) coccus
pyococcal (PY-O-COCC-al) – pertaining to a coccus (that forms) pus
meningococcal (MENING-O-COCC-al) – pertaining to a coccus (that attacks the) meninges
Generally, a coccus is a bacterium that is round or spheroidal; a coccobacillus has a shape in-between a
coccus and a bacillus, that is, a short rod with rounded ends. The term coccus can also be used about other
round or spherical organisms:
cryptococcosis (CRYPT-O-COCC-osis) – abnormal condition (caused by a) berry shaped

(yeast that is) hidden (within a capsule)
Cryptococcus is a yeast (a member of the fungus family) with a round shape and it is surrounded by an
enveloping capsule.
coccidium (COCC-idium) – small berry shaped (protozoan)
Coccidia (singular coccidium) are protozoa (single-celled organisms) with a round shape; they live as
parasites in the intestines of many animals and can cause a variety of diseases termed coccidiosis. Some
species of coccidia are transferrable to humans. Be careful not to confuse COCC- with the base COCCY-
meaning ‘cuckoo’ or, more frequently, ‘coccyx’ and ‘tail bone.’
29. STREP- ‘curved,’ ‘twisted,’ ‘linked’

STREPT- ‘curved,’ ‘twisted,’ ‘linked’
phlebostrepsis (PHLEB-O-STREP-sis) – condition of twisted vein, i.e. twisting a cut end of a
vein to prevent hemorrhage
This base is generally used about organisms that have a curved or twisted shape. Certain types of cocci
(berry-shaped bacteria) grow in chains that can take on curved or twisted formations; they are termed
streptococci:
streptococcosis (STREPT-O-COCC-osis) – abnormal condition (due to) cocci that are twisted,
i.e. abnormal condition due to streptococci
Sometimes, you will find that the base STREPT- is used on its own to denote the streptococci bacteria:
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STREPT- ‘streptococcus’
streptodermatitis (STREPT-O-DERMAT-itis) – inflammation of the skin due to streptococci
Earlier we saw the base STAPHYL- meaning ‘bunch of grapes’ (extended to denote the uvula). While
streptococci are bacteria that form curved chains, staphylococci grow in clumps that resemble bunches of
grapes.
30. PHYT- ‘plant’

phytodermatitis (PHYT-O-DERMAT-itis) – inflammation of the skin (due to contact with)
plants
phytophagous (PHYT-O-PHAG-ous) – pertaining to eating plants, i.e. vegetarian
This base is related to the base PHY-, ‘to grow,’ that we saw earlier. Sometimes, you will see the suffix -e
added to PHYT-; as we have seen previously, the suffix -e does not have a meaning of its own, but we can
treat -phyte as a compound suffix meaning ‘plant’ or ‘growth’:
coprophyte (COPR-O-phyte) – plant (that lives on) dung

osteophyte (OSTE-O-phyte) – growth of bone, i.e. a bony outgrowth
31. FUNG- ‘mushroom,’ ‘fungus’

fungal (FUNG-al) – pertaining to a fungus
fungemia (FUNG-emia) – condition of the blood (carrying) fungi
fungitoxic (FUNG-I-TOX-ic) – pertaining to poisonous to fungus (growth)
Note that fungitoxic denotes something that is poisonous to fungi, not a fungus that is poisonous to humans.
32. MYC- ‘fungus’

MYCET- ‘fungus’
mycotoxicosis (MYC-O-TOXIC-osis) – condition of poisoning (due to) fungi
oculomycosis (OCUL-O-MYC-osis) – condition of fungal (infection) of the eye
mycetophagous (MYCET-O-PHAG-ous) – pertaining to eating fungi
33. SPOR- ‘seed,’ ‘spore’

sporogenesis (SPOR-O-genesis) – production of spores
trichosporosis (TRICH–O-SPOR-osis) – condition of (fungal) spore (infection) of the hair
34. SEP- ‘to rot,’ ‘to putrefy’

antisepsis (anti-SEP-sis) – process of against putrefying, i.e. preventing infection by inhibiting
infecting elements
septic (SEP-tic) – pertaining to the process of putrefaction, i.e. pertaining to toxins being
produced
septicemia (SEP-tic-emia) – condition of the blood pertaining to process of putrefaction, i.e.
toxins circulating in the bloodstream
35. CID- ‘to cut,’ ‘to kill’

CIS- ‘to cut,’ ‘to kill’
excision (ex-CIS-ion) – act of out cutting, i.e. cutting out, surgical removal
bacteriocidal (BACTERI-O-CID-al) – pertaining to killing bacteria
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The two meanings of this base are connected since in earlier times, one way to kill someone was to cut them
down with a sword. You will probably come across this base most often as the compound suffix -cide,
meaning ‘killing’ or ‘substance that kills’:
fungicide (FUNG-I-cide) – substance that kills fungi

vermicide (VERM-I-cide) – substance that kills (intestinal) worms
sporicide (SPOR-I-cide) – substance that kills spores
36. FUG- ‘to flee from,’ ‘to put to flight’

vermifugal (VERM-I-FUG-al) – pertaining to putting to flight (intestinal) worms, i.e.
pertaining to expelling intestinal worms
You will probably come across this base most often as the compound suffix -fuge, meaning ‘substance that
expels’ or ‘substance that drives away’:
lactifuge (LACT-I-fuge) – substance that drives away milk, i.e. substance that lessens milk
secretion
vermifuge (VERM-I-fuge) – substance that expels (intestinal) worms
We saw the base STA- previously, meaning ‘to stand,’ and the related compound suffixes -stasia, -stasis,
and -stasy meaning ‘stoppage,’ ‘stagnation’; the ending -stat is not a true compound suffix in the way we
have described them but it occurs quite often as an ending meaning ‘agent that inhibits,’ ‘agent that retards’:
bacteriostat (BACTERI-O-stat) – agent that inhibits bacteria, i.e. agent that retards bacterial
growth
mycostat (MYC-O-stat) – agent that inhibits fungi, i.e. agent that retards fungal growth
fungistat (FUNG-I-stat) – agent that inhibits fungi, i.e. agent that retards fungal growth
Therefore, we will add it to our list of new compound suffixes:
1. -cide ‘killing,’ ‘substance that kills’

2. -crine ‘thing that secretes’
3. -fuge ‘substance that expels,’ ‘substance that drives away’
4. -phyte ‘plant,’ ‘growth’
5. -stat ‘agent that inhibits,’ ‘agent that retards’
We have covered another five chapters since the last review, so this seems like a good place for another
summary of some of the topics we have covered.
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Prefixes
We did not add any new prefixes to our list.
Suffixes
Let us add the new suffixes we have learned in the previous five chapters to our lists.
All of these suffixes form an adjective when added to a base:

5. -ad ‘toward’
15. -ative ‘pertaining to,’ ‘tending to’
28. -ile ‘pertaining to,’ ‘able to be’
31. -ious ‘pertaining to’
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33. -oid ‘resembling,’ ‘shaped,’ ‘like,’ shaped like’

39. -ulent ‘full of’
Remember, the suffix -ate can also be a verb-forming suffix meaning ‘to do’ or ‘to cause.’

41. -ase ‘enzyme’ (chemistry)
43. -ator ‘person who (does…),’ ‘thing that (does…)’
51. -fication ‘process of producing,’ ‘process of becoming,’ ‘process of making’
68. -ol ‘alcohol’ (chemistry)
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70. -one ‘ketone’ (chemistry)

73. -ose ‘sugar’ (chemistry)
These diminutive forming suffixes also make nouns when added to a base:

85. -il ‘small’
87. -ium ‘small’
88. -ole ‘small’
95. -fy ‘to produce,’ ‘to become,’ ‘to make’
97. -verse ‘to turn,’ ‘to travel’ ‘turned’
Remember, the suffix -ate can also be an adjective-forming suffix meaning ‘pertaining to’ or ‘having.’
Compound Suffixes
Some base-suffix pairs occur together so regularly that they are often treated as one suffix, and we have
used the term compound suffix to describe them. Here are the compound suffixes that we have seen, but
bear in mind that this is just a list created for this present task in medical terminology. In a different
discipline, the list of compound suffixes would be quite different.
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mind:


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42. -(h)aemia, -(h)emia ‘condition of the blood’


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We have now seen this term:
together fingers or toes - many of them, and a head that is (like) the highest point, i.e.
condition involving several fused fingers or toes and a head that is peak shaped
It has the form (excluding combining vowels) BASE-BASE-BASE-prefix-BASE-suffix. We approached it

as a regular prefix-BASE-suffix type and then added in the other bases going from right to left. We were
able to use ‘and’ to join in one of the bases, but we had to use some common sense to help us add in the
other bases.
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Stomach
The term stomach derives from the little used base STOMACH-, originally meaning ‘gullet’ but later
extended to the organ we know by this name today. You may come across the terms stomachic (STOMACH-
ic) and stomachal (STOMACH-al) meaning ‘pertaining to the stomach,’ but probably not much else. In
medical terminology, stomach is a precise term, but in everyday language it is often quite vague, variously
indicating an area somewhere between chest and pelvis. Medically, the stomach is the organ of digestion
located between the esophagus and the small intestine.
Bases
1. ESOPHAG- ‘gullet,’ ‘esophagus’
OESOPHAG- ‘gullet,’ ‘esophagus’
esophageal (ESOPHAG-eal) – pertaining to the esophagus
esophagostenosis (ESOPHAG-O-stenosis) – narrowing of the esophagus
oesophagomalacia (OESOPHAG-O-malacia) – softening of the esophagus (walls)
You may still come across the British spelling OESOPHAG- (and oesophagus), but the North American
spelling has largely been adopted. This base is related to PHAG-, ‘to eat’ or ‘to ingest,’ that we saw
previously.
2. GASTR- ‘stomach’
gastrodynia (GASTR-odynia) – painful condition of the stomach
gastrohepatic (GASTR-O-HEPAT-ic) – pertaining to the liver and stomach
cholecystogastrostomy (CHOLECYST-O-GASTR-O-stomy) – making a surgical opening
(between) the stomach and the gallbladder
gastroesophageal (GASTR-O-ESOPHAG-eal) – pertaining to the esophagus and the stomach
Remember, we have already seen the base VENTR- which can mean ‘belly’ or ‘abdomen,’ as well as ‘front,’
but GASTR- is the most commonly found base meaning ‘stomach.’ The gastroesophageal junction is the
point at which the esophagus joins to the stomach.
3. ABDOMIN- ‘abdomen,’ ‘belly’

abdominal (ABDOMIN-al) – pertaining to the abdomen
abdominocentesis (ABDOMIN-O-centesis) – surgical puncturing of the abdomen
abdominothoracic (ABDOMIN-O-THORAC-ic) – pertaining to the chest and abdomen
Like the term stomach in everyday language, the abdomen can also be a tricky area to pin down; it most
often refers to an area between the chest and pelvis (not including the vertebral region), although sometimes
it is extended to include the pelvis as well.
4. CEL- ‘abdomen,’ ‘belly,’ ‘abdominal cavity’

CELI- ‘abdomen,’ ‘belly,’ ‘abdominal cavity’
COEL- ‘abdomen,’ ‘belly,’ ‘abdominal cavity’
COELI- ‘abdomen,’ ‘belly,’ ‘abdominal cavity’
celitis (CEL-itis) – inflammation of the abdomen
celiomyalgia (CELI-O-MY-algia) – painful condition of the muscles of the abdomen
coeliac (COEL-I-ac) – pertaining to the abdomen or abdominal cavity
coelioscopy (COELI-O-scopy) – process of examining the abdomen with an instrument
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Again, the North American spellings (CEL- and CELI-) have largely replaced the British forms (COEL-
and COELI-). You may also come across this base at the end of a term, where it always has the meaning
‘cavity’:
-COEL ‘cavity’
-COELE ‘cavity’
hemocoel (HEM-O-COEL) – cavity (containing) blood
blastocoele (BLAST-O-COELE) – cavity in immature cells, i.e. the first cavity in an early stage
embryo
Although it is not a true compound suffix, we will add -coel/-coele to our list. You may also come across -
cele as an alternative spelling, as in blastocele; in most cases, however, -cele has a different meaning:
-CELE ‘hernia,’ ‘protrusion,’ ‘swelling’

arthrocele (ARTHR-O-CELE) – swelling of a joint
encephalocele ( ENCEPHAL-O-CELE) – hernia of the brain
meningomyelocele (MENING-O-MYEL-O-CELE) – protrusion of the spinal cord and the
spinal meninges (through the spinal column)
Again, although it is not a true compound suffix, we will add -cele to our list.
5. UMBILIC- ‘navel,’ ‘belly-button,’ ‘umbilicus’

umbilical (UMBILIC-al) – pertaining to the navel
umbilicate (UMBILIC-ate) – having the shape of a navel
The most common medical term for the navel or belly-button is the umbilicus. In compound terms, however,
you are more likely to see the base OMPHAL-:
6. OMPHAL- ‘navel,’ ‘umbilicus,’ ‘umbilical cord’

omphalocele (OMPHAL-O-cele) – hernia of the navel
omphalotripsy (OMPHAL-O-tripsy) – surgical crushing of the umbilical cord
omphalophlebitis (OMPHAL-O-PHLEB-itis) – inflammation of the veins of the umbilicus
Occasionally, you may come across the term omphalos instead of umbilicus for the navel.
7. LAPAR- ‘abdomen,’ ‘loin’

laparocele (LAPAR-O-cele) – hernia of the abdomen
laparomyositis (LAPAR-O-MYOS-itis) – inflammation of the muscles of the abdomen
laparotomy (LAPAR-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of the abdomen or loin
Once again, the exact area that this base refers to can be difficult to pin down. Originally meaning the soft
parts between the ribs and the hips, it can now refer to the abdomen, to the loin (another indeterminate area),
or to parts in-between.
8. PORT- ‘gate,’ ‘point of entry’

portal (PORT-al) – pertaining to a gate
In medical terminology, a porta (plural portae) is a point of entry or exit in the body or organs. The portal
vein conducts blood from the intestines to the liver. In compound medical terms, the base PORT- generally
denotes the portal vein:
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PORT- ‘portal vein’

portography (PORT-O-graphy) – process of recording (the structure and functioning of) the
portal vein
portobilioarterial (PORT-O-BIL-I-O-ARTER-ial) – pertaining to the (hepatic) artery, bile
(ducts) and the portal vein
Note how portobilioarterial has two combining vowels between the bases BIL- and ARTER-. There is
another base, PYL-, which also means ‘gate,’ and it too is used to denote the portal vein:
9. PYL- ‘gate,’ ‘portal vein’

pylethrombosis (PYL-E-THROMB-osis) – condition of a clot in the portal vein
pylemphraxis (PYL-emphraxis) – obstruction of the portal vein
The base PYLOR-, ‘gatekeeper,’ is related to this base:
10. PYLOR- ‘gatekeeper’

In medical terminology, a pylorus is a muscular device that can open and close the opening of an organ; it
acts like a gatekeeper. In the stomach, a pylorus controls the outlet of material from the stomach:
PYLOR- ‘pylorus’
pyloric (PYLOR-ic) – pertaining to the pylorus
pyloroptosis (PYLOR-O-ptosis) – prolapse of the pylorus
pylorectomy (PYLOR-ectomy) – surgical removal of the pylorus
The muscle that allows the pylorus to open and close is known as a sphincter muscle, derived from the base
meaning a ‘band,’ i.e. something that binds tightly or constricts. Most sphincter muscles occur in the
digestive system:
11. SPHINCTER- ‘band,’ ‘sphincter,’ ‘sphincter muscle’

sphincteral (SPHINCTER-al) – pertaining to a sphincter
sphincterotome (SPHINCTER-O-tome) – instrument used to cut a sphincter
blepharosphincterectomy (BLEPHAR-O-SPHINCTER-ectomy) – surgical removal of (part of)
the sphincter muscle of the eyelid
The stomach is divided into four regions, the cardia, fundus, body and pylorus. We came across the term
cardia previously, when we looked at the bases CARD- and CARDI-, and we have just met the term pylorus.
The fundus is the uppermost part of the stomach, responsible for storing undigested food and accumulated
gas. In everyday speech, the base FUND- has the meaning ‘depth’ or ‘bottom,’ as in ‘fundamental’ and
‘profundity,’ but in medical terminology it almost always has the meaning ‘fundus.’ A fundus is generally
the bottom or lowest part of an organ, but it can also indicate the part most remote from the opening, as is
the case in the stomach:
12. FUND- ‘fundus’

fundic (FUND-ic) – pertaining to a fundus
fundiform (FUND-I-form) – having the form of a fundus
The lining of the stomach is gathered into thick, wrinkle-like folds called rugae (singular ruga). They allow
the stomach to expand when it becomes filled with food by unfolding:
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13. RUG- ‘wrinkle,’ ‘fold’

rugose (RUG-ose) – full of wrinkles
rugate (RUG-ate) – having wrinkles
corrugator (cor-RUG-ator) – thing that together wrinkles, i.e. a muscle that wrinkles the skin
Note how the prefix con- has been assimilated to cor- in the term corrugator.
14. CHY- ‘to pour’

You may never come across this base, meaning ‘to pour,’ in this form, but it does give us two related bases,
CHYL- and CHYM-, both of which can mean ‘juice’ or ‘fluid’ (literally, something that can be poured).
More specifically, these bases refer to chyle and chyme, two fluids that are associated with the process of
digestion. Chyle is a milky fluid formed in the small intestine during digestion, while chyme is the semi-
fluid mass of partially digested food, saliva, and gastric juices that passes from the stomach to the small
intestine:
CHYL- ‘juice,’ ‘fluid,’ ‘chyle’

CHYM- ‘juice,’ ‘fluid,’ ‘chyme’
chyliferous (CHYL-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to carrying chyle
chylemia (CHYL-emia) – condition of the blood (containing) chyle
chymorrhea (CHYM-O-rrhea) – flow of chyme
chymopoiesis (CHYM-O-poiesis) – formation of chyme
Here are a couple of bases that refer to internal organs in general, including the stomach:
15. VISCER- ‘internal organ,’ ‘viscera’

visceral (VISCER-al) – pertaining to the viscera
eviscerate (e-VISCER-ate) – to make without internal organs, i.e. to remove the internal organs
visceromegaly (VISCER-O-megaly) – enlargement of an internal organ
The term viscus (plural viscera) may be used about any of the internal organs of the thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities (i.e. within the chest, abdomen, or pelvis).
16. SPLANCHN- ‘internal organ,’ ‘viscera’

splanchnic (SPLANCHN-ic) – pertaining to the viscera
splanchnocele (SPLANCHN-O-cele) – hernia of an internal organ
splanchnectopia (SPLANCHN-ectopia) – displacement of an internal organ
The following bases refer generally to food and drink, and to digestion:
17. PEPS- ‘digestion’

PEPT- ‘digestion’
pepsin (PEPS-in) – substance (related to) digestion
dyspepsia (dys-PEPS-ia) – condition of painful digestion
bradypepsia (BRADY-PEPS-ia) – condition of digestion that is slow
peptic (PEPT-ic) – pertaining to digestion
Pepsin is an enzyme released by the stomach that is involved in the digestion of proteins.
18. ALIMENT- ‘food,’ ‘nourishment,’ ‘nutrition’

alimentary (ALIMENT-ary) – pertaining to nourishment
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hypoalimentation (hypo-ALIMENT-ation) – process of less than normal nourishment, i.e.

inadequate nourishment
alimentotherapy (ALIMENT-O-therapy) – treatment (of disease) by nourishment, i.e.
treatment by regulation of diet
The digestive tract, i.e. the entire passageway along which food passes, both above and below the stomach,
is also known as the alimentary canal.
19. NUTRI- ‘to nourish,’ ‘nourishment’

NUTRIT- ‘to nourish,’ ‘nourishment’
nutrient (NUTRI-ent) – pertaining to nourishment
nutritive (NUTRIT-ive) – tending to nourish, pertaining to nourishment
malnutrition (mal-NUTRIT-ion) – condition of inadequate nourishment
20. SIT- ‘food,’ ‘grain’

sitotoxism (SIT-O-TOX-ism) – condition of poisoning through (spoiled) grain or food
apositia (apo-SIT-ia) – condition of away from food, i.e. lack of appetite
sitotropic (SIT-O-TROP-ic) – pertaining to turning towards, or away from, food
21. CIB- ‘food,’ ‘meal’

cibophobia (CIB-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of food, i.e. a loathing for food
postcibal (post-CIB-al) – pertaining to after a meal
22. ORECT- ‘appetite’

OREX- ‘appetite’
anorexia (an-OREX-ia) – condition of without appetite
anorectic (an-ORECT-ic) – pertaining to without appetite
hyperorexia (hyper-OREX-ia) – condition of more than normal appetite
The eating disorder that we hear a lot about is more properly called anorexia nervosa.
23. LIM- ‘hunger’

limosis (LIM-osis) – abnormal condition of hunger
limophthisis (LIM-O-phthisis) – wasting through hunger, i.e. emaciation caused by insufficient
food
Another name for the eating disorder hyperorexia is boulimia nervosa; the term boulimia (or bulimia)
includes the base LIM- and the base BOU- that means ‘ox,’ so BOU-LIM-ia is, literally, a ‘condition of
hunger like an ox.’ You will not likely come across the base BOU- in any other medical terminology.
24. DIPS- ‘thirst’

dipsesis (DIPS-esis) – abnormal condition of thirst
adipsia (a-DIPS-ia) – condition of without thirst
polydipsia (POLY-DIPS-ia) – condition of thirst - much (of it), i.e. excessive thirst
The meaning of this base is sometimes extended to mean ‘drinking’:
DIPS- ‘drinking’
dipsomania (DIPS-O-mania) – compulsion for drinking (alcohol to excess)
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25. PYR- ‘fire,’ burning’

pyrosis (PYR-osis) – condition of burning, i.e. the condition generally known as ‘heartburn’
antipyrotic (anti-PYR-O-tic) – pertaining to against burning, i.e. acting to alleviate burns
pyromania (PYR-O-mania) – compulsion to set fires
Pyrosis, or ‘heartburn,’ is a burning sensation in the esophagus caused by a reflux (literally, a ‘flowing
back’) of stomach acid.
26. GURGIT- ‘to flood,’ ‘to gorge’

ingurgitation (in-GURGIT-ation) - process of in gorging, i.e. process of taking in food or drink
greedily
regurgitation (re-GURGIT-ation) – process of backward flooding, i.e. reflux of food and/or
stomach acid into the mouth, or a backward flow of blood through faulty heart valves

We saw the base PYR- above meaning ‘fire’ or ‘burning’; closely related are the bases PYRET- and
PYREX-:
27. PYRET- ‘fever’

PYREX- ‘fever’
antipyretic (anti-PYRET-ic) – pertaining to (working) against fever, i.e. reducing fever
pyrexia (PYREX-ia) – condition of fever
hyperpyrexial (hyper-PYREX-ial) – pertaining to more than normal fever, i.e. pertaining to an
extremely high fever
Here is another base that means fever:
28. FEBR- ‘fever’

afebrile (a-FEBR-ile) – pertaining to without a fever
febrifuge (FEBR-I-fuge) – substance that drives away fever
febriferous (FEBR-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to producing fever
We have seen the combination of FER- and -ous quite a few times now, meaning ‘pertaining to bearing,
carrying or producing’; we can add it to our list of compound suffixes. A similar way of saying ‘something
that causes or makes something’ uses the following base:
29. FAC- ‘to make,’ ‘to cause’

febrifacient (FEBR-I-FAC-I-ent) – pertaining to causing fever
FAC- is related to the suffix -fic that we have already seen. We can add -facient, ‘making’ or ‘causing,’ to
our list of compound suffixes.
30. PHLOG- ‘inflamed,’ ‘inflammation’

PLOGIST- ‘inflamed,’ ‘inflammation’
phlogocyte (PHLOG-O-cyte) – cell in inflamed (tissue)
phlogogenic (PHLOG-O-genic) – producing inflammation
antiphlogistic (anti-PHLOGIST-ic) – pertaining to (working) against inflammation
Here are some bases related to temperature and heat:
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31. THERM- ‘heat’

thermoesthesia (THERM-O-esthesia) – condition of sensation to heat
thermotherapy (THERM-O-therapy) – treatment with heat
hypothermia (hypo-THERM-ia) – condition of less than normal (body) heat
32. CAL- ‘heat’

CALOR- ‘heat’
calefacient (CAL-E-facient) – making heat
calorific (CALOR-I-fic) – causing heat
calorimeter (CALOR-I-meter) – instrument used to measure heat
33. CAUM- ‘heat,’ ‘burning’

CAUS- ‘heat,’ ‘burning’
CAUST- ‘heat,’ ‘burning’
caumesthesia (CAUM-esthesia) – condition of sensation to heat
causalgia (CAUS-algia) – painful condition of burning (sensation)
caustic (CAUST-ic) – pertaining to burning, i.e. pertaining to an effect that resembles burning
The term caumesthesia is generally used about an individual having a sensation of heat even when the
temperature is low. The base CAUTER- is related to these forms; coming from the Greek term for a branding
iron, it gives us the term cautery (CAUTER-y), which can mean either the instrument used to apply heat to
a tissue, or the actual use of the instrument:
34. CAUTER- ‘cautery’

cauterization (CAUTER-ization) – process of making (use of) the cautery, i.e. the act of
cauterizing
cauterant (CAUTER-ant) – pertaining to cautery
Cauterization can be used to seal wounds and blood vessels, and to destroy diseased or unnatural tissue. It
often employs direct heat to achieve this, but cold, electric current, high frequency light, and certain
chemicals may also be used.
35. CRY- ‘icy cold’

CRYM- ‘icy cold’
crymophilic (CRYM-O-PHIL-ic) – pertaining to loving icy cold (temperatures)
crymodynia (CRYM-odynia) – painful condition (due to) icy cold (temperature)
cryothalamectomy (CRY-O-THALAM-ectomy) – removal of the thalamus by icy cold
(temperature)
cryolysis (CRY-O-lysis) – loosening (by) icy cold, i.e. destruction by cold
cryogenic (CRY-O-genic) – producing icy cold
A cryogen is capable of producing icy cold temperatures, and the science of cryogenics is concerned with
the production of, and effects of, very low temperatures. In cryosurgery, a cryogen (very often liquid
nitrogen) is used to create temperatures that are low enough to destroy diseased or unwanted tissues. You
may occasionally see these two bases with a ‘k’ replacing the letter ‘c’ (KRY-, KRYM-).
36. PSYCHR- ‘cold’

psychroalgia (PSYCHR-O-algia) – painful condition (due to) cold
psychrophobia (PSYCHR-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of the cold
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Be careful not to confuse this base with PSYCH-.
Finally, here are the new compound suffixes we saw in this chapter:
1. -cele ‘hernia,’ ‘protrusion,’ ‘swelling’

2. -coel, -coele ‘cavity’
3. -facient ‘making,’ ‘causing’
4. -ferous ‘bearing,’, ‘carrying,’ ‘producing’
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Abdomen and the Digestive Organs
Bases
1. ENTER- ‘intestine’
enteric (ENTER-ic) – pertaining to the intestine
enteroenterostomy (ENTER-O-ENTER-O-stomy) – making a surgical opening between (one
part of) the intestine and (another part of) the intestine
enterostenosis (ENTER-O-stenosis) – narrowing of the intestine
parenteral (par-ENTER-al) – pertaining to beside the intestines
2. INTESTIN- ‘intestine’
intestinal (INTESTIN-al) – pertaining to the intestine
gastrointestinal (GASTR-O-INTESTIN-al) – pertaining to the intestine and stomach
This base only rarely appears in compound terms. Both ENTER- and INTESTIN- often indicate the small
intestine specifically, but this is not always the case; sometimes they refer to the large intestine, sometimes
to the intestines in general.
The peritoneum is a serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity; it covers and supports
most of the viscera within the abdomen, and carries the blood and lymph vessels that serve them, as well as
the nerves. The term is actually derived from the prefix peri- (‘around’) and the base TON- (‘stretching’),
but we can think of it as a base in its own right:
3. PERITON- ‘peritoneum’
PERITONE- ‘peritoneum’
peritoneal (PERITON-eal) – pertaining to the peritoneum
pseudoperitonitis (PSEUD-O-PERITON-itis) – inflammation of the peritoneum that is false,
i.e. a neurosis in which the symptoms mimic those of peritonitis
peritoneocentesis (PERITONE-O-centesis) – surgical puncturing of the peritoneum
A large, apron-like fold of peritoneum hangs down from the stomach, covering the intestines; it is called the
greater omentum (the lesser omentum, another fold of peritoneum, hangs down from the liver):
4. OMENT- ‘membrane,’ ‘omentum’

omental (OMENT-al) – pertaining to the omentum
omentorrhaphy (OMENT-O-rrhaphy) – surgical suture of the omentum
omentosplenopexy (OMENT-O-SPLEN-O-pexy) – surgical fastening of the spleen and
omentum
The omentum is sometimes called the epiploon from the Greek meaning ‘floating upon,’ since this folded
membrane appears to float upon the intestines:
5. EPIPLO- ‘epiploon,’ ‘omentum’

epiplocele (EPIPLO-cele) – hernia of the omentum
epiploectomy (EPIPLO-ectomy) – surgical removal of the omentum
There are other membranous extensions of the peritoneum that are called mesenteries (singular mesentery);
one, in particular, encircles the small intestines. The term mesentery comes from a combination of the prefix
meso- and the base ENTER-, literally a ‘middle intestine.’ But we can think of MESENTER- as a base:
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6. MESENTER- ‘mesentery,’ ‘membranous fold’

mesenteric (MESENTER-ic) – pertaining to a mesentery
mesenteriorrhaphy (MESENTER-I-O-rrhaphy) – surgical suture of the mesentery
mesenteriopexy (MESENTER-I-O-pexy) – surgical fastening of (a torn) mesentery
Note how both mesenteriorrhaphy and mesenteriopexy have two combining vowels between the base and
the compound suffix.
The small intestine consists of three parts, the duodenum, jejunum and the ileum. The term duodenum comes
from the Latin word for ‘in twelves,’ since the small intestine was measured at about twelve fingerbreadths
long. According to Galen, the concept originated with Greek doctors from the time of Alexander the Great
who used their own word (dodekadaktylon) for something that was ‘twelve fingerbreadths long’:
7. DUODEN- ‘duodenum’
duodenitis (DUODEN-itis) – inflammation of the duodenum
duodenal (DUODEN-al) – pertaining to the duodenum
cholecystoduodenostomy (CHOLECYST-O-DUODEN-O-stomy) – making a surgical
opening between the duodenum and the gallbladder
8. JEJUN- ‘jejunum’
jejunotomy (JEJUN-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of the jejunum
jejunoplasty (JEJUN-O-plasty) – surgical reshaping of the jejunum
jejunal (JEJUN-al) – pertaining to the jejunum
The jejunum is the middle part of the small intestine. It was called the ‘empty intestine’ or ‘fasting intestine’
– jejunum intestinum – by ancient physicians because, as Galen tells us, it is often empty after death.
Eventually, it just became known as the jejunum.
9. ILE- ‘ileum’
ileac (ILE-ac) – pertaining to the ileum
jejunoileitis (JEJUN-O-ILE-itis) – inflammation of the ileum and jejunum
ileoentectropy (ILE-O-ent-ec-TROP-y) – condition of inside outside turning of the ileum, i.e.
a turning inside-out of a section of the ileum
The ileum is the final portion of the small intestine. Its function is to complete the absorption of nutrients
from digested food. We have already seen terms with two prefixes, and we have seen terms where a base
precedes a prefix. In ileoentectropy, these two situations combine, but we can just apply a combination of
the methods outlined previously. Leave the base that precedes the prefixes till last, and treat the remaining
prefix-prefix-BASE-suffix in the normal manner by starting with the suffix, then adding the prefixes (the
first prefix followed by the second), then adding in your base. After all this, add in the base that precedes
the prefixes.
10. PLIC- ‘to fold,’ ‘to pleat’

plicate (PLIC-ate) – having folds or pleats
replication (re-PLIC-ation) – process of again and again folding, i.e. repeating or copying a
process
In anatomy, a plica (plural plicae) is a structure in which there is a folding over of the parts; many
membranes form plicae. The inner wall of the small intestine is covered with plicae in the form of wrinkles
and folds that increase the surface area available for the absorption of nutrients. While the rugae of the
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stomach are considered temporary structures, since they can unfold when the stomach needs to expand and
can then fold back up when not needed, the plicae in the small intestine are permanent features.
The plicae of the small intestine are lined with thousands of villi (singular villus), hair-like projections that
increase even more the total surface area over which absorption can take place. Villi occur throughout the
body, especially in relation to mucous membranes:
11. VILL- ‘tuft of hair,’ ‘villus’

villous (VILL-ous) – having tufts of hair, pertaining to villi
villitis (VILL-itis) – inflammation of the villi, i.e. inflammation of a surface that possesses villi
(often the placenta)
villiform (VILL-I-form) – having the form of a villus or a tuft of hair
12. CAEC- ‘blind,’ ‘cecum’

CEC- ‘blind,’ ‘cecum’
The chief meaning of this base is ‘blind,’ but you will almost certainly never come across it in this sense in
a compound term. Since the first section of the large intestine leads off on one side to a closed tube (i.e. to
a ‘blind-end’), this portion of the intestine was called the cecum (or caecum, in British spelling; plural ceca
or caeca). Any similar bodily structure that terminates in a ‘blind-end’ can also be called a cecum:
cecal (CEC-al) – pertaining to a cecum

cecorrhaphy (CEC-O-rrhaphy) – surgical suture of the cecum
ileocecostomy (ILE-O-CEC-O-stomy) – making a surgical opening between the cecum and the
ileum
13. TYPHL- ‘blind,’ ‘cecum’

typhlosis (TYPHL-osis) – condition of being blind
typhlomegaly (TYPHL-O-megaly) – enlargement of the cecum
typhlectasis (TYPHL-ectasis) – dilation of the cecum
The term typhlon also refers to any structure that terminates in a ‘blind-end,’ although it is much less used
than the term cecum. Unlike CAEC-/CEC-, you will also find TYPHL- in compound terms where it has the
meaning ‘blind.’
14. PEND- ‘to hang,’ ‘to weigh’

dependence (de-PEND-ence) – state of hanging from (someone or something), i.e. reliance on
someone or something for support
The combination of this base with the prefix ad- gives us a combination that means ‘to hang near’ or ‘to
hang upon.’ We can think of APPEND- as a base (notice how ad- assimilates to ap- before the letter ‘p’):
15. APPEND- ‘to hang upon’

appendant (APPEND-ant) – pertaining to (something that) hangs upon (something else)
In medical terminology, an appendix is a structure that hangs from, or upon, a larger structure. In the
digestive system, the appendix is the blind-ended tube that hangs from the cecum. You may see it referred
to as the vermiform appendix (remember, we saw VERM-I-form in previous chapter), because it is worm-
shaped. You will come across both of the following bases with the meaning ‘appendix’ in compound terms:
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APPEND- ‘appendix’ (usually the vermiform appendix)

APPENDIC- ‘appendix’ (usually the vermiform appendix)
appendectomy (APPEND-ectomy) – surgical removal of the (vermiform) appendix
appendalgia (APPEND-algia) – painful condition (located around the vermiform) appendix
appendicitis (APPENDIC-itis) – inflammation of the (vermiform) appendix
16. COL- ‘colon,’ ‘large intestine’

COLON- ‘colon,’ large intestine’
colocentesis (COL-O-centesis) – surgical puncturing of the colon
enterocolitis (ENTER-O-COL-itis) – inflammation of the colon and small intestine
colonoscopy (COLON-O-scopy) – process of examining the colon with an instrument
The colon already had this name in the time of Aristotle. Some sources define the colon and the large
intestine as being two names for the same thing, while others regard the colon as only part of the large
intestine (the other parts being some, or all, of the cecum, rectum, and anal canal).
17. DIVERTICUL- ‘diverticulum’

The medical noun diverticulum is actually a compound term made from a prefix, a base and a suffix that we
have already met (di-VERT-I-culum). Literally a ‘small apart turning,’ a diverticulum (plural diverticula) is
a small pouch or pocket that branches off a larger organ or cavity. They are generally, though not always,
abnormal features that can be problematic. In the digestive system, diverticula may form in the stomach,
colon and duodenum; they may become infected, may cause obstructions, and can sometimes perforate. We
can think of DIVERTICUL- as a base:
diverticulitis (DIVERTICUL-itis) – inflammation of a diverticulum

diverticulosis (DIVERTICUL-osis) – abnormal condition (due to) diverticula
diverticulopexy (DIVERTICUL-O-pexy) – surgical fastening of a diverticulum
18. RECT- ‘straight,’ ‘straighten’

erector (e-RECT-or) – thing that out straightens, i.e. a muscle that causes a straightening out,
or straightening up, of something
You are most likely to come across this base with the meaning ‘rectum’; this part of the digestive system,
which extends between the sigmoid colon (remember, SIGM-oid means ‘S’ shaped, like the Greek letter
sigma) and the anal canal, got its name because it is a relatively straight portion of the gastrointestinal tract:
RECT- ‘rectum’
pararectal (para-RECT-al) – pertaining to beside the rectum
rectostenosis (RECT-O-stenosis) – narrowing of the rectum
rectococcygeal (RECT-O-COCCYG-eal) – pertaining to the coccyx and the rectum
19. PROCT- ‘rectum,’ ‘anus’

proctodynia (PROCT-odynia) – painful condition of the rectum or anus
proctology (PROCT-O-logy) – study of (diseases of) the rectum and anus
aproctia (a-PROCT-ia) – condition of without an anus
Though the original Greek meaning of this base was ‘anus,’ in modern usage it can also mean rectum.
20. AN- ‘anus’

circumanal (circum-AN-al) – pertaining to around the anus
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anorectocolonic (AN-O-RECT-O-COLON-ic) – pertaining to the colon, rectum, and anus

anoscopy (AN-O-scopy) – process of examining the anus with an instrument
Be careful not to confuse this base with the prefix an-. In most cases, the base AN- is followed by the
combining vowel ‘o,’ but the prefix an- may be followed by a base that begins with ‘o,’ so there is the
potential for confusion; you may have to rely on context to help you.
21. FAEC- ‘feces,’ ‘dung’

FEC- ‘feces,’ ‘dung’
faecal (FAEC-al) – pertaining to feces
feculent (FEC-ulent) – full of feces
You will also see FAEC-al and FEC-al used like bases:
FAECAL- ‘feces’
FECAL- ‘feces’
faecaloma (FAECAL-oma) – mass of feces
fecalaoid (FECAL-oid) – resembling feces
22. STERC- ‘feces’

STERCOR- ‘feces’
stercolithic (STERC-O-LITH-ic) – pertaining to a stone of feces, i.e. pertaining to a hard mass
of feces in the intestines
stercoraceous (STERCOR-aceous) – pertaining to feces
stercoroma (STERCOR-oma) – mass of feces
Stercus is an alternative, though rarely used, term for feces.
23. SCAT- ‘filth,’ ‘feces’

scatophagy (SCAT-O-phagy) – condition of eating feces or filth
scatology (SCAT-O-logy) – study of feces
scatologia (SCAT-O-LOG-ia) – condition of speech that is filthy, i.e. an uncontrollable use of
obscene language
This base has meanings that extend beyond ‘feces,’ just like COPR- that we saw in an earlier chapter. Here
is another similar base:
24. RHYP- ‘filth,’ ‘feces’

RHYPAR- ‘filth,’ ‘feces’
rhypophagy (RHYP-O-phagy) – condition of eating feces or filth
rhypophobia (RHYP-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of filth
rhyparia (RHYPAR-ia) – condition of filth, i.e. a condition in which foul matter forms on the
lips and teeth during fevers
One final base related to feces (who knew there were so many):
25. CHEZ- ‘the passing of feces’

hematochezia (HEMAT-O-CHEZ-ia) – condition of passing feces (containing) blood
dyschezia (dys-CHEZ-ia) – condition of difficult passing of the feces
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You will probably only ever come across this base in this combination, CHEZ-ia, ‘condition of passing
feces.’

Here are some more bases to learn:
26. RHYTI- ‘wrinkle’

RHYTID- ‘wrinkle’
rhytiphobia (RHYTI-phobia) – abnormal fear of (getting) wrinkles
rhytidectomy (RHYTID-ectomy) – surgical removal of wrinkles
rhytidosis (RHYTID-osis) – abnormal condition of wrinkles, i.e. more wrinkling than expected
for age
You may occasionally come across the following bases meaning ‘wrinkle,’ but they are much less common:
27. PHARK- ‘wrinkle’

PHARKID- ‘wrinkle’
pharkophobia (PHARK-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of (getting) wrinkles
pharkidoscopia (PHARKID-O-SCOP-ia) – condition of viewing wrinkles, i.e. an obsession for
checking for wrinkles on the face
You may also find the letter ‘c’ replacing the ‘k’ (PHARC- and PHARCID-).
28. STRI- ‘groove,’ ‘stripe’

striate (STRI-ate) – having grooves or stripes
striation (STRI-ation) – process of (creating) stripes
In anatomy, striae (singular stria) are stripes, bands or streaks that differ in color, texture, or height from the
surrounding tissues; the bands commonly called ‘stretch marks’ that some pregnant women get on their
stomachs during pregnancy have the technical term striae gravidarum, literally ‘striae of pregnant women’
(remember, we have seen the term gravida meaning ‘pregnant woman’ previously – gravidarum is just a
special plural form).
29. PLEX- ‘interwoven,’ ‘plaited,’ ‘complicated’

plexodontic (PLEX-ODONT-ic) – pertaining to a tooth with complicated (crown or root
formation)
This base, which is related to the base PLIC- that we saw above, carries the sense of something folded over
on itself many times, and also, a related idea, something of many parts. You will most likely come across
this base in relation to the term plexus (plural plexuses), the name for a structure in the body that is an
interwoven network of nerves and blood vessels; plexuses occur throughout the body.
PLEX- ‘plexus’
plexal (PLEX-al) – pertaining to a plexus
plexitis (PLEX-itis) – inflammation of a plexus
plexectomy (PLEX-ectomy) – surgical removal of a plexus
The solar plexus, the plexus located in the abdomen, gets its name from the fact that the nerve fibers radiate
out from the center like the rays of the sun (SOL-ar – pertaining to the sun).
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Kidneys and the Bladder
We have strayed a little from our head-to-toe approach since the kidneys are located just below the bottom
of the rib cage. They sit, however, posteriorly (i.e. behind) the structures we have already looked at in the
abdominal area, in a small area called the retroperitoneal (retro-PERITON-eal) space, one on either side of
the spine. The right kidney (from the owner’s point of view) is slightly lower than the left and sits just below
the diaphragm and behind the liver.
Bases
1. NEPHR- ‘kidney’
nephrology (NEPHR-O-logy) – study of (diseases of) the kidney
nephrolithiasis (NEPHR-O-LITH-iasis) – abnormal condition of a stone (or calculus) in the
kidney
laparonephrectomy (LAPAR-O-NEPHR-ectomy) – surgical removal of a kidney through (an
incision in) the abdomen
The term laparonephrectomy might seem difficult at first, but if you apply the rules we have learnt (suffix
and ultimate base first) we begin with ‘surgical removal of a kidney.’ Then we have to apply common sense;
it cannot possibly mean ‘and the abdomen’ (abdomens do not get removed), so we think of what is most
likely, and ‘through the abdomen’ works fine. In fact, you will find ‘laparo-’ at the beginning of quite a few
terms for medical procedures that are performed through an incision in the abdomen.
2. REN- ‘kidney’
renal (REN-al) – pertaining to a kidney
renopulmonary (REN-O-PULMON-ary) – pertaining to the lungs and kidneys
renotrophic (REN-O-TROPH-ic) – pertaining to the nutrition of the kidneys
The kidneys are, unsurprisingly, kidney bean-shaped structures (though larger, at about 10 cm long). One
of their primary functions is the production of urine that carries waste products out of the body:
3. UR- ‘urine’
URIN- ‘urine’
uresis (UR-esis) – process (of passing) urine
urodynia (UR-odynia) – painful condition (when passing) urine
uroscopy (UR-O-scopy) – examination of the urine with an instrument
urinary (URIN-ary) – pertaining to urine
uriniferous (URIN-I-ferous) – pertaining to carrying urine
The combination of the base UR- with the suffix -ia, meaning ‘condition of the urine,’ is a common one:
adipuria (ADIP-UR-ia) – condition of the urine (containing) fat

albiduria (ALBID-UR-ia) – condition of the urine (that is) white or pale
hyposthenuria (hypo-STHEN-UR-ia) – condition of the urine (whose) strength is less than
normal, i.e. a condition in which the urine has a low specific gravity
We can add -uria to our list of compound suffixes. You will also come across the combination of UR- and
the suffix -etic:
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diuretic (di-UR-etic) – pertaining to through (flow) of urine, i.e. pertaining to increased through
flow of urine
antidiuretic (anti-di-UR-etic) – pertaining to against through (flow) of urine, i.e. pertaining to
working against increased through flow of urine
natriuretic (NATR-I-UR-etic) – pertaining to urine (containing) sodium
We can also add -uretic, ‘pertaining to urine,’ to our list of compound suffixes.
Closely related to UR- is the base URE- meaning ‘urea’ as well as ‘urine’; urea is the chief waste product
that is excreted in the urine:
4. URE- ‘urine,’ ‘urea’

ureal (URE-al) – pertaining to urea
ureagenesis (URE-A-genesis) – production of urea
It is not always obvious whether ‘urine’ or ‘urea’ is meant; uresis (URE-sis), for example, generally means
‘act of producing urine,’ but in many contexts urine and urea are virtually synonymous, so you probably
will not go too far wrong. Another term for producing or passing urine is micturition, but you will probably
come across the base MICTUR- ‘to pass urine’ in only one or two compound terms.
Each of the kidneys has an outer cortex (the CORTIC-al layer); below the cortex is the medulla (MEDULL-
ary layer). Urine is collected in cup-shaped structures called calices, or calyces (singular calix or calyx):
5. CALI- ‘cup-shaped structure,’ ‘calix’

CALIC- ‘cup-shaped structure,’ ‘calix’
caliectasis (CALI-ectasis) – dilation of the (renal) calix
caliorrhaphy (CALI-O-rrhaphy) – surgical suture of the (renal) calix
caliceal (CALIC-eal) – pertaining to a calix
calicectomy (CALIC-ectomy) – surgical removal of a (renal) calix
In turn, the calices drain into the renal pelvis, a funnel-shaped part of the kidney that collects urine. Here
are two bases that both mean ‘pelvis.’ The first almost always refers to the renal pelvis, while the second
generally, but not always, refers to the basin-shaped collection of bones at the lower end of the vertebral
column:
6. PYEL- ‘renal pelvis,’ ‘pelvis’

pyelophlebitis (PYEL-O-PHLEB-itis) – inflammation of the veins of the renal pelvis
pyelostomy (PYEL-O-stomy) – making a surgical opening in the renal pelvis
pyelocaliceal (PYEL-O-CALIC-eal) – pertaining to the calices and the renal pelvis
Sometimes PYEL- is combined with NEPHR- to emphasize that it is the pelvis in the kidney (i.e. the renal
pelvis) that is meant:
pyelonephritis (PYEL-O-NEPHR-itis) – inflammation of the kidney pelvis, i.e. inflammation

of the renal pelvis
Be careful not to confuse the base PYEL- with the base PY- meaning ‘pus.’
7. PELV- ‘pelvis,’ ‘renal pelvis’

pelvisacral (PELV-I-SACR-al) – pertaining to the sacrum and the pelvis
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pelvicephalometry (PELV-I-CEPHAL-O-metry) – process of measuring the (fetal) head (in

relation to the maternal) pelvis
pelvilithotomy (PELV-I-LITH-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of a stone (via the) renal pelvis, i.e.
surgical removal of a kidney stone or calculus through an incision in the renal pelvis
The basic functional units of the kidney are the nephrons, structures that are responsible for filtering the
blood that arrives at the kidneys via the renal arteries. Contained within each nephron are the ball-shaped
glomerular capsule and the glomerulus (plural glomeruli):
8. GLOB- ‘ball,’ ‘ball-shaped’

GLOM- ‘ball-shaped’
GLOMER- ‘ball-shaped’
globule (GLOB-ule) – small ball, i.e. small spherical body of some kind
globin (GLOB-in) – substance (that is) ball-shaped
glomal (GLOM-al) – pertaining to a ball-shaped structure, i.e. pertaining to a glomus
glomerulus (GLOMER-ulus) – small ball-shaped (structure)
The globins are a group of globular (i.e. ball-shaped) proteins; hemoglobin (HEM-O-GLOB-in) is the
protein carried by the red blood cells that is responsible for the transport of oxygen. The globulins, also a
group of globular proteins, are found only in the blood plasma. A glomus (plural glomera) is a small ball-
shaped structure within the body; some glomera act as shunts for blood flow between arterioles and venules.
Glomeruli are also small ball-shaped structures; they are often clusters of intertwining capillaries. We can
think of GLOMERUL- as a base:
9. GLOMERUL- ‘glomerulus’
glomerular (GLOMERUL-ar) – pertaining to a glomerulus
glomerulonephritis (GLOMERUL-O-NEPHR-itis) – inflammation of the kidney glomerulus
glomerulopathy (GLOMERUL-O-pathy) – disease of the glomerulus
glomerulosclerosis (GLOMERUL-O-SCLER-osis) – condition of hardening of the glomerulus
(generally the renal glomerulus)
Urine is carried from the renal pelvis to the bladder by two thin tubes about 25 cm long; these structures are
the ureters:
10. URETER- ‘ureter’

ureteral (URETER-al) – pertaining to the ureter
pyeloureterectasis (PYEL-O-URETER-ectasis) – dilation of the ureter and renal pelvis
hydroureteronephrosis (HYDR-O-URETER-O-NEPHR-osis) – abnormal condition of the
kidney and ureter (caused by) fluid, i.e. condition of the kidneys and ureters caused by
retained urine
The term hydroureteronephrosis is readily built up using the method suggested earlier, that is always starting
with the suffix and ultimate base, then adding the other bases from right to left (or end to start, if you prefer),
and finally adding in whatever words are necessary to make sense. However, you are just as likely to see
the term in the form ureterohydronephrosis (URETER-O-HYDR-O-NEPHR-osis), so do be aware that, as
always, sometimes common sense has to help out any ‘rules’ we learn.
11. VESIC- ‘urinary bladder,’ ‘bladder’

vesical (VESIC-al) – pertaining to a bladder
vesicoumbilical (VESIC-O-UMBILIC-al) – pertaining to the umbilicus and the urinary bladder
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vesicoclysis (VESIC-O-clysis) – irrigation of the urinary bladder

abdominovesical (ABDOMIN-O-VESIC-al) – pertaining to the urinary bladder and the
abdomen, or pertaining to the gallbladder and the abdomen
A bladder can be any hollow structure filled with gas or fluid; the base VESIC- almost always refers to the
urinary bladder, but not always. Remember, we saw the base CYST- previously which can mean bladder,
cyst, or sac. A vesicula (plural vesiculae) is a small bladder, or bladder-like structure:
vesicula (VESIC-ula) – small bladder
Vesicula can also be the term for a blister, since a blister is just a small structure filled with fluid. You will
also come across this term in its anglicized form, vesicle. We can think of VESICUL- as a base:
12. VESICUL- ‘vesicle,’ ‘small bladder’

vesicular (VESICUL-ar) – pertaining to a vesicle
vesiculotomy (VESICUL-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of a vesicle
13. URETHR- ‘urethra’

urethrovesicopexy (URETHR-O-VESIC-O-pexy) – surgical fastening of the urinary bladder
and urethra
urethrocystitis (URETHR-O-CYST-itis) – inflammation of the (urinary) bladder and the
urethra
urethrorrhea (URETHR-O-rrhea) – discharge from the urethra
The urethra carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body; it is longer in men, passing through
the prostate gland and the penis.

The adrenal (ad-REN-al) glands (sometimes called the suprarenal glands) lie on top of the kidneys, one
gland on each kidney, but they have nothing to do with the urinary system. They are part of the endocrine
system that is responsible for secreting hormones to regulate various bodily functions. Remember, we
looked at the terms endocrine and exocrine previously. We can think of ADREN- and ADRENAL- as bases:
14. ADREN- ‘adrenal gland’

ADRENAL- ‘adrenal gland’
adrenic (ADREN-ic) – pertaining to an adrenal gland
adrenocortical (ADREN-O-CORTIC-al) – pertaining to the cortex (outer layer) of the adrenal
gland
adrenalectomy (ADRENAL-ectomy) – surgical removal of an adrenal gland
adrenalopathy (ADRENAL-O-pathy) – disease of the adrenal gland
The glands that make up the endocrine system are located throughout the body (brain, neck, chest, abdomen,
groin), and some have other functions in other bodily systems. We have already come across the
hypothalamus, the pituitary and thyroid glands (also, four parathyroid glands that lie beside the thyroid
gland), the thymus and the pancreas, and we will look at the testes and ovaries in two later chapters. Here
are some other bases that relate to the endocrine system:
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15. HYPOPHYS- ‘pituitary gland’

This base is really the prefix hypo- and base PHYS- combined meaning, literally, ‘undergrowth’: hypophysis
is an alternative name for the pituitary, the gland that grows under the brain, suspended from the
hypothalamus. We will treat HYPOPHYS- as a base:
posthypophysial (post-HYPOPHYS-ial) – pertaining to behind the pituitary gland

hypophysitis (HYPOPHYS-itis) – inflammation of the pituitary gland
16. PINE- ‘pine-cone’

pineal (PINE-al) – pertaining to a pine-cone
The pineal gland, or pineal body as it is sometimes called, lies between two lobes of the thalamus; it got its
name because its shape resembles a tiny pine-cone. One of its functions is secreting hormones related to
maintaining biological rhythms such as sleep. We will treat PINEAL- as a base:
17. PINEAL- ‘pineal gland’

pinealopathy (PINEAL-O-pathy) – disease of the pineal gland
pinealoma (PINEAL-oma) – tumor of the pineal gland
18. HORMON- ‘hormone’

hormonal (HORMON-al) – pertaining to hormones
hormonopoiesis (HORMON-O-poiesis) – formation of hormones
hormonotherapy (HORMON-O-therapy) – treatment with hormones
Hormones were only identified in the twentieth century. They took their name from a Greek word meaning
‘to set in motion,’ since they act as chemical messengers that set in motion chains of events in the body.
1. -uria ‘condition of the urine’

2. -uretic ‘pertaining to urine’
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Female Reproductive Parts
Bases
1. UTER- ‘uterus,’ ‘womb’
uteroabdominal (UTER-O-ABDOMIN-al) – pertaining to the abdomen and uterus
uterine (UTER-ine) – pertaining to the uterus
uterosacral (UTER-O-SACR-al) – pertaining to the sacrum and uterus
2. HYSTER- ‘uterus,’ ‘womb’

hysterectomy (HYSTER-ectomy) – surgical removal of the uterus
hysterocystopexy (HYSTER-O-CYST-O-pexy) – surgical fastening of the (urinary) bladder
and the uterus (to the abdominal wall)
hysterotrachelorrhaphy (HYSTER-O-TRACHEL-O-rrhaphy) – surgical suture of the neck of
the uterus
3. METR- (i) ‘measurement’: (ii) ‘uterus’, ‘womb’

metrical (METR-ical) pertaining to measurement
metrophlebitis (METR-O-PHLEB-itis) – inflammation of the veins of the uterus
metromalacia (METR-O-malacia) – softening of the uterus (tissues)
endometrial (endo-METR-I-al) – pertaining to inside the uterus, i.e. pertaining to the inner
layer of the uterine wall
We have already seen this base when we looked at the meaning ‘measurement.’ The medical term for the
inner layer of the uterine wall is the endometrium; sometimes the endometrial tissue begins to grow outside
of the uterus, resulting in a painful condition called endometriosis (endo-METR-I-osis).
Here is one rarely used base that means ‘uterus’:
4. DELPH- ‘uterus,’ ‘womb’

didelphic (DI-DELPH-ic) – pertaining to the uterus - two (of them), i.e. pertaining to having a
double uterus
5. GONAD- ‘gonad’
The gonads are the organs that produce the sex cells, i.e. sperm or eggs. In males, the testes are the gonads,
while in females the ovaries fulfill this function.
agonadal (a-GONAD-al) – pertaining to (being) without gonads

gonadopathy (GONAD-O-pathy) – disease of the gonads
amphigonadism (amphi-GONAD-ism) – condition of (having) both gonads, i.e. having both
ovaries and testes, or both ovarian and testicular tissues
The term gonad is a relatively recent introduction formed on the base GON-, meaning ‘seed’:
6. GON- ‘seed’
gonocyte (GON-O-cyte) – cell (that forms) seed, i.e. a sperm cell or egg cell
Since the discharge that occurred in certain inflammations of the genital tract resembled a discharge of
semen (‘seed’), the condition was given the name gonorrhea:
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gonorrhea (GON-O-rrhea) – flow of seed, i.e. infection with a semen-like discharge
It was many centuries later that the bacterium responsible for the infection was discovered; one of its names
is gonococcus, so a gonococcicide (GON-O-COCC-I-cide) is a substance that kills the gonococcus
bacterium.
7. OV- ‘egg’
ovoid (OV-oid) – shaped like an egg
ovogenesis (OV-O-genesis) – production of eggs
This base has given rise to several related terms; ovum (egg, the female reproductive cell, plural ova), ovule
(OV-ule, ‘small egg,’ the female reproductive cell in an early stage), ovary (the reproductive structure that
contains the ova), and oviduct (OV-I-duct, the tube linking the ovary to the uterus). We will treat them here
as bases:
OV- ‘ovum’
ovicide (OV-I-cide) – substance that kills the ovum
oviferous (OV-I-FER-ous) – pertaining to carrying ova
8. OVUL- ‘ovule’
ovular (OVUL-ar) – pertaining to an ovule
ovulogenous (OVUL-O-GEN-ous) – pertaining to producing, or being produced by, an ovule
9. OVAR- ‘ovary’
OVARI- ‘ovary’
ovaritis (OVAR-itis) – inflammation of an ovary
ovariocele (OVARI-O-cele) – hernia of an ovary
ovariopathy (OVARI-O-pathy) – disease of the ovary
10. OVIDUCT- ‘oviduct’

oviductal (OVIDUCT-al) – pertaining to an oviduct
oviductitis (OVIDUCT-itis) – inflammation of an oviduct
11. OO- ‘egg’

oology (OO-logy) – study of eggs
oophagia (OO-phagia) – condition of eating eggs (habitually)
Like the base OV-, you will most likely come across this base with the specialized meaning ovum:
OO- ‘ovum’
oogenic (OO-GEN-ic) – producing ova
The related base OOPHOR- (literally, ‘carrying the ovum’) is another base with the meaning ‘ovary’:
12. OOPHOR- ‘ovary’

oophorocystectomy (OOPHOR-O-CYST-ectomy) – surgical removal of a cyst on the ovary
oophoropexy (OOPHOR-O-pexy) – surgical fastening of an ovary
oophoralgia (OOPHOR-algia) – painful condition of the ovary
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The oviducts are also called uterine tubes and Fallopian tubes (after the first anatomist, Fallopius, who
described them correctly).
13. TUB- ‘tube’

tubal (TUB-al) – pertaining to a tube
intubation (in-TUB-ation) – process of in(serting) a tube (into the body)
tubule (TUB-ule) – a small tube
While there are many tubes, or tubular structures, within the body, this base is sometimes used specifically
about the uterine tube:
TUB- ‘uterine tube’

tuboabdominal (TUB-O-ABDOMIN-al) – pertaining to the abdomen and uterine tube
tubouterine (TUB-O-UTER-ine) – pertaining to the uterus and uterine tube
Tubes are hollow cylindrical structures, and the term tube comes originally from a word that means a hollow
musical instrument, like a war trumpet. Another term for a hollow cylindrical structure (i.e. a tube) within
the body is salpinx, and this, too, comes from a word meaning a trumpet. You will not come across the word
salpinx (plural salpinges) very often, but you will find the base SALPING- in quite a few compound terms,
usually relating to the uterine tubes, or to the auditory tube of the ear; you will have to rely on context to
help you decide which is most likely:
14. SALPING- ‘tube,’ ‘uterine tube,’ ‘auditory tube’

salpingopharyngeal (SALPING-O-PHARYNG-eal) – pertaining to the pharynx and auditory
tube
salpingocele (SALPING-O-cele) – hernia of a uterine tube
salpingorrhagia (SALPING-O-rrhagia) – excessive discharge from a uterine tube
salpingemphraxis (SALPING-emphraxis) – obstruction of a uterine tube or the auditory tube
15. VAGIN- ‘vagina’

vaginovesical (VAGIN-O-VESIC-al) – pertaining to the urinary bladder and the vagina
vaginolabial (VAGIN-O-LABI-al) – pertaining to the labia and the vagina
supravaginal (supra-VAGIN-al) – pertaining to above the vagina
cervicovaginitis (CERVIC-O-VAGIN-itis) – inflammation of the vagina and the neck (of the
uterus)
The vagina extends from the uterus to the external genitalia. The original meaning for vagina is ‘sheath’ or
‘scabbard,’ that is the cover used for a blade or sword. So the term evaginate (e-VAGIN-ate) means, literally,
‘to take (the sword) out of the sheath’; it has come to have the sense of something out of its normal place
and to have the medical meaning of ‘turned inside out’ or ‘protruding out of the normal position.’
Remember, we saw the base LABI-, meaning ‘lip,’ and the term labium, ‘a lip-like structure,’ previously;
two pairs of labia are located alongside the vagina. We have also seen the base CERVIC-, ‘neck,’ previously
and we noted that the term ‘neck’ is applied to many body parts that have a constricted or narrowed portion.
The medical name for the neck of the uterus is the cervix.
16. COLP- ‘vagina’

colpomycosis (COLP-O-MYC-osis) – condition of fungal (infection) of the vagina
colpoptosis (COLP-O-ptosis) – prolapse of the vagina
hysterocolpectomy (HYSTER-O-COLP-ectomy) – surgical removal of the vagina and uterus
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You might occasionally see this base with the letter ‘k’ replacing the letter ‘c’ (KOLP-).
17. CLITOR- ‘clitoris’

CLITORID- ‘clitoris’
clitoral (CLITOR-al) – pertaining to the clitoris
clitoromegaly (CLITOR-O-megaly) – enlargement of the clitoris
clitoridectomy (CLITORID-ectomy) – surgical removal of the clitoris
18. VULV- ‘vulva’

vulvar (VULV-ar) – pertaining to the vulva
vulvovaginitis (VULV-O-VAGIN-itis) – inflammation of the vagina and vulva
vulvectomy (VULV-ectomy) – surgical removal of the vulva (or part of it)
The external female genitalia, including the labia and the clitoris, are collectively called the vulva. You may
also find them called the pudenda (singular pudendum) meaning, literally, ‘the things to be ashamed of.’
19. EPISI- ‘vulva’

episiostenosis (EPISI-O-stenosis) – narrowing of the vulva (opening)
episioplasty (EPISI-O-plasty) – surgical reshaping of the vulva
20. PERINE- ‘perineum’

perineocele (PERINE-O-cele) – hernia in the perineum (area)
episioperineorrhaphy (EPISI-O-PERINE-O-rrhaphy) – surgical suture of the perineum and
vulva
In women, the area between the anus and the vulva is termed the perineum. In men, the perineum is the area
between the anus and the scrotum.
21. MEN- ‘month,’ ‘menses’

Since the bleeding from the uterus that precedes ovulation occurs, roughly, every month, it got the name
menses (literally, the ‘monthlies,’ singular mensis) in ancient Greek and Roman times:
menorrhagia (MEN-O-rrhagia) – excessive flow of the menses

menoxenia (MEN-O-XEN-ia) – condition of foreign or strange menses, i.e. condition of
abnormal menses
dysmenorrhea (dys-MEN-O-rrhea) – flow of difficult menses, i.e. difficult or painful flow of
the menses
oligomenorrhea (OLIG-O-MEN-O-rrhea) – flow of menses that is scanty
The base MENSTRU- is related to the base MEN-:
22. MENSTRU- ‘menses’

menstruation (MENSTRU-ation) – process of (discharge) of the menses
premenstrual (pre-MENSTRU-al) – pertaining to before the menses, i.e. pertaining to before
menstruation
postmenstrual (post-MENSTRU-al) – pertaining to after the menses, i.e. pertaining to after
menstruation
23. ISCH- ‘to suppress’

ischomenia (ISCH-O-MEN-ia) – condition of the menses being suppressed
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ischemia (ISCH-emia) – condition of blood suppression, i.e. suppression of the blood flow due
to an obstruction
ischesis (ISCH-esis) – abnormal condition of suppression (of any discharge)
24. CAPT- ‘to take,’ ‘to receive’

-CEPT- ‘to take,’ ‘to receive’
capture (CAPT-ure) – act of taking
conception (con-CEPT-ion) – act of together receiving, i.e. the act of bringing things or ideas
together
Note that the form -CEPT- never occurs at the beginning of a term. In medical terminology, conception
most often refers to the successful bringing together of sperm and egg. The term contraception (contra-
CEPT-ion) is actually a shortened form of contraconception (contra-con-CEPT-ion), literally ‘act against
together receiving,’ i.e. ‘against conception.’ Notice that, in building up this last term, we followed the
regular format of suffix-first prefix-second prefix-BASE.
25. EMBRY- ‘embryo’

EMBRYON- ‘embryo’
embryoblast (EMBRY-O-blast) – immature cell (mass inside) the embryo
embryology (EMBRY-O-logy) – study of the embryo, i.e. the study of the development of the
embryo
embryomorphous (EMBRY-O-MORPH-ous) – pertaining to the form or shape of the embryo
polyembryonic (POLY-EMBRYON-ic) – pertaining to embryos - many of them, i.e. pertaining
to two or more embryos developing from a single fertilized egg
In human medical terminology, we generally use the term embryo for the developing offspring in the phase
between conception and about eight weeks. After eight weeks, and up until the time of birth, the offspring
is usually termed a fetus:
26. FET- ‘offspring,’ ‘fetus’

FOET- ‘offspring,’ ‘fetus’
foetal (FOET-al) – pertaining to a fetus
fetometry (FET-O-metry) – process of measuring the fetus
fetation (FET-ation) – process of offspring (formation), i.e. pregnancy
superfetation (super-FET-ation) – process of beyond (usual) offspring, i.e. pregnancy
involving more than one offspring
You will likely come across both forms of this base, FET- and FOET- (and fetus and foetus). Superfetation
is a rare occurrence in human females in which two fetuses are conceived in different menstrual cycles,
resulting in two fetuses of different ages.
27. AMNI- ‘amnion’

AMNION- ‘amnion’
amniotic (AMNI-O-tic) – pertaining to the amnion
amniocentesis (AMNI-O-centesis) – surgical puncturing of the amnion (for sampling of fluid)
amniochorionic (AMNI-O-CHORION-ic) – pertaining to the chorion and the amnion
amnionic (AMNION-ic) – pertaining to the amnion
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The amnion is the innermost of the two membranes that surround the fetus, while the chorion is the outer
layer (remember, we saw the base CHORI-, CHORION-, CHOROID- earlier; the choroid is a membrane
within the eye).
28. PROL- ‘offspring’

proligerous (PROL-I-GER-ous) – pertaining to producing offspring
prolific (PROL-I-fic) – making offspring
The meaning ‘offspring’ does not always mean children; it can indicate things produced that are identical
to one another, especially in large numbers:
proliferation (PROL-I-FER-ation) – process of producing offspring, i.e. production of similar

cells, usually in large numbers
myeloproliferative (MYEL-O-PROL-I-FER-ative) – tending to produce offspring of the bone
marrow, i.e. proliferation of the cells of the bone marrow
29. PARTUR- ‘to give birth,’ ‘childbirth’

parturition (PARTUR-I-tion) – process of giving birth
parturifacient (PARTUR-I-facient) – causing childbirth, i.e. inducing labour
parturient (PARTUR-I-ent) – pertaining to childbirth
30. PAR- ‘to give birth’

parity (PAR-ity) – condition of giving birth
parous (PAR-ous) – pertaining to giving birth
multiparous (MULT-I-PAR-ous) – pertaining to giving birth many (times)
Remember, we have seen the terms para and gravida previously, meaning ‘woman who has given birth’ and
‘woman who is/has been pregnant’ respectively.
31. CYE- ‘pregnancy’

cyesis (CYE-sis) – condition of pregnancy
paracyesis (para-CYE-sis) – condition of abnormal pregnancy, i.e. an ectopic pregnancy
acyesis (a-CYE-sis) – condition of without pregnancy, i.e. an inability to become pregnant
32. TOC- ‘childbirth’

TOK- ‘childbirth’
tocology (TOC-O-logy) – study of childbirth
dystocia (dys-TOC-ia) – condition of difficult childbirth
bradytokia (BRADY-TOK-ia) – condition of childbirth (that is) slow
Remember, we saw the bases NASC- and NAT-, meaning ‘being born’ and ‘birth,’ previously.
33. PLACENT- ‘placenta’

placental (PLACENT-al) – pertaining to the placenta
fetoplacental (FET-O-PLACENT-al) – pertaining to the fetus and the placenta
placentotherapy (PLACENT-O-therapy) – treatment with the placenta, i.e. treatment with the
extract of placental tissue
In Latin, placenta means a flat, round cake; the organ that connects the fetus to the wall of the uterus, since
it is largely flat and round, was given the name placenta. The placenta, along with the ruptured amnion and
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chorion, is expelled from the body shortly after a woman has given birth. In everyday language, these are
collectively called the ‘afterbirth,’ but you will also see the afterbirth called the secundines, literally the
‘following things’ or ‘things coming second’ – remember, we saw the base SECUND- previously. In the
weeks following childbirth, remnants of tissue, blood and mucus are expelled in the lochia:
34. LOCHI- ‘related to childbirth,’ ‘lochia’

lochiorrhea (LOCHI-O-rrhea) – discharge of the lochia
lochiometritis (LOCHI-O-METR-itis) – inflammation of the uterus (due to retained) lochia
lochiostasis (LOCHI-O-stasis) – stoppage of the lochia, i.e. retention of the lochia
35. OBSTETR- ‘obstetrix,’ ‘midwife’

obstetric (OBSTETR-ic) – related to (the duties of the) midwife
This base is derived from the Latin term for a midwife, obstetrix (literally, the ‘one who stands in front’).
Its meaning has been extended to include the things that a midwife must deal with, so ‘pregnancy and
childbirth’:
OBSTETR- ‘pregnancy and childbirth’

obstetrics (OBSTETR-ics) – study of pregnancy and childbirth
obstetrician (OBSTETR-ician) – specialist in pregnancy and childbirth
Remember, we saw the base GYNEC-/GYNAEC- previously, meaning ‘woman’; the specialist that is often
referred to by the abbreviation OB/GYN is an obstetrician/gynecologist (or, sometimes the abbreviation
refers to the speciality, obstetrics/gynecology).

Here are some more bases to learn:
36. MATERN- ‘mother’

MATR- ‘mother’
matricide (MATR-I-cide) – killing (one’s own) mother
maternal (MATERN-al) – pertaining to a mother
maternity (MATERN-ity) – condition of (being) a mother
37. PATERN- ‘father’

PATR- ‘father’
patricide (PATR-I-cide) – killing (one’s own) father
paternal (PATERN-al) – pertaining to a father
paternity (PATERN-ity) – condition of (being) a father
38. FRATERN- ‘brother’

FRATR- ‘brother’
fratricide (FRATR-I-cide) – killing (one’s own) brother
fraternal (FRATERN-al) – pertaining to a brother
Fraternal twins are formed by two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm; they are not identical
twins.
39. SOROR- ‘sister’

sororicide (SOROR-I-cide) – killing (one’s own) sister
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sororial (SOROR-ial) – pertaining to a sister
The meanings of FRATERN- and SOROR- have been extended to include ‘close associates’ in everyday
terms such as fraternity and sorority.
40. TRE- ‘opening’

TRES- ‘opening’
tresis (TRE-sis) – act of making an opening
atresia (a-TRES-ia) – condition of without an opening, i.e. the absence of a normal opening
Vaginal atresia can be a congenital defect (i.e. present at birth), or it can result from the walls of the vagina
growing or adhering together. Atresia can occur in many tube-like parts of the body such as the esophagus,
intestine, and anus, but also in smaller channels in the heart and pupil of the eye. You will come across the
form ATRET- meaning ‘without an opening.’ It really is the prefix a-, meaning ‘without,’ and the base
TRET-, ‘opening,’ but we will treat it here as a base in its own right:
41. ATRET- ‘without an opening’

atretocystia (ATRET-O-CYST-ia) – condition of the (urinary) bladder without an opening
atretogastria (ATRET-O-GASTR-ia) – condition of the stomach without an opening
atretopsia (ATRET-opsia) – condition of sight without an opening, i.e. condition of the pupil
of the eye without an opening
42. NE- ‘new,’ ‘recent’

neonatal (NE-O-NAT-al) – pertaining to birth that is recent, i.e. pertaining to immediately after
birth
neophobia (NE-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of new (things or events)
neostomy (NE-O-stomy) – making a surgical opening that is new
43. ARCH- ‘ancient,’ ‘primitive,’ ‘beginning’

ARCHAE- ‘ancient,’ ‘primitive,’ ‘beginning’
ARCHE- ‘ancient,’ ‘primitive,’ ‘beginning’
archeocyte (ARCHE-O-cyte) – cell of primitive (form)
archaeocerebellar (ARCHAE-O-CEREBELL-ar) – pertaining to the cerebellum (that evolved)
at a primitive (time)
ARCHE- and ARCHAE- are the North American and British spellings of this base. You will rarely see
ARCH- at the beginning of a word other than in the term archenteron, the primitive alimentary canal in the
embryo. You will, however, see it at the end of a word, combined with the suffix -e that has no meaning;
we can think of -arche as a compound suffix meaning ‘beginning,’ or ‘onset’:
menarche (MEN-arche) – onset of the menses
44. PALAE- ‘old’, ‘primitive’

PALE- ‘old’, ‘primitive’
palaeopathology (PALAE-O-PATH-O-logy) – study of disease in primitive (times)

paleocerebellar (PALE-O-CEREBELL-ar) – pertaining to the cerebellum (that evolved) at a
primitive (time)
Again, PALAE- and PALE- are just the alternative North American and British spellings of this base.
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45. CHRON- ‘time’

chronometry (CHRON-O-metry) – process of measuring time (or intervals of time)
chronograph (CHRON-O-graph) – instrument used to record time (or intervals of time)
chronic (CHRON-ic) – pertaining to time, i.e. lasting a long time in relation to illness and
disease
Finally, here is the new compound suffix we saw in this chapter:
1. -arche ‘beginning,’ ‘onset’
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Male Reproductive Parts
Bases
1. TEST- ‘testis’
testalgia (TEST-algia) – painful condition of a testis
testopathy (TEST-O-pathy) – disease of a testis
testectomy (TEST-ectomy) – surgical removal of a testis
The primary meaning of the Latin word testis (plural testes) is ‘witness,’ as in ‘testimony’ or ‘testify,’ but
for some reason that no-one is sure of, the same word was applied to the male gonad. The term testicle is
actually derived from a diminutive form:
testiculus (TEST-I-culus) – small testis, i.e. a testicle
In medical terminology, the two terms, testis and testicle, mean exactly the same. We can think of
TESTICUL- as a base:
2. TESTICUL- ‘testicle,’ ‘testis’

testicular (TESTICUL-ar) – pertaining to a testicle
testiculitis (TESTICUL-itis) – inflammation of a testicle
3. ORCH- ‘testis’
ORCHI- ‘testis’
ORCHID- ‘testis’
cryptorchism (CRYPT-ORCH-ism) – condition of the testis (being) hidden, i.e. condition of
the testis failing to descend into the scrotum
orchioplasty (ORCHI-O-plasty) – surgical reshaping of a testis
orchidoptosis (ORCHID-O-ptosis) – prolapse of a testis
cryptorchidectomy (CRYPT-ORCHID-ectomy) – surgical removal of a testis (that is) hidden,
i.e. surgical removal of an undescended testis
Though you will rarely come across the term orchis (plural orchises) for the male gonad (testis is the
preferred name), the related bases are used frequently in compound medical terms. Orchid plants got their
name because their roots (supposedly) resemble testes.
4. DIDYM- (i) ‘twin’: (ii) ‘testis’

didymodynia (DIDYM-odynia) – painful condition of a testis
didymitis (DIDYM-itis) – inflammation of a testis
The earliest meaning of this term was ‘double,’ or ‘twofold.’ This was later extended to include ‘twin,’ and
then, even later, ‘testis’ or ‘testicle.’ The medical term didymus is used about a single testis; you will
probably never see the plural form, which is didymoi. Sometimes, you will come across the form -didymus
at the end of a word acting like a suffix; it generally has the meaning ‘twin,’ or ‘conjoined twins.’ You will
not see it a lot, which is good, because it can be a bit tricky:
cephalodidymus (CEPHAL-O-didymus) – conjoined twins (fused everywhere except the) head

thoracodidymus (THORAC-O-didymus) – conjoined twins (fused at the) thorax
cryptodidymus (CRYPT-O-didymus) – twin (that is) hidden, i.e. a poorly developed twin that
is concealed within the larger one
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You are more likely to come across the form -pagus in compound terms relating to sets of conjoined twins;
it is connected to the base PEX- (‘to fasten’) that we have already seen, and it always indicates the place at
which a set of conjoined twins are fused together:
craniopagus (CRANI-O-pagus) – conjoined twins (fused at the) cranium

thoracogastropagus (THORAC-O-GASTR-O-pagus) – conjoined twins (fused at the) stomach
and thorax
omphalopagus (OMPHAL-O-pagus) – conjoined twins (fused at the) navel
We can add -didymus and -pagus to our list of compound suffixes.
Getting back to the meaning ‘testis,’ the epididymis (plural epididymides) is a narrow, tightly-coiled tube
that sits on the surface of the testis (remember, epi- ‘on the surface’). We can think of EPIDIDYM- as a
base:
5. EPIDIDYM- ‘epididymis’
epididymotomy (EPIDIDYM-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of the epididymis
epididymoplasty (EPIDIDYM-O-plasty) – surgical reshaping of the epididymis
orchiepididymitis (ORCH-I-EPIDIDYM-itis) – inflammation of the epididymis and the testis
The epididymis is responsible for conveying sperm from the testis to the vas deferens; remember, we looked
at the base VAS- (‘vessel,’ ‘vas’) previously. The testes and associated epididymides are suspended within
a sack of skin and muscle, the scrotum:
6. SCROT- ‘scrotum’
scrotocele (SCROT-O-cele) – hernia of the scrotum
scrotiform (SCROT-I-form) – like a scrotum, i.e. shaped like a sack or pouch
urethroperineoscrotal (URETHR-O-PERINE-O-SCROT-al) – pertaining to the scrotum,
perineum and urethra
7. OSCHE- ‘scrotum’
oscheal (OSCHE-al) – pertaining to the scrotum
oscheohydrocele (OSCHE-O-HYDR-O-cele) – swelling (composed of) fluid in the scrotum
oscheitis (OSCHE-itis) – inflammation of the scrotum
8. SEMIN- ‘seed,’ ‘semen,’ ‘seminal fluid’

While technically the meaning of semen is ‘seed,’ its sense has been extended to include seminal fluid, the
secretion which is emitted during ejaculation, whether it contains seed (i.e. sperm) or not.
seminal (SEMIN-al) – pertaining to semen

seminiferous (SEMIN-I-ferous) – carrying seed or seminal fluid
insemination (in-SEMIN-ation) – process of in(-planting) seed, i.e. introduction of semen into
the vagina
9. SPERM- ‘seed,’ ‘semen,’ ‘sperm’

spermicide (SPERM-I-cide) – substance that kills sperm
spermiduct (SPERM-I-duct) – tube (that carries) sperm
oligospermia (OLIG-O-SPERM-ia) – condition of sperm being scanty
In medical terminology, the term spermatozoon (plural spermatozoa) is often preferred over sperm:
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10. ZO- ‘animal,’ ‘living thing’

protozoic (PROT-O-ZO-ic) – pertaining to living things that are primitive, i.e. pertaining to
primitive unicellular organisms
zoogenesis (ZO-O-genesis) – production of living things
You will often find this base at the end of words in the form -zoon, acting like a suffix meaning ‘animal,’
‘living thing’; we will add it to our list of compound suffixes.
11. SPERMAT- ‘spermatozoon,’ ‘semen,’ ‘sperm’

spermatogenesis (SPERMAT-O-genesis) – production of spermatozoa
spermatorrhea (STERMAT-O-rrhea) – (involuntary) discharge of semen
spermaturia (SPERMAT-uria) – condition of the urine that contains semen
12. PEN- ‘penis’

penile (PEN-ile) – pertaining to the penis
You will only rarely come across this base in compound terms; a more commonly used base meaning ‘penis’
is PHALL-:
13. PHALL- ‘penis’

phallic (PHALL-ic) – pertaining to the penis
phallocampsis (PHALL-O-CAMP-sis) – condition of a bent penis (during erection)
phallorrhea (PHALL-O-rrhea) – discharge from the penis
14. BALAN- (i) ‘acorn’: (ii) glans penis

balanoid (BALAN-oid) – resembling an acorn
balanoplasty (BALAN-O-plasty) – surgical reshaping of the glans penis
balanitis (BALAN-itis) – inflammation of the glans penis
Because of some similarity in shape, the rounded head of the penis (the glans penis) was named from the
Greek word for acorn, balanos. The foreskin that covers most of the glans penis is called the prepuce; you
probably could not guess that the base that means ‘prepuce’ or ‘foreskin’ in compound terms is actually
PREPUTI-:
15. PREPUTI- ‘prepuce,’ ‘foreskin’

preputial (PREPUTI-al) – pertaining to the prepuce
parapreputial (para-PREPUTI-al) – pertaining to beside the prepuce
preputiotomy (PREPUTI-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of the foreskin
16. PROSTAT- ‘prostate gland’

prostatocystitis (PROSTAT-O-CYST-itis) – inflammation of the (urinary) bladder and the
prostate gland
prostatorrhea (PROSTAT-O-rrhea) – discharge from the prostate gland
prostatolithotomy (PROSTAT-O-LITH-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of a stone in the prostate
gland, i.e. removal of a calculus in the prostate gland
The prostate is a gland located between the bladder and the penis, and both urine and sperm pass through it;
it secretes a fluid that both nourishes and protects the sperm.
Here are three bases that relate to the act of intercourse:
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17. COIT- ‘sexual intercourse’

postcoital (post-COIT-al) – pertaining to after sexual intercourse
coitophobia (COIT-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of sexual intercourse
This base gives us the most common medical term for intercourse, coitus.
18. VENERE- ‘sexual intercourse’

venereal (VENERE-al) – pertaining to sexual intercourse
This base is derived from the name of the ancient Roman goddess of love, Venus. The term venereal is used
largely about diseases transmitted during sexual intercourse:
VENERE- ‘sexually transmitted’

venereology (VENERE-O-logy) – study of sexually transmitted (diseases)
venereophobia (VENERE-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of sexually transmitted (diseases)
19. PAREUN- ‘sexual intercourse’

pareunia (PAREUN-ia) – act of sexual intercourse
dyspareunia (dys-PAREUN-ia) – condition of painful sexual intercourse

Prostate cancer is, at the moment, one of the most common of cancers amongst men. It can be hard to detect
at an early stage, but it does generally respond very well to treatment. Here are some bases that refer to
cancer and its treatment:
20. CARCIN- (i) ‘crab’: (ii) ‘cancer,’ ‘malignant tumor’

carcinomorphic (CARCIN-O-morphic) – pertaining to the form of a crab
carcinoma (CARCIN-oma) – tumor of cancer (cells)
adenocarcinoma (ADEN-O-CARCIN-oma) – tumor of cancer (cells) in a gland
carcinogenic (CARCIN-O-genic) – producing cancer
carcinectomy (CARCIN-ectomy) – surgical removal of a malignant tumor
Hippocrates was the first to use the Greek word for crab, karkinos, about malignant tumors. Later writers
and physicians suggested various reasons as to what the resemblance was, but we have no record of what
Hippocrates himself thought. Whatever it was, the name stuck, and Roman physicians copied the idea and
used the Latin word for crab for the tumors and the associated disease; you will probably never across this
base with the meaning ‘crab’:
21. CANCER- ‘cancer,’ ‘malignant tumor’

CANCR- ‘cancer,’ ‘malignant tumor’
cancerophobia (CANCER-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of (acquiring) malignant tumors
precancerous (pre-CANCER-ous) – pertaining to before cancer, i.e. pertaining to something
likely to develop into cancer
cancriform (CANCR-I-form) – having the form of a malignant tumor, or of cancer
22. ONC- ‘mass,’ ‘tumor’

oncology (ONC-O-logy) – study of tumors
oncotherapy (ONC-O-therapy) – treatment of tumors
oncogenic (ONC-O-genic) – producing tumors
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Galen preferred the term onkos, literally a ‘mass’ or ‘large body,’ for malignant tumors. You may find this
base at the end of words in the form -oncus, acting like a suffix meaning ‘tumor’ or ‘swelling’:
adenoncus (ADEN-oncus) – swelling of a gland

blepharoncus (BLEPHAR-oncus) – tumor on the eyelid
We will add -oncus to our list of compound suffixes.
23. PHARMAC- ‘drug’

pharmacotherapy (PHARMAC-O-therapy) – treatment by drugs
pharmacology (PHARMAC-O-logy) – study of drugs
24. CHEM- ‘chemical’

chemoserotherapy (CHEM-O-SER-O-therapy) – treatment with serum and chemicals
polychemotherapy (POLY-CHEM-O-therapy) – treatment with many chemicals, i.e. treatment
with varied chemicals
We have now seen two terms for tumors that use the suffix -oma, namely carcinoma and sarcoma. You will
likely come across them at the end of longer compound terms where they indicate the type of tumor
involved, -carcinoma indicating a malignant tumor originating in the epithelial cells, -sarcoma indicating a
malignant tumor originating in cells of the soft tissues. We have also seen the term blastoma, and -blastoma
can, likewise, indicate a malignant tumor, but in this case originating in immature cells. Blastomas generally
occur in infants. We can think of -carcinoma, -sarcoma, and -blastoma as compound suffixes meaning
‘malignant tumor.’ In compound terms, they can indicate the location of the tumor, as in adenocarcinoma,
osteosarcoma, and retinablastoma, or the exact type of cells they are made from, as in fibrocarcinoma,
lymphosarcoma, and lipoblastoma. The suffix -oma generally indicates a non-malignant, or benign, tumor,
but this is not always the case; melanomas, for example, are malignant tumors made up of black or darkly
pigmented cells. Here is one final base to learn for this chapter:
25. TERAT- ‘monster,’ ‘teras,’ ‘malformed’

teratogenic (TERAT-O-genic) – producing a monster, i.e. causing a malformed fetus
teratosis (TERAT-osis) – abnormal condition (resulting in) a malformed (fetus)
teratospermia (TERAT-O-SPERM-ia) – condition of sperm being malformed
A fetus that is grossly malformed may be termed a teras, literally a ‘monster.’ We also find this base used
in oncology:
teratoma (TERAT-oma) – tumor that is a monster, i.e. a tumor made up of diverse tissues
A teratoma is a somewhat bizarre tumor made up of tissues totally unrelated to the organ in which it is
found. Teratomas may be malignant, or non-malignant.
3. -blastoma ‘malignant tumor’

4. -carcinoma ‘malignant tumor’
5. -didymus ‘twin,’ ‘conjoined twins’
6. -oncus ‘tumor,’ ‘swelling’
7. -pagus ‘conjoined twins’
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8. -sarcoma ‘malignant tumor’

9. -zoon ‘animal,’ ‘living thing’
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REVIEW
Prefixes
Suffixes
We did not add any new suffixes to our list.
Compound Suffixes
We did add some new compound suffixes to our list. Remember, it is helpful to memorize all the compound
suffixes because they occur so regularly, but you can also always build them up from their individual base
and suffix parts.
mind:


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31. -aemia, -emia ‘condition of the blood’

37. -blastoma ‘malignant tumor’
38. -carcinoma ‘malignant tumor’
39. -cele ‘hernia,’ ‘protrusion,’ ‘swelling’
40. -coel, -coele ‘cavity’
45. -edema ‘swelling’
48. -haemia, -hemia ‘condition of the blood’
54. -oncus ‘tumor,’ ‘swelling’
61. -sarcoma ‘malignant tumor’
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66. -uria ‘condition of the urine’

72. -arche ‘beginning,’ ‘onset’

76. -didymus ‘twin,’ ‘conjoined twins’
83. -pagus ‘conjoined twins’
92. -zoon ‘animal,’ ‘living thing’
93. -facient ‘making,’ ‘causing’

94. -ferous ‘bearing,’ ‘carrying,’ ‘producing’
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97. -uretic ‘pertaining to urine’


We did not see any totally new forms, but we did see a term that combines two of the oddities we had
previously encountered. The term ileoentectropy (ILE-O-ent-ec-TROP-y) not only has two prefixes, it also
has a base preceding a prefix. But we were able to just use a combination of the methods outlined previously.
Leave the base that precedes the prefixes till last, and treat the remaining prefix-prefix-BASE-suffix in the
normal manner by starting with the suffix, then adding the prefixes (the first prefix followed by the second),
then adding in your base. After all this, add in the base that precedes the prefixes.
We also encountered a number of terms that have two consecutive combining vowels - portobilioarterial
(PORT-O-BIL-I-O-ARTER-ial), mesenteriorrhaphy (MESENTER-I-O-rrhaphy), and mesenteriopexy
(MESENTER-I-O-pexy). Again, they did not really present any problem, since combining vowels do not
add anything to the definition.
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Hips and Legs
Bases
1. ILI- ‘upper hip bone,’ ‘ilium’
iliococcygeal (ILI-O-COCCYG-eal) – pertaining to the coccyx and ilium
iliopagus (ILI-O-pagus) – conjoined twins (fused at the) ilium
sacroiliac (SACR-O-ILI-ac) – pertaining to the ilium and the sacrum
Be careful not to confuse the bases ILE- and ILI-. In the original Latin, the terms ileum and ilium mean
exactly the same, a rather imprecise area somewhere between the abdomen and groin. In modern medical
terminology, the term ileum (as we saw previously) is used about a section of the small intestine; the term
ilium is used about one of the three major bones that make up the hip bone, the other two being the ischium
and the pubis:
2. ISCHI- ‘lower hip bone,’ ‘ischium’

ischialgia (ISCHI-algia) – painful condition of the ischium
ischiothoracopagus (ISCHI-O-THORAC-O-pagus) – conjoined twins (fused at the) thorax and
ischium
ischiovertebral (ISCHI-O-VERTEBR-al) – pertaining to the spine and ischium
The medical term sciatic is actually a corruption on this base; it is, more correctly, ischiatic, i.e. ISCHI-atic
– pertaining to the ischium. Thus, sciatica, a condition involving pain in the hip area that radiates downwards
is, more correctly, ischialgia.
3. PUB- ‘pubic bone,’ ‘pubis,’ ‘pubic hair’

puboprostatic (PUB-O-PROSTAT-ic) – pertaining to the prostate gland and the pubic bone
puborectal (PUB-O-RECT-al) – pertaining to the rectum and the pubic bone
suprapubic (supra-PUB-ic) – pertaining to above the pubic bone
In compound terms, this base almost always refers to the pubic bone, i.e. the pubis, but you may come across
the term pubes (the plural of pubis) meaning the hair that covers the genital regions or, occasionally, the
genitals themselves. Here is one compound term where the meaning of the base is pubic hair:
pubarche (PUB-arche) – onset of the pubic hair, i.e. the beginning of puberty
Remember, we saw the base PUBER-/PUBERT- previously.
Together, the ilium, ischium and pubis make up one hip bone; two hip bones (one left and one right), along
with the sacrum and the coccyx, make up the pelvis, a basin shaped part of the skeleton. We saw the base
PELV- previously, and its original meaning is, in fact, ‘basin’; any basin- or funnel-shaped cavity might be
termed a pelvis, as is the renal pelvis of the kidney that we mentioned earlier.
4. COX- ‘hip bone,’ ‘hip joint,’ ‘coxa’

coxodynia (COX-odynia) – painful condition of the hip joint
coxotomy (COX-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of the hip bone
coxotuberculosis (COX-O-TUBERCUL-osis) – abnormal condition (affecting the) tubercles
of the hip bone
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5. ACETABUL- ‘hip bone socket,’ ‘acetabulum’

acetabular (ACETABUL-ar) – pertaining to the acetabulum
acetabulectomy (ACETABUL-ectomy) – surgical removal of the acetabulum
The acetabulum is the hollow, cuplike cavity in the pelvis into which the head of the thigh bone fits. The
term comes from the Latin word acetabulum that is a shallow cup for holding vinegar – remember the base
ACET- that we saw previously.
6. INGUIN- ‘groin’
inguinal (INGUIN-al) – pertaining to the groin
inguinoscrotal (INGUIN-O-SCROT-al) – pertaining to the scrotum and groin
inguinodynia (INGUIN-odynia) – painful condition of the groin
lumboinguinal (LUMB-O-INGUIN-al) – pertaining to the groin and loin
The term groin generally indicates the area where the thigh meets the trunk of the body.
7. GLUTE- ‘buttocks’
gluteoinguinal (GLUTE-O-INGUIN-al) – pertaining to the groin and buttocks
gluteal (GLUTE-al) – pertaining to the buttocks
8. PYG- ‘buttocks’
pygal (PYG-al) – pertaining to the buttocks
pygopagus (PYG-O-pagus) – conjoined twins (attached at the) buttocks
steatopygia (STEAT-O-PYG-ia) – condition of (excessive) fat in the buttocks
Clunes and nates are two Latin terms used for the buttocks, but you will rarely see either of their bases used
in compound terms.
9. FEMOR- ‘thigh,’ ‘femur’

femoral (FEMOR-al) – pertaining to the thigh or femur
inguinofemoral (INGUIN-O-FEMOR-al) – pertaining to the femur, or thigh, and the groin
The femur, the longest and strongest bone in the human body, is the only bone within the thigh; sometimes
the base FEMOR- refers to the bone itself, sometimes to the thigh (which is its original meaning).
10. TROCHANTER- ‘trochanter’

subtrochanteric (sub-TROCHANTER-ic) – pertaining to below a trochanter
trochanterian (TROCHANTER-ian) – pertaining to a trochanter
trochanterplasty (TROCHANTER-plasty) – surgical reshaping of the trochanter
trochanteritis (TROCHANTER-itis) – inflammation of the trochanter
Just below the head of the femur (the head is the part that engages with the acetabulum in the pelvis) are
two bony projections to which muscles attach; these are the greater (i.e. the bigger) and lesser (i.e. smaller)
trochanters.
11. CRUR- ‘thigh,’ ‘leg,’ ‘crus’

brachiocrural (BRACHI-O-CRUR-al) – pertaining to leg and arm
intercrural (inter-CRUR-al) – pertaining to between the thighs
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Crus (plural crura) is generally a medical term used for the leg, or a part of the leg, but it can sometimes be
used for a structure that resembles a leg, like a crest or ridge:
crural (CRUR-al) – pertaining to a crus
12. SCEL- ‘leg’

SKEL- ‘leg’
scelalgia (SCEL-algia) – painful condition of the leg
macroskelia (MACR-O-SKEL-ia) – condition of the legs that are (abnormally) large
skelasthenia (SKEL-asthenia) – weakness of the legs
You will see come across both spellings of this base. It is not related to the term ‘skeleton,’ which actually
comes from the Greek word skeletos meaning ‘dried up,’ or ‘withered.’
13. GON- ‘knee’

gonarthrotomy (GON-ARTHR-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of the joint in the knee
gonocampsis (GON-O-CAMP-sis) – condition of (permanently) bent knee
gonarthritis (GON-ARTHR-itis) – inflammation of the joint in the knee
Remember, we have already seen the base GON- meaning ‘seed’; luckily, the meanings of the two bases
are sufficiently different that the other parts of the compound term usually give a good indication of which
base is being used.
14. GEN- ‘knee’

genual (GEN-U-al) – pertaining to the knee
genupectoral (GEN-U-PECTOR-al) – pertaining to the chest and knee, i.e. relating to a position
resting face forward on knees and upper chest
genucubital (GEN-U-CUBIT-al) – pertaining to the elbow and knee, i.e. relating to a position
resting face forward on knees and elbows
geniculum (GEN-I-culum) – a small knee, i.e. a small knee-like structure, one that has a bend
in it like the knee joint
Again, we have already seen a base with an identical form, GEN- meaning ‘to produce.’ GEN- meaning
‘knee,’ however, is almost always followed by the combining vowel ‘u.’ In fact, the term genu (plural genua)
is sometimes used in medical terminology for the knee, or for a knee-like structure. The term geniculum
(plural genicula) is used about a small genu, or a small knee-like structure such as a sharp bend in an organ
or nerve; we can think of GENICUL- as a base:
15. GENICUL- ‘geniculum’

genicular (GENICUL-ar) – pertaining to a geniculum
geniculated (GENICUL-ated) – having a geniculum
16. POPLIT- ‘back of the knee’

popliteal (POPLIT-eal) – pertaining to the back of the knee
suprapopliteal (supra-POPLIT-eal) – pertaining to above the back of the knee
subpopliteal (sub-POPLIT-eal) – pertaining to below the back of the knee
The poples is a region at the back of the knee, but you will rarely come across the term.
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17. PATELL- ‘kneecap,’ ‘patella’

patellalgia (PATELL-algia) – painful condition of the kneecap
postpatellar (post-PATELL-ar) – pertaining to behind the kneecap
infrapatellar (infra-PATELL-ar) – pertaining to below the kneecap
The patella is a triangular bone that covers the surface of the knee joint. The original Latin term patella
means ‘small dish’ or ‘small pan’ (remember the suffix -ella meaning ‘small’); the underside of the patella
bone is slightly concave, so it (sort of) resembles a small dish.
18. MENISC- ‘crescent-shaped,’ ‘meniscus’

meniscopexy (MENISC-O-pexy) – surgical fastening of the meniscus
meniscotome (MENISC-O-tome) – instrument used to cut a meniscus
meniscocyte (MENISC-O-cyte) – cell that is crescent-shaped, i.e. another term for
drepanocyte, the sickle-shaped cell that is characteristic of sickle-cell anaemia
A meniscus (plural menisci) is a crescent-shaped structure; the term is linked to the Greek term for ‘small
moon,’ that is the moon when it is in its crescent form and not a full moon. In the knee, there are two menisci,
crescent-shaped pieces of cartilage that disperse friction in the knee joint. Menisci are also present in joints
related to the jaw, wrist and collar bone.
19. TIBI- ‘shin bone,’ ‘tibia’

pretibial (pre-TIBI-al) – pertaining to in front of the shin bone
tibiad (TIBI-ad) – toward the tibia
tibiofemoral (TIBI-O-FEMOR-al) – pertaining to the femur and the tibia
The tibia is the larger of the two bones in the lower leg; it is a weight-bearing bone.
20. FIBUL- ‘fibula’

fibular (FIBUL-ar) – pertaining to the fibula
tibiofibular (TIBI-O-FIBUL-ar) – pertaining to the fibula and tibia
The fibula is the more slender of the two bones in the lower leg; it does not bear any weight. While the tibia
had its name in Roman times, the fibula was only called this much later. In Latin, fibula means ‘fastening’
or ‘clasp,’ a sort of safety pin used to hold clothes in position; because the tibia and the fibula together look
like a fastening device, the fibula was later given this name. The name for this bone in Latin is sura; it also
means ‘calf of the leg,’ and you may occasionally come across the term sural meaning ‘pertaining to the
calf of the leg,’ but you are unlikely to see the base SUR- in any other compound terms.
21. CNEM- ‘leg,’ ‘lower leg’

KNEM- ‘leg,’ ‘lower leg’
cnemial (CNEM-ial) – pertaining to the lower leg
brachycnemia (BRACHY-CNEM-ia) – condition of the lower legs that are (abnormally) short
aknemia (a-KNEM-ia) – condition of without legs or lower legs, i.e. congenital absence of
either the entire leg, or the lower leg
You will see this base with both spellings. Its original meaning relates to the armor that a Greek soldier
wore to protect his lower legs, whether leather leggings or metal greaves. Aknemia (or, acnemia) can also
mean the loss of the musculature of the lower legs. You will come across this base in what seems like an
unusual combination, gastrocnemius. This is the name for the muscle in the calf of the leg; because of its
bulging, stomach-like shape, it got the name that it did.
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Here are some new bases to learn; they do not really relate to hips and legs, other than people often complain
of ‘their legs going to sleep’:
22. HYPN- ‘sleep’

ahypnia (a-HYPN-ia) – condition of without sleep, i.e. a prolonged state without sleep
hypnotherapy (HYPN-O-therapy) – treatment by (prolonged) sleep
hypnagogue (HYPN-agogue) – stimulating sleep
hypnosis (HYPN-osis) – abnormal condition of sleep
The term hypnosis has taken on the special meaning of an intentionally induced, sleep-like state; you may
have to rely on context to decide which meaning for HYPN- is intended:
23. HYPN- ‘hypnosis’

HYPNOT- ‘hypnosis’
hypnotherapy (HYPN-O-therapy) – treatment by hypnosis
hypnodontics (HYPN-ODONT-ics) – science of (treating) teeth along with hypnosis (of the
patient), i.e. hypnosis in the practice of dentistry
hypnotic (HYPNOT-ic) – pertaining to hypnosis
24. SOMN- ‘sleep’

somnifacient (SOMN-I-facient) – causing sleep
somnipathy (SOMN-I-pathy) – disease of sleep, i.e. a sleep disorder
somniloquist (SOMN-I-LOQU-ist) – person who speaks during sleep
insomnia (in-SOMN-ia) – condition of not sleeping
25. NARC- ‘numbness,’ ‘stupor’

narcolepsy (NARC-O-lepsy) – seizure by stupor or numbness
narcotic (NARC-O-tic) – pertaining to the condition of stupor, i.e. a substance that can induce
a state of stupor
encephalonarcosis (ENCEPHAL-O-NARC-osis) – abnormal condition of stupor (caused by)
brain (disease)
26. ONEIR- ‘dream’

oneiric (ONEIR-ic) – pertaining to dreams
oneirodynia (ONEIR-odynia) – painful condition (pertaining to) a dream, i.e. a nightmare
oneirologist (ONEIR-O-logist) – one who studies dreams
27. NYCT- ‘night’

nycturia (NYCT-uria) – condition of the urine (being passed frequently) at night
nyctophobia (NYCT-O-phobia) – abnormal fear of the night (or darkness)
nyctanopia (NYCT-an-OP-ia) – condition of non-sight at night, i.e. night blindness
Because the term nyctanopia has a prefix preceded by a base, it is actually easier to treat the base OP- and
the suffix -ia separately here, rather than as the compound suffix -opia (‘condition of non-sight’ rather than
‘condition of sight – non’).
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Feet and Toes
Bases
1. TARS- ‘ankle,’ ‘edge of the eyelid,’ ‘tarsus’
A tarsus, in medical terminology, is a flat surface; most commonly the term refers to the ankle (linking the
leg to the flat surface of the foot), but the edge of the eyelid is also a tarsus. Sometimes it will be evident
which tarsus is meant, sometimes not; you may have to rely on context to help you.
tarsotomy (TARS-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of a tarsus

tarsophalangeal (TARS-O-PHALANG-eal) – pertaining to the toe bones and the ankle
tarsoclasia (TARS-O-clasia) – surgical fracture of the ankle (to aid correction)
tarsorrhaphy (TARS-O-rrhaphy) – surgical suture of the eyelid, i.e. blepharorrhaphy
metatarsal (meta-TARS-al) – pertaining to after the ankle, i.e. pertaining to between the ankle
and the toes
Five metatarsal bones extend from the ankle, one to the base of each of the toes. The tarsus of the ankle is
actually made up of a group of bones, the talus, calcaneus, navicular and cuboid, and three cuneiform bones.
2. TAL- ‘ankle,’ ‘heel,’ ‘talus’

talar (TAL-ar) – pertaining to the talus
talalgia (TAL-algia) – painful condition of the heel or ankle
talofibular (TAL-O-FIBUL-ar) – pertaining to the fibula and talus
The talus is the second largest of the bones in the ankle (the largest is the calcaneus); it articulates with the
tibia and fibula. While the meaning talus is quite precise, the meanings ‘ankle’ and ‘heel’ are fairly vague
everyday terms. An older term for the talus is astragalus; you may still come across it:
3. ASTRAGAL- ‘astragalus,’ ‘talus’

astragalotibial (ASTRAGAL-O-TIBI-al) – pertaining to the tibia and the talus
astragalectomy (ASTRAGAL-ectomy) – surgical removal of the talus
4. CALCANE- ‘heel,’ ‘calcaneus’

calcaneal (CALCANE-al) – pertaining to the calcaneus
calcaneodynia (CALCANE-odynia) – painful condition of the heel
astragalocalcanean (ASTRAGAL-O-CALCANE-an) – pertaining to the calcaneus and the
talus
The smaller bones of the ankle take their names from their shape:
5. NAVICUL- ‘boat’
navicular (NAVICUL-ar) – like a boat
6. CUB- ‘cube’
cuboid (CUB-oid) – like a cube
7. CUNE- ‘wedge’
cuneiform (CUNE-I-form) – like a wedge
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So, the navicular bone is boat-shaped (it was, at one time, called the scaphoid bone – remember we have
already seen the base SCAPH- meaning ‘boat-shaped’), the cuboid bone is cube-shaped, and the three
cuneiform bones are wedge-shaped (we have also seen the base SPHEN- meaning ‘wedge). Be careful not
to confuse CUB-, ‘to lie down,’ with CUB-, ‘cube.’
Compound terms relating to these bones do not always follow the rules that we have been using;
cuneocuboid, for example, is used to mean ‘pertaining to the cuboid and cuneiform bones.’ You will also
come across terms such as cuneonavicular and cuboideonavicular. But, they are generally easy to recognise
and figure out.
8. POD- ‘foot’
-PUS ‘foot’
podiatry (POD-iatry) – medical treatment for the feet
brachypodous (BRACHY-POD-ous) – having (abnormally) short feet
podagra (POD-agra) – painful seizure in the foot, i.e. especially the pain in the big toe
associated with gout
The form -PUS only occurs at the end of words, so it does not form compound terms of the type we are
looking at here. You will find it in nouns such as octopus (‘eight feet’) and, in medical terminology, in a
group of nouns that describe the developmental anomalies associated with legs and/or feet that are fused
together – sympus (‘together feet’ i.e. the feet as well as the legs are fused), apus (‘without feet’), monopus
(‘one foot’), and dipus (‘two feet’).
We came across the following base previously; remember, only the North American spelling of this base
has the alternate meaning ‘foot’:
9. PAED- ‘child’
PED- (i) ‘child’: (ii) ‘foot’
bipedal (BI-PED-al) – pertaining to the feet - two of them
carpopedal (CARP-O-PED-al) – pertaining to the feet and wrists
pedorthics (PED-ORTH-ics) – science of correction for feet, i.e. use of appliances and modified
footwear to alleviate foot and lower-limb problems
10. PLANT- ‘sole of the foot’

plantar (PLANT-ar) – pertaining to the sole of the foot
plantalgia (PLANT-algia) – painful condition of the sole of the foot
Plantar fasciitis (PLANT-ar FASCI-itis) is an inflammation of the fascia, the thick band of tissue, in the sole
of the foot.
We have already met these bases that relate to the toes when we looked at fingers; DIGIT-, DACTYL-, and
PHALANG-. Just as there is a special name for the thumb, there is also a special name for the big toe, the
hallux (plural halluces):
11. HALLUC- ‘big toe,’ hallux’

hallucal (HALLUC-al) – pertaining to the big toe
subhallucal (sub-HALLUC-al) – pertaining to the underneath (surface of the) hallux (bones)

Here is our final set of bases to learn:
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12. PRUR- ‘itching’

PRURIT- ‘itching’
prurient (PRUR-I-ent) – pertaining to an itch
pruritic (PRURIT-ic) – pertaining to an itch, pertaining to pruritus
antipruritic (anti-PRURIT-ic) – pertaining to (working) against itching
pruritogenic (PRURIT-O-genic) – producing itching
We get the medical terms pruritus (an intense itch) and prurigo (a chronic itchy skin condition) from these
bases. The term prurient is not really a medical term; it often has the meaning of ‘pertaining to a mental
itch’ for something, i.e. pertaining to a longing or lust for someone or something.
13. PSOR- ‘itching,’ ‘itchy patches,’ ‘scaly patches’

antipsoric (anti-PSOR-ic) – pertaining to (working) against itching
psoriasis (PSOR-iasis) – abnormal condition of scaly patches, i.e. a condition characterized by
scaly patches on the skin
psorophthalmia (PSOR-OPHTHALM-ia) – condition of the eye, or eyelid, (characterized by)
itching
14. SCAB- ‘itching,’ ‘scabies’

SCABR- ‘itchy patches,’ ‘scaly patches,’ ‘rough patches’
scabicide (SCAB-I-cide) – substance that kills scabies(-causing mites)
scabious (SCAB-ious) – pertaining to scabies
scabrous (SCABR-ous) – having rough, itchy or scaly patches
scabrid (SCABR-id) – having rough patches
The infection scabies, a highly contagious skin disease, is due to an infestation by certain mites; it is
characterized by an itchy rash.
15. CICATR- ‘scar,’ ‘cicatrix’

CICATRIC- ‘scar,’ ‘cicatrix’
cicatrectomy (CICATR-ectomy) – surgical removal of a scar
cicatrization (CICATR-ization) – process of making a scar
cicatricial (CICATRIC-ial) – pertaining to a scar
cicatricotomy (CICATRIC-O-tomy) – surgical cutting of a scar.
The medical term for a scar is cicatrix (plural cicatrices). You may occasionally come across an alternative
base meaning ‘scar,’ although it is somewhat outdated:
16. UL- ‘scar’

uloid (UL-oid) – resembling a scar
ulodermatititis (UL-O-DERMAT-itis) – inflammation of the skin (resulting in the formation
of) scars
ulerythema (UL-ERYTH-ema) – condition of reddening (of the skin resulting in the formation
of) scars
17. MACUL- ‘spot,’ ‘macula’

macular (MACUL-ar) – pertaining to maculae
maculoerythema (MACUL-O-ERYTH-ema) – condition of reddening (of the skin
characterized by) maculae
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maculation (MACUL-ation) – process of maculae (formation)
A macula (plural maculae) is a small, discoloured, flat spot on the skin, or an area of tissue that is markedly
different from the surrounding tissue.
18. NAEV- ‘mole,’ ‘birthmark,’ ‘nevus’

NEV- ‘mole,’ ‘birthmark,’ ‘nevus’
nevoid (NEV-oid) – resembling a nevus
naevomelanoma (NAEV-O-MELAN-oma) – tumor (that appears as a) black mole
nevoxanthoendothelioma (NEV-O-XANTH-O-endo-THEL-I-oma) – tumor (arising from an)
inside cellular layer (that presents as) a yellow mole, i.e. a yellowish-brown mole that
originates from the endothelium
Nevus (or, naevus in British spelling) is the medical term for a mole, or birthmark. As we mentioned
previously, melanomas are malignant tumors made up of black or darkly pigmented cells; an endothelioma
is generally a benign tumor that originates in the endothelial layer of tissue that lines many vessels in the
body, and the heart. Note how, in the term nevoxanthoendothelioma, two bases precede the prefix; we can
still use the method, however, that we outlined previously for terms where one base precedes the prefix.
19. PAPUL- ‘papule,’ ‘pimple’

papular (PAPUL-ar) – pertaining to papules
maculopapular (MACUL-O-PAPUL-ar) – pertaining to papules and maculae, i.e. pertaining to
a skin condition marked by both papules and maculae
papulosis (PAPUL-osis) – abnormal condition of (numerous) papules
Papules are small, solid, red bumps on the skin.
20. PUSTUL- ‘pustule,’ ‘pimple’

pustulation (PUSTUL-ation) – process (of forming) pustules
papulopustular (PAPUL-O-PUSTUL-ar) – pertaining to (an eruption of both) pustules and
papules
pustuliform (PUSTUL-I-form) – having the form of a pustule
Pustules are small bumps on the skin that contain pus.
21. TRAUM- ‘wound,’ ‘injury,’ ‘trauma’

TRAUMAT- ‘wound,’ ‘injury,’ ‘trauma’
traumasthenia (TRAUM-asthenia) – weakness (caused through) trauma
traumatopnea (TRAUMAT-O-pnea) – breathing (through) a wound, i.e. air passing through a
wound in the chest
atraumatic (a-TRAUMAT-ic) – pertaining to without injury, i.e. pertaining to a procedure
causing minimal injury
Trauma may be either a physical or mental injury. This is the last of the bases that you have to learn; seems
like a fitting one.
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Greek and Latin Terminology: Singular and Plural Nouns
We have now have completed our journey through the body from head to toe. Back in the first chapter, we
noted that medical terminology falls basically into three types:
i) Greek and Latin terms that entered the English language in an anglicized form so long ago that we
have ceased to think of them as foreign terms,
ii) Greek and Latin terms that entered the English language in their original form, and
iii) compound terms that were systematically devised from Greek and Latin.
We said that the first type should pose little difficulty, at least for English speakers, and we have now looked
extensively at the third type, seeing how prefixes, bases and suffixes combine to create thousands of terms.
We will spend the remaining chapters looking briefly at the second type.
All of the bases we have looked at are derived from Greek and Latin; they are modified nouns (‘things’),
adjectives (‘describing’ words), or verbs (‘doing’ words), with their endings missing. Many of the nouns,
and some of the adjectives, also made their way into medical terminology in their original form. Some we
mentioned in passing as we encountered their bases, some we did not. Below is a useful reference list for
all the important nouns related to the bases we have learned, along with the chapter numbers in which we
met their bases. Almost all of them relate to anatomical features. Some have everyday, non-medical
counterparts, some do not and I have listed a definition type equivalent.
Because these nouns were introduced into medical terminology in their original forms from Greek and Latin,
the way that they form their plurals was also incorporated into medical terminology. You need to be able to
form and recognize the plurals. A lot of the nouns can be grouped together according to their final letters,
and this dictates how the plurals are formed - students of Greek and Latin will recognise these groups as
declensions.
(i) Nouns that end in –a

For nouns that end in –a, replace the –a with –ae. Memorize this rule, and an example that will help you
remember it.
cauda caudae tail 2

corona coronae crown-like structure 2
medulla medullae innermost part 4
sclera sclerae coating of the eyeball 5
cornea cornea transparent layer of the eyeball 5
retina retinae light-sensitive layer of the eyeball 5
trochlea trochleae pulley-shaped structure 5
auricula auriculae outer ear 6
pinna pinnae outer ear, feather, wing 6
fossa fossae small depression, hollow 6
concha conchae sea-shell-shaped structure 6
cochlea cochleae snail-shell-shaped structure 6
ampulla ampullae flask-shaped structure 6
ala alae wing, wing of a structure 7
papilla papillae nipple 8
maxilla maxillae upper jaw bone 8
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mandibula mandibulae lower jaw bone 8

gingiva gingivae gum 8
clavicula claviculae collar bone 9
scapula scapulae shoulder blade 10
ulna ulnae bone of the lower arm 10
fascia fasciae sheet of connective tissue 10
lamina laminae thin plate or layer 10
lamella lamellae thin plate or layer 10
crista cristae crest, elevated ridge 10
spina spinae spine, thorn 10
palma palmae palm of the hand 11
vertebra vertebrae bone of the spinal column 12
mamma mammae breast 12
theca thecae cover, sheath 12
bursa bursae fluid-filled sac 12
trachea tracheae windpipe 13
pleura pleurae membrane surrounding the lung 13
aorta aortae main artery of the body 14
arteria arteriae artery 14
vena venae vein 14
fenestra fenestrae opening 14
plica plicae folded structure 17
stria striae groove, band, or stripe 17
vesica vesicae bladder 18
vesicula vesiculae small bladder 18
vagina vaginae canal from womb to external genitals 19
vulva vulvae external female genitals 19
coxa coxae hip 21
patella patellae kneecap 21
tibia tibiae shin bone 21
fibula fibulae shin bone 21
macula maculae spot 22
There is a special group of nouns ending in –a, the nouns that end in –ma
For nouns that end in –ma, replace the –ma with –mata. Memorize this rule, and an example that will help
you remember it.
soma somata body 2

stoma stomata mouth, opening 7
(o)edema (o)edemata swelling 10
diaphragma diaphragmata diaphragm 10
carcinoma carcinomata malignant tumor 20
blastoma blastomata malignant tumor 20
sarcoma sarcomata malignant tumor 20
trauma traumata wound, injury 22
The English language often makes plural nouns by adding an ‘s.’ Because it is easy to add an ‘s’ to the
Greek and Latin nouns that end in –a or –ma, you will find that plurals such as retinas, corneas, fibulas,
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carcinomas, for example, are becoming more common and more acceptable. You will find this is especially
true in spoken medical language, while written scientific reports do often use the grammatically more correct
form.
(ii) Nouns that end in –us

For nouns that end in –us, replace the –us with –i. Memorize this rule, and an example that will help you
remember it.
thalamus thalami structure within the forebrain 3

gyrus gyri fold in the surface of the brain 3
sulcus sulci groove in the surface of the brain 3
oculus oculi eye 5
canaliculus canaliculi small canal or channel 6
ramus rami branch of a structure 8
humerus humeri upper arm bone 10
radius radii bone of the lower arm 10
cubitus cubiti elbow, forearm 10
musculus musculi muscle 10
carpus carpi wrist 11
dactylus dactyli finger, toe 11
digitus digiti finger, toe 11
arcus arci structure shaped like a bow 12
bronchus bronchi airway 13
bronchiolus bronchioli small airway 13
alveolus alveoli cavity 13
thrombus thrombi clot 14
embolus emboli plug, stopper 14
bacillus bacilli rod-shaped microorganism 15
coccus cocci berry-shaped microorganism 15
fungus fungi yeast or mould 15
(o)esophagus (o)esophagi gullet between throat and stomach 16
umbilicus umbilici navel 16
pylorus pylori muscular device that opens and closes 16
fundus fundi lowest part of an organ 16
villus villi hair-like projection 17
glomerulus glomeruli ball-shaped structure in the body 18
uterus uteri womb 19
meniscus menisci crescent-shaped structure in the body 21
tarsus tarsi ankle, eyelid 22
talus tali ankle, heel 22
calcaneus calcanei heel 22
nevus nevi mole, birthmark 22
(iii) Nouns that end in –um

For nouns that end in –um, replace the –um with –a. Memorize this rule, and an example that will help you
remember it.
dorsum dorsa back, back part 2
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cranium crania skull 3

cerebrum cerebra principal part of the brain 3
cerebellum cerebella area of the hindbrain 3
thelium thelia nipple, cellular layer 4
tympanum tympana ear drum 6
septum septa dividing wall 7
labium labia lip, lip-like structure 8
frenum frena connecting fold limiting movement 8
frenulum frenula small connecting fold limiting movement 8
trapezium trapezia structure with a trapezium shape 10
brachium brachia arm, arm-like structure 10
sternum sterna breast bone 12
sacrum sacra bone at the base of the spine 12
atrium atria chamber of the heart 14
serum sera watery fluid 14
bacterium bacteria microorganism 15
peritoneum peritonea membrane in the abdomen 17
omentum omenta membrane in the abdomen 17
duodenum duodena part of the small intestine 17
c(a)ecum c(a)eca blind-ended structure 17
diverticulum diverticula small pouch or pocket 17
rectum recta lower portion of the intestinal tract 17
ovum ova egg 19
perineum perinea area between anus and vulva/scrotum 19
scrotum scrota pouch that holds the testes 20
ilium ilia hip 21
ischium ischia lower hip bone 21
acetabulum acetabula hip bone socket 21
geniculum genicula knee-like structure 21
(iv) Nouns that end in –ex or -ix

For nouns that end in –ex or –ix, replace the –ex or –ix with –ices. Memorize this rule, and an example that
will help you remember it.
cortex cortices outer layer 4

helix helices spiral 6
cervix cervices neck, neck-like structure 8
pollex pollices thumb 11
apex apices tip of a structure 12
radix radices root 12
appendix appendices structure hanging from another structure 17
calix calices cup-shaped structure in the body 18
cicatrix cicatrices scar 22
Here are two nouns that form their plurals in a similar way: memorize them.
thorax thoraces chest 12

hallux halluces big toe 22
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You may also come across English-type plurals that are becoming more acceptable (for example, cortexes,
helixes, and cervixes).
(v) Nouns that end in –nx

For nouns that end in –nx, replace the –nx with –nges. Memorize this rule, and an example that will help
you remember it.
meninx meninges membrane 2

pharynx pharynges throat 9
larynx larynges voice-box 9
phalanx phalanges finger bone, toe bone 11
salpinx salpinges tube 19
Here is a noun that forms its plural in a similar way: memorize it.
coccyx coccyges tail bone 12
(vi) Nouns that end in –on

For nouns that end in –on, replace the –on with –a. Memorize this rule, and an example that will help you
remember it.
acromion acromia bony projection on the shoulder blade 10

ganglion ganglia swelling 12
enteron entera intestine 17
There are exceptions to these rules, and some oddities: use these lists for reference, you do not need
to memorize the entries.
(i) Exceptions amongst the nouns that end in –us

Ones that replace the –us with –era, –ora, or –ura:
latus latera side 2

tempus tempora temple (on the head) 2
corpus corpora body 2
viscus viscera internal organ 16
glomus glomera ball-shaped structure in the body 18
crus crura thigh, leg 21
Ones that add –es to the ending (this is an English-type plural that has become acceptable – for some of the
terms, you may occasionally see the grammatically correct plural which looks identical to the singular):
meatus meatuses (meatus) passageway, channel 6

sinus sinuses (sinus) hollow cavity 7
virus viruses microorganism 15
plexus plexuses (plexus) network of nerves and blood vessels 17
anus anuses (anus) lower opening of the intestinal tract 17
fetus fetuses (fetus) offspring 19
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(ii) Nouns that end in –is

Some of the nouns that end in –is are Greek, and some are Latin; they form their plurals in different ways.
For these nouns that end in –is, replace the –is with –es.
naris nares nostril 7

axis axes central line, second of the vertebrae 12
sepsis sepses presence of toxins in the tissues or blood 15
testis testes male reproductive gland 20
pubis pubes pubic hair, genitals 21
For these nouns that end in –is, replace the –is with –ides.
iris irides colored portion of the eye 5
glottis glottides mouth of the windpipe 9
clitoris clitorides erectile part of the female genitals 19
epididymis epididymides coiled tube on top of the testis 20
(iii) Common nouns that do not fall into any of the categories
facies facies face, surface 2
psychosis psychoses abnormal condition of the mind 3
os ossa bone 6
os ora mouth 8
caput capita head 10
foramen foramina opening 12
pons pontes bridge of tissue 12
pancreas pancreata gland in the abdomen 15
teras terata deformed fetus 20
femur femora thigh 21
genu genua knee 21
didymus didymoi testis 20
orchis orchises testis 20
Note that any noun that ends in the suffix –osis (neurosis, for example) forms its plural by replacing the –
osis with –oses.
This chapter introduced us to quite a number of Greek and Latin nouns in their original form. We had already
met their related bases, so most of the meanings should have been fairly familiar. We also learned that we
had to obey Greek and Latin grammar to form the plurals of these nouns. We saw that many of the nouns
fall nicely into groups that have a simple rule to help us do this.
In whatever area of medicine you go on to study, or in your everyday reading of news topics, or just in
regular conversation, you will probably come across some of the terms we have just looked at, both their
singular and plural forms.
The terminology we are going to look at in the final couple of chapters, however, is more specialized.
Depending on what area of study you continue with, you may, or may not, encounter it. But, at the very
least, it is a good idea to be aware of its existence and to have a basic understanding of it. I just want to
make a couple of points before we take a deep breath and plunge in.
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Anatomical Terminology
i) Back in the first chapter, we said that Greek especially was the vehicle for the systematically
developed compound terms, while Latin largely provided the basis for a new anatomical
nomenclature. This is the area that we are going to look at, Latin anatomical terminology, so all of
the terms from now on are Latin, and they all relate to describing anatomical features.
ii) Many of the terms are not single word terms of the sort we have seen so far; they are phrases, that
is groups of two, three, four, maybe even five words, that are the Latin equivalent of, for example,
‘the descending artery of the knee,’ or ‘the elevator muscle of the upper lip.’
iii) By the end of the nineteenth century, the system of Latin anatomical terminology was in a bit of a
mess because of regional differences, and there was a move to create an international standard
version. This led to the creation of something called the Nomina Anatomica (‘Anatomical Names’),
a standard often referred to by the abbreviation NA. In turn, the NA was replaced at the end of the
twentieth century by a new standard version, the Terminologia Anatomica (‘Anatomical
Terminology’), or TA. Both NA and TA include English equivalents for the Latin terms (NA is also
available in other languages) and you will find many scholarly books and journals that prefer to use
English equivalents like ‘the descending artery of the knee’ rather than the Latin forms. But, equally,
you will find many scholarly journals and books that prefer the Latin terminology, and you should
have some understanding of it, even if it is just enough for you to be able to look up terms effectively
in a medical dictionary.
iv) Since the terms come from the Latin language, the rules of Latin grammar have to be applied and
obeyed, and a thorough understanding of the material requires a decent grasp of some Latin
grammar. Some of you might have this, many of you will not, so we are not going to aim for a
‘thorough understanding,’ we will be happy with getting a basic understanding, one that you can
build on in the future if you need or desire to.
So, deep breath….
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Latin Anatomical Terminology
Suppose you came across a statement like this: “While playing golf, Mr. Smith suffered intense pain in the
musculus extensor carpi radialis longus.” Or, “Mrs. Jones suffered a blockage in the arteria cervicalis
ascendens.” What would you make of either of them? You might (now that we have seen them in the
previous chapter) recognise ‘musculus’ and ‘arteria,’ but as to the other words, ‘radialis’ and ‘cervicalis’
look familiar, but the others we don’t recognize at all, so what is going on? Both musculus extensor carpi
radialis longus and arteria cervicalis ascendens are examples of the Latin anatomical terminology that fills
the pages of NA and TA and many scholarly journals (remember, NA is the Nomina Anatomica, TA is the
Terminologia Anatomica); musculus extensor carpi radialis longus is the Latin name of one very specific
muscle, while arteria cervicalis ascendens is the Latin name of one very specific artery. We have already
seen that musculus and arteria are nouns; the remainder of the terms are made up from other grammatical
parts – participles, adjectives, and nouns of a special sort, namely nouns in the genitive case. Let’s look at
these three grammatical parts.
Nouns in the Genitive Case

What on earth does this mean? We have already seen a number of Greek and Latin nouns (‘things’) in the
previous chapter. All of these nouns are in what is grammatically called the nominative case – this is the
form they appear in when they are the subject of a sentence. Well, suppose we want to know the Latin terms
that distinguish between the ‘biceps muscle of the arm’ and the ‘biceps muscle of the thigh.’ We saw the
term biceps in Chapter 10, meaning a ‘two headed (muscle),’ and now we have seen the terms brachium,
meaning ‘arm,’ and femur, meaning ‘thigh.’ But how do we say ‘of the arm,’ rather than just ‘arm,’ or ‘of
the thigh,’ rather than just ‘thigh’? Well, we use the genitive (sometimes called the possessive) case.
In English, we generally indicate the genitive case by adding ‘apostrophe s’ to the end of a word, as in ‘the
day’s end,’ ‘George’s smile,’ or ‘the cat’s pyjamas.’ Something similar happens in Latin, but the changes
that happen at the end of a word are more variable and we cannot go into the rules that dictate them here.
But, so that you can see how these genitive forms are used, here is a list of the some common nouns with
their genitive forms (and the meaning of the genitive form). Memorize them. When we translate the Latin
anatomical terms, we use the English forms:
caput head capitis of the head

cerebellum cerebellum cerebelli of the cerebellum
nasum nose nasi of the nose
labium lip labii of the lip
scapula shoulder blade scapulae of the shoulder blade
brachium arm brachii of the arm
carpus wrist carpi of the wrist
digitus finger/toe digiti of the finger/toe
digiti fingers/toes digitorum of the fingers/toes
femur thigh femoris of the thigh
pes foot pedis of the foot
hallux big toe hallucis of the big toe
With the exception of digiti/digitorum, all of these nouns are in the singular; all plural nouns have their own
specific genitive forms, but we will not look at them here.
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So to come back to our original question, the ‘biceps muscle of the arm’ is the musculus biceps brachii
(often shortened to just biceps brachii), while the ‘biceps muscle of the thigh’ is the musculus biceps femoris
(shortened to biceps femoris).
You will also find these genitive forms used in terms such as extensor carpi, ‘extensor of the wrist,’ that is
a muscle that is responsible for extending or stretching out the wrist. So now we at least know that Mr.
Smith’s problem was in the extensor muscle of his wrist (musculus extensor carpi), even if radialis longus
is still a mystery to us.
We mentioned the types of muscle responsible for certain types of movement back in Chapters 10 and 11.
Here they are again:
flexor (FLEX-or) i.e. muscle that bends a body part

extensor (ex-TENS-or) i.e. muscle that extends or stretches out a body part
abductor (ab-DUCT-or) i.e. muscle that draws body part away from the midline
adductor (ad-DUCT-or) i.e. muscle that draws body part toward the midline
supinator (SUPIN-ator) i.e. muscle that turns a body part to the supine position
pronator (PRON-ator) i.e. muscle that turns a body part to the prone position
We can add two other types to this list which we did not discuss:
depressor (de-PRESS-or) i.e. muscle that lowers a body part

levator (LEV-ator) i.e. muscle that raises a body part
This base LEV-, which we have not looked at previously, means ‘raise’; it is not the same as the base LAEV-
/LEV- that we met earlier that means ‘left.’
So you may meet terms describing muscles as, for example, flexor carpi, or levator labii. Memorize the
anatomical terms for the muscle functional types, and memorize what that anatomical term means. When
we translate the Latin anatomical terms, we keep the terms flexor, extensor etc.
You will come across the genitive forms of nouns in many terms, not just ones related to muscles. In the
circulatory system, for example, the arteria nasi is an artery of the nose.
Adjectives
We said previously that some adjectives (‘describing’ words) as well as nouns made their way into medical
terminology in their original form. Remember the bases LONG- (‘long’) and BREV- (‘short’) and MAGN-
(‘large/great’) from Chapter 11. These bases did not have many compound terms associated with them, but
the adjectives from which they are derived, longus, brevis, and magnus, do indeed occur in anatomical
terminology; the musculus adductor magnus, for example, is a large adductor muscle. Memorize these three
adjectives. When we translate the Latin anatomical terms, we use the English forms:
longus long
brevis short
magnus large, great
We can now also surmise that Mr. Smith’s troublesome musculus extensor carpi radialis longus is a long
extensor muscle of the wrist. But what about radialis? Well, remember we have seen the base RADI-
meaning (amongst other things) ‘radius of the arm,’ and we know -alis is a suffix meaning ‘pertaining to,’
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so radialis is ‘pertaining to the radius.’ Mr. Smith’s problem is in his long extensor muscle of the wrist on
the radial side (i.e. on the same side as his thumb). The suffix -alis is actually an original Latin suffix (-al is
the equivalent English form); we have seen it already in temporalis (TEMPOR-alis) and pectoralis
(PECTOR-alis).
Here are some Latin adjectives of this type that are common in anatomical terminology. Memorize them
(you have already seen their related bases, so it should be easy). When we translate the Latin anatomical
terms, we use the English forms (cervical, pectoral etc.):
cervicalis cervical (i.e. pertaining to the neck or cervix)

pectoralis pectoral (i.e. pertaining to the chest)
brachialis brachial (i.e. pertaining to the arm)
radialis radial (i.e. pertaining to the radius)
tibialis tibial (i.e. pertaining to the tibia)
Note that some adjectives end in -aris (-ar is the equivalent English form), rather than -alis. Memorize these
examples:
scapularis scapular (i.e. pertaining to the shoulder blade)

ulnaris ulnar (i.e. pertaining to the ulna)
fibularis fibular (i.e. pertaining to the fibula)
We have already learned these adjectives:
anterior i.e. pertaining to the front (‘nearer to the front’)

posterior i.e. pertaining to the back (‘further to the back’)
superior i.e. pertaining to above (‘closer to the higher area’)
inferior i.e. pertaining to below (‘closer to the lower area’)
Remember, we said that these terms are actually Latin comparative adjectives (the suffix -ior is really a
Latin suffix, not an English one), that often mean something like ‘nearer’ and ‘further,’ and ‘higher’ and
‘lower.’ You will often come across them in relation to things that are found in pairs in the body. When we
translate the Latin anatomical terms, we keep the terms anterior, posterior etc.
Here are another two Latin comparative adjectives that often relate to pairs of things. Memorize them. When
we translate the Latin anatomical terms, we use the English forms:
major larger, greater (‘larger in size of two similar structures’)

minor smaller (‘smaller in size of two similar structures’)
Participles
Another scary grammatical term, but all we mean here are the sorts of words that end ‘_____ing’ in English,
such as ‘running,’ shouting,’ and ‘making.’ There is a small group of Latin participles that are used in
anatomical terminology; they generally relate to muscles, arteries, veins and nerves, often indicating
movement or position. Memorize them, and what the anatomical term means. . When we translate the Latin
anatomical terms, we use the English forms:
abducens abducent (i.e. drawing away)

advehens advehent (i.e. drawing toward
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afferens afferent (i.e. carrying toward)

efferens efferent (i.e. carrying away)
ascendens ascending (i.e. going up)
descendens descending (i.e. going down)
perforans perforant (i.e. going through
recurrens recurrent (i.e. turning back on itself, or recurring)
So Mrs. Jones' blockage in the arteria cervicalis ascendens occurred in the ascending cervical artery of her
neck.
This is all I am going to say about anatomical terminology – hopefully you get the basic idea, and in the
final chapter we will look at some examples. I have given you a simplified account here which has largely
ignored plural nouns, and has not taken into account the gender of the nouns. In Latin, all nouns have a
specific gender (masculine, feminine or neuter), and any adjective or participle that describes a noun has to
reflect that gender (as well as whether the noun is singular or plural, and whether the noun is in the
nominative or genitive case) by changing its endings. The different endings are numerous (just like we saw
for forming plurals); a simple term like longus, for example, can also occur as longa, longum, longi, longae,
longorum and longarum and still just mean ‘long’ in every instance.
On a positive note, if you do need, or desire, to fully master Latin anatomical terminology, it can be reduced
to a manageable amount of memorization and the application of a rigid set of rules.
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CHAPTER 25
Latin Anatomical Terminology Examples
Here are a few examples of anatomical terminology using musculus (muscle), arteria (artery) and vena
(vein). Make sure you can understand how we arrived at the English translation. Remember, the terms for
the muscle types - flexor, extensor, abductor, adductor, supinator, pronator, levator and depressor - keep
their Latin form in the translations, as do the comparative adjectives anterior, posterior, inferior and superior.
Think also what the term means, beyond just the translation. What is an abductor muscle of the big toe?
What does it do? Where is the brachial muscle located?
22. musculus brachialis

brachial muscle
23. musculus abductor hallucis

abductor muscle of the big toe
24. musculus adductor magnus

large adductor muscle
25. musculus flexor carpi

flexor muscle of the wrist
26. musculus extensor carpi radialis longus

long radial extensor muscle of the wrist
27. musculus supinator brevis

short supinator muscle
28. musculus pronator pedis

pronator muscle of the foot
29. musculus levator scapulae

levator muscle of the shoulder blade
30. musculus depressor labii

depressor muscle of the lip
31. musculus longus capitis

long muscle of the head
32. musculus pectoralis major

greater pectoral muscle
33. musculus pectoralis minor

smaller pectoral muscle
34. muculus abductor digiti

abductor muscle of the finger/toe
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CHAPTER 25
35. musculus extensor digitorum

extensor muscle of the fingers/toes
36. arteria cervicalis ascendens

ascending cervical artery
37. arteria cerebelli inferior anterior

anterior inferior artery of the cerebellum
38. arteria nasi

artery of the nose
39. arteria tibialis posterior

posterior tibial artery
40. arteria recurrens ulnaris

recurrent ulnar artery
41. arteria scapularis descendens

descending scapular artery
42. arteria fibularis perforans

fibular perforant artery
43. arteria efferens

efferent artery
44. arteria afferens

afferent artery
45. arteria cerebelli superior

superior artery of the cerebellum
46. venae cerebelli

veins of the cerebellum
47. vena cerebri anterior

anterior vein of the brain
48. vena advehens

advehent vein
213
REVIEW
Prefixes
Suffixes
We did not add any new suffixes, or compound suffixes, to our list.

We saw an example of a term with two bases preceding a prefix:
nevoxanthoendothelioma (NEV-O-XANTH-O-endo-THEL-I-oma)
tumor (arising from an) inside cellular layer (that presents as) a yellow mole, i.e. a yellowish-
brown mole that originates from the endothelium
Leave the bases that precede the prefix till last, treat the remaining prefix-BASE-suffix in the normal manner
(always start with the suffix, then add the prefix, then add in your base) and then add in the other bases last.
214
REVIEW
Final Review
Congratulations on making it through all the chapters. Do not worry too much if the material on Latin
anatomical terminology was a little overwhelming; it is an area that is gradually dropping out of use, with
many new textbooks opting to use English equivalents. The compound terms, however, are still firmly
entrenched in the medical discipline, and are unlikely to disappear soon. But now you should have no trouble
at all distinguishing cardiomalacia, cardiomegaly, and cardiometry; even the dreaded
hepatocholangioenterostomy should only cause a brief palpitation.
Here is a final review of the forms of compound terms that we have encountered; remember, there are always
rule-breakers and oddities as well. Since combining vowels do not add anything to the sense of the term, we
will ignore them here.
These first two forms are at the center of medical terminology; their definition orders do not ever vary.
i) BASE-suffix
labiate (LABI-ate) – having lips
Definition order = suffix-BASE
ii) prefix-BASE-suffix
perignathic (peri-GNATH-ic) – pertaining to around the jaw
Definition order = suffix-prefix-BASE
For all other forms, we can only talk about generalities; the definition orders and strategies given here are
the most common ones, nothing more.
For terms in which there are two suffixes next to each other, or two prefixes next to each other, you generally
treat them together, almost as if you are making a single suffix or prefix out of the two:
iii) BASE-suffix-suffix
Definition order = ultimate (last) suffix-penultimate (next to last) suffix-BASE
iv) prefix-prefix-BASE-suffix
imperforate (im-per-FOR-ate) – having not through piercing, i.e. lacking a normal opening
Definition order = suffix-first prefix-second prefix-BASE
When there is a base, or bases, preceding a prefix (we would normally expect the prefix to be the first word
part), you can often deal with the prefix-BASE-suffix part of the term first before addressing the extra base,
or bases. If there are several preceding bases, often the technique of moving through bases from right to left
can be helpful:
v) BASE-prefix-BASE-suffix
pupillatonia (PUPILL-a-TON-ia) - condition of without tone in the pupil, i.e. the pupil lacks
Treat as regular prefix-BASE-suffix, then add the other base
vi) BASE-BASE-prefix-BASE-suffix
nevoxanthoendothelioma (NEV-O-XANTH-O-endo-THEL-I-oma) – tumor (arising from an)
inside cellular layer (that presents as) a yellow mole, i.e. a yellowish-brown mole that originates
from the endothelium
Treat as regular prefix-BASE-suffix, then add the other bases going from right to left
215
REVIEW
vii) BASE-BASE-BASE-prefix-BASE-suffix
together fingers or toes - many of them, and a head that is (like) the highest point, i.e. condition
involving several fused fingers or toes and a head that is peak shaped
Treat as regular prefix-BASE-suffix, then add the other bases going from right to left
Sometimes you will come across a term that combines several of these features. Ileoentectropy, for example,
has a base preceding two prefixes:
viii) BASE-prefix-prefix-BASE-suffix
ileoentectropy (ILE-O-ent-ec-TROP-y) – condition of inside outside turning of the ileum, i.e. a
turning inside-out of a section of the ileum
Treat as regular prefix-prefix-BASE-suffix, then add the other base
Sometimes a term can be broken down into two (or more) simple forms:
ix) BASE-suffix-BASE-suffix
acousticophobia (ACOUS-tic-O-PHOB-ia) – abnormal fear pertaining to sound
Treat as two BASE-suffix forms and then join
Terms with multiple bases are generally the hardest to deal with. Not only do you have to figure out which
base, or bases, the suffix and prefix (if there is one) relate to, but you also have to figure out how the bases
relate to each other. Other than always starting with the suffix, there are no rules to help; here are some
general observations about the terms we have looked at:
x) BASE-BASE-suffix, BASE-BASE-BASE-suffix etc.
prefix-BASE-BASE-suffix, prefix-BASE-BASE-BASE-suffix etc.
In general, the suffix always relates to the ultimate (last) base:
renotrophic (REN-O-TROPH-ic) – pertaining to the nutrition of the kidneys
It sometimes also relates to the other base(s), in which case we can usually join the bases with ‘and’:
portobilioarterial (PORT-O-BIL-I-O-ARTER-ial) – pertaining to the (hepatic) artery, bile
(ducts) and the portal vein
In general, the prefix always relates to the ultimate (last) base:

hyperphotesthesia (hyper-PHOT-ESTHE-sia) – condition of more than normal sensation to
light
It sometimes also relates to the other base(s), in which case we can usually join the bases with ‘and’:
aglossostomia (a-GLOSS-O-STOM-ia) – condition of without mouth and tongue
In general, addressing bases from right to left works well:

gastroenterohepatic (GASTR-O-ENTER-O-HEPAT-ic) – pertaining to the liver, intestines and
stomach
However, you will not always be able to use ‘and’ to join all of the bases:
hepatocholangioenterostomy (HEPAT-O-CHOLANGI-O-ENTER-O-stomy) – making a
surgical opening between the intestines and the bile ducts of the liver
For terms with multiple bases, you really have to think about the most likely common sense solution.
Practice will help you a lot, as you will start to see certain patterns emerging with particular combinations
of suffixes and bases. Practice will also help you with the other tricky feature of this process, that is getting
a feeling for what words need to be added to make accurate, sensible, and usable definitions.
So, practice, practice, practice…
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CONTENTS

Medical Terminology from Head to Toe

1. Breaking Down Medical Terms, Building Up Medical Definitions

Breaking Down Medical Terms, Building Up Medical Definitions

Where Did Medical Terminology Come From?

Breaking Down Medical Terms

prefix base suffix

Recognizing the Word Parts

Building Up Medical Definitions

This example has a prefix, a base, and a suffix:

Using Prefixes, Bases, and Suffixes to Describe the Body

1. ambi-, ambo- ‘both’

4. -ary ‘pertaining to’

1. VENTR- ‘front,’ ‘abdomen,’ ‘belly’

3. ANTER- ‘front,’ ‘before’

4. POSTER- ‘back,’ ‘behind’

5. FRONT- ‘front,’ ‘forehead’

7. MEDI- ‘middle,’ ‘midline’

8. MES- ‘middle,’ ‘midline’

9. CENTR- ‘center,’ ‘mid-point’

10. DEXTR- ‘right,’ ‘right-handed’

11. SINISTR- ‘left,’ ‘left-handed’

12. LAEV- ‘left,’ ‘left-handed’

13. SUPER- ‘above,’ ‘in the top part of’

14. INFER- ‘below,’ ‘in the bottom part of’

15. CEPHAL- ‘head’

16. CAUD- ‘tail’ (in humans, the ‘tail bone’ or ‘coccyx’)

19. INTERN- ‘inside’

20. EXTERN- ‘outside’

21. FACI- ‘face,’ ‘surface’

22. PARIET- ‘wall’ (usually, of a body cavity)

23. AX- ‘axis,’ ‘central line’

24. VERS- ‘travel,’ ‘turn’

25. CORON- ‘crown,’ ‘like a crown’

26. SAGITT- ‘arrow’

27. MORPH- ‘form,’ ‘shape’

28. DERM- ‘skin,’ ‘layer’

29. SOM- ‘body’

30. CORP- ‘body’

Some Things to Note

dorsoventral (DORS-O-VENTR-al) – pertaining to the front …

dorsoventral (DORS-O-VENTR-al) – pertaining to the front and back

levoversion (LEV-O-VERS-ion) – action of turning to the left

The skull is made up of the cranium and the mandible (jawbone).

3. OCCIPIT- ‘occiput’ (back of the head)

SQUAM- ‘scale-like bone,’ ‘scale-like cell,’ ‘squama’

9. LAMBD- ‘Greek letter lambda’ (λ)

10. SIGM- ‘Greek letter sigma’ (ϛ)

11. CAV- ‘hollow space’

12. CEREBR- ‘cerebrum’ (largest part of the brain)

13. CEREBELL- ‘cerebellum’ (the posterior part of the brain)

14. ENCEPHAL- ‘brain’

15. LOB- ‘lobe’

A lobe is a division or extension of an organ or part.

16. FISS- ‘split,’ ‘splitting’

17. THALAM- ‘chamber,’ ‘thalamus’

18. MENING- ‘membrane,’ ‘meninges’

19. ARACHN- ‘spider,’ ‘spider’s web’

20. LIMB- ‘border,’ ‘edge’

21. GYR- ‘circle,’ ‘coil’

22. SULC- ‘groove,’ ‘furrow’

23. CINGUL- ‘girdle,’ ‘belt,’ ‘structure that surrounds’

24. AMYGDAL- ‘almond’