Annex4 2 8 COMPETE 032448 2ndreport D4.6

SIXTH FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME
FP6-2004-INCO-DEV-3
PRIORITY A.2.3.: Managing Arid and Semi-arid Ecosystems
Second Periodic Activity Report

(01.01.2008 – 31.12.2008)
January 2009
ANNEX 4-2-8: Report on innovative bioenergy complexes

Deliverable D4.6 (Lead contractor: EUBIA, Due date: December 2008)
COMPETE
Competence Platform on Energy Crop and Agroforestry

Systems for Arid and Semi-arid Ecosystems - Africa
Responsible Partner:
EUBIA, Rue d’Arlon 63-65, B-1040 Brussels, Belgium
Project Co-ordinator:
WIP, Sylvensteinstrasse 2, 81369 Munich, Germany
COMPETE is co-funded by the European Commission in the 6th Framework Programme –

Specific Measures in Support of International Cooperation (INCO-CT-2006-032448).
COMPETE (INCO-CT-2006-032448) Second Periodic Activity Report – Annex 4-2-8
INTRODUCTION
This report comprises the results from the work accomplished under task 4.6 and 4.7 of
the project COMPETE (Competence Platform on Energy Crop and Agroforestry Systems
for Arid and Semi-arid Ecosystems - Africa), co-funded by the European Commission in
the 6th Framework Programme – Specific Measures in Support of International
Cooperation (Contract No. INCO-CT- 2006-032448).
The report was elaborated under leadership of the European Biomass Industry Association
with assistance from the COMPETE consortium.
Editing and Reporting: COMPETE - North-South Cooperation on promising bioenergy

schemes
January 2009
Dr. Giuliano Grassi

Eng. Stephane Senechal
EUBIA – European Biomass Industry Association
Rue d’Arlon 63-65
B-1040 Brussels
Belgium
E-mail: stephane.senechal@eubia.org
EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 2

Table of contents
1 Generalities ........................................................................................................ 7
1.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Technical preamble ...................................................................................... 8
1.3 The advantages of biomass ......................................................................... 9
1.4 Range of biomass sources ......................................................................... 10
1.4.1 World bioenergy potential.................................................................... 12
1.4.2 Bioenergy Production Potential in Developing countries ..................... 14
1.5 Energy value of biomass ............................................................................ 15
1.6 Description and characterization of the actual bioenergy consumption ...... 15
1.6.1 Bioenergy characterisation .................................................................. 15
1.6.2 Conversion Routes to Bioenergy......................................................... 17
1.7 Analysis of E.U. Bioenergy technologies commercially available ............... 17
1.7.1 Solid Biomass pre-treatment (Biopellets and briquettes)..................... 17
1.7.2 Increasing interest for biomass derived Biofuels ................................. 19
1.7.3 Biomass for Heat and Power............................................................... 20
1.7.4 Biogas for Heat and Power and transport............................................ 20
1.7.5 Biofuels for Transport .......................................................................... 21
1.7.6 Small Scale Commercial Technologies ............................................... 25
1.7.7 Large Scale Commercial Technologies ............................................... 27
1.7.8 Sustainability Considerations .............................................................. 29
2 Pre-treatment technologies ............................................................................ 33
2.1 Chipping ..................................................................................................... 33
2.1.1 Technology overview........................................................................... 33
2.1.2 Technology production : Systems and handling of Forest Residues ... 34
2.1.2.1 Logging residue production sites ..................................................... 35
2.1.2.2 Industrial timber harvesting.............................................................. 36
2.1.2.3 Production technology of logging residues from final felling stands. 36
2.1.2.4 Production of forest residues from thinning...................................... 39
2.1.2.5 production of stump and root residue .............................................. 39
2.1.3 Main European pelleting mill manufacturers........................................ 40
2.1.3.1 Pezzolato S.p.a................................................................................ 40
2.1.3.2 Gandini Meccanica .......................................................................... 44
2.1.3.3 Laitilan Metalli Laine Oy –Laimet ..................................................... 46
2.1.3.4 Silvatec Skovmaskiner Aps.............................................................. 51
2.2 Pelletisation ................................................................................................ 53
2.2.1 Densification-related advantages ........................................................ 53
2.2.2 Pelletising technology overview........................................................... 54
2.2.3 Main European pellet mill manufacturers ............................................ 57
2.2.3.1 Amandus Kahl ................................................................................. 57
2.2.3.2 Bühler AG ........................................................................................ 57
2.2.3.3 M.B.Z. Günther Zahn Mühlen- und Pelletiertechnik ......................... 58

2.2.3.4 Münch Edelstahl GmbH ................................................................... 58

2.2.3.5 Promill Stolz..................................................................................... 59
2.2.3.6 Salmatec - Salzhausener Maschinenbautechnik GmbH.................. 59
2.2.3.7 Sprout Matador ................................................................................ 60
2.2.3.8 Tritec GmbH .................................................................................... 60
2.2.3.9 List of European manufacturers of biomass combustion appliances 62
2.3 Briquetting .................................................................................................. 67
2.3.1 Characteristics..................................................................................... 67
2.3.2 Economical aspects ............................................................................ 70
2.3.3 Pollutant emissions ............................................................................. 71
2.3.4 Main European briquetting machines manufacturers .......................... 71
2.3.4.1 Welo SAS di Lochmann Karl & Co................................................... 71
2.3.4.2 ASCOT S.r.l. .................................................................................... 71
3 Conversion technologies................................................................................ 73
3.1 Carbonisation and steam activation for activated coal production .............. 73
3.1.1 Charcoal technology............................................................................ 73
3.1.1.1 Carbonization process ..................................................................... 73
3.1.1.2 Raw materials for the process ......................................................... 75
3.1.1.3 Modern charcoal equipment ............................................................ 76
3.1.1.4 Carbonisation products .................................................................... 79
3.1.1.5 Description of the continuous charcoal process of the woody biomasses in
absence of oxygen ......................................................................................... 80
3.2 BioSynGas technology (from biomass pellets) ........................................... 81
3.2.1 Description of the process ................................................................... 82
3.2.1.1 Biomass drying & pelletisation. ........................................................ 82
3.2.1.2 Conventional carbonisation.............................................................. 82
3.2.1.3 Steam reforming of charcoal pellets ................................................ 82
3.3 Biogas plants .............................................................................................. 84
3.3.1 Biogas - Origin, Characteristics, Utilisation.......................................... 84
3.3.1.1 Biochemical Bases of Biogasification .............................................. 84
3.3.1.2 Composition and Characteristics of Biogas ..................................... 87
3.3.1.3 Utilisation of Biogas ......................................................................... 87
3.3.1.4 Biogas sources ................................................................................ 88
3.3.2 Identification of European Biogas Plant Manufacturers....................... 89
3.4 Microdistilleries ........................................................................................... 92
3.4.1 Introduction to the microdistillery concept............................................ 92
3.4.2 Technology overview........................................................................... 94
3.4.3 Bio-ethanol/DDG plants....................................................................... 96
3.4.3.1 Ethanol Production .......................................................................... 96
3.4.3.2 Process steps grains to DDG........................................................... 97
3.4.3.3 Description of the fermentation process........................................... 97
3.4.4 European actors and Manufacturers ................................................... 98

4 Technologies of biomass to bioenergy valorisation .................................... 99

4.1 Small biomass cogeneration plants (gasifier – engine generator) .............. 99
4.1.1 Generalities ......................................................................................... 99
4.1.1.1 Gasification: ..................................................................................... 99
4.1.1.2 Pyrolysis: ....................................................................................... 100
4.1.1.3 Hydrolisis: ...................................................................................... 100
4.1.2 Modern type of gasifiers .................................................................... 101
4.1.3 Utilisation of producer gas in diesel engines ..................................... 102
4.1.3.1 Mixed and pilot injection................................................................. 102
4.1.3.2 Carburation of producer gas in Diesel engines .............................. 102
4.1.3.3 Injectors ......................................................................................... 102
4.1.4 Main constraints ................................................................................ 102
4.1.4.1 Problems in gasifiers...................................................................... 102
4.1.4.2 Tar content of fuel.......................................................................... 103
4.1.4.3 Ash content of the fuel ................................................................... 103
4.1.4.4 Feedstock size............................................................................... 103
4.1.4.5 General problems in engines ......................................................... 103
4.1.4.6 Dust ............................................................................................... 103
4.1.4.7 Tar ................................................................................................. 103
4.1.5 Full Systems Biomass Gasifier.......................................................... 104
4.1.6 Application of Biomass Gasifiers for decentralised power generation (or
cogeneration)................................................................................................... 105
4.1.6.1 Main characteristics of the generator............................................. 106
4.1.7 Types of biomass feedstock .............................................................. 106
4.1.8 Environment ...................................................................................... 107
4.2 Large scale power plants (Cofiring) .......................................................... 108
4.2.1 Biomass Cofiring ............................................................................... 109
4.2.2 Grate combustion for solid fuels ........................................................ 109
4.2.3 Pulverised combustion for co-firing in existing coal-fired boilers ....... 109
4.2.4 Fluidised bed combustion.................................................................. 110
4.3 Pellet combustion technologies ................................................................ 111
4.3.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 111
4.3.2 Environmental aspects ...................................................................... 112
4.3.3 Technology overview......................................................................... 113
4.3.3.1 Modern pellet stoves...................................................................... 113
4.3.3.2 Small scale boilers ......................................................................... 113
4.3.3.3 Burners .......................................................................................... 114
4.3.3.4 Medium and large scale technologies for biomass combustion ..... 114
4.3.3.5 Conclusions ................................................................................... 116
4.3.4 European manufacturers of pellet appliances ................................... 118
4.3.4.1 Baxi A/S ......................................................................................... 118
4.3.4.2 Compte R....................................................................................... 118

4.3.4.3 Danstoker A/S................................................................................ 118

4.3.4.4 FRÖLING Heizkessel- und Behälterbau GmbH............................. 119
4.3.4.5 Herz Feuerungstechnik GesmbH................................................... 120
4.3.4.6 Kaukora Oy.................................................................................... 121
4.3.4.7 KWB - Kraft und Wärme aus Biomasse ......................................... 121
4.3.4.8 LIN-KA Maskinfabrik A/S ............................................................... 121
4.3.4.9 ÖkoFEN Forschungs- und Entwicklungs Ges.m.b.H. .................... 122
4.3.4.10 Passat Energi A/S ...................................................................... 122
4.3.4.11 Prosessiputkitus Oy.................................................................... 122
4.3.4.12 REKA A/S................................................................................... 123
4.3.4.13 Sahlins EcoTec AB..................................................................... 123
4.3.4.14 Viessmann Werke GmbH & Co.................................................. 123
4.3.4.15 WEISS A/S................................................................................. 124
4.3.4.16 Wodtke GmbH............................................................................ 124
4.4 Jelly ethanol stoves .................................................................................. 126
4.4.1 The Greenheat Group ....................................................................... 126
4.5 Absorption refrigeration units for space cooling / food preservation ......... 127
5 References: .................................................................................................... 130

1 Generalities
1.1 Introduction
Africa is characteristic of the developing countries and shows the major problems
those countries are confronted with: a big population, rising energy consumption, low
energy efficiency and pollution problems. The effects are global and the solution is
possible only in global co-operation.
The scope of this document is to stimulate the north-south cooperation on the
identification of promising bioenergy schemes and commercially required technologies
already in existence in Europe that could be applied in Africa.
Biomass technologies are in many aspects adequate for both developed and
developing countries, because of the following characteristics:
• They rely on the utilisation of resources that, in principle, are generously present in
countries at every level of development: energy crops and waste. So, nearly each
country can diversify its energy supply, covering a large part of the energy
consumption with local resources.
• Bioenergy creates many jobs on many different intellectual levels and in many
different economic sectors (agriculture, industry and services). This is especially
advantageous for a country where labour is not too expensive.
• Biomass technology produces solid, liquid and gaseous fuels for various
applications. This flexibility is important for developing countries like in Africa
where the applications are very wide.
• Biofuels are useful for low tech consumers, like users of stoves, and high tech
consumers, like users of hydrogen. There are even process chains that convert
biomass into intermediate and useful products, giving at each step added value.
These chains address distinct markets at distinct technological levels. The
configuration of them will determine which of the possible products are made.
Therefore, these chains are flexible economic tools for developing and developed
countries at the same time, providing a base for cooperation.
• Biomass is CO2 neutral but also other emissions are lower than with conventional
fuel, or absent (sulphur). In the African case, the interest is to use the resources
already used (like wood) but in a more efficient way exploiting a major part of the
energy content.
• Biomass technology is at the same time applicable to many raw materials and
complex. This makes it at the same time a very flexible discipline and a field that
requires co-operation.
Africa represents an emerging market for European actors that want to co-operate in
the field of bioenergy technology. Rapid growth and market reforms are driving
increased demand for foreign investment and advanced technologies that will help
Africa meet its energy needs while protecting its environment. The energy sector is a
particularly promising area for bioenergy cooperation because the equipment used in
households as well as industrial level are decades old.

The aim of this document is to describe the market conditions for European bioenergy
technology (i.e. carbonisation, stoves, gasification, microdistillery) for the exploitation
of the biomass residues that are produced in arid and semi-arid area of Africa.
It comprises an extensive list of technological processes, for each of which a short
description will be given, with its strong and weak points, the market opportunities and
some suppliers.
1.2 Technical preamble

Bioenergy is defined as the complex of all technological means and systems for
processing and utilisation of biomass for energetic purposes.
The main difference between Bioenergy and other renewable energy systems consists
in the energy resource supply (fuel) involved. In the first case biomass must be
produced, recovered, supplied to the plant, which make biomass a rather expensive
fuel, while for the other RE the fuel (wind, solar radiation, water) is available at no-
cost.
Biomass refers to all terrestrial or aquatic organic material deriving from the
photosynthetic process and represents the solar energy stored in chemical form in
plants and animals.
By this process atmospheric CO2 and water absorbed from the soil are combined
under the effect of solar radiation to produce cellulose and hemi-cellulose
carbohydrates (C4 – C5 sugars) and about 25% of lignite.
Three different photosynthetic path ways are found in plants: 1) the Calvin or C3 cycle;
2) the C4 – di carboxylic acid pathway; 3) the Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)
pathway, like in the succulent pineapple plant that fixes large amount of CO2 (as
organic acid) at night, converting them into carbohydrates during the day; because the
primary CO2 assimilation occurs at night when the temperature is lower, these plants
limit the amount of water transpired (lower water inputs).
The C4 (i.e. sugar – cane, sweet-sorghum, corn, miscanthus, etc…) and CAM plants
are good candidates for biomass energy crops cultivated on marginal lands of arid
or semi-arid regions of the planet, because their photosynthesis processes are highly
efficient at high temperatures and they need low amounts of water during growth.

Here below some examples of typical biomass productivity in Natural Ecosystems are
presented for comparison:
BIOMASS PRODUCTIVITY OF NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS
Climatic zone Type of biomass plants Net biomass productivity t/ha Location
per year (fresh)
Temperate zone Beech forest 11.95 Denmark
Oak pine forest 13.50 New York
Spruce forest 14.50 Germany
Grassland 32.00 New Zealand
Tropical Forest 60 West Indies
Oil-palm 37 Congo
Forest 13.40 Ivory Coast
Fresh water Fresh water ponds 9.5 – 15.0 Denmark
Sewage pond 56 California
Marine Algae (average) 1 Open Ocean
Algae (average) 2–6 Coastal Zone
BIOMASS PRODUCTIVITY OF AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS
Temperate zone Corn 25 – 40 Average / USA
Corn 30 Europe
Tropical zones Sugar cane 77 Brazil
Sweet-sorghum 70 Europe – China – USA
Rice 3.4 – 5.5 Sri Lanka
There is now a wide consensus that, over the coming decades, modern biofuels
derived from biomass will provide a substantial amount of alternative energy. In the
long term, together with other renewable sources, biomass has the technical capacity
to deliver a large part of future global energy needs.
Biomass provides not only nutritional energy (food) in form of starch, sugars, vegetal
oil, but also energy and a wide range of industrial commodities like structural
materials, paper, chemicals, medicines, etc.
The present world consumption of wood and agro-forestry residues is estimated at:
Energy use: ~ 3.6 billion tonnes/year (15.9% of total primary energy consumption)
Industrial use: ~ 2 billion tonnes/year
1.3 The advantages of biomass
Biomass is widely available and represents a local, clean and renewable resource. In
developing countries, the increased planting of biomass crops, especially on land
currently considered marginal, would have a beneficial effect on such phenomena as
deforestation, desertification and loss of biodiversity, as well as climate change
mitigation.

In industrialised countries even a small amount of biomass can play an important role
in sustainable development because it can:
• Make valuable use of agro-industrial residues, avoiding the cost of their disposal
as waste
• Provide marginal agricultural areas or surplus areas with new development
opportunities
• Supply modern technologies for conversion and utilisation
• Guarantee local energy supply and therefore economic and political - autonomy
• Can create and promote markets for refined biomass that can be easily stored,
transported and used for heating
• Contribute to the avoidance of additional CO2 being emitted into the atmosphere
1.4 Range of biomass sources
The Biomass resources can be classified according to the supply sector, as shown in
the table below. Most of them can be considered in African Arid and Semi arid area or
the area adjacent urban area regarding the Industry and main part of waste sector.

Supply sector Type Example

Forestry Dedicated forestry Short rotation plantations (e.g. willow, poplar, eucalyptus)
Forestry by-products Wood blocks, wood chips from thinnings

Agriculture Dry lignocellulosic energy crops Herbaceous crops (e.g. miscanthus, reed canarygrass,
giant reed)
Oil, sugar and starch energy Oil seeds for methylesters (e.g. rape seed, sunflower)
crops Sugar crops for ethanol (e.g. sugar cane, sweet sorghum)
Starch crops for ethanol (e.g. maize, wheat)

Agricultural residues Straw, prunings from vineyards and fruit trees
Livestock waste Wet and dry manure
Industry Industrial residues Industrial waste wood, sawdust from sawmills
Fibrous vegetable waste from paper industries
Waste Dry lignocellulosic Residues from parks and gardens (e.g. prunings, grass)
Contaminated waste Demolition wood

Organic fraction of municipal solid waste
Biodegradable landfilled waste, landfill gas
Sewage sludge
A wide range of terrestrial biomass materials are useful for energy conversion,
including:
• Wood in all its forms
• Straw and sugar cane bagasse
• Fibrous agricultural residues
• Urban and industrial waste products (an average of 40% of solid municipal
waste is organic material)
• Dried plants and sludge from water purification or animal wastes
• Sugar crops (sugar cane, sugar beets, sweet sorghum, etc…)
• Oil crops (sunflowers, rape seed, palm oil etc)
The introduction of dedicated bioenergy crops, and especially fast growing crops
(such as willow, miscantus, sweet sorghum, etc.) on marginal agricultural land, could
supply huge amounts of sustainable energy with high positive energy ratio (outputs /
inputs) and very low noxious emissions during combustion. It would also create
numerous rural jobs on a worldwide scale in areas where most of population is living,
thus fighting the exodus of unemployed people towards already crowded cities.
Energy crop productivity is still at a very early stage of deployment in comparison to

food crops; major impact can therefore be obtained, with reasonable support, only in
the longer term. But the potential especially of lignocellulosic biomass resources both
worldwide and in Europe is considerable and represents in a long term a realistic
alternative to fossil fuels, by providing great benefits to the environment, by helping to
fulfil the Kyoto commitments and beyond and to local economies.

1.4.1 World bioenergy potential
Bioenergy could in principle provide all the world’s energy requirements, but its real
technical and economic potential is much lower. The WEC Survey of Energy
Resources (2001) estimates that bioenergy could theoretically provide 2900 EJ/y, but
that technical and economic factors limit its current practical potential to just 270 EJ/y.
The table below shows the potential and current use of bioenergy by region. Even with
the current resource base, it is clear that the practical potential of bioenergy is much
greater than its current exploitation. Obstacles to greater use of bioenergy include
poor matching between demand and resources, and high costs compared to other
energy sources. Projections by the WEC, WEA and IPCC estimate that by 2050
bioenergy could supply a maximum of 250–450 EJ/y, representing around a quarter of
global final energy demand. This is consistent with the table below, which puts the
technological potential of bioenergy at 30% of global energy demand.
Fig 1.: Current technical potentials and biomass use compared to primary energy
consumption (PEC) from fossil fuels & hydro
Source: Kaltschmitt, 2001

Fig. 2: Sustainable bioenergy production potential for the worlds regions under four
scenarios by 2050
Source of graph: E. Smeets, A. Faaij, I. Lewandowski (2004). A quickscan of global bio-energy

potentials to 2050: analysis of the regional availability of biomass resources for export in relation to
underlying factors, Copernicus Institute - Utrecht Universit.

Fig. 3: Estimation of global conventional and biomass resources

Energy category Million toe EJ
Oil statistics (ENI, 2003-2004)
Annual oil extraction 3850 161.2
World oil reserves 149600 6263.5
World energy statistics (IEA, 2003)
World annual primary energy supply 10376 434.4
- Oil 3715 155.5
- Coal 2379 99.6
- Natural gas 2169 90.8
- Renewables & Waste 1121 46.9
- Nuclear 695 29.1
- Hydro 228 9.5
- Other (includes geothermal, solar, wind, etc.) 52 2.2
EUROSTAT, EU-25 Energy statistics (2002)
Annual gross inland consumption (GIC) 1680 70.3
Share of renewable energy sources in GIC 95 4.0
Share of bioenergy in GIC 62 2.6
EU-25 (+Bulgaria, +Romania) biomass available potential (BTG, 2004)
Biomass available potential by 2010 183 7.7
Biomass available potential by 2020 210 8.8
EUBIA
2020 biomass potential in the EU-25 200 8.4
2050 biomass potential in the EU-25 400 16.7
EU-25 forest biomass, crop residues and energy crops (Ericsson, Nilsson, 2004)
Scenario 1 (short term, 10-20 years) 105 4.4
Scenario 2a (medium term, 20-40 years; low harvest) 184 7.7
Scenario 2b(medium term, 20-40 years; high harvest) 220 9.2
Scenario 3a (long term, >40 years; low harvest) 375 15.7
Scenario 3b (long term, >40 years; high harvest) 451 18.9
World bioenergy potential from forestry by 2050 (Smeets et al., 2004)
Low demand 764 32.0
Medium demand 1027 43.0
High demand 1242 52.0
Bioenergy technical production potentials from agricultural residues and bioenergy production on
surplus agricultural lands to 2050 (Smeets et al., 2004)
World min. 6520 273.0
World max. 35134 1471.0
West Europe min. 191 8.0
West Europe max. 597 25.0
East Europe min. 96 4.0
East Europe max. 693 29.0
1.4.2 Bioenergy Production Potential in Developing countries
For three quarters of the world’s population living in developing countries, biomass is
the most important source of energy. With increases in population and per capita
demand, and depletion of fossil-fuel resources, the demand for biomass is expected to
increase rapidly in developing countries. On average, biomass produces 35 % of the
primary energy in developing countries, but many sub-Saharan countries depend on
biomass for up to 90 %. Biomass will remain an important global energy source in
developing countries well into the next century.

1.5 Energy value of biomass
Biomass is in general wrongly considered as a low-quality fuel. Because today many

available modern efficient, low pollution utilisation technologies use liquid or gaseous
fuels it is more convenient to convert solid biomass into liquid or gaseous biofuels
(accepting an energy conversion loss around 25% - 30%).
1t of dry biomass ≈ 0.41 TOE
Despite its wide use in developing countries, biomass is used with very low efficiency
applications. The overall efficiency in traditional use (e.g. cooking stoves) is only about
5 to 15 per cent, and biomass is often less convenient to use compared with fossil
fuels. It can also be a health hazard in some circumstances. For example, cooking
stoves can release particulates, carbon monoxide (CO), nitrous oxides (NOx) and
other organic compounds in poorly ventilated homes, often far exceeding the
recommended World Health Organisation levels. Furthermore, inefficient biomass
utilisation is often associated with the increasing scarcity of hand-gathered wood,
nutrient depletion, and the problems of deforestation and desertification.
The next paragraphs will propose technologies that permit the use of Biomass in a
more efficient and safe way.
1.6 Description and characterization of the actual bioenergy consumption
The use of Bioenergy has a lot of advantages but is also limited by some barriers
limiting its expansion. The list of advantages and inconvenient is presented here
below and some solution to improve the extension of bioenergy development are
proposed. Finally the main conversion processes actually used in Europe will be
listed.
1.6.1 Bioenergy characterisation
Bioenergy key drivers and advantages
Some bioenergy key drivers consist in its contribution to:

• the reduction of energy dependency on energy imports and thus, the
increased security of supply
• the climate change mitigation (bioenergy use decrease net greenhouse gas
emissions and some other noxious gas emissions compared to fossil fuels,
thus contributing to fulfil the Kyoto commitment) and the fight against
desertification
• stable employment opportunities in rural areas and among small and medium
sized enterprises; this in turn fosters regional development, achieving greater
social and economic cohesion at community level.

Other important advantages of bioenergy are as follows:

• Widespread resources are available
• Biomass resources show a considerable potential in the long term, if residues
are properly valorised and dedicated energy crops are grown. Bioenergy
makes valuable use of some wastes, avoiding their pollution and cost of
disposal
• Biomass has the capacity to penetrate every energy sector: heating, power
and transport. Bio-fuels can be stored easily and bioenergy produced when
needed
• Bioenergy creates worldwide business opportunities for EU industries
• Biofuels are generally bio-degradable and non toxic, which is important when
accident occur.
Barriers to bioenergy,
Here below are listed the specific actions against the Bioenergy expansion and driving
forces to support these activities
Barriers to bioenergy expansion

• Physical characteristics of biomass quite different
• Lack of small capacity efficient units for cogeneration using solid biomass
• costs of bioenergy technologies and resources
• competitiveness strongly depends on the amount of externalities included in
the cost calculations
• resource potentials and distributions
• lack of organisation in supply structures for the supply of biofuels
• local land-use and environmental aspects in the developing countries
• administrative and legislative bottlenecks.
• Biomass if not refined (pellets/briquettes) is biologically instable
Overcoming these barriers

• improving the cost-effectiveness of conversion/utilisation technologies;
• developing and implementing modern, integrated bioenergy systems
(multicrops-multiproducts)
• it took farmers thousands of years to develop plants that are especially
suitable for food. There is therefore a considerable potential in developing
dedicated energy crops productivity
• establishing bioenergy markets and developing bioenergy logistics
(transport and delivery bioenergy resources and products)
• Valuing of the environmental benefits for society e.g. on carbon balance.

1.6.2 Conversion Routes to Bioenergy
The energy available in biomass may be used either by direct use as in combustion,
or by initial upgrading into more valuable and useful fuels such as charcoal, liquid
fuels, producer gas or biogas. Thus, biomass conversion technologies can be
separated into four basic categories:
direct combustion,
thermo-chemical conversion processes (pyrolysis, gasification),
bio-chemical processes (anaerobic digestion, fermentation)
physico-chemical (the route to biodiesel).
The processes of each category will be presented in details in the following paragraph.
Fig. 4: Conversion processes to biofuels
1.7 Analysis of E.U. Bioenergy technologies commercially available
1.7.1 Solid Biomass pre-treatment (Biopellets and briquettes)
Three of the four possible biomass products - lignocellulosic materials, starch, sugar,
and vegetal oils, - are harvested mainly for human nutrition. Pre-treatment and storage
technology is therefore already widely available. For a modern utilisation of
lignocellulosic biomass (the largest market potential) one of the basic requirements is
to transform this huge amount of humid resource into a “real energy carrier”.

This transformation should make biomass easily to handle, store and transport over
large distances and be tradable at inter-regional and international level.
Biomass therefore has to be pre-treated and refined through drying and compactation
processes (pelletisation or briquetting) if an efficient international market for bioenergy
must to be established.
The other significant contribution from bioenergy in a longer term will be the
production of liquid biofuels for transport (bioethanol, biomethanol, biodiesel).
Tables here below show the density of original wood residues compared with the
refined product, and specific characteristics of wood pellets and shows the main
logistical and economical interest of those pretreatments..
Fig. 5: Density of Wood Wastes

3
By-products Density (kg/m )
Oak bark 200
Hardwoods sawdust 130
Oaks sawdust 235
Beech sawdust 220
Hardwoods chips 175
Beeches chips 135
Oaks chips 135
Voluminous coniferous wastes 240
Voluminous oaks wastes 430
Voluminous residues of Spruce 320 to 350
Voluminous residues of pine 350 to 380
Leafy 400 to 450
Fig. 6: Bulk density of Refined Biomass
3
Chips: 150 - 282 kg/m
3
Briquettes: 520 - 680 kg/m
3
Pellets: 650 - 700 kg/m
More promising than briquettes, biopellets currently look most likely to be able to
satisfy the range of domestic and industrial fuel uses (from a few kWs to hundreds of
MWs) involving the modern automated fuel handling and controlled combustion
processes now commercially available. Biopellets are suitable for both heat and power
production but also for the expected future production of synthetic bio-fuels.
Fig. 7: Heat value of different fuels
Fuel kWh/Kg
Biopellets 4.7
Coal 5.5
Oil 12.3

1.7.2 Increasing interest for biomass derived Biofuels
Besides biomass materials that are used in a traditional way, directly as fuel (such as
firewood), most biomass resources need to be converted into solid, gaseous or liquid
biofuels for utilisation in modern and efficient utilisation systems. There are two kinds
of conversion process: biochemical and thermochemical. In the first process,
involving anaerobic digestion or alcohol fermentation, fuel is obtained by means of
chemical reactions caused by the presence of enzymes, fungus and microorganisms.
With the second process, involving carbonisation, gasification or pyrolysis technology,
either solid, gaseous or liquid biofuels are obtained by the action of heating and of a
catalyst.
Biofuels can be used for heating, for cogeneration (simultaneous production of electric
energy and heating) or for mobility (transport). This is an application of major interest
in Europe for its large potential impact in supply volume and reasonable production
costs.
The commercial technologies available today for the conversion of biomass resources
into solid, liquid or gaseous biofuels and for the production of heat, power or for
transport, these can be subdivided into two main categories:
• Small scale technologies for decentralised bioenergy production (activity
relevant for rural development)
• Medium to large-scale technologies and schemes for centralised bioenergy
production (industrial activity)
With the second category there are no real problems in the availability of commercial
technologies at a reasonable cost and reasonable efficiency. But the absence, in most
of countries, of a legal frame for operation and of adequate incentives have
discouraged investors to enter in the sector. Meanwhile, there is a worldwide scarcity,
however, of small capacity systems and technologies needed for diffused applications
in rural areas.
This deficiency should be addressed for the following reasons:

• Social stability can only be achieved if the tendency of the labour force to
concentrate in cities is reduced. With its complex multidisciplinary nature,
biomass can offer great possibilities for new work activity involving people at
all possible levels of education;
• Energy and transport biofuels can be produced also by small plants deployed
in large numbers in rural areas (decentralised production) redistributing both
economic benefits and energy to people living in these districts;
• Small-scale plants will make better use of the many types of local biomass
resources that exist everywhere, reducing the problems and cost of transport.
Here enclosed the wide range of bioenergy sectors and technologies required in the
three steps of the biomass chain (biomass resource procurement and pre-treatment,
conversion and utilisation) are shortly summarised. The difficulty in the identification of
optimised bioenergy actives is due to the complexity and wide range of possible
options available for a choice.

1.7.3 Biomass for Heat and Power
Some variety of biomass are utilized to generate bioenergy (electricity and heat)
through combustion from agro-industries (bagasse), from residues, post harvest (corn
stalks) from animal manure, wood wastes from forestry, Industry residues from food,
paper industries and biogas from the digestion of agricultural and other organic waste
could provide between 40EJ and 170EJ of energy per year.
Biomass can be converted for power generation using several processes.

Generally, the majority of biomass-derived electricity is produced using a steam cycle
process, in which biomass is burned in a boiler to generate high-pressure steam, that
flows over a series of aerodynamic blades causing a turbine to rotate, which in
response turns a connected electric generator to produce electricity.4 5 Compacted
forms of biomass such as wood pellets and briquettes can also be used for
combustion. This system is known as the direct-fired system and is similar to the
electricity generation process of most fossil-fuel fired power plants.
Biomass can also be burned with coal in a boiler of a conventional power plant to yield
steam and electricity. Co-firing biomass with coal is currently the most cost-efficient
way of incorporating renewable technology into conventional power production
because much of the existing power plant infrastructure can be used without major
modifications.6 7 Co-combusting coal and biomass in large-scale coal plants is
claimed to have significantly higher combustion efficiency (up to 45 percent) than
dedicated-biomass plants (30 to 35 percent using dry biomass and 22 percent for
MSW)8 According to the U.S. Department of Energy and the Coal Utilization Research
Council, conventional pulverized coal in modern plants can yield 45 to 50 percent
efficiency and have the potential to achieve 70 to 80 percent efficiency with advances
in future gasification technologies.9 10 Co-firing technology options have been tested
in Northern Europe, the United States, and Australia in approximately 150 installations
using woody and agricultural residues.11
1.7.4 Biogas for Heat and Power and transport
Anaerobic Digestion
Biogas can also be created through anaerobic digestion of food or animal waste by
bacteria, in an oxygen-starved environment. The final product of this form of digestion
is a biogas that contains a high volume of methane along with carbon dioxide.
Methane-rich biogas can be used for heating or for electricity generation in a modified
internal combustion engine.12 Advanced gasification technologies are necessary to
produce biogas with sufficient energy for fuelling turbines.
The conversion of animal wastes and manure to methane/biogas can bring significant
environmental and health benefits. Methane is a GHG that is 22-24 times more
powerful as CO2 in trapping heat in the atmosphere13. By trapping and utilizing the
methane, GHG impacts are avoided. In addition, pathogens present in manure are
killed by the heat generated in the biodigestion process and the material left at the end
of the process provides a valuable fertilizer.

Biodigestion is employed successfully in various countries, and particularly in China

and India where is has contributed to energy provision to rural populations, abatement
of negative environmental impacts of livestock production, and the production of
organic fertilizer. Its impact on sanitation, clean cooking and heating and in the
creation of small and medium enterprises in rural areas is very positive.
Gasification
Through the process of gasification, solid biomass can be converted into a fuel gas or
biogas. Biomass gasifiers operate by heating biomass in an oxygen-free, high
temperature environment that breaks it down to release a flammable, energy-rich
synthesis gas or ‘syngas’.14 This gas can be burned in a conventional boiler, or used
instead of natural gas in a gas turbine to turn electric generators. Biogas formed
through gasification can be filtered to remove unwanted chemical compound and can
be used in efficient power generation systems known as ‘combined-cycles’, which can
combine steam and gas turbines for electricity generation and can yield up to 60
percent efficiency of coal-fired plants.15 The first integrated gasification combined
cycle (IGCC) plant fuelled by 100 percent biomass (from straw) was successfully
demonstrated in Sweden from 1996 to 200016. IGCC plants elsewhere could become
economically competitive using black-liquor from the pulp and paper industry as a
feedstock, but further analysis is required.17
1.7.5 Biofuels for Transport

Liquid biofuels are liquid renewable energy sources from living things.
The transport sector in the E.U. derives almost 95% of its energy needs from oil. New
solution and diversification of the transportation fuel supply converting new ideas into
practical solution and through the deployment of domestic alternative biofuels from
agriculture could be advisable and useful also to reduce the transport related pollution
(especially in congested urban areas) and to contribute to rural development, in
particular in marginalized areas no more competitive for food production. Of course
natural gas in the short-medium term will play a strategic role also with the production
of high purity synthetic liquid hydrocarbons - through syngas obtained from natural
gas.
From biomass the same types of transport fuels can be obtained; among the
promising alternative liquid or gaseous biofuels, the most interesting are indicated in
the table here below:
Biofuels with largest future potential
• Bioethanol
• Biodiesel (methyl -ester of vegetal oils)
• Biomethanol
• Biodimethyl Ether (Bio DME)
• Bio ETBE (contains 47% biomethanol)
• Bio MTBE (contains 36% biomethanol)

• Biogas (fuel gas derived from the biodegradable fraction of wastes with ~ 60%
of methane)
• Biohydrogen (hydrogen produced from biomass)
• Synthetic biofuels (synthesised hydrocarbon or mixtures of hydrocarbon
derived from biomass through several conversion processes)
These biofuels have been listed also in the new EC Directives recently approved for
the promotion of renewable biofuels for transport. Biofuels derived from renewable
biomass resources (including biohydrogen and synthetic biofuels) have the technical
and economic potential of large-scale replacement of the fossil ones.
In a short term, the great potential for biofuels to penetrate the strategic sector of
transport yet is represented by liquid alcohol such as bioethanol and biomethanol.
Research in this area has greatly expanded across Europe, the Unites States, Brazil
and Japan, covering the entire alcohol production, distribution and utilisation process
from the selection of high-yield cultivars for the production of biomass feedstock to the
performances assessment of alternative and neat alcohol fuels or blends in engines..
But now a broad spectrum of public decision-makers has been interested in the
applications of alternative fuels and biofuels as given in the above table as examples
in order to solve specific problems.
The main characteristics of different biofuels are shortly illustrated here below:
Bioethanol (BIO - ETOH)
Is a colourless, good liquid fuel with its chemical formula: C2H5OH. This biofuel is an
already refined product and it is a potential good transport fuel for gasoline blending,
reformulation and substitution especially when optimised ethanol engines (now under
development) will be commercially available. At present the world production is limited
to 23 mio m3 / year and most is obtained from sugar cane (Brazil) and starch (corn -
USA). Intensive R & D activity to obtain bioethanol from lignocellulosic feedstock is
under way. Bioethanol production in the EU is ~ 0.8 mio t/year. The estimated
(conservative) bioethanol worldwide potential is more than 2 billion t/y at a likely cost
of 30 $/bbloe (200 $/m3) through large industrial and decentralised production units.
Energy ratio: 1.3 – 4.0 depending on the crop. Developing countries have large
possibility for future bioethanol production and export for low resource production cost
and also because the bioethanol investment cost are much lower (1/3) of sugar
investment costs. Bioethanol is 70% less energetic than gasoline providing lower
autonomy in existing engine technology and vehicles.
Biomethanol (BIO - MEOH)
Biomethanol can be produced from synthesis gas, mixtures of H2 and CO, derived
from biomass (bio-syn-gas) via a well - known cathaoxygen and steam or by steam
reforming of charcoal. At present methanol is mostly produced from natural gas (world
production 27 mio t/year) with a conversion efficiency of ~ 55% and at a cost of
Biomethanol has the potential of substituting the synthesis methanol.

Biodiesel
At world level the average diesel - oil consumption is ~ 145 l / person and widely
available. The interest for substitution with vegetal - oils (which are technically good
fuels) locally produced is significant. In Europe there is a specific crop (rapeseed with
a productivity of 1.00 - 1,5 t/ha of oil extracted from the seeds) of particular interest for
farmers. But because the vegetal oils are not a very good fuel for direct injection
engines (because of their high viscosity and thermal instability) it has been found a
good solution by transforming the vegetal oil in ester (lower viscosity, good stability,
complete miscibility with diesel oil) as follows: 1 t (oil) + 100 kg methanol = ester + 100
kg glycerine. In Germany there is already a significant production and 1600 refuelling
stations.
Bio-ETBE (Bio-Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether)
Is a colourless, flammable, oxygenated hydrocarbon with its chemical formula: C2 H5

OC4 H9. This biofuel is produced by mixing bioethanol (48% in volume) and tertiary
butanol (or bioethanol and iso-butylene) and reacting them with heat over a catalyst.
This biofuel (octane rating: 112) can be used in existing gasoline engine without any
modification with excellent performance and environmental benefits replacing
aromatics and benzene. Bio-ETBE is acceptable for direct refinery blending and for
common pipeline transport.
In Europe the motivation for promoting the use of biofuels is based on the growing
interest in diversifying the EU fuel supply for the transport sector which presently is
nearly 100% dependent on oil, and expecting a high increase in future demand, whilst
improving the viability of indigenous biomass resources.
Bio-MTBE (Bio-Methyl-Tertiary Butyl Ether)
Is similar to Bio-ETBE and obtained by mixing biomethanol (36% in volume) and

tertiary butanol with heat over catalyst.
Biogas (a mixture of ~ 60% of methane and ~ 40% of CO2)
Is produced most by anaerobic fermentation of very humid biomass (livestock liquid

manure, sludges, wastes, etc...). Small size plants are widely diffused in developing
countries (~ 10 mio units in China), large plants are deployed most in industrial
countries for treatment or urban sludges or for disposal of agro-industrial wastes.
Biohydrogen
For production of hydrogen from biomass 3 different but associated routes have been
followed in this project. The first is the fermentation of sugars to hydrogen, CO2 and
organic acids by thermophilic bacteria at approx. 70 ºC, Stage 1 of the bioprocess.
The second is the subsequent conversion of organic acids in the effluent to hydrogen
and CO2 in the presence of light at ambient temperature, Stage 2 of the bioprocess.

The third route is the thermochemical conversion of residues which can not be
converted by anaerobic bacteria. Supercritical water gasification is employed here to
convert non-fermentable residues in biomass to hydrogen and CO2.
Biosyntetic Fuels
A wide range of very clean synthetic fuels can be obtained from "biosyngas" derived
from biomass by "Fischer - Tropsch" process.
The F.T. stands out as the most attractive process because:

• It can produce a wide range of high quality fuels and some of high value,
like:
− F.T. bio-diesel oil (sulphur free)
− Bio-olefins
− Bio-Middle Distillates
− Bio-nafta
− Bio-methane
− Etc...
• The market for its products is well established;
• There is no need of new refuelling infrastructure;
• There is no need of major engine modification;
• Its production cost is higher than for biomethanol but reasonable;
• Can be operated economically in remote locations today when the crude-oil
price is approx. 40 $/bbl
.
Bio-Dimethyl Ether (Bio-DME)
Is similar to LPG (a mixture of propane and butane) in terms of physical

characteristics. It can be used as substitute for LPG or as oxygenated addictive in
transport fuels or as diesel-fuel substitution. A potential 2% contribution to the diesel-
oil pool (134 mio t/y in year 2010) is considered possible in a medium term but
biomass must complete with natural gas. DME could be produced from bio-syn-gas by
direct catalytic conversion of CO; it will be more expensive than biomethanol.
At present DME is produced from pure methanol by an acid catalyst (Aluminium Oxide
or Aluminium Silicate) in a fixed bed a low pressure and temperature (260 °C – 350
°C). The resulting mixture (DME + methanol + water) is separated by distillation. Direct
conversion of CO in DME (now under development) will be more economical.

The main issues deriving from the use of alcohol biofuels for blending or reformulation
are:
• These biofuels offer an important option for reducing CO pollution, precursor
of ozone formation, in urban areas by ensuring also more complete
combustion (up to 30%);
• Alcohol fuels have a much higher octane rating than gasoline, increasing
power output and reducing engine knock (octane busters);
• Alcohol fuels have a lower energy density, compensated (in part) by the
higher combustion efficiency.
It is expected that a bioethanol will be produced in the EU in the medium term at a

level of around 250 €/m3 by the adoption of optimised crops (such as sweet
sorghum/corn) and the fully integrated processing of all feedstock components (grain,
sugar, lignocellulosic).
For promotion of decentralised bioenergy production (very important for rural
development programmes) small size activity and technologies are mostly required.
1.7.6 Small Scale Commercial Technologies
Pelletisation & briquetting technologies in particular:
Innovative, cost-effective pelletisation plants with an output of 1-5 t/hr are now
commercially available. Small mobile pelletisation units with an output of 200 Kg/hr,
able to be mounted on a tractor and travel to inaccessible difficult areas will be
available. These can convert any type of humid biomass into pellets (φ 6-12 mm). This
new refining technology (extraction of 21% of humidity and compaction) requires only
about 4% of its biomass energy content, in comparison with conventional production
process of pellets requiring about 10% of their energy content.
Small Cogeneration Units

• Capacity range commercially available: 70 – 500 kWe. These systems are
based on atmospheric gasifier-engine generator. Total electrical efficiency: ≈
19%.
• Pollutant emissions within EC standards.
• Capital investment cost: 2,800 €/kWe.
• Co-generation production (power, heat / cooling) can be obtained.
• Potential markets: groups of houses/villages, shopping centres, hotels, tourist
centres, clinics, schools, agro-industrial centres, SMEs, co-operatives, for
remote sites/islands.

Synthesis Gas Generators
Syngas is a mixture of CO and H2 gas (carbon monoxide and hydrogen) and well
known in industrial countries (before the natural gas arrival on the market) as ‘town
gas’. In fact it has been used in large quantities until the last century in many
countries. Charcoal pellets obtained by carbonisation of biomass pellets can replace
anthracite and can be converted into syn-gas through an innovative low-cost
integrated and energy saving process (patent pending). Small units (3.5 kg pellets/hr)
can supply enough syngas to cover the cooking needs (all year around) of a village of
100 inhabitants. Bigger commercial units could supply cooking fuel for a city of
200,000 people.
Production cost of this Bio-syn-gas in the EU is estimated at around 300 €/TOE. In

China, Africa and developing countries the production cost could be 170 €/TOE,
competitive with LPG (consumer cost in rural China 190-360 €/TOE, in Africa 570
€/TOE.
Syngas can also be utilised in small micro-turbine-gas cogenerator/trigeneration units

(30-100 kWe).
Micro Distilleries for Bioethanol
Capacity range: 1 to 10m3/day.

Capital investment: ~ 1,200 €/m3 per day (in favourable climatic situations).
Several types of sugar and starch crops can be utilised. Production of a low-grade
(95°) bioethanol is the best option in terms of cost: this low-grade fuel is adequate is
pure enough for several applications, including engines, microgas turbines or as
cooking fuel.
Decentralised production of bioethanol by small distilleries (in parallel to centralised

production by large plants) can enlarge the rural development effects although with
some increase in its production costs. However, the full exploitation of crops with a
simultaneous production of several co-products will compensate in part for this
economic disadvantage.
Microgas-Turbine Co-/Trigeneration Systems Fed with Biofuels (liquid or

gaseous)
Capital investment cost: ~ 1000 €/kWe

Fuels: low-grade ethanol, vegetal-oil, bio-syn-gas, biogas
Very low Nox, CO and particulate emissions
Very low operating cost
Suitable for trigeneration: production of electricity + heat + cooling / freezing
Potential interest for peak-power supply
Potential markets: hotels, schools, tourist resorts, clinics, islands population, small
desalination plants, SMEs, agro-industries

Clean Carbonisation Plants for Charcoal Pellets Production
Input material: large size pellets from any type of biomass (humid-forestry residues,
wastes, agriculture residues, grasses, energy crops or biomass mixtures
Capacity range: 500 – 30,000 t/y
Capital investment cost: 330 €/t charcoal/y
Production cost of charcoal in Europe around 180 €/t, in China $ 110/135/ton.
Plants for the Production of Activated-coal
Input material charcoal pellets

Capacity range: 100 - 10,000 t/y
Capital investment cost: about 1,300 €/t act-coal produced per year
Production cost around 600 €/t (market value 1,300 €/)
Suitable for purification process of liquids/gases, important for example for drinking
water
Suitable for purification in petrochemical complexes, agro-industrial processing plants
etc.
Biogas Plants
Efficient commercial technologies (small to medium capacity) are available in many

EU countries.
Heating, Climatisation, Freezing Units utilising Biofuels
A large variety of heating (stoves, boilers) or commercial absorption refrigeration

systems are available which can be coupled to the low temperature exhaust of
biomass heat co-generation.
As far as concerns large industrial bioenergy plants for centralised commercial energy
production that are widely available in the EU these are summarised in table here
below.
1.7.7 Large Scale Commercial Technologies
Biomass power plants (above 2 MWe).
Many reliable and sound technologies based on combustion steam-condensing plants

fuelled by solid biomass or gas/steam turbine c.c. Plants fuelled by liquid biofuels (low-
grade bioethanol, biomethanol) are commercially available in the EU.
Large plants for heat production (100 MW+) for industrial use or for district
heating

Bioethanol (up to 600,000 t/y) and Biomethanol (100,000 t/y) plants,

although in many cases, unfortunately, the economic risk discourages their
deployment. The now approved EC Directives on complete detaxation of biofuels
should improve the perspectives and promote these biofuels.
Bio-syn-gas/Biohydrogen plants (capacity 5,000 ÷ 20,000 t/y)

can be installed requiring modest adaptation of commercial available technologies.
High capacity biogas plants

processing organic wastes of different origin are now widely available.
Large-scale integration of commercial bioenergy complexes

within petroleum refinery infrastructures for the production of heat, power bio-
hydrogen and for reformulation of gasoline/diesel with bio-ethanol / bio-methanol to
obtain higher-grade, less polluting transport fuels, could now being envisaged.
At present, taking into account the situation and needs of the arid and semi arid area
in Africa, only the small-scale technologies summarised in the previous table have
been considered, and will be more extensively analysed in the following chapter
because these:
• are relevant for a decentralised clean energy production
• only SME are involved and require particular assistance
• smaller financial efforts are required
For large plants, only co-firing of coal / biomass pellets are mentioned, because in this
case large amount of biomass (supplied by farmers and cooperatives) will be needed
for operation of large power plants with obvious impact on rural employment.

1.7.8 Sustainability Considerations
Sustainable development has been defined by the World Commission on

Environment and Development (WCED) as "a development that ensures the needs
of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. Sustainable development is generally seen as a
multidimensional concept, of which the economic, social and environmental
dimension are most often discussed.
Regarding the economic dimension, at the level of individuals, objectives of

sustainable development are to achieve personal welfare by efficient allocation of
scarce resources, to meet (at least) basic human needs, and to eliminate poverty. At
the company level - an objective is to obtain and maintain a competitive market
position. At the national and international level a main aim is to obtain and maintain a
healthy economy. Finally, a key objective regarding the environmental dimension of
sustainable development is to obtain and to maintain a healthy condition for humans,
animals and plants. Protecting biodiversity and avoiding unacceptable environmental
risks play an important role in this respect.
Biomass energy, with its many different faces, confirms this dual picture. A part of the
traditional use of biomass, mainly for cooking and heating in developing countries, is
not sustainable. One of the reasons for this is that, according to several authorities, it
may contribute to desertification and other forms of land degradation. Unsustainable
harvesting of biomass may also contribute to a decline of the worldwide carbon buffer
in forests and thus affect climate change.
However, modem use of biomass, i.e. to produce electricity, steam and biofuels, has
the potential to give a positive contribution to sustainable development. It is a source
of CO2 - neutral energy, which can reduce CO, emissions to the atmosphere when it
replaces fossil energy carriers. Moreover, sustainable cultivation of energy crops has
the potential to improve degraded land, e.g. by adding additional carbon to the soil
and reducing the risk of erosion.
Regarding emissions, it is possible, to convert biomass into other energy carriers with
little contaminating emissions, when there is good control of the combustion process.
Another important contribution to sustainable development is the potential of energy

plantations to create new employment opportunities in rural areas. labour
requirement of biomass energy is generally relatively high, especially regarding the
cultivation of energy crops. Strongly related to this is the import substitution effect
that local biomass energy production may have in developing countries.
http://www.biomatnet.org/secure/Other/S1265.htm
Environmentally Sustainable
One of the key drivers to bioenergy deployment is its positive environmental benefit,
in particular regarding the global balance of green house gas (GHG) emissions. IEA
Bioenergy Task 38 (Greenhouse Gas Balances of Biomass and Bioenergy Systems)
investigates all processes involved in the use of bioenergy systems on a full fuel-
cycle basis with the aim of establishing overall GHG balances. This is not a trivial

matter, because biomass production and use are not entirely GHG neutral. In general
terms, the GHG emission reduction as a result of employing biomass for energy,
read as follows:
Fig. 8: Budget breakdown of GHG emission savings

+ avoided mining of fossil resources
– emission from biomass production
+ avoided fossil fuel transport (from producer to user)
– emission from biomass fuel transport (from producer to user)
+ avoided fossil fuel utilisation
The real gains are made with the last issue, i.e. that of avoided emissions from the
use of fossil fuels. There are indications that the balance of the other four matters is
not neutral, and in fact slightly negative for the biomass system. Two GHG emission
types are omitted from the above balance: the negative emission (capture) as a
result of biomass growth, and the positive emission as a result from using the
biomass fuel. They are considered to cancel out.
Socially Sustainable
Employment Figures for Developing Countries:
The employment as reported from Domac, J. et al (2005) "Socio-economic drivers in

Implementing Bioenergy Projects", Biomass & Bioenergy, shows the importance of
bioenergy in developing countries. The objective is to increase the efficiency of this
biomass utilisation, with better technology and application so they get the most out of
the biomass available and to grow biomass at a sustainable rate which is not
overtaken by consumption.
Estimated Description and Nature of

Country Employment Employment
Many are involved in production,
conversion, and transportation.
Ratio between traders and
Pakistan 600,000 gatherers is 1:5
The woodfuel trade is the largest
source of employment in the
India 3-4 million energy sector
700,000 (production) Biomass energy production and
Philippines 140,000 (trade) trade
Brazil 700,000 Ethanol Industry
200,000 Charcoal Industry
Kenya and
Cameroon 30,000 Charcoal production only
Ivory Coast 90,000 Charcoal production only

The follow graphs show the difference the Earnings for each activity of the bioenergy
cycle in developing or tropical countries. The figures come from Hector, B., 2000,
"Forest fuels-rural employment and earnings", Department of Forest Management
and Products, SLU, SE-750 07, Upsala, Sweden. Depending on the type of
bioenergy chain, the different activities vary quite considerably. For example
administration costs account for 10% of intensive farming total costs whereas in
large-scale woodfuel forestry it accounts for 23% of total cost. Also harvesting
agricultural land is proportionally more costly than forestry with figures of 36% and
25% respectively. Many factors influence the differences, not just the physical
differences in the biomass, between food crops and trees such as density, weight
and bulk size but also the size of the estate, whether harvesting equipment is
affordable for smaller producers.
Bioenergy is a decentralised energy option whose implementation presents positive

impacts on rural development by creating business and employment opportunities.
Jobs are created all along the bioenergy chain, from biomass production or
procurement, to its transport, conversion, distribution and marketing. Bioenergy
appears as the most labour-intensive sector among renewables. The jobs created
range from manual ones to specialised engineering and administration positions.
Through liquid biofuels, bioenergy can also offer agriculture an opportunity to
diversify its market outcomes.
From the perspective of bioenergy projects, the term employment usually includes
three different categories. Direct employment results from operation, construction
and production. In the case of bioenergy systems, this refers to the total labour
necessary for crop production, construction, operation and maintenance of
conversion plants, and for the transportation of biomass. Indirect employment is jobs
generated within the economy as a result of expenditures related to biomass fuel
cycles. Indirect employment results from all activities connected, but not directly
related, such as supporting industries, services and similar. The higher purchasing
power, due to increased earnings from direct and indirect jobs may also create
opportunities for new secondary jobs, which may attract people to stay or even to
move in. These latter effects are referred to as induced employment. The main issue

is whether the bioenergy project will provide earnings that are high enough for long
enough to make it worthwhile to mobilise local resources for implementation.
Economic Sustainability
The cost of biomass fuel supply depends on the cost of producing or recovering the
biomass feedstock and costs incurred for its transport and pre-processing prior to
use in ana electricity generation plant. Biomass feedstock costs vary widely from
negative values, in the case of some residues requiring disposal, to relatively high
costs in the case of some dedicated energy crops.
a) Biomass fuels are characterized by lower energy density compared to solid and
liquid fossil fuels, the cost of transporting biomass fuels is, as a consequence,
relatively high and transport distance plays an important role in biomass fuel
economics, particularly road transport. Appropriate transportation methods will
depend mainly on distance, but also on the transport infrastructure available and
applicable regulations (e.g. maximum payload in terms of weight or volume
transported).
Road transport may be suitable only for relatively short distances (< 150 km). other
transportation methods, such as rail, barge and ship, would be preferred over longer
distances, in general, road transportation contributes significantly to the delivered
cost of biomass fuel.
b) Direct combustion of biomass in dedicated plants or co-firing with fossil fuels,

mainly coal, are the main routes at present for electricity production from biomass.
Dedicated bioelectricity plants are usually of modest scale (<50 MWe) because of the
dispersed nature of biomass supplies, their low energy density and consequently
high transportation costs. But, combustion systems using steam turbine based power
generation are characterized by higher specific capital costs (€/kW) and lower
efficiency at smaller scales, with the lower capacity limit for a combustion plant is
estimated to be around 5 MWe. As a result, most existing plants have electrical
efficiencies between 15% and 25% due to small scale and trade-offs between
investments in more expensive equipment and efficiency reductions.
Gasification technology holds promise for electricity generation at different scales. At

capacities between a few tens of kW and 5 MWe fixed bed gasifiers coupled with
reciprocating engines and small turbines could generate electricity with efficiencies of
about 25%.
At capacities above 30 MWe circulating fluidized bed gasifiers coupled with

combined cycle steam and gas turbines could generate electricity with efficiencies
between about 40 and 50%. However, gasification systems are currently and the pre-
commercial stage and demonstration projects are required to prove the long-term
reliability of the technology and reduce its cots.
The cost of electricity depends on the supply economics of biomass feedstock, power
generation technology, scale of operation and the extent to which retrofit is possible
in the case of co-firing or parallel-firing with fossil fuel (e.g. coal).

2 Pre-treatment technologies
2.1 Chipping
A forest chip production system consists in processing biomass into commercial fuel
and transport it from source to plant. The main phases of chip procurement are
purchase, cutting, off-road transport from stump to roadside, secondary transport
from roadside to the utilisation unit. The system offers the organization, logistics and
tools to control the process.
The efficiency of a procurement system is highly dependent on both the environment
and the infrastructure in which it is operating. Economic, social, ecological, industrial
and educational factors, as well as local traditions, also have an effect.
Consequently, no single production system is optimal in all countries or in all
conditions within a given country.
The integration of forest chip production with the procurement of roundwood opens
up possibilities for cost savings. It is feasible to use the existing transport equipment
for forest biomass when possible. However, due to differences in handling properties
and destinations, special equipment is also needed.
Several alternative production systems are in use, and each system employs special
equipment that is not necessarily compatible with other systems. Poor compatibility
increases the commercial risks for contractors and plants when they invest in new
equipment and it may result in underemployment and unnecessary shifting of
harvesting machines and trucks from one site to another.
2.1.1 Technology overview

Before chipping starts it must be planned where the wood chips are to be stored or if
they are to be loaded into containers. lf the chips will be forwarded by the chipper, it
is important that the distance is as small as possible. Often it will increase the
productivity of the chipper if a tractor with a trailer is used to forward the chips from
the stand to the storage or the container.
A chipper consists of a basic machine with an engine and a driver's cab. The front
end is equipped with a chipping device and a crane which feeds the trees into the
chipper. At the rear end there is a tipping container. There are purpose-built self-
propelled chippers as well as systems based on a large agricultural trailer trailing a
chip van. The feeding system of the chipper is equipped with a hopper to facilitate
feeding and with hydraulic rollers pulling the trees into the chipper.
There are three basic chipper types:

the disc chipper: consisting in a heavy rotating disc with rectangular grooves
provided with knives running radially from the shaft. The chips produced by a
disc chipper are fairly uniform
the drum chipper: consisting in a rotating drum where knives are embedded in
2-4 longitudinal grooves in the curved surface.The chips produced are less
uniform than those from a disc chipper

the screw chipper: with this one the chips are cut by a conical screw with a
sharp peripheral edge. Screw chippers can produce larger chips than disc
chippers and drum chippers. Some types comminute the wood into chunks of
150 mm length. Chips from this type of chipper are usually wider as well.
The exploitation of whole-tree chips for fuel is of great significance to forestry as the
production and sales of chips permit to carry out the necessary silvicultural
measures.
Fig. 9 Fig. 10
Chips are typically produced in connection with three different forestall tasks:
1. Thinning of young conifer stands
2. Clear-cutting of old mountain pine stands
3. Clearing of residue from old spruce stands
In terms of volume the first two tasks are clearly the most dominating and they are
also the ones where the wood chip production means most to forestry.
2.1.2 Technology production: Systems and handling of Forest Residues
The current technology of harvesting of forest residues and chips will be discussed.
There are several methods to harvest forest residue fuel. Information on following
subjects has been considered for the raw materials:
• Selection of production sites for harvesting of logging residues for fuel
• Yield of harvested logging residues for fuel
• Harvesting technology of forest residues for fuel
• Organisations that harvest logging residues for fuel
• Harvesting costs of forest residue chips for fuel
• Logging residue chips’ quality
• Environmental impacts of harvesting logging residues for fuel

Figure 11: Yield of different wood products and fuel from 1 hectare of spruce stands
for final cutting (VTT)
2.1.2.1 Logging residue production sites
On an atypical felling site of spruce, approximately 100 m3 solid of logging residue

per hectare accrues while 200 to 250 m3 solid of merchantable wood per hectare is
harvested. Nowadays recovery rate of logging residue is 65-75 % in Finland. Usually
forest residue is harvested in summer time, when logging residue is dry. Swedish
studies during winter indicated that the recovery rate of logging residue was 75 %.
A good harvesting site is described as:

• As much spruce as possible; good recovery rate and productivity.
• Fertile soil
• A sufficiently large felling site or a concentration of stands
• Easily traversed, well bearing ground,
• No undergrowth which hinders logging,
• Short terrain transport distance and,
• A spacious roadside storage area for long distance transport
Advantages of harvesting logging residue

• Nutrient leaching to waterways is decreased
• Soil preparation can be accomplished with less radical means
• More natural development in regeneration areas
• Because planting can be done earlier, regeneration areas are not
covered with grass and there is less need for fighting against grass
• Planting is easier, it is often possible to use smaller sapling

• Aesthetic and recreational value of involved areas is enhanced

• Forest regeneration costs are remarkably decreased and
• Forest regeneration is faster and results are expected to be better.
Possible disadvantages of harvesting logging residue

• Organic material is removed from the nutrient cycle
• The amount of humus protecting the soil is decreased
• Some nutrients are removed from the ecosystem
• Risk of acidification is increased and
• Danger of growth losses.
2.1.2.2 Industrial timber harvesting
When working at a final felling site the harvester operator cuts trees on either one or
both sides of the strip road. It is possible to harvest logging residue if the residue is
located in fairly large, clearly delineated piles beside the strip roads and have not
been run over. This requires that working methods are modified in such a way that
logging residue is piled on either side of the harvester.
Harvesting logging residue is possible if:

• Logging residue is placed in fairly large and clearly delineated piles,
• They have not been run over by forest machines and
• Logging residue is piled on the side of strip roads.
When harvesting logging residue in piles:

• The recovery rate of logging residue is higher,
• The forest haulage of logging residue is more productive and
• Logging residue is cleaner and of better quality
2.1.2.3 Production technology of logging residues from final felling

stands
A forest chip production system consists of a sequence of individual operations

performed to process biomass into commercial fuel and to transport it from source to
plant. The main phases of chip procurement are purchase, cutting, off-road transport
from stump to roadside, comminution, measurement, secondary transport from
roadside to mill and receiving and handling at the plant. The system offers the
organization logistics and tools to control the process.

The main methods used for production of forest chips are:

a) ‘Chipping at the roadside landing’ method: logging residue are hauled to the
roadside landing all year round from the surroundings of the terminal.
Specifications of a good logging residue chipper:
• High productivity
• Long feeding table
• Must have forced feed but be resistant to clogging
• Drum chippers are not as sensitive to impurities as disc chippers
• Drum chippers produce a more even quality of chips than crushers
Figure 12 : Chipping of forest residue at the road side (VTT)
b) ‘Chipping at the terminal’ method: The production phases of the forest residues
harvesting chain of forest residues for fuel based on the chipping at fuel terminal.
Figure 13 : Chipping of forest residue at the terminal (VTT)

c) ‘Chipping at the stand’ method: Terrain chipping is based on a single machine -

the so called ‘terrain chipper’, which chips forest residues into a container at the
stand and hauls the chips in a container to the landing or to the roadside.
The advantages and disadvantages of terrain chipping:
• Terrain chipping does not involve a hot chain
• Organisation of work is easier
• Storage space requirements are less than for roadside chipping
• It is difficult to produce good quality chips around the year
• Poor ability to work in difficult terrain conditions
• Competitiveness weaker in long forest haulage distances than it is in road side
chipping
d) A promising alternative for transporting whole logging residues is bundling

before long distance transport and chipping at power plant.
Chipping/crushing logging residue at the end use facility

• Hot chain problems are avoided
• Chipping/crushing can be done more economically than in terrain or by the
roadside
• Productivity is 20% better than for roadside chipping
• Chipping at the end use facility is the most economical option when the
transportation distance is less than 55km
• Lorry transport of logging residue is not economical without compacting
• The profitability of transportation can be improved either by compacting the
load or extending the load space
• Heavy crane must be used
Figure 14: Bundled forest residue chipped or crushed at power plant (VTT)

2.1.2.4 Production of forest residues from thinning
Thinning attempts to replicate the forest’s natural development, the aim normally
being to achieve a uniform age composition. Thinning is used to ensure growing
space for the forest’s best trees by felling those with retarded growth and those which
are diseased and of poor quality.
Many times the felling for wood thinning is made manually with a chainsaw, using a
felling-piling technique. The smaller the harvested trees are, the more profitable it is
to harvest them manually. Thus logging sites with only energy wood should be
harvested manually using the felling piling method
Figure 15: Whole-tree chip harvesting chain from first thinning and first commercial
thinning when only wood fuel chips are produced (VTT)
2.1.2.5 Production of stump and root residue
The stump-root system is defined as all wood and bark of a tree below the stump
cross-section. Stump-root systems can only be salvaged from clear-cutting areas.
Extraction of stumps is carried out with heavy machines and, therefore, only stumps
from saw timber-sized trees can be accepted. The removal of stump-root systems
facilitates site preparation for regeneration. It also involves an opportunity to
exterminate the root rot fungus from the stand, since the fungus survives in a
regeneration area in the stumps and gradually infects the next generation of trees.

Figure 16: Distribution of dry mass in a stump-root system of saw timber-sized trees.
Under 5cm root sections excluded (Hakkila 2004)
2.1.3 Main European pelleting mill manufacturers

2.1.3.1 Pezzolato S.p.a.
Via provinciale Revello, 89

12030 Envie (Cuneo) Italy
Tel: +39-0175-278077
Fax: +39-0175-278421
Email: info@pezzolato.it
Web: www.pezzolato.it
Disk chipping machines
The Pezzolato series “H” disk chippers, are made

mainly to produce material for heating systems with
screw feeding from small or big diameter logs. The
material chipped through the action of knives,
passes after micro-knives and additional knives put
in the conveyor. This sequence guarantees a good
calibration of the final product even for small
diameter screws.
The range includes machines able to reduce the

volume of large masses of green or dry material, including logs and branches with
diameters from 10 to 25 cm. The feature that distinguishes chipping machines is the
size of the inlet for the material to be chipped and the two toothed rollers which, via
independent hydraulic activation, bring the material to the cutting flywheel, onto
which the knives are attached. Long experience has allowed structuring this flywheel
so to ensure the highest cutting efficiency over time, without any particular
maintenance.

An electronic "no stress" protection device automatically adjusts the feeding flow of
the material to be chipped, according to the available power and the effort that the
quantity of chipping material takes. This device lengthens the life of the machine.
The chipped material is then expelled via

the unloading conveyor equipped with an
orientable deflector which allows directing
the chip flow to the ground or in a
container. PEZZOLATO chipping
machines - meeting the requirements of
our clients - can be operated either via the
tractor power take off, or with an
independent petrol, diesel or electric
engine.
SPECIFICATIONS
Chipping machine
H 780/200 H 880/250 H980/300
model
Tractor minimum
Hp/kw 60/44 80/59 90/66
power
Diesel engine power Hp/kw 60/44 80/59 150/110
Choppable max
mm 200 250 300
diameter
Loading opening
mm 1360x940 1460x1100 1620x1100
dimension
Disk diameter mm 780 880 980
Disk thickness mm 35 45 47
Knives n° 3 2/4 2/4
Production per hour mc 10/15 15/20 25/30
PTO version weight Kg 920 1440 2040

SPECIFICATIONS
Chipping machine
PZ100 PZ150 PZ250
model
Tractor minimum
Hp/kw 13/10 20/15 no
power
Diesel engine power Hp/kw 11/18 28/20 - 35/26 80/59-108/80
Loading opening
mm 690 x 400 1110 x 730 1305x 886
dimension
Disk diameter mm 520 680 1050
Disk thickness mm 22 28 37
Knives n° 2 2 2
Production per hour mc 2/3 8/10 20/25
PTO version weight Kg 365 750 1500
Drum chipping machines
Pezzolato series “PTH” drum chipping machines, have remarkable advantages in

comparison with the disk chippers because, dimensions being equal, the width of the
feeding opening is very much wider and this helps the feeding of the chipping
material (tops, brushes, etc.).
Then, it is possible to add a grille from which the chipped material comes out only
when the wished size is reached: and even when low value material is chipped (dead
branches, saw-mill waste, etc.), a final calibrated product is obtained; this is not
possible with a disk chipping machine.
The chipped material is pushed by a screw towards the fan and expulsed by the
discharge conveyor (adjustable at 360°).
The machines can be driven with a tractor PTO or a diesel engine, with a trailer for
low or high speed.
The machines have a No Stress electronic device which adjusts the feeding in
function to the available power.

PTH 1000/1000
Big dimension drum chipping

machine
Especially indicated for forestry

companies, consortiums, and
energy production plants from
biomass and for contracting
companies that need to make a
high production without
renouncing quality of the chipped
material. Interchangeable grids
are in fact available for obtaining
different sizes of chipped material.
PTH1000/1000 can fill a 350q
container in less than an hour.

SPECIFICATIONS
Chipping machine
PTH 480/660 PTH 700/660 PTH 900/820 PTH 1000/1000
model
Tractor minimum no
Hp/kw 100/74 120/88 200/147
power
300/220- 430/316-590/434
Diesel engine power Hp/kw 170/125 230/169
430/316
Loading opening 1000x700

mm 480x400 640x400 950x400
dimension
Disk diameter mm 400 400 450 550
Knives n° 2 2 2 2
Production per hour mc 20/30 40/50 100/120 130/150
PTO version weight Kg 4530 5300 12300 16500
2.1.3.2 Gandini Meccanica
Via della Valletta, 5

46040 Guidizzolo
Mantova - Italy
Tel.: +39 0376 818741
Fax: +39 0376 818465
e-mail: info@gandinimeccanica.com
web: www.gandinimeccanica.it
The series of chipping machine for the utilization in sites of media, big and large
dimensions. Composed from six models for every specific requirement.
Chipper line 04 series
This type of chipping machine has been designed to

solve the shredding problems in medium sizes yard.
04 MTS
The MTS version of chipping machines is equipped
with a self contained engine, fixed axla and wheels
and can be towed by any type of trunk into which
can be loaded directly the chipped material. This
version can be available with an air-cooled gasoline
engine of 20 Hp or with a water-cooled diesel engine
of 28 Hp and with a standard anti-noise protection
cover.
04 TPS
This type of chipping machine has been designed to

solve the shredding problems in medium sizes yard.
The TPS version is designed to be hitched at the
hydraulic lift of any type of tractor and it is driven by
the cardan joint.

This type of chipping machine has

been designed to solve the shredding
problems in medium/large sizes yard.
05 MTS
The MTS verison of chipping machines
is equipped with a self contained
engine, fixed axle and wheels and can
be towed by any type of trunk into
which can be loaded directly the
chipped material.
05 TPS
been designed to solve the shredding
problems in medium/large sizes yard.
The TPS version is designed to be
hitched at the hydraulic lift of any type
of tractor. The rotating feeding chute
allows to be suitable for any
requirement and need in working yard.
Chipper line 09,13 series

been designed for the big yards of
pruning and cleaning operations.
09-13 MTS
The MTS version is equipped with its
own anti-noised engine. It is arranged
to be towed by any type of truck on
which is ejected the shredded
material.
09-13 TPS
The TPS version of this range of
chipping machines is designed to be
hitched to the three point linkage of
any tractor from which is powered by
the PTO shaft.

35 TPS
This type of chipping machine has been
designed for big yards of cutting operations.
The chips obtained from this machine are

suitable for industrial purposes (paper,
heating, pressed panel).
CHIPPER LINE 09 TPS 09 MTS 13 TPS 13 MTS 35 TPS

Power requireds by tractor [HP] 50/100 - 60/120 - 140/200
Power engine [HP] - 50/60 - 80 -
Numbers of cylinders - 4/4T - 4T -
Diameter of shuttle cock [mm] 850 850 850 850 1200
Cock’s depth [mm] 45 45 50 50 60
Number of blades 3 3 4x2T 4x2T 3x2T
Production per hour [Kg] 5000 5000 6000 6000 40000
Chip’s lenght 10/13 10/13 7/10/13 7/10/13 -
Max diametre of wood [mm] 260 260 280 280 -
170x224 180x270 170x224 180x300
Sending measures [cm] -
x345 x230 x345 x230
Machinery’s weight [Kg] 1000 1500 1200 2000 -
Chip’s exit a 360° O O O O O
Turning mouth - O - O -
Dispositive NoStress S S S S O
Counter S S S S O
Electrical commands O O O O O
Lights S O S O -
Cardan tree O - O - O
Soundproof coffer - O - O -
O = optional - S = di serie
2.1.3.3 Laitilan Metalli Laine Oy –Laimet
Garpintie 130, FIN-23800 Laitila

Tel: +359-2-856014
Fax: +358-2-856015
Email: laitilan.metalli@laimet.com
Web: www.laimet.com
The high efficiency LAIMET chippers are suitable for chipping all sorts of wood: sawn
surfaces, tree tops, thinned out trees as well as logging waste. LAIMET chippers also
chip frozen wood efficiently.
By changing the type of blade, chips of different sizes - ranging from 15 to 200 mm in
length may be produced. The chips produced are even and splinter-free, and are
suitable for heating purposes, as pulp chips, as mulch in horticulture, as animal litter,
in covering cultivated land and fields, in composts, when building up green areas,
etc. LAIMET chippers are number one in productivity, with efficiency remaining high

even in demanding conditions. Operation is quiet, construction is simple, and there

are few parts that wear out.
All LAIMET chippers are tractor or diesel engine powered. However, electrically
driven versions of the models HP-21, HP-25, HP-35 and HP-50 are also available.
PS 10 Series
The LAIMET PS-10 is a tractor driven, handy and efficient chipper intended for use
on farms, in forestry, and in parks and gardens. The operation is based on a
cylindrical screw blade, which also functions as a feed unit making a separate
manual feed unnecessary. The screw blade is sharpened without removing the
blade, using a separate sharpening unit (standard equipment).
The LAIMET PS-10 produces splinter-free and even one-size chips (10-15 mm). The
rate of production ranges from 2-6 m3/h. The PS-10 can chip all sorts of wood and
branches of sizes up to 100 mm.
The LAIMET PS-10 is reliable in operation and need little maintenance. It is a

sensible choice when otherwise worthless waste is to be utilized, or if the chips are to
decompose in the environment.
HP-21 Series
The LAIMET HP-21 is a tractor or diesel powered reliable basic chipper for
agricultural and forestry use, as well as for contract chipping.
Like all LAIMET HP chippers, the HP-21 uses a conical screw blade, which efficiently
produces splinter-free and even quality chips of five different sizes, ranging from 15-
25 mm up to 60-100 mm.
The rate of production ranges from 20 to 40 m3/h, depending on the blade used as
well as the size and type of the wood. The HP-21 can chip all sorts of wood and
Two electrically driven versions of the LAIMET HP-21 are also available: the HP-21
LS (low speed) and the HP-21 HS (high speed).
The high-quality chips produced by the LAIMET HP-21 are suitable for use in
heating, in covering cultivated land and fields, in composts, as pulp chips, and as
animal litter. The low service costs of the LAIMET HP-21 offer you great savings.
HP-21 LS TR, HP-21 LS, and HP-21 HS series
Laimet HP-21 LS TR is a tractor driven LowSpeed chipper. The needed power

source is relatively low. The chip outlet pipe is lower than other tractor driven models,
it's anyway able to blow the chips in to a agriculture tractor trailer.
The needed gearbox to reduce the speed is a Finnish made Peurala gear

Laimet HP-21 LS is the reasonable chipper to the saw mills and wood industry to
chip the sawn waste material, slabs and other residue material. The chipper is
relatively quiet, it doesn't need any additional noise protection. The chip quality is
suitable for the heating plants and middle size heating owens. When screening the
chips can be used for the pulp/paper industry.
The gear motors we are using are the famous and thrustable NordGear and SEW-
products.
Laimet HP-21 HS is an electric motor driven chipper especially for the wood industry
and sawmill needs to produce the best quality of pulp / paper chips. The common
chip quality without any screening is 104...110 %.
HP-21 HS Slope- model is a special chipper to chip the cross cut pieces and other
small and short pieces of wood.
HP-25 Serie
The LAIMET HP-25 is a tractor or diesel powered heavy chipper for professional use.
25 mm up to 60-100 mm.
branches of sizes up to 230 mm. Two electrically driven versions of the LAIMET HP-
25 are also available: the HP-25 LS (low speed) and the HP-25 HS (high speed).
The LAIMET HP-25 is a sensible choice for the chipper contractor. The high-quality
chips are suitable for use in heating, in covering cultivated land and fields, in
composts, as pulp chips, and as animal litter. The low service costs of the LAIMET
HP-25 offer you great savings.
Laimet HP-25 LS is a robust and strong chipper for the wood and saw mill industry.
This chipper is especially made to meet the requirements of effective chipping and
good quality. There are three different size of HP-25 LS chippers; the wood diameter
can be 23 cm, 25 cm or even 28 cm. Two bigger modal are named "HP-25 LS
MAXIM".
The alterations for MAXIM-models are the modified and stronger bottom anvil, the
strenghtened frame of the chipper and the wider feding opening for the wood. The
feeding chute of MAXIM-models is stronger as well.
Laimet HP-25 HS is an electric motor driven chipper especially for the needs to
produce big quantities of the best quality of chips. The range of users are the big
wood indystry companies and big saw mills.The normal chip quality, without any
screening, is app. 104 to 110%.
HP-25 HS model is the reasonable chipper e.g. for the big plywood factories, saw
mills etc.

HP-35 series
The LAIMET HP-35 is a tractor or diesel powered heavy chipper for professional use.
25 mm up to 60-100 mm.
The LAIMET HP-35 is a sensible choice for the chipper contractor. The high-quality
chips are suitable for use in heating, in covering cultivated land and fields, in
composts, as pulp chips, and as animal litter. The low service costs of the LAIMET
HP-35 offer you great savings.
HP-50 Series
The LAIMET HP-50 is a diesel powered heavy chipper for professional use. It is the
largest of the LAIMET chippers, intended primarily for producing large timber pieces
for heating.
produces splinter-free and even quality chips of three different sizes, ranging from
20-30 mm up to 100-150 mm.
The LAIMET HP-50 is a sensible choice for the large chipper contractor. The high-
quality chips are suitable for use in power stations, in composts, or wherever there is
a special requirement for large chips. The low service costs of the LAIMET HP-50
offer you great savings.
A special chrusher for HP-50 is available. This equipment will crush the possible big
pieces of wood to be suitable for the gasifying process.

HP-21 HP-21 LS HP-21 HS
Total weight 1000 kg 1300-1500 kg 1600-1700 kg

Rotating mass 360 kg 360 kg 360 kg
3 3
Chip production 20-40 m /h 10-40 m /h 20-40 m3/h
Power requirement 60-80 kW 22-37 kW 45-75 kW
Feed opening 210 x 315 mm 210 x 315 mm 210 x 315 mm
Feed rate 0,4-0,8 m/s 0,1-0,3 m/s 0,5-1,3 m/s
Rate of rotation 540-1000 r/min 122-205 r/min 600-1000 r/min
Blade 3/104 (15-25mm) 2/80 (20-30mm) 3/104 (15-25mm)
(length of piece) 2/80 (20-30mm) 3/160 (20-30mm) 2/80 (20-30mm)
3/160 (20-30mm) 2/104 (20-30mm) 3/160 (20-30mm)
2/104 (20-30mm) 1/80 (30-50mm) 2/104 (20-30mm)
1/80 (30-50mm) 2/160 (30-50mm) 1/80 (30-50mm)
2/160 (30-50mm) 1/104 (40-70mm) 2/160 (30-50mm)
1/104 (40-70mm) 1/160 (60-100mm) 1/104 (40-70mm)
1/160 (60-100 mm) 1/160 (60-100mm)
HP-25 HP-25 LS HP-25 HS
Total weight 1800 kg 2500-2600 kg 2350-2500 kg

3 3
Power requirement 100-200 kW 37-55 kW 45-90 kW
Feed rate 0,4-0,8 m/s 0,1-0,3 m/s 0,5-1,3 m/s
Blade 3/104 (15-25mm) 2/80 (20-30mm) 3/104 (15-25mm)
(length of piece) 2/80 (20-30mm) 3/160 (20-30mm) 2/80 (20-30mm)
3/160 (20-30mm) 2/104 (20-30mm) 3/160 (20-30mm)
2/104 (20-30mm) 1/80 (30-50mm) 2/104 (20-30mm)
1/80 (30-50mm) 2/160 (30-50mm) 1/80 (30-50mm)
2/160 (30-50mm) 1/104 (40-70mm) 2/160 (30-50mm)
1/104 (40-70mm) 1/160 (60-100mm) 1/104 (40-70mm)
1/160 (60-100 mm) 1/160 (60-100mm)
PS-10 HP-35 HP-50
Total weight 130 kg 3000 kg 6500 kg

3 3
Power requirement 15 kW 200-300 kW 400-500 kW
Feed rate 0,1-0,4 m/s 0,4-0,5 m/s 0,2-0,5 m/s
Blade 2/85 (10-15mm) 3/104 (15-25mm) 2/104 (20-30mm)
(length of piece) 2/80 (20-30mm) 1/104 (40-70mm)
3/160 (20-30mm) 1/220 (100-150mm)
2/104 (20-30mm)
1/80 (30-50mm)
2/160 (30-50mm)
1/104 (40-70mm)
1/160 (60-100mm)

2.1.3.4 Silvatec Skovmaskiner Aps
Silvatec Skovmaskiner A/S

Fabriksvej 6
DK-9640 Farsø, Denmark
Tel: (+45) 9863 2411
Fax: (+45) 9863 2522
E-mail: silvatec@silvatec.com
Web: www.silvatec.com
Production, sale and service of SILVATEC forestry machines, harvesting heads and
self propelled chipping machines. Production, import, sales and service of the huge
Silvatec programme of specialized machinery for Christmas trees, decorative
greenery and other row cultures within the forestry environment.
SILVATEC 878 CH CHIPPER
Chipping unit:
Chipper SILVATEC 1200, disc diameter 1200 mm, front feeding, feeding speed up to
70 m/min., 2 knives, infeed opening 350 x 350 mm, feeding power: 2000 kp, infeed
chute with tiltable bottom plate, length of chips : 15 - 35 mm.
Engine:
MERCEDES OM 906 LA, Intercooler 205kW/278 HP/2300 rpm. Max. torque 1100
Nm from 1250 to 1500 rpm. Fuel capacity: 350 l.
Transmission:
Hydrostatic-mechanical. Two mechanical gears. Bogie axles with planetary gears. All
wheel drive/transfer gear box with differential. Traction approx. 12 tons. Differential
lock front and rear.
Speeds :
1st gear: 0 - 6.5 km/h
2nd gear: 0 - 26.0 km/h
Brake system: Built-in wet multiple disc brakes. Spring brake as parking brake.
Hydraulic system:
Hydraulic oil capacity: 200 l. 140 l/min/2000 rpm. for the crane and the chip
container. 2 separate pumps for the feeding rollers, capacity 2 x 90 l/min./2000 rpm.
For cooling and filtration circuit 80 l/min/2000 rpm. Load-sensing pressure system,
separate pumps for crane and feeding system, total 280 l/min. Oil cooling with
circulation and filtration system. Working pressure 210 bar.
Steering system:
Articulated frame steering +/- 50 degrees. Steering with proportional levers and
orbitrol steering.
Electrical system:
24 volt. Alternator 200 Amp. 10 working lamps, 70 W.

Crane:
CRANAB CRH 3 parallel crane, reach 6.0 m, lifting torque 36.3 KNm, slewing torque
10 KNm, slewing angle 250 degrees, rotator GV3, grapple CRANAB I15.
Cab:
ROPS, FOPS and OPS approved. Rubber mounted. Double LEXAN screens (noise
insulating and safety). Heat and air conditioning. Air-suspended driver's seat with
adjustable armrests. Radio/CD.
Tyres:
600 x 22.5 (standard)
700 x 22.5
Dimensions:
Length 9850 mm. Width from 2170 mm to 2600 mm dependent on tyre dimensions.
Weight approx. 19500 kg. Ground clearance: 580 mm.
Chip-container:
Placed over rear bogie, capacity approx. 16 m3, high rearward tipping with built-in
cylinders, self-levelling system for the container +/- 10 degrees. Indicator of full
container.
Equipment:
Monitor in the cabin, camera at the back of the container. 6 kg fire extinguisher.
Filling system for fuel and hydraulic oil. Hazard light and warning triangle.
Options:
Extra working lamps.
Vacuum pump on the hydraulic system.
Horizontal feed roller on infeed chute.

2.2 Pelletisation
2.2.1 Densification-related advantages
Some practical problems are associated with the use of biomass material (sawdust,
wood chips or agricultural residues) as fuel, mainly related to the high bulk volume,
which results in high transportation costs and requires large storage capacities, and
to the high moisture content which can result in biological degradation as well as in
freezing and blocking the in-plant transportation systems.
In addition, variations in moisture content make difficult an optimal plant operation

and process control.
All those problems may be solved by densification of biomass, which consists in

compressing the material to give it more uniform properties. The main advantages of
densified fuels, compared to non-densified ones are the following:
• An increased bulk density (from 80-150 kg/m3 for straw or 200 kg/m3 for
sawdust to 600-700 kg/m3 after densification), resulting in lower transportation
costs, reduced storage volume and easier handling.
• A lower moisture content (humidity <10%), favouring a long conservation and
minor losses of product during the storage period.
• An increased energy density and more homogeneous composition, resulting in
better combustion control possibilities and thereby higher energy efficiency
during combustion.
The major disadvantage is the relatively high-energy cost for the pelleting process,
increasing the price of the end product.
Densified products can be found as briquettes or as pellets.
Heating value, Moisture content and Chemical characteristics are more or less the
same for both but the density and strength are a little bit higher for pellets.
The major difference is the size, making pellets easy to use in fully automatic
operation, from household appliances to large-scale combined heat and power
(CHP) plants.

Comparison between briquettes and pellets

Briquettes Pellets
Appearance
Dry and grinded wood or agricultural Dry and grinded wood or agricultural
residues. residues
Raw material Raw material can be more coarse than for
pelleting, due to the larger dimensions of
final product
Cylindrical (generally Ø 80 to 90 mm) or Cylindrical (generally Ø 6 to 12 mm, with a
Shape
parallelepiped (150*70*60 mm) length 4 to 5 times the Ø)
Structure Relatively friable, fragile Stable, hard, without dust
Bulk density 600 – 700 kg-m3 600 – 700 kg-m3
Aspect Mostly "rough" "Smooth"
Transport Unit, palet Bulk, bags, big bags
Handling Manual use Manual or automatic use
Source: http://www.itebe.org/telechargement/pelletclub/promill220501.ppt
2.2.2 Pelletising technology overview

The process of pellet manufacturing was first developed for the livestock feed
industry. The main steps are (see figure below):
comminuting of the raw material,
drying, palletising, cooling
Raw
Sifting material
Powdery material Dry material
Densification
Grinding Drying Conditioning (briquetting or
pelleting)
Dry material
Fines
Storing / packing Screening Cooling
Fig 17: Basic steps of densification processes

The raw material is first freed from heavy contaminant (rocks, metals and other
foreign material), and then grinded in a hammermill or a chipping machine. The
particle size has to be uniformised to maximum dimension (approximately 85 % of
the minimum thickness of the pellet to be produced).
The often-high moisture content of the raw material makes drying necessary. The
product from the hammermill is afterwards transported to a dryer (generally a rotary
drum type one) where the moisture content of the uniformly dimensioned particles is
reduced to about 10 %.
Generally lignin content in wood is high enough to bind alone the wood pellets, but if
other raw material are pelletised (e.g. straw), the feedstock can be conditioned with
steam.
The conditions required for this process is a cascade mixer and the addition of steam
at 90-100°C in the proportion of 5% of raw material’s weight. The use of binding
agents has also been investigated as a means to increase fuel pellets hardness and
thus reducing the dust and fines generated during their transport and handling.
Possible binding agents for wood include starch, molasses, natural paraffin, plant oil,
lignin sulphate and synthetic agents.
After that, particles are moved to the pellet mill, where the pellets are extruded
through the action of rollers acting on a perforated matrix. On the outer side, a knife
cut off the pellets at the desired length.
Two main types of pellet presses can be distinguished:
flat die types: has a circular perforated disk on which two or more rollers rotate
and force the material through the holes.
ring die types: features a rotating perforated ring on which rollers (normally
two or three) press on the material to the inner perimeter.
Generally, the same pellet mills are used for pelleting wood and straw, but from one
product to another, steel dies and rollers are changed. For straw (in comparison with
sawdust), the thickness of the dies has to be more important.
The typical power value for pellet presses on the European market can be
considered to stand between 200 and 500 kW.
Small experimental devices can be found from 3 kW power, the biggest mills scoring
over 550 kW.
The output range for pellet presses ranges from about a few hundreds of kg up to 10
ton/h, the most common ones being 4-6 t/h. In relation with the quality of the raw
material, milling production yields are usually higher for straw than for wood. For
example, with the same pellet press of 250 kW, a 4 t/h output can be expected for
wood pellets, and a 5t/h output for straw pellets while it would amount 20 t/h for
feeding granulates (which do not meet the same quality standards).
Finally pellets are screened. Generally, it is reported that at the exit point of the press
sawdust pellets present a 3-4% of fines, whereas for straw, fines proportion could
amount 10%.

In most cases, those fines are re-used in the process, whether as a fuel in a
combustion device or as raw material in the pellet mill.
A European company has developed a pelletising technology whose process is new:
the pellet mill has two dies, and raw material is pressed between them from outside
towards the inside cavity of each dye. According to technical specification, specific
electric consumption ranges from 25 to 45 kWh/t depending on the type of wood.
The system operates without the need of any additives and maximum operating
temperature of the dies is 55 to 60°C which avoid vapours emissions and permit
direct bagging without cooling stage, which lower the investment costs. Another
advantage is that material with up to 30 to 35% humidity can be handled, thereby
doing away with the need for a dryer.
In Europe, pellets are mainly made from sawdust and wood chips (softwood as well
as hardwood). Until now, agricultural residues are hardly used because they present
a higher ash content, which further induces problems regarding slagging, fouling and
dust emissions during the combustion phase.
General characteristics of straw pellets, and wood pellets and their respective raw
materials
Density Moisture LHV Ash Energy
3
(kg/m ) (% w.b.) (MJ/kg) (% d.m.) density
3
(GJ/m )
Straw (chopped) 50 10-20% 14.5 5 0.7
Straw (big bales) 130 10-18 % 14.5 5 1.9
Straw pellets 600 <10 % 15.0 5 9
Wood chips 250 10-50 % 11-17 0.5 4.3
Sawdust 200 20-50 % 12-17 0.5 3.4
Wood pellets 650 <10 % 17.5 0.5 11.4
Coal 850 10-15 % 24 12 20.4
LHV (Lower heating value) varies according to moisture content; Energy density are calculated for dried material.
Energy demand for wood pelletising (including all stages from grinding to cooling) is
generally comprised in the large range of 80 to 150 kWh/t for electricity with up to
1000 kWh/t for heat consumption required for the drying of raw material if the latter is
very wet.

2.2.3 Main European pellet mill manufacturers
Below is given a list (alphabetical order) of the main pellet mill manufacturers in
Europe.
2.2.3.1 Amandus Kahl
Dieselstrasse 5-9, D-21465 Reinbek, Germany

Tel: +49(40) 727 71-0, Fax: +49(40) 727 71-100
Web: www.amandus-kahl-group.de
The current production range of Kahl flat die pelleting presses consists of 12 different
sizes: die diameter 175 - 1,250 mm; drive motor 3 - 400 kW; roller diameter 130 - 450
mm; pellet diameter 2 - 40 mm. Slip-on gears drive the small presses, while low-
noise and low-wear worm gears with preceding belt drive the big presses.
Pellet presses for producing small (14-175) medium and large quantities
Type 14- 33- 33- 34-600 38-600 38-780 37-850 39- 45-1250 60-1250
175 390 500 1000
Die diameter 390 500 600 600 780 850 1000 1250 1250
175
mm
Roller 230/77 230/77 280/102 280/102 280/102 350/132 450/156 450/192 450/192
diameter/width 130/29 or or
mm 350/102 450/156
Number of 2 3 3-4 3-4 3-5 or 3-5 3-5 4-5 4-5
2
rollers 3-4
Drive motor 15-30/ 15-30/ 45-55/ 55-75/ 90-110/ 132/ 160- 200- 2 x 160-
-1
kW/min 3 1500* 1500 750 1500* 1500* 1500* 200/ 250/ 200
1500* 1500* /1500*
Roller speed 0.5- 2.2 2.4 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.6
m/s 0.8
Perforated die 617 840 1382 1382 1916 2695 3850 5900 5900
2 106
area cm
Machine weight 1150 1300 2330 2250 3000 4600 5400 9000 9370
260
kg with motor
The dimensions indicated refer to the biggest drive motor available.*other speeds possible
2.2.3.2 Bühler AG
CH-9240 Uzwil, Switzerland

T.: +41(71)9551111
F.: + 41 (71) 955 33 79
Web: www.buhler.ch
Buhler develops wood pelleting process by further developing its technological

expertise from the field of animal feed manufacture. The latest pellet mill generation
is capable of achieving a throughput of 4.5 to 6 metric tons per hour with a pellet
diameter of 6 millimeters. With an installed power of merely 250 kilowatts and a die
diameter of 900 millimeters, this throughput capacity is second to none. The pellet

mill sold last, which was supplied to Southern Germany, exceeded the guaranteed
capacity of 4.5 metric tons per hour within an extremely short time. The capacity of
one Pellet Press RWPR (picture) is 5 to 6t/h wood pellets.
2.2.3.3 M.B.Z. Günther Zahn Mühlen- und Pelletiertechnik
Ostpreußenstraße 59 40822 Mettmann-Obschwarzbach

+49 2058 / 89 59 09 +49 2058 / 89 66 86
info@mbz-pelletpressen.de www.mbz-pelletpressen.de
M.B.Z. pellet mills are constructed of very sturdy, high quality materials. Their
designs allow quick and easy access to all parts of the machine. The design also
includes high dynamic and static load bearings for working under harsh conditions
with products such as alfalfa, pulp, trash, etc.
The compact design positions the motor at the top of the pelletiser and uses direct
belt transmission for smooth operation and reduced installation space. Two-motor
models feature an auxiliary transmission that drives the core unit by means of a
Special, High Performance Gear tooth Belt. The machine also includes safety
interlocks that stop the machine if opened or overloaded. All models can be supplied
with two mould widths, with no modification of power. A large diameter, three-roller
system achieves better balance by reducing the force exerted on the mould, thus
extending its life. Optional: Large capacity Feeder-Conditioner MDG and Thermo-
conditioner, depending on the product to be pelletised.
2.2.3.4 Münch Edelstahl GmbH
Weststraße 26, D-40721 Hilden, Germany

Tel:+49 (0)21 03 58 99-6, Fax:+49 (0)21 03 58 99-77
Web: www.Muench-Edelstahl-GmbH.de
Münch manufactures for wood pelletising pellet presses and complete lines including
eventual necessary pre-grinding in the range of 0,2-10 ton/h. Münch has developed a
special design for wood particles with a moisture content of up to 50%, which is
unique in the market of wood pelletising. The pellet presses have, if required, an oil
lubrication system, which increases the operation time. Münch pellet presses can

also be used for hardwood and MDF, are easy to maintain and need only short
maintenance periods. Automatic control, temperature control and sprinkler equipment
are options which Münch can provide on request. Tests can be done in Münch own
testing centre.
Münch pelletmills RMP are operating on all continents and range from 7-450 HP,
single or twindrive, are extendable to double-pelleting, longterm-conditioning, fat-
coating at the die and automatic control. By vertical feeding and low speed of
rotation, these pelletmills are most suitable for the processing of difficult products,
such as straw and grass.
2.2.3.5 Promill Stolz
RN 12 - F-28410 Serville, France

Tel: +33 (0)2 37 38 91 93, Fax: +33 (0)2 37 43 21 84
Web: www.promill-stolz.fr
Promill Stolz manufactures a wide range of pellet mills, robust and high performance
mechanical systems. The resulting pellet quality complies with the most severe
commercial standards. Promill Stolz is the partner of a wide national and international
clientele working in the wood transformation sector. This company produces hammer
crushers (refiners), chip presses, cooling apparatus and offers technical support in
the creation of whole units.
Its main strength: its activity is export-orientated. Among its clients are some the
major pelletization units such as Brikettenergi in Sweden (www.brikettenergi.se),
Hansa Graanul in Estonia (www.hansagraanul.ee) which produces by itself 80,000
tons of wood pellets annually which is five times the French production or Flexheat
with its 20 annual output and, finally BVG in Lithuania. On the picture: "Evolution"
pellet mill, 200-250 kW power, with a capacity of 2.5 to 4 t/hour.
2.2.3.6 Salmatec - Salzhausener Maschinenbautechnik GmbH
Bahnhofstraße 15 D-21376 Salzhausen, Germany

Tel +49 4172 98 97-0 Fax +49 4172 13 94
Web: www.salmatec.de
Salmatec manufactures and delivers pelleting technologies for the densification of

numerous materials i.e. plastics, paper, wood, fertiliser etc. Rotating die (internal
diameter from 450 mm to 950 mm) and motor capacities from 44 to 400 KWh for the
manufactoring of wood-pellets and similar products. Salmatec offer specially
reinforced modifications to three of the Maxima presses: the 500k, 620-700k and the
840-200k.
The capacity of these machines ranges from 500-4000 kg/h depending on the
preliminary treatment of the processed material. All varients are based on the same
proven Maxima machines using a robust housing construction with integrated
brackets for mounting symmetrically mounted driving motors for an equal distribution
of power to the mainshaft, and rotor assembly through the noise free vee belt drive

which opperates with low friction loss. The pelletizer doors are made from rust free
high-grade steel, which encloses the rotating die. The Maxima range can also be
fitted with hydraulic roller gap adjustment and also a quick die change option.
2.2.3.7 Sprout Matador
Andritz AG, Stattegger Strasse 18, A-8045 Graz, Austria

Tel: +45 72 160 300, +43 316 6902-0, Fax: +45 72 160 301
Web: www.andritz.com/ANONIDZ5842C14961770E5F/ft
The ring dies pellet mills manufactured by Sprout Matador range in size from 30 to
560 kW with 620 to 14000 cm2 of die working area. Below, Sprout Matador pellet mill
specifications, and pellet mill belt driven (up) and gear driven (down).
2.2.3.8 Tritec GmbH
Robert-Bosch-Straße 2D-89264 Weißenhorn, Germany

Fon +49 (0)7309 / 428499-0
Fax +49 (0)7309 / 428499-99
Web: www.tritec-pelletiertechnik.de
Technical data for Paladin pellet mill series
Paladin 350 - 106 600 B-130/170 600 D/HR-141 1200 D-141/175

Drive power (kW ) 74/90 kW 90/110 kW 110/150 kW 150/180 kW
Motorwellendrehzahl: ( Upm ) 1500 1500 1500 1500
Matrizeninnendurchmesser: (mm) 452 550 650 650
Roller speed m/s 5,2/6,5 4,6/5,7 5,4/6,0 4,8/6,0
Matrizenbreite ( mm ) 106 130 / 170 141 141 / 175
Number of rollers 3 2/3 2/3 2/3
Roller diameter/width mm 208 248 298 298

Technical data for Paladin pellet mill series
1600 / 175 - 1600 /

Paladin 2000-250 2000-175/210 2400
210
200/ 264/ 320/
Drive power (kW ) 180/ 220 220/264/320 220/264/320/400
400
Motorwellendrehzahl: ( Upm ) 1500 1500 1500 1500
Matrizeninnendurchmesser: (mm) 850 880 850 850
Roller speed m/s 4,7 / 6,2 4,9/5,5/6,75 4,4/7,0 4,4 / 7,0
Matrizenbreite ( mm ) 175/ 210 250 175/210 175/210
Number of rollers 2/3 2 / 2 HRV 3 2/3 2/3
Roller diameter/width mm 390 404 / 420 390 390

2.2.3.9 List of European manufacturers of biomass combustion appliances
Here below, names and addresses of pellet appliances manufacturers have been
gathered in a list table. This list is not exhaustive.
Company Address – Tel / Fax E-mail / Web Products
UE member states
AUSTRIA
ABK GmbH Wolbell 17 Small-scale pellet furnaces
A-6094 AXAMS
Tel.: +43 (5234) 67124
Anton Eder GmbH Stahl- und Weyerstraße 350 http://www.eder-kesselbau.at Small-scale pellet furnaces
Kesselbau A-5733 BRAMBERG Brand/Model: Pellevent
Tel.: +43 (6566) 7366
Fax: +43 (6566) 8127
Blaim Ges.m.b.H. Ödenteichgasse 8 http://www.solarprofi.at Pellet furnaces
A-3580 HORN
Tel.: +43 (2982) 3667
Fax: +43 (2982) 3667 4
Calimax Entwicklungs- & Interpark FOCUS 3 A 6832 http://www.calimax.at Pellet stoves (Sandor: 7-10 kW, Solida: 7-10 kW,
Vertriebs GmbH Rothis Twist: 7-10 kW), pellet stoves associated to hot water
Tel.: +43 (5523) 51300 systems (Twist 50/50, Twist 80/20)
Compact Heiz- und Koaserbauer-Str. 16 http://www.gilles.at/ Pellet furnaces
Energiesysteme GesmbH A-4810 GMUNDEN
Tel.: +43 (7612) 73760 0
Fax: +43 (7612) 73760 17
Ernst Gerlinger Froschau 79 gerlinger@biokompakt.com Small-scale pellet furnaces
A-4391 WALDHAUSEN http://www.biokompakt.com/ Brand/Model: Biokompakt AWK
Tel.: +43-(0)7260-4530
Fax: +43-(0)7260-45304
Guntamatic Heiztechnik GmbH http://www.guntamatic.at/ Small-scale pellet furnaces
Bruck-Waasen 7 Brand/Model: Biostar
A-4722 PEUERBACH
Tel.: +43 (7276) 2441 0
Fax: +43 (7276) 3031
Fröling Heizkessel- u Industriestraße 12 http://www.froeling.com/index.htm Small-scale pellet furnaces
Behälterbau GesmbH A-4710 GRIESKIRCHEN Brand/Model: Pelletherm, Turbomatic
Tel.: +43 (7248) 606-0
Fax: +43 (7248) 606 600
Hargassner GmbH Gunderding 8 Small-scale pellet furnaces
A-4952 WENG
Tel.: +43 (7723) 5274
Fax: +43 (7723) 5274 5
Herz Feuerungstechnik Sebersdorf 138 http://www.herz-feuerung.com Small-scale pellet furnaces
GesmbH A-8272 SEBERSDORF Brand/Model: Pelletfire, Pelletstar
Tel.: +43 (3333) 2411 0
Fax: +43 (3333) 2411 73
Hoval Gesellschaft mbH. Hovalstraße 1 http://www.hoval.at/ Small-scale pellet furnaces
A-4614 MARCHTRENK Brand/Model: BioLyt
Tel:+43 (0) 7243 / 550 0
Fax:+43 (0) 7243 / 550 15
Josef Binder Maschinenbau Grazer Vorstadt 120 b http://www.binder-gmbh.at/ Medium and large scale pellet furnaces
und Handels-gesmbH A-8570 VOITSBERG
Tel.: +43 (3142) 22544
Fax: +43 (3142) 22544 16
Kalkgruber Solar- und Werkstraße 1 http://www.kalkgruber.at Small-scale pellet furnaces
Umwelttechnik GmbH 4451 St. Ulrich / Steyr
Austria
Tel,+43 (0)7252 / 50002-0
Fax:43 (0)7252 / 50002-10
KWB - Kraft und Wärme aus Raab 235 http://www.kwb.at/ Small-scale pellet furnaces
Biomasse A-8321 St. MARGARETHEN
Tel.: +43 (3115) 6116 0
Fax: +43 (3115) 6116 4
Lohberger Heiz- und Landstraße 19, A-5231 http://www.lohberger.com/ Small-scale pellet furnaces
Kochgeräte GesmbH SchalchenPostfach 90
A-5230 MATTIGHOFEN
Tel.: +43 (7742) 5211 0
Fax:+43 (7742) 5211 109
ÖkoFEN Forschungs- und Gewerbepark 1, 4133 http://www.pelletsheizung.at/ Small-scale pellet furnaces
Entwicklungs Ges.m.b.H. Niederkappel Brand/Model: Pellematic
Tel.: +43 (7286) 7450
Fax:+43 (7286) 7450 10
Perhofer-Bio-Heizungs-GmbH Waisenegg 115 http://www.biomat.at/ Small-scale pellet furnaces
& Co.KG A-8190 BIRKFELD Brand/Model: Biomat
Tel.: +43 (3174) 3705 0
Fax: +43 (3174) 3705 8
Rendl Heizkessel & Stahlbau Siezenheimerstraße 31a Small-scale pellet furnaces
GesmbH A-5020 SALZBURG
Tel.: +43 (662) 433034 0
Fax: +43 (662) 433034 39
RIKA MetallwarengesmbH & Müllerviertel 20 http://www.rika.at/ Pellet single stoves (Premio: 6 kW, Visio: 8 kW;
Co KG A-4563 MICHELDORF in OÖ Integra II: 9 kW)
Tel.: +43 (7582) 686 41
Fax: +43 (7582) 686 43
Scheibelhofer GmbH & Co. Jahnstraße 5 http://www.spirit-of-fire.com Pellet fired tiled stove
KG A-8280 FÜRSTENFELD
Tel.: +43 (3382) 5050 0
Fax: +43 (3382) 5050 82
Sommerauer und Lindner Trimmelkam 113 http://www.sl-heizung.at/ Small-scale pellet furnaces
Heizanlagenbau SL-Technik A-5120 St. PANTALEON
GmbH Tel.: +43 (6277) 7804
Fax: +43 (6277) 7818

Sonnenkraft Vertriebs Sonnenkraft Österreich http://www.sonnenkraft.at/ Pellet single stoves

GesmbH Österreich Vertriebs GmbH Brand/Model: Compello
Industriepark
A-9300 St. Veit/Glan
Tel.: +43 (0)4212 45010
Viessmann GmbH Lerschstraße 11 http://www.viessmann.at Small-scale pellet furnaces

A-4600 WELS Brand/Model: Vitolig 300
Tel.: +43 (7242) 62381-0
Windhager Zentralheizung AG Anton-Windhagerstraße 20 http://www.windhager-ag.at/ Small-scale pellet furnaces
A-5201 SEEKIRCHEN
Tel.: +43 (6212) 2341 0
Fax: +43 (6212) 4228
Wolf Klimatechnik GmbH Eduard-Haas-Straße 44 http://www.wolf-heiztechnik.at Small-scale pellet furnaces
A-4034 LINZ Brand/Model: Pellevent
Tel.: +43 (732) 385041 0
Fax: +43 (732) 385041 27
BELGIUM
VYNCKE Gentsesteenweg 224 mail@vyncke.com Combustion and boiler systems for decentralized
ENERGIETECHNIEK N.V. B-8530 Harelbeke www.vyncke.be power stations (1-10 MWe) and turn-key energy
BELGIUM plants (1-65 MWth) for various homogenous
Tel : + 32 56 730 630 secondary fuels, such as demolition wood, Refuse
Fax : + 32 56 704 160 Derived Fuels ( RDF ), packing materials, paper
waste, etc.
DENMARK
Baxi A/S Smedevej http://www.baxi.dk/ Small-scale pellet furnaces
DK-6880 TARM Brand/Model: Multi-Heat
Denmark
Tel.: +45-97-37 15 11
Fax: +45-97-37 24 34
Passat Energi A/S Vestergade 36, Ørum E-mail: info@passat.dk Small- and medium scale pellet furnaces
DK-8830 TJELE http://www.passat.dk
Denmark
Tel.: +45-8665 2100
Fax: +45-8662 3028
Alcon ApS Ingeniørfirma Kingosvej 25 alcon@post6.tele.dk Smal-scale (pellets, grain, straw) + large boiler
DK-7470 Karup www.alcon.nu systems (pellets <> 1MW)
+45 86 66 20 44
+45 86 66 15 17
Ansaldo Vølund A/S Falkevej 2 www.volund.dk Large boiler systems (pellets > 1 MW)
DK-6705 Esbjerg Ø
+45 76 14 34 00
+45 76 14 36 00
Argusfyr Energiteknik A/S Lynager 10 sales@argusfyr.dk Large boiler systems (pellets and wood chips, <>
DK-2605 Brøndby www.argusfyr.dk 1MW)
+4586260500
+4586260884
CN Maskinfabrik ApS Skovløkkevej 4, Tiset cnm@io.dk Small scale systems (pellets, straw, grain)
DK-6510 Gram www.cn-maskinfabrik.dk
+45 74 82 19 19
+45 74 82 19 20
Danergi A/S Danergi ApS sax@danergi.dk Small scale systems (pellets stoves, boilers for
Nupark 51 www.danergi.dk pellets and grain) + large boiler systems (pellets and
DK-7500 Holstebro wood chips <> 1MW)
Tel. +45 96 12 72 90
Fax +45 96 12 72 91
Danish Energy Systems A/S Topstykket 16 | DK-3460 des@des-dk.com Small scale (boilers for straw) + Large boiler systems
Birkerød | Denmark | Phone: www.des-dk.com (straw <> 1MW)
+45 33 32 56 33 | Fax: +45 33
32 56 34
Danstoker A/S Industrivej Nord 13 bio-fuel@danstoker.dk Large boilers (wood chips, straw, pellets <> 1MW)
DK-7400 Herning www.danstoker.dk Boilers from 0,2 - 60 MW
+45 99 28 71 00,
+45 99 28 71 00
DanTrim A/S Islandsvej 2 dantrim@dantrim.dk Small scale (boilers for pellets and grain) + Large
DK-7480 Vildbjerg www.dantrim.com boilers (wood chips and pellets, <> 1MW)
+45 97 13 34 00
+45 97 13 34 66
EURO THERM A/S Søren Nymarksvej 25 A info@eurotherm.dk Large boilers (wood chips, straw, pellets, <> 1MW)
DK-8270 Højbjerg www.eurotherm.dk
+45 86 299 299
+45 86 299 888
FLS Miljø A/S Ramsingsvej 30 info@flsmiljo.com Large boilers (wood chips, straw, pellets, <> 1MW)
DK-2500 Valby www.flsmiljo.com
+45 36 18 11 00
+45 36 18 34 26
Hollensen Ingeniør- og Drejervej 22 hollensenkedler@post.tele.dk Large boiler systems
Kedelfirma ApS DK-7451 Sunds www.hollensen.dk
+45 97 14 20 22
+45 97 14 26 86
Interforst K/S Blåkildevej 8, Stubberup interforst@post.tele.dk Small scale and large boiler systems
DK-5610 Assens www.interforst.dk
+45 64 79 10 75
+45 64 79 11 75
KEM A/S Ådumvej 12 mail@kem.dk Large boiler systems
DK-6880 Tarm www.kem.dk
+45 97 37 21 00
LIN-KA Maskinfabrik A/S Nylandsvej 38 linka@linka.dk Small scale and large boiler systems
DK-6940 Lem www.linka.dk
+45 97 34 16 55
+45 97 34 20 17

Passat Energi A/S Vestergade 36, Ørum passat@passat.dk Small scale systems (boilers for pellets, grain and
DK-8830 Tjele www.passat.dk straw)
+45 86 65 21 00
+45 86 65 30 28
REKA A/S Vestvej 7 reka@reka.com Small scale systems (pellets stoves, boilers for
DK-9600 Års www.reka.com pellets, grain and straw) + Large boiler systems
+45 98 62 40 11
+45 98 62 40 71
SKELTEK Aalborgvej 74, Skellet http://www.skeltek.dk/ Small scale systems (boilers for straw) + Large boiler
DK-9280 Storvorde systems
+45 98 31 16 26
+45 98 31 15 26
Tjæreborg Industri A/S Kærvej 19 info@tji.dk Large boiler systems (wood chips, pellets <> 1MW)
DK-6731 Tjæreborg www.tji.dk
+45 75 17 52 44
+45 76 12 56 06
TWIN HEAT Nørrevangen 7 twinheat@twinheat.dk Small scale (boilers for pellets and grain)
DK-9631 Gedsted www.twinheat.dk
+45 98 64 52 22
+45 98 64 52 44
WEISS A/S Plastvænget 13 weiss@weiss-as.dk
DK-9560 Hadsund www.weiss-as.dk
+45 96 52 04 44
+45 96 52 04 45
FINLAND
HT Enerco Oy Punojantie 1, FIN-42800 Contact: Mika Anttila, Exports Manager Pellet burners and boilers (20 – 100 kW) for private
Haapamäki, Finland E-mail: tulimax@htlaser.fi citizens, retail company chains. Biomass boilers (20-
Tel. +358 10 7745 000 www.htlaser.fi 1000 kW) and burners (20-500 kW)
Fax +358 10 7745 095
Kaukora Oy P.O.Box 21, Tuotekatu 11, FIN- Contact: Engineer Raimo Arola Jäspi-ECOPUU boiler. Boilers: Wood/chips: 15-50
21201 Raisio, Finland Webmaster@kaukora.fi kW, pellets 15-50 kW
Tel. +358-2-437 4600 URL www.kaukora.fi
Fax. +358-2-437 4650
Säätötuli Oy Keskustie 30 E-mail: info@saatotuli.fi Small- and medium scale pellet burners and furnaces
61850 KAUHAJOKI AS http://www.saatotuli.fi/
Finland
Tel.: +358-207-299 300
Fax: +358-207-299 301
Veljekset Ala-Talkkari Oy Hellanmaantie 619 asiakaspalvelu@ala-talkkari.fi Small- and medium scale pellet burners and furnaces
62130 HELLANMAA http://www.ala-talkkari.fi/ Brand/Model: Veto
Tel.: +358-6-433 6333
Fax: +358-6-437 6363
FRANCE
Compte R ZI De Vaureil http://www.compte-r.com Boilers for wood pellets and biomass in general (200-
63220 Arlanc 5,000 kW)
France
Tel: +33 4 73 95 01 91
Fax: +33 4 73 95 15 36
ENERGIE SYSTEME L'Espinglette RN 120 info@energiesysteme.fr Wood boilers (Auto 30-200: 30-200 kW)
19430 SAINT-JULIEN-LE- http://www.energiesysteme.fr
PELERIN
Tel: 05 55 28 70 41
Fax: 05 55 28 74 14
FRANCO-BELGE 2, rue Orphée Variscotte www.francobelge.com Wood stoves (5.5 - 8 kW)

BP 11
59660 MERVILLE
Tel: 03 28 43 43 43
Fax: 03 28 43 43 99
Pagnod Industrie SARL Les Servettes pagnod-industrie-sarl@wanadoo.fr Pellet stoves (Mole 12 kW, Mont Jouan 12 kW)
74230 VIUZ-EN-SALLAZ http://www.pagnodindustrie.com/
Tél. 04 50 36 81 90
Fax. 04 50 36 97 44
PERGE RN 7 - BP 07 perge@perge.fr Wood / sawdust / wood-shavings boilers (Poncet
26800 PORTES-LES- http://www.perge.fr serie A: 11 to 153 kW; Poncet serie S: 13 to 77 kW)
VALENCE
Tel: 04 75 57 19 11
Fax: 04 75 57 48 74
GERMANY
Buderus Heiztechnik GmbH Sophienstrasse 30-32 info@heiztechnik.buderus.de (national) Small-scale pellet furnaces
D-355 76 WETZLAR va@heiztechnik.buderus.de (international) Brand/Model: Logano
Tel: http://www.heiztechnik.buderus.de/
+49-(0)6441/418-1472
(national)
+49-(0)6441/418-1670
(international)
Fax: +49-(0)6441/45602
Paradigma Deutschland Ettlinger Str. 30 info@paradigma.de Small-scale pellet furnaces Brand/Model: Pelletti
Ritter Energie- und D-763 07 KARLSBAD http://www.paradigma.de/
Umwelttechnik Tel.: +49-(0)7202/922-0
GmbH & Co. KG Fax: +49-(0)7202/922-100
Viessmann Werke GmbH & Viessmannstr. 1 info-int@viessmann.com Small-scale pellet furnaces Brand/Model: Vitolig
Co D-351 07 ALLENDORF (EDER) http://www.viessmann.de/
Tel.: +49-(0)6452/70-0
Fax: +49-(0)6452/70-2780
Wodtke GmbH Rittweg 55-57 info@wodtke.com Pellet stoves
D-720 70 TÜBINGEN- http://www.wodtke.com/ Brand/Model: Topline, Smart, PE-Einsatz, CW 21
HIRSCHAU
Tel:+49-7071/70 03-0
Fax:+49-(0)7071/70 03 50
ITALY
Caminetti Montegrappa s.r.l. Via A. da Bassano, 7/9 http://www.caminettimontegrappa.it/ Pellet stoves
Pove del Grappa Brand/Model: Pellet Plus
VICENZA
Tel.: +39-0424-800500
Fax: +39-0424-800590

D'Alessandro C. da Cerreto, 25/B info@caldaiedalessandro.it Small and medium-scale pellet furnaces

Termomeccanica 66010 Miglianico (CH) http://www.caldaiedalessandro.it/ Brand/Model: CS, CSA
Tel.: +39-0871-950329
Fax: +39-0871-950687
EdilKamin SpA Via Mascagni, 7 mail@edilkamin.com Pellet stoves
20020 Lainate (MI) http://www.edilkamin.com/ Brand/Model: Fox, Pellegg
Tel.: +39-02-937621
Fax: +39-02-93762400
ITALVAS s.r.l. Via Dell'Artigianato, 10 info@extraflame.com Pellet stoves
36030 Montecchio Precalcino http://www.extraflame.com/ Brand/Model: Eco-Logica
VICENZA
Tel.: +39-0445-864488
Fax: +39-0445-865243
Palazzetti Lelio SpA Via Roveredo, 103 info@palazzetti.it Pellet stoves
33080 Porcia PORDENONE http://www.palazzetti.it/ Brand/Model: Ecofire
Tel: 800-018186 (toll-free)
Tel:+39 0434 922-922/655
Fax:+39-0434-922355
Piazzetta SpA Via Montello, 22 infopiazzetta@piazzetta.it Pellet stoves
31010 Casella d'Asolo http://www.piazzetta.it/ Brand/Model: P935, P940/1, P950
(TREVISO)
Tel.: +39-0423-5271
Fax: +39-0423-55178
Thermorossi SpA Via Grumolo, 4 - Z.l. Arsiero thermorossi@keycomm.it Pellet stoves
36011 VICENZA http://www.thermorossi.com Brand/Model: Ecotherm 6000, 8000
+390445741657
Tel: 800-276820 (toll-free)
PORTUGAL
Torres & Belo, S.A. Ervosas – Apartado 14 torbel@mail.telepac.pt Torbel low-pressure boiler (Fuel: sawdust particles or
3831 ÍLHAVO Codex http://www.torbel.pt bulk, automatic feeding, 350-4660 KW, 0,5 to 1 Bar)
Tel: + 351 234325011
Fax: + 351 325012
SPAIN
Termisa Rambla Badal, 98-102, esc A, termisa@termisa.es Wood boilers
entlo 7ª www.termisa.es
08014 Barcelona
Tel.: +34 93 331 55 12
Fax: +34 93 442 11 73
Sugimat, S.L. Colada d'Aragó s/n. Ctra. N-III, sug4@sugimat.com Wood boilers
Madrid Valencia, km 331 - E- www.sugimat.com
Apdo. de Correos 99. 46930
Quart de Poblet (Valencia)
Tel.: +34 96 159 72 30
Fax: +34 96 192 00 26
SWEDEN
Altbergs Plåt AB Älvbrinken 6 altbergsplat@zeta.telenordia.se Small-scale pellet burners
SE-828 94 EDSBYN http://www.altbergsplat.se/ Brand/Model: EP-Brännaren
Tel.: +46-(0)271-346 70
Fax: +46-(0)271-346 71
Ardeo Janfire AB Box 194 info@janfire.com Small- and medium scale pellet burners
SE-662 24 ÅMÅL http://www.janfire.com/ Brand/Model: Janfire
Tel.: +46-(0)532-164 17
Fax: +46-(0)532-716 59
Bentone AB Näsv. info@bentone.com Small-scale pellet burners
Box 309 http://www.bentone.se/
SE-341 26 LJUNGBY
Tel.: +46-(0)372-867 00
Fax: +46-(0)372-840 63
Biomatec Grönahögsvägen 15 bengtgoran.josefsson@biomatec.se Small-scale pellet burners
SE-523 30 ULRICEHAMN http://www.biomatec.se/ Brand/Model: Infraheat
Tel.: +46-(0)321-153 10
Fax: +46-(0)321-153 12
Effecta-Pannan AB Rågdal 6699 effectapannan@swipnet.se Small-scale pellet burners, furnaces
SE-434 96 KUNGSBACKA http://www.effectapannan.se/ Brand/Model: Effecta Pellets
Tel.: +46-(0)300-223 20
Fax: +46-(0)300-223 95
eKontroll AB Skarvtjärn 1412 http://www.ekontroll.com/ Small-scale pellet burners
SE-820 75 HARMÅNGER Brand/Model: Katla
Tel.0652-747800
Fax 0652 - 74 78 01
Ekosystem AB Björkevägen 84 info@ekosystem.se Small-scale pellet burners
SE-805 97 GÄVLE http://www.ekosystem.se/ Brand/Model: Eurofire
Tel.: +46-(0)26-16 10 50
Fax: +46-(0)26-16 01 50
Nordisk Miljöenergi AB Ljungvägen 10 info@pitekaminen.com Pellet stoves
SE 944 72 PITEÅ http://www.pitekaminen.com/ Brand/Model: PiteKaminen
Tel.: +46-(0)911-650 61
Fax: +46 (0)911-650 95
Sahlins EcoTec AB Box 2103 info@ecotec.net Small- and medium scale pellet burners, stoves
SE-511 02 SKENE http://www.ecotec.net/ Brand/Model: EcoTec
Tel.: +46-(0)320-20-93-40
Fax: +46-(0)320-421 60
Scand Pellet AB Wismarsvägen 12 info@scand-pellet.se Small- and medium scale pellet burners, stoves
SE-393 54 KALMAR http://www.pellx.com/ Brand/Model: pellX
Tel.: +46-(0)480-49 10 80
Fax: +46-(0)480-49 10 95
Tellus Rör, Svets och Smide Box 603 info@tellusror.se
AB Sandåsavägen 1C, www.tellusror.se
572 36 Oskarshamn
Tel1: +46 0491-199 33
Tel2: +46 0491-199 36
Fax. 0491- 199 10
Thermia Värme AB Box 950 info@thermia.se Small-scale pellet burners, furnaces
Snickargatan 1 http://www.thermia.se/ Brand/Model: BeQuem, Biomatic
SE-671 29 ARVIKA
Tel.: +46-(0)570-813 00
Fax: +46-(0)570-176 16

Torsby-Ugnen AB Vinkelvägen 9 info@torsbyugnen.se Small-scale pellet burners

SE-685 34 TORSBY http://www.torsbyugnen.se/ Brand/Model: TB Mini
Tel.: +46-(0)560-68-99-60
Fax: +46-(0)560-148 28
TPS Termiska Processer AB Studsvik Contact: Mr Henrik Lundberg Medium- and large-scale pellet burners
SE-611 82 NYKÖPING henrik.lundberg@tps.se Brand/Model: Bioswirl
Tel.: +46-(0)853-52-46-00 http://www.tps.se/
Fax: +46-(0)155-26 30 52
THE NETHERLANDS
Kara Energy Systems Postbus 570 Email: kara@introweb.nl The applied boiler to be chosen can vary from a hot
7600 AN Almelo www.kara.nl water boiler to a steam boiler with a pressure of 20
Tel.: +31 546 876580 bar. Higher operating pressures can also be
Fax: +31 546 870525 delivered, after consultation with KARA
UNITED KINGDOM
Talbott's Ltd Drummond Road Contact: Mr Ben Talbott Pellet furnaces
Astonfields Ind. Estate sales@talbotts.co.uk Range of 40 different combustion systems at its
STAFFORD ST16 3HJ http://www.talbotts.co.uk/ factory with energy outputs ranging from 25kW to
Tel.: +44-(0)1785-213366 4,000kW per hour
Fax: +44-(0)1785-256418
CZECH REPUBLIC
Atmos Jaroslav Cankař & Syn http://www.atmos.cz/ Small-scale pellet furnaces
Velenského 487
294 21 BĚLÁ POD BEZDĚZEM
Tel.: +42-0326-70 14 04
Fax: +42-0326-70 14 92
HUNGARY
IPARFEM H*3104 Salgótarján, Hosök útja Contact: Mr. Nándor Fodor, Develop. Fireplace and stove manufacturer (5 – 9 kW)
Fémszerkezetgyártó Kft. 49, Hungary Manager Products, services
Tel. +36 32/440-835, 36 E-mail: iparfem@elender.hu
32/441-100
Fax. +36 32/511-684

2.3 Briquetting
In Africa, especially in its rural areas, biomass can be utilized by a way of directly
burning in a traditional stove, the heat efficiency only 10%. The biomass energy is
still playing an important role on the rural energy. Even if we can observe crop
residues burnt directly in cultivated land in order to reduce works on transportation
and stockpile of these residues.
Biomass briquetting technology can transform these lose biomass into dry, solid of
regular shape, usually cylindrical with a diameter of 5-10 cm, which can be easily
stored and transported. Use as a substitute for firewood helps to reduce
deforestation. It will also help the rural women who spend considerable time and
energy collecting firewood.
However, traditional stoves are not the best burners for briquettes. Improvements to
stoves are also necessary for harnessing the full benefit of briquetting technology.
2.3.1 Characteristics
Depending on the type of equipment used, densification can be categorized into four
main types:
piston press densification;
screw press densification;
roll press densification;
pelletizing.
Products from the first three types of densification are large compared to pellets, and
are normally called “Briquettes”.
Briquettes refer to the result of a compression process of materials as wood and

agricultural residues. The compression process brings to a dramatic augment in the
residues density; in fact the briquetting machines are able to press the biomass to
obtain a compact cylindrical piece, characterized by a moisture content minor inferior
to 15%.
The briquetting systems, according to the pressure applied, can be classified in

systems with high, medium and low pressure. While the last two systems require to
mix the biomasses with a binding substance, the high pressure systems can be
applied to biomass in its actual form, because the binding effect develops as a
consequences of the high pressure applied. In the high pressure systems, the most
utilized technologies are:
• Screw pressing
• Piston ramming

In the screw pressing process the biomass comes extruded in continuation for effect
of the spin of one or more cochlea inside one conic section room. The arranged
effect of the high pressure and the temperature (the room comes heated during the
process) improves the adhesion between particles. The partial carbonization of the
external surface of and the presence of a hole in the centre of each briquette (typical
of this system) improve the characteristics of ignition to the fire and combustion of the
material.
The briquetting process with mechanical piston enables to compress the biomass for
means of an alternative piston moved from an electric motor through a crank. The
briquettes produced have an average diameter of 60 millimetres. The briquetting
process with oildynamics circuit piston is based on a system with two pistons that
compress the material in and that come sets in action through the oil maintained in
pressure in a closed circuit.
The advantages and disadvantages of these two systems (screw and piston) are
reassumed in the following table.
Characteristics Piston ramming Screw pressing
Optimal moisture of the biomass 10-15 8-9
Side's wear low high
Briquetting products small block continuous block
Average energetic consumption (kWh/t) 50 60
Briquette's specific weight (kg/m3) 1000-1200 1000-1400
Attitude to combustion medium good
External carbonization absent present
Briquette's omogeneity low good
The possibility to deal a biomass with greater moisture and the improved control of
the applied pressure has rendered the process with mechanical piston the more
utilized system.
The briquetting process primarily involves drying, grinding, sieving, compacting, and
cooling operations.
Fig. 18:

• Storage: can be in an airy and repaired room (in parallel with natural drying),
or in silos for biomass already dried and milled.
• Pre-treatment: involves grinding and sieving operations; these phases have
the aim to obtain a biomass with the necessary physical and chemical
characteristics.
• Feeding machine: by a tube maintained in depression or by a tape conveyor.
The loading mouth of the briquetting unit can be provided of a vibrant riddle,
for a further selection of the biomass to lower the stoppage risks.
• Compacting: transformation of the pre-treated biomass in briquettes.
• Final transformation of the briquettes: comprehends the phases of the
eventual cutting, cooling, packaging and storing operations.
• System to deal with gaseous emissions: is required only for screw systems,
when the high temperature causes the emission of volatile substances.
Grinding and storage
Compacting
Loading mouth
Tube for aspiration
Fig. 19: Source: Punto Energia Brescia
The factors that mainly influence the selection of raw materials for briquetting are
moisture content, ash content, flow characteristics, and particle size.
A moisture content in the range of 10% to 15% is preferred to enable proper grinding.
Use of biomass with high moisture content makes grinding difficult and more energy
is required for drying. The ash content of biomass affects its slugging behaviour
together with the operating temperature and mineral composition.
Briquettes can be utilized for any application in substitution of firewood and coal,
changing in the proper way the operative parameters, as the primary and secondary
air distribution: in fact briquettes require a major quantity of primary air and a minor
quantity of secondary air for the combustion.

Briquettes have a density doubled respect that of wood. Porosity is very low and so
the ember produced during the combustion is denser than that of wood. Moreover,
briquettes have a higher calorific power and maintain a higher temperature inside the
furnace.
The more frequent utilizations for briquettes are:

• boilers for steam generation;
• in distilleries and vine companies as a fuel for the productive process;
• in the textile industries;
• in farmers and sawmills as a fuel for the productive process;
• in gasifier as fuel
• in domestic boilers for producing hot water;
• in stoves and fireplaces, because briquettes burn easily and have a
combustion better than wood.
2.3.2 Economical aspects
Briquettes production from biomass is an operation that comprehends many phases,

each with specific costs:
• Collection and transport of the biomass, from the field to the storage area.
• Transport of the biomass to the briquetting machines;
• Pre-treatment of the biomass: drying, grinding, refining;
• Briquetting: filling up of the biomass, pressing;
• Packaging;
• Transport of the briquettes to the sale point;
The realization of these operations involves investments costs that, in function of the
size of the plant, vary from about 8 to 40 millions of euro.
The briquette’s packaging is usually effectuated according to the following conditions:

• 50 bags per hour containing 5 kg;
• 12 bags per hour containing 20 kg;
The briquette’s final cost varies in function of the potentiality of the machine, from
15€cent to 25€cent.

2.3.3 Pollutant emissions
With technical optimal conditions of combustion, wood can burn in its totality, and the
combustion gases contain only carbon dioxide (CO2 ), watery vapor (H2O), nitrogen
oxides (NO NO2 ), nitrogen (N2) and ashes particle, that represent the inorganic part
of the dust. In practice, however, a perfect combustion can never be obtained in all
the combustion phases; so, there is the formation of other substances, products of an
incomplete combustion: gaseous carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and liquids,
beyond to tar and soot.
Incomplete combustion is caused by the fact that about the 70% of the organic
components of the wood pass to the gas state before the combustion, and only the
30% remains in coal state.
It is important to consider that also the best available wood heating system will
pollute if it is no utilized the proper a fuel with the proper characteristics. For this
reason, briquettes mustn’t contain chemical binding substances; the combustion of
treated wood can create dioxin.
2.3.4 Main European briquetting machines manufacturers

Briquetting is a technology very interesting because, considerably reducing the
residual density, enables to concentrate an high energetic value in a small volume.
The main manufacturers in Europe are listed in this paragraph with some comments
on their products.
2.3.4.1 Welo SAS di Lochmann Karl & Co.
I-39011 Lana (BZ), Via Josef-Aigner 4

Tel. 0473 564984,
Fax 0473 565060
Mail: info@welo.it
Web: www.welo.it
Briquetting machine with shaving filter.
2.3.4.2 ASCOT S.r.l.
Via dell'Industria 38
36035 Marano Vicentino
VICENZA - ITALY
Tel. (+39) 0445 637330
Fax (+39) 0445 639210
E-mail: info@ascot-matic.com
Web: www.ascot-matic.com
ASCOT builds machines and complete plants for the production of briquettes and
pellets from cellulose materials.

Manufacturing program machines

Mod. BRICMATIC 1-50/130 1-55/130 1-65/150 1-75/150 1-85/200 1-95/200
150 ÷ 200 ÷
Production capacity kg/h 600 800 1200 1500
200 340
Briquette diameter mm 52 56 67 77 87 98
Length of briquettes mm 30 ÷ 250 30 ÷ 250 30 ÷ 300 30-300 30-300 30-300
Main motor power kw 15 22 37 45 55 75
Flywheel diameter mm 1000 1000 1250 x 1 1250 x 2 1250 x 2 1250 x 2
Weight approx kg 2050 2280 4000 4800 6000 6300
With density of saw 3 160 ÷ 160 ÷ 160 ÷ 160 ÷ 160 ÷
kg/m 160 ÷ 180
dust 180 180 180 180 180
We reserve the right of technical modifications.Our machines are supplied with accident protections
as required by international law.
Bricmatic 1-50/130 1-55/130

Automatic briquetting press
Bricmatic 1-50/130 1-55/130
Production capacity kg/h 150 ÷ 200 200 ÷ 340
Briquette diameter mm 52 56
Length of briquettes mm 30 ÷ 250 30 ÷ 250
Main motor power kw 15 22
Flywheel diameter mm 1000 1000
Weight approx kg 2050 2280
We reserve the right of technical modifications.
Bricmatic 1-65/150
Production capacity kg/h 600
Briquette diameter mm 67
Length of briquettes mm 30 ÷ 300
Main motor power kw 37
Flywheel diameter mm 1250 x 1
Weight approx kg 4000
Bricmatic 1-75/150
Production capacity kg/h 800
Briquette diameter mm 77
Length of briquettes mm 30 ÷ 300
Main motor power kw 45
Flywheel diameter mm 1250 x 2
Weight approx kg 4800

3 Conversion technologies
In this chapter a detailed survey of existing sectorial bioenergy E.U. technologies has
been carried out mentioning the strong points and weakness. In particular the
following ones of major interest for technological transfer and possible industrial
cooperation have been identified:
3.1 Carbonisation and steam activation for activated coal production

3.1.1 Charcoal technology
Charcoal is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing
water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances.
Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood, sugar, bone
char, or other substances in the absence of oxygen.
Firewood and charcoal for cooking and heating is actually used in a very wide way.
For several hundred million of people, it is already impossible to get a sufficient
supply of firewood because of the ruinous exploitation of forests. Here the modern
charcoal technology high-grade energy recovery systems can find a new task.
Tapping the vast waste reserves of the world, the charcoal industry can make one of
its most important contributions to mankind by helping to provide for the energy
needs of the future, especially in all developing countries.
3.1.1.1 Carbonization process
Carbonisation or dry distillation takes place when any organic matter is raised to a
high temperature (i.e. above 180° C) under strict exclusion of oxygen or under
controlled minimal air intake. Essentially the process of carbonisation follows a
general temperature scheme:
• between 100° and 170° C all loosely bound water is evaporated from the raw
material.
• between 170° and 270° C gases develop (off-gas), containing carbon
monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and condensable vapours, which form
pyrolysis oil after scrubbing and chilling.
• between 270° and 280° an exothermic reaction starts, which can be detected
by spontaneous generation of heat and the rising temperature. At the same
time, the development of CO and CO2 ceases but the quality of condensable
vapours rises.
Once the carbonisation process has entered the exothermic phase, no more outside
heating is required. The temperature in the retort will climb slowly until it comes to a
standstill between 400° and 450° C.
Naturally, this scheme can be applied only if the carbonisation or dry distillation is
conduced batch-wise. To achieve a higher terminal temperature, the process must
be supported with extra heat from outside.

For the classification of charcoal equipment, the scheme shown in the figures here
below is suggested for practical use. Presently, more than one hundred concepts and
methods to make charcoal are known.
Fig. 20: classification of charcoal processes
To start up the carbonisation and to maintain higher temperatures, external heating is

required. Many heating systems have been tried and only the three basics presented
here below are generally used.
Type A: most common system. Part of the raw material is burnt under
controlled air inlet. The combustion heat provides the energy for maintenance
of the process. Recommendable only in locations where raw material prices
are low (waste material).
Fig. 21: Type A

Type B: retort or converter heated from the outside under strict exclusion of
oxygen. Fuel can be provided from the off-gases.
Fig. 22: Type B - external heating by combustion of firewood, fuel oil or natural gas.
Type C: very expensive heating system. Raw material comes in direct contact
with the hot gases. Charcoal and by-product yields are high. Recommendable
for very large plant capacities only.
Fig. 23: Type C - heating with recirculated gas (retort or converter gas). Hot gases
pass through raw material charge.
3.1.1.2 Raw materials for the process
Any type of biomass, containing organic carbon, may be used as a process raw
material.
However, the choice of the raw material and the process conditions must be carried
out as a function of the final properties of the charcoal to be produced.
For good results is suggested the utilisation of medium density resinous woods as
the following: fir-tree, pine, and larch. It is possible, however, to obtain excellent and
product by using biomasses as: beech, oak, chestnut tree, eucalyptus, olive wine
tendrils, coconut shells, woody and herbaceous crops pellets.
The moisture of the biomass must not overcome 35% absolute by weight, and the
suggested dimensions are those of pieces with 20 – 30 mm.

3.1.1.3 Modern charcoal equipment
Among others one should remind:
The Retort Technology
The term “retort technology” refers to carbonisation of pinewood or wood logs

reduced in size to a minimum length of 30 cm and not exceeding 18 cm in diameter.
Several types of retort plants are shown in the following schemes and figures:
Fig. 24: The wagon retort plant
Retort dimensions: length 7.5 m / diameter 2.5 m

Retort capacity: ~ 35 m3
Retort production: 9 t/m3 per month
Raw-material: wood
Yield: 33% - 38% (charcoal Wt / wood weight)
Fig. 25: the Reichert retort process

Fig. 26: the French SIFIC retort process
The fluid bed carbonizer
In this process the raw material (K) is directed to a bed of hot glowing charcoal in a
closed chamber (D). This is maintained in a turbulent state by introducing an oxygen-
containing gas under pressure into the bed.
The glowing charcoal quickly distils and gasifies the wood particles. The oxygen-
containing gas and the evolved gases are present in such quantity that the charcoal
and particle bed is maintained in a turbulent or “fluidised state” resulting in a
uniformly high temperature throughout.
Charcoal is formed continuously in the process, and may be removed periodically

(preferable continuously) and this is done by means of an overflow pipe (F).
Feed material: sawdust, nutshells, bagasse (max size 0.6 cm).
Yield: 18% - 25% (dry wt).
Fig. 27: the fluid bed carbonizer (generalised diagram).

Mobile Carbonisation Plant
This system is able to optimise the quantity and quality of the charcoal production.
The dimensions of wood particles are smaller than 1.8 cm (23% moisture by wt).
From 3 t of dry wood 1 t of charcoal and ½ t of pyrolysis-oil is obtained.
Fig. 28: the ENERCO Model 24 Pyrolyser (right side).
Rotary Kiln
This type of carbonisation units are the most efficient and pollution control
technology.
Several industries in the E.U. manufacture this type of modern equipment as shown
in figure here below.
Fig. 29: Rotary kiln

3.1.1.4 Carbonisation products
Chemical and physical properties of charcoal are greatly influenced by three factors –
raw material type, process characteristics, and after-treatment. The main properties
of charcoal are determined by the following parameters:
Yield: expressed as weight of charcoal per unit weight of dry raw material, in
percentage.
Specific Weight: refers to the density of charcoal, which varies according to the
density of the raw material. The density of charcoal can be influenced within a narrow
range by the course of the process temperature, in particular by the terminal
temperature.
Hardness: a very important coefficient for industrial charcoal. Standard scales have
been imposed in some countries; these are normally identical with the hardness
degrees of bituminous coal.
Moisture: after the charcoal has left the converter, it vigorously absorbs water from
the air up to 6% of its dry weight. In some continuous operations, the hot charcoal is
cooled by a controlled water spray
Content of Volatiles: if charcoal is heated to 900° under confined conditions, it will
lose weight because hydrocarbons and nitrogen are driven out. This weight loss is
extremely important to industrial charcoal consumers when defining the utilisation
properties. In general, the weight loss should not exceed 30%.
Fixed carbon content: the dry charcoal weight minus the content of volatiles and
incombustible (ashes) is equivalent to the content of fixed carbon, which also
determines its fuel value (Cfix).
Ash content: the ash is composed of the natural minerals contained in almost any
organic matter and contamination. The quantity is related to the composition of the
raw material mix, e.g. wood branches with a high proportion of bark will give high ash
containing charcoal. Charcoal ashes are distinguished by their solubility in water and
by chemical analysis.
Sulphur and phosphorus content: the low sum of these substances normally found
in charcoals make them especially attractive for use in blast iron furnaces and for
metallurgical purposes. The desired value for sulphur is usually below 0.05% and for
phosphorus under 0.03%.
Heating or calorific value: this depends on the fixed carbon content and will be
lowered only by high ash content. In general, heating values range between 6,500
and 7,200 kcal/kg (30,100 KJ/kg), comparable to bituminous coal.
Active or activated charcoal: the porosity or surface area can be enlarged by
special activation processes. Industries use gas, steam or chemical activation. The
largest surface area, which can be achieved in commercial plants, measures
approximately 1,500 m2/g, which is close to the area of a football field.
Agglomerated and briquetted charcoal: Known shapes and forms are spheres,
cylinders, hexagonal, diamonds, bricks, oblong and pillow-shaped conglomerates
and pellets. The constituent parts are: charcoal, binder, and additives.

3.1.1.5 Description of the continuous charcoal process of the woody biomasses in

absence of oxygen
The available biomasses, if necessary are crumbled in a suitable crushing machine

and continuously fed by a special screw conveyor and a cups elevator to the pre-
heater.
The preheating process ventilators a cyclone, a recycling screw id made by utilising

the stream of exhausted combustion fumes coming from the carbonisation rotary kiln
throughout air pre-heater which will be discharged into the atmosphere at the outlet
of the stack.
Then the woody biomass pellets are continuously transferred by screw and an
elevator to the carbonisation rotary kiln which operates in absence of oxygen.
The kiln is constituted by:
• a rotating part comprising a cylindrical metallic shell, internally insulated for a
certain thickness, and a concentric metallic pipe, joint with the cited shell to
which is connected by some partitioning metallic wings, allocated in radial
position and alongside the axis of the pipe.
• two fixed parts to the end sides of the rotating part, for the loading and the
unloading of the solid or gaseous products. Some inert gas (i.e.: nitrogen) are
injected between the rotating and the fixed parts to protect the feedstock from
the air entering the reactor chamber.
The solid product (biomass and charcoal) flows on the external surface of the
concentric pipe and over the cited wings which are at increasing temperature due to
the fact that in the internal part of the pipe there is a continuous counter-currently
passage of fumes at high temperature; they are not in contact with the solids in
reaction.
The fumes are generated in a special combustor connected to one fixed part of the
kiln.
The indicative temperatures (degrees centigrade) are:

• Fumes side: outlet 450 inlet 900
• Wood side: inlet 20 outlet 650
The outgoing fumes do preheat also the carburant air for the combustor throughout a
heat exchanger.
The woody biomass is progressively heated by passing through up to the

carbonisation temperature; it is submitted to a thermal degradation process which,
together with the formation of the solid final charcoal, generates the emission of
gaseous products – defined as pyrolytic vapours – which, at their final temperature at
the outlet of the kiln have a good combustible characteristics.

The necessary heat for the system is obtained in the combustor by burning:
• during the start up – an external combustible (wood, methane, gpl a. s. o)
• in steady conditions – about 50% of the pyrolytic products
• of the stream of the vapours – generated from the reacting woody biomass -,
which go out from the separator at a temperature between 550 and 600
degrees C and more, with a heating power of 2.000 – 2.500 Kcal/Kg.
A part of the pyrolytic product goes to the burner of the carbonisation combustor CC
C, to which arrives in the same time the carburant air preheated in the fumes heat
exchanger.
The exceeding part of the pyrolytic product is sent to burn in a special low emission
combustor that can be used for heat production. The charcoal falling in the separator
is normally directly fed – by a special screws system to the charcoal cooling and
storage unit.
3.2 BioSynGas technology (from biomass pellets)
In several rural areas of Africa there is scarcity of cooking fuels and in particular a
wide scarcity of clean modern fuels.
In general most of needs are satisfied by charcoal, agro-forestry residues, biogas
and in smaller amount by GPL. Agro-forestry residues are utilised in very inefficient
and traditional ways and generate great health risk for the high level of their noxious
emissions, as e.g. CO – smoke – dust.
Modern, biomass derived, renewable clean fuels, like BioSynGas, biogas, bioethanol
jelly, etc., could be of great importance for satisfying the vital cooking energy supply.
In rural villages or small towns, the production of BioSynGas, a medium heating

value (M.H.V.) gas derived from lignocellulosic biomass residues could fill up the
demand of cooking fuel gas which in many cases is partially provided by the biogas
production. BioSynGas is in energy content similar to biogas; therefore these two
types of gas could be mixed, before distribution in a local consumer network.
A cost-efficient process based on existing commercial technologies for the production

of BioSynGas and BioHydrogen from low quality biomass (like agro-forestry
residues) is described here below.
The production of BioSynGas from agro-forestry residues is obtained by the following

“3-steps process”
• 1st Step: Biomass drying & pelletisation by an innovative technology (for avoid
degradation of humid biomass)
• 2nd Step: Direct conversion of biomass pellets into charcoal-pellets (without
binding compound)
• 3rd Step: Steam reforming of charcoal pellets at temperatures of ~ 900 °C to
obtain BioSynGas consisting mainly of approx. 53% of H2 and approx. 45%
CO).

From one kg of biomass residues pellets with ~ 10% humidity, 0.6 kg of BioSynGas
can be obtained with a Heating Value of approx. 4,000 kcal/kg (18.7 MJ/kg).
Assuming a low cost of agro-forestry residues of ~ 35 $/d ton as in many developing
countries, the estimated production cost of BioSynGas is 80 €/t (176 €/TOE) having
often a selling value of ~ 160 €/t. Production plants of small-medium-large capacities
can also be envisaged.
BioSynGas could be utilised also to feed a small microgas turbine cogeneration
plant. Higher cost of biofuels can be compensated partially by power investment cost
for the generator in the range of ~ 850 €/kWe.
3.2.1 Description of the process
The production of this MHV-gas is carried out by the following 3-steps:
3.2.1.1 Biomass drying & pelletisation.
Any type of agri-forestry residues and/or dedicated crops or mixtures with a humidity
content of about 35-40% is simultaneously dried and palletised.
3.2.1.2 Conventional carbonisation
The biomass pellets are than submitted to a conventional carbonisation process to

obtain charcoal-pellets.
A wide range of carbonisation systems in terms of efficiency, capacity, and emission

control is available. Trials carried out by a small, charcoal producing unit have shown
good results in converting sweet-sorghum bagasse pellets and corn stalks pellets
into charcoal pellets without any need of binding element: good mechanical stability
of the pellets, increased hardness, reduced diameter and good processing results
have been obtained.
3.2.1.3 Steam reforming of charcoal pellets
Continuous or batch type reactors can be utilised with small-medium-large capacity

ranges depending of needs. In the small generator under construction the charcoal
pellets are heated at about 800/900 °C inside a rotating reactor and steam is injected
producing gasification of charcoal to Bio-Syn-Gas, a mixture in the range of about 50
- 60% H2 in volume and 35 to 45% of CO, with an heating value of about ~ 19 MJ/kg.
For the processing an important point is the absence of sulphur in the feedstock,
eliminating thus the expensive step of gas desulphurisation. From 1 kg of biomass
pellets with 10% of humidity approx. 0.6 kg of Bio-Syn-Gas can be obtained.

Fig. 3: Charcoal Steam Reforming Reactor Fig. 4: cooking stove using

medium heating value gas
(bio-syn-gas).
In summary the concept of this process can be illustrated as follows:
Drying Pelletisation of biomass or Medium-large capacity

mixture
Transformation of biomass pellets Small-medium-large capacity

in Charcoal pellets
Steam Reforming of Charcoal Small-medium-large capacity

pellets to obtain bio-syn-gas
BioSynGas has a heating value of ~ ½ of that one of natural gas and can be utilised
and burned efficiently in modern – conventional gas fuelled stoves.

3.3 Biogas plants
3.3.1 Biogas - Origin, Characteristics, Utilisation
3.3.1.1 Biochemical Bases of Biogasification
Biogas production is based on anaerobic digestion process of organic material. It is a

metabolism product of bacteria taken part in this process. The digestion process can be
divided in four stages, whereby for each dismantling process stage different bacteria
strains are responsible.
• Hydrolysis: In the first stage enzymes are separated into the degradable substance
by micro organisms, which are very present in animal excrements and sewage
sludge. These enzymes decompose high-molecular substances such as proteins,
fats, carbohydrates and cellulose into low-molecular connections. The products of
the first stage are sugar, amino acids, fatty acids and water.
• Acidogenesis: In the second stage the products of the first stage are converted into
provisional final products by acid-forming bacteria. Fatty acids will become acetic
acid and hydrogen, amino acids will become acetic acids, ammonia and carbon
dioxide.
• Acetogenesis: In the third stage acetate, carbon dioxide and hydrogen are formed
by acetic acid from the provisional final products.
• Methanogenesis: These substances serve the bacteria of the fourth stage, the
actual methane bacteria, as metabolism products. So the final products of the
biogas process will be methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2) and water.
During digestion about 50% of the organic carbon in the substrate will be diminished and
converted to methane and carbon dioxide, which represent the main components of
biogas.
The fertilisation value remains in the decomposed substrate since all of the plant nutrients
like nitrogen are still contained. Also with the digestion process the etching action is
reduced and the fluidity is improved by the dismantling of organic material. Therefore the
decomposed manure flows off better from the sheets and penetrates more easily into the
soil. Further the substrate is kind of sanatised, since with the digestion process pathogens
and germs are partly killed.
Different kinds of bacteria are involved at the biogas process. In order to ensure the
digestion process in the best possible way an adapted environment must be made
available to the involved bacteria. Therefore different conditions for the expiration of the
digestion process are to be kept:
Anaerobic process
The biogas process runs under anaerobic conditions, this means without air. The bacteria
strains involved react to oxygen in different ways. Some fail to increase and stop the
biochemical reaction. Other strains are able to grow further with small amounts of oxygen.
If solved oxygen is registered into the digestion process by fresh substrate, then it is used
in the first digestion stage of aerob working bacteria (with air contact) [1;2;3].

Light
Beam of light restrains the digestion process. However, the micro organisms are not killed
[1].
Process temperature
For the origin of biogas a process temperature between 0 and 75°C in the septic tank is
necessary. Since no heat of reaction is set free, the septic tank for middle and high
process temperatures must be heated. Therefore with the rising of the temperature the
heating requirement of the septic tank increases too. Advantage of a high process
temperature is the higher biogas output and the faster decomposing of the substrate.
Disadvantage is the higher portion of unwanted materials in the biogas, like carbon
dioxide, water, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide.
Three typical ranges of process temperatures are differentiated:

- psychrophile range < 20°C
- mesophile range 20°C - 38°C optimum: 30°C - 35°C
- thermophile range > 38°C optimum: 55°C - 60°C
In each temperature range lives a specific bacteria strain. Strong variations in temperature
obstruct the growth of the bacterial cultures. Therefore the temperature is to be kept as
constant as possible. Within the mesophile range daily variations in temperature of 2 - 3°C
can be tolerated, within the thermophile range the temperature is to be kept constant with
variations of 1°C. Changing the temperature range of the process should take place during
one period of several weeks.
pH-Value
The optimum of the pH-Value lies in the weakly alkaline range with approx. 7,5. The pH-
Value is in a stable range, if the biological dismantling stages of the digestion process is in
an equilibrium. With to high (> 8) and to low (< 6) pH-Value methane production
decreases. The pH-Value also decreases, if too much fresh biomass is added, since
volatile carbonic acids are enriched. If too much easily degradable nitrogenous substances
are supplied, the pH-Value increases, because the nitrogen is converted into basic
working ammonia.
Nutrient supply
Most of the micro organisms taken part in the biogas process need organic carbon and
nitrogen, mineral materials and trace elements for growth and reproduction. Liquid manure
and crap contain these materials in sufficient quantities and offer a good buffer for acids
and bases. It also has to be ensured that the bacteria come in contact with fresh substrate
by thorough mixing.

Solid content
Solids in the substrate are necessary, in order to offer a settlement and/or a contact area
to the bacteria. Since the bacteria need a damp environment for working and increasing,
the maximum solid content is approximately 50 % related to dry substance. The optimum
is reached, if sufficient settlement surface for the maximum number of producible bacteria
is present. The solid concentration has to guarantee an effective mixing of substrate and
also to give the bacteria the possibility to get in contact with fresh substrate. The optimum
range of solid concentration lies between 2 to 9 % dry substance.
Comminution
Substrates like bio garbage, straw and grass must be cut up, in order to offer the bacteria
a large reaction area and to ensure an effective mixing.
Mixing
The task of the agitator is the prevention of layer building, to secure the nutrient supply,
the destruction of floating covers, the removal of biogas and bacteria metabolism products.
Therefore the agitator should be equipped with large agitating sheets working slowly and
constantly.
Restrictors
Disinfectants, antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents can restrain or completely stop the
methane production during inappropriate handling. This can occur, if stables are
disinfected or whole livestocks are treated at the same time.
Septic tank load
The supply of too much fresh substrate into the septic tank can lead to stop the digestion
process. The acid-producing bacteria strongly increase due to the high nutrient offer, so
the acid concentration in the septic tank grows and after exceeding the limit value the
methane bacteria will stop their metabolic activity. The daily supply load of organic material
must remain in a certain framework in order to prevent the acidification by sufficient
nutrient supply for the micro organisms. In order to avoid occasional high loads in the
feeding zone of the septic tank, the substrate should be supplied as continuously as
possible.
Degassing
In order to ensure a high dismantling achievement of the substrate the biogas should be
constantly taken out of the septic tank, otherwise the gas production decreases.

3.3.1.2 Composition and Characteristics of Biogas
As a metabolism product of micro organisms biogas mainly consists of methane and

carbon dioxide. Fresh biogas is saturated with water vapour. The following table shows the
typical values of the respective materials for biogas and compares several information out
of different literature sources (see bibliography).
Bibliography [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

65 65
Methane
(59,2 – 65 (55 – 70) (51,8 – (40 – 75)
CH4 [vol. %]
72,8) 85,2)
Carbon dioxide 34 34,8
34 (27 – 44) (25 –55)
CO2 [vol. %] (27 – 40) (14 – 48)
Hydrogen sulfide 0,2
(0 – 1) - <3 (0 – 1)
H2S [vol. %] (0,08 – 5,7)
Hydrogen traces
traces - <1 (0 – 1)
H2 [vol. %] (0 – 5)
Carbon dioxide traces
- - - -
CO [vol. %] (0 – 2,1)
Nitrogen traces
traces - - (0 – 5)
N2 [vol. %] (0,6 – 7,5)
Oxygen traces
traces - - (0 – 2)
O2 [vol. %] (0 – 1)
Ammonia
traces - - - (0 – 1)
NH3 [vol. %]
Water vapour saturation
- - - (0 – 10)
H2O [vol. %] zu 100%
Fig. 32: Composition of biogas
Biogas is inflammable, if the methane content lies over 50 vol.%. The heat value of biogas
is determined mainly by the methane portion. Methane has a heat value of 9,94 kW/h/mN³.
With methane concentrations of 60 to 65 % in the biogas a heat value of 6 to 6,5 kW/h/mN³
is typical. The density of biogas amounts around 1,2 kg/m³. The ignition temperature
amounts to approximately 700 °C, the ignition border in air is at 6 to 12 vol.% [1].
Hydrogen sulfide is responsible for the toxic effect of biogas. It works at approx. 400
mg/m³ toxically and starting from 1.200 mg/m³ deadly. The usual sulfur portion of 0,2 vol.%
corresponds to a hydrogen sulfide concentration of 3.060 mg/m³! Carbon dioxide in biogas
leads to breath paralyses, cramps, unconsciousness and blood pressure drop. Starting
from concentrations of 177.000 mg/m³ it works deadly. 35 vol.% of CO2/m3 correspond to
687.600 mg/m3!
3.3.1.3 Utilisation of Biogas
Thermal utilisation
Biogas can be burned in atmospheric heaters. Whereby the heat is partly needed for
keeping the temperature level in the septic tank. Depending upon design and isolation 20
to 50 % of the energy contained in the biogas are necessary. The remaining heat energy

can be used for heating of buildings and stables, heating of industrial water and drying
process for straw, wood, grain, etc..
Utilisation in Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
The utilisation of biogas in CHP-plants is more economical and ecologically, since heat
and electricity are made available with a better total efficiency. Beside heating the septic
tank the developed heat can be used in absorption climate devices for cooling processes
and of course on other consumers stated above.
3.3.1.4 Biogas sources
Relevant sources for the energetic use of biogas are excrements of humans and animals,
as well as vegetable materials and biological wastes. Some sources which are present in
Africa are shown in detail:
Cattle, pigs, chickens

Due to the open land livestock husbandry not all excrements are avaiable for the
processing in a biogas plant. Most important for the biogasification is liquid manure, since
it is easier to agitate and pumpable with less technical expenditure than the digestion of
solid crap. For this reason liquid manure is processed predominantly in biogas plants.
Sheep
The majority of the resulting excrements of sheep husbandry can not be used due to the
pasture management. So from the sheep husbandry no considerable biogas potential is
given.
Poultry
The number of geese and ducks vary seasonally due to slaughtering and therefore vary
the avaiability of excrements accordingly. Beyond that the animal numbers per owner are
often not large enough, in order to make a biogas plant economically work.
Grain
Grain has a very high dry substance content (85%) and is very fibrous so it can only used
as a co-substrate in a biogas plant. Grain should also be cut up, since at short retention
times no dismantling takes place. The grain digestion is only meaningful if it is too wet for
burning purposes, which is energetically more favorable.
Corn
Corn straw is not suitable for the usage in a biogas plant because of its thickness and
fibrousness problems with pumps and agitator can occur.
However corn silage is good to degradable and suitable for storage.
Fruits and vegetables

Fruits and vegetables are good degradable and provide also a good biogas output. The
danger of acidification exists if large quantities are supplied.

The following table gives an overview to the biogas and energy output :
3 Biogas output Energy output

m Biogas
per kg Fresh Fresh
Acreage Acreage
substrate substrate
Organic Dry 3 3
[m /t] [m /ha] [kWh/t] [kWh/ha]
Substrate
Cow manure 0,2 - 0,48 22,1 - 135,1 -
Pig manure 0,36 22,1 - 135,3 -
Grain straw 0,3 - 0,6 217 - 481 1.084 - 2.403 1.410 - 3.127 9.165 - 20.326
Chicken
0,5 160 - 1.040 -
excrements
Corn silage 0,6 151 5.600 982 36.400
Cow dung 0,2 - 0,3 20 - 50 - 130 - 350 -
Fig. 33: Output overview
3.3.2 Identification of European Biogas Plant Manufacturers
This paragraph propose the selection of companies providing complete equipment

manufacturer, since planning, project engineering, building and operating services.
Nevertheless information of other fields of business is also mentioned if available. Another
criteria is the internet presence of the company, which may be a key factor for foreign
customers to get appropriate information quick and also an easy manageable option to get
in contact with the company.
Company Country Comment

Anlagen- und Apparatebau Lüthe Heide,Germany Biogas-Komplettanlagen
GmbH (Planung schlüsselfertiger
Anlagen, Komplettbau, Lieferung
von Komponenten)
AgrEnviCon GmbH Ockensfeld,Germany
Agrikomp GmbH Weidenbach,Germany
AQUA - TEK Biotechnologie und Berlin,Germany Biomass anaerobic digestion,
Anlagenbau GmbH CHP 5kW-15kW, reed bed water
purification
ARCHEA GmbH Gesellschaft für Hessisch Oldendorf, Biogas plants
umweltschonende Technologien Germany
BEKON GmbH Landshut, Germany Digestion of moisturous, solid
and liquid biomass, gas utilisation
in CHP
BINOWA Weischütz, Germany
Umweltverfahrenstechnik
Bio System GmbH Konstanz, Germany Conception of biogas plants
Biogas Nord GmbH Bielefeld, Germany Design, planning and
manufacture of biogas plants
Biomass technology Group BV - Enschede, Netherlands
BTG
BIOPHIL - Gesellschaft für Berlin, Germany
Biotechnologie, Energie- und
Umwelttechnik mbH
Bioscan GmbH Osnabrück, Germany


Bioteg GmbH Kulmbach, Germany Bio filter
Bi - Utec Hirschfelde, Germany
BTA Biotechnische München, Germany
Abfallverwertung GmbH & Co.
KG
Buehler AG Hannover, Germany vegetal biomass utilisation -
digestion, composting
Consentis Energie & Umwelt Wietmarschen, Germany Biogas - complete conversion
and gas utilisation units
Dansk Biogas A/S Hasselager, Denmark
ECB Enviro Berlin AG Berlin, Germany Biogas plants
ECONS SA Bioggio, Switzerland Biogas from waste
Ecotop BV Overdinkel, Netherlands
energie + konzept Hamburg, Germany Design of Biogas plants
ENTEC - Umwelttechnik GmbH Nauen Fussach, Germany Biogas plants
Environmental Biotechnology Ltd Bridgwater, United Kingdom Anaerobic digestion of wastes,

- EBL composting
EnviTec - Mall Saerbeck, Germany Biogas plants
EWO Energietechnologie GmbH Lichtenau, Germany Biogas plants for farmers
Farmatic Anlagenbau GmbH Nortorf, Germany complete biogas units -

conception, manufacture, start-up
and operation
FLS Miljoe a/s - BS Incineration Valby, Denmark solid waste management and
Technology Centre biogas utilisation
GBU mbH Biogas & Hechthausen, Germany Biogas plants
Umwelttechnik Büro Nord
Henze HARVESTORE GmbH Unna Königsborn,
Germany
Ing.-Büro C. Rückert Neukirchen bSR, Germany complete biogas units -
conception, set-up
INNOVAS München, Germany … related to energie + konzept
Linde-KCA-Dresden GmbH - Dresden, Germany Digestion of organic waste,
Environmental Technology sludges, manure, wastewater
Processes and biogas use
LIPP GmbH Tannhausen, Germany Biogas plants
MAT Müll- und Abfalltechnik Waiblingen, Germany Biogas - complete plants (design,
GmbH manufacture, set-up and
operation)
Meixner Gülletechnik Buchen-Hollerbach, Biogas plants, pumps
Germany technology, transportation,
stirring and comminution
technology
OSMO - Anlagenbau GmbH & Georgsmarienhütte, Biogas plants
Co. KG Germany
Rosinger Anlagentechnik GmbH Attnang Puchheim, Austria Biogas complete units, vegetable
& Co. oil - and esterification), waste-to-
energy units
Schmack Biogas GmbH Burglengfeld, Germany Biogas- full systems (planning,
multiple fermenter technology,
gas storage, analytical service)


SEF Energietechnik GmbH Zwickau, Germany Biogas-whole conversion units,
CHP for biogas, lanfill gas
utilisation
SITA BFI Oosterbeek,, Nertherlands
U.T.S. Umwelt - Technik - Süd Obertaufkirchen, Germany Biogas- complete plants
(conception, manufacture,
consultation)
UWAS Umwelttechnik und München, Germany manufacturing of Two-stage-
Anlagenbau fermenters
Valorga International SAS Montpellier, France Biological household waste
treatment, biogas use, turnkey
plants
WELtec BioPower GmbH Lutten, Germany Biogas- complete plants
(conception, manufacture,
consultation)
Fig. 34: list of biogas plant manufacturers

3.4 Microdistilleries
3.4.1 Introduction to the microdistillery concept
The most relevant motivations that make bioethanol microdistillery an interesting

opportunity for Arid and semi-arid rural areas are:
• It is now possible to supply modern bioenergy complexes for remote rural villages
based on different crops able beyond the satisfaction on the essential needs of the
population (food, animal feed, energy), to produce an extra income from the
surpluses sale for an economic sustainable activity
• The comprehensive utilisation and processing of the biomass resource in integrated
complexes with the simultaneous production of several high value commodities is
essential for the improvement of the economic activity and for a large scale
sustainable deployment of these bioenergy complexes
• These Integrated Complexes could provide a vital contribution for a general rural
socio-economic development and for considerably increasing the Index of Human
development of the population (60-70%). It seems that a specific investment of
500$ - 1500$ are sufficient tin very poor situations to change the life of one person
forever
• Significant effort to expand the availability and local manufacture of commercial
small size technologies, for technical assistance and for education & training -
especially for a sustainable biomass production - must be envisaged as vital
measure to ensure a viable and durable operation
Considering the production by small plants in general, the economics of decentralised

bioethanol production in microdistilleries at capacities of 5-10 tons/day is penalised for the
scale-effect expressed by the “Capacity 0.6 exponential factor”. This negative effect can
be compensated by:
• Large number repetition of standard optimised microdistilleries (production in series
as indicated below).
• Adoption of small-scale bioenergy integrated complexes for the production of
several coproducts from well selected dedicated crops, to maintain the price of
bioethanol at a preferential level
It is estimated that in this way production costs of about 250 $/liter can be obtained also by
small plants offering thus the opportunity to increase considerably the supply of bioethanol
at world-scale and facilitating for developing countries the possibility of becoming large
high value energy producers, generating with significant impact on their rural development
and increase of the general Index of Human Development, this being so much related to
the energy availability and use .
The most important fields in which bioethanol can be used are:

Heat market (Cooking Fuel, ETOH jelly): Space heating – Cooling
Cogeneration (microturbines, external combustion engines): Power + water and
space heating + space cooling + food freezing (for hospitals, hotels, shopping
centres, public and private buildings, schools)

Trigeneration (microturbines + engines + absorption refrigeration systems): Power

+ water/space heating + space cooling + food freezing (hospital + hotel + shopping
centres + schools)
Transport: Low-grade (95°) bioethanol as additive for Diesel and gasoline, low-
grade bioethanol for external combustion power generators (hybrid – cars)
Chemicals: ETOH for hydrogen production
S.Sorghum Plantation:
5 ton grains /ha; Harvesting:
Harvesting machine: 1 ha/h
7,5 ton sugar/ha
15 ton bagasse/ha
5 ton trashes/ha
Pelletisation unit:
Grains: 5x 1000=
5000 t/y
Bagasse: 15 t/ha Activated coal

Trashes: 5t/ha Agro-pellets
Bio-fertilisers
Sugar: 7,5x 1000= Sugar extraction:

7,5000t/y efficiency 94% Liquid
sugar
Bioethanol
Microdistillery:
~4 milion l/y Income
-Cogeneration plant :
(fuelled with Agro- pellets) Income
CO2
Recovery unit &
Distillation for Income
production of solid ice
Fig. 35: Scheme of Sweet sorghum Bioenergy Complex.

The production of ethanol or ethyl alcohol from starch or sugar-based feedstocks is among
man's earliest ventures into value-added processing. While the basic steps remain the
same, the process has been considerably refined in recent years, leading to a very
efficient process. There are two production processes: wet milling and dry milling. The
main difference between the two is in the initial treatment of the grain. In dry milling, the
entire corn kernel or other starchy grain is first ground into flour, which is referred to in the
industry as "meal" and processed without separating out the various component parts of
the grain. The meal is slurried with water to form a "mash." Enzymes are added to the
mash to convert the starch to dextrose, a simple sugar. Ammonia is added for pH control
and as a nutrient to the yeast.
The mash is processed in a high-temperature cooker to reduce bacteria levels ahead of

fermentation. The mash is cooled and transferred to fermenters where yeast is added and
the conversion of sugar to ethanol and carbon dioxide (CO2) begins. The fermentation
process generally takes about 40 to 50 hours. During this part of the process, the mash is
agitated and kept cool to facilitate the activity of the yeast. After fermentation, the resulting
"beer" is transferred to distillation columns where the ethanol is separated from the
remaining "stillage." The ethanol is concentrated to 190 proof using conventional
distillation and then is dehydrated to approximately 200 proof in a molecular sieve system.
The anhydrous ethanol is then blended with about 5% denaturant (such as natural
gasoline) to render it undrinkable and thus not subject to beverage alcohol tax. It is then
ready for shipment to gasoline terminals or retailers.
The stillage is sent through a centrifuge that separates the coarse grain from the soluble
fractions. The soluble fractions are then concentrated to about 30% solids by evaporation,
resulting in Condensed Distillers Solubles (CDS) or "syrup." The coarse grain and the
syrup are then dried together to produce ’Dried Distillers Grains’ (DDGs) with the soluble
parts, a high quality, nutritious livestock feed. The CO2 released during fermentation is
captured and sold for use in carbonating soft drinks and beverages and the manufacture of
dry ice.
In wet milling, the grain is soaked or "steeped" in water and diluted in sulphurous acid for
24 to 48 hours. This steeping facilitates the separation of the grain into its many
component parts. After steeping, the corn slurry is processed through a series of grinders
to separate the corn germ. The corn oil from the germ is either extracted on-site or sold to
crushers who extract the corn oil. The remaining fibre, gluten and starch components are
further segregated using centrifugal, screen and hydroclone separators. The steeping
liquor is concentrated in an evaporator. This concentrated product, heavy steep water, is
co-dried with the fibre component and is then sold as corn gluten feed to the livestock
industry. Heavy steep water is also sold by itself as a feed ingredient and is used as a
component in Ice Ban, an environmentally friendly alternative to salt for removing ice from
roads. The gluten component (protein) is filtered and dried to produce the corn gluten meal
co-product. This product is highly sought after as a feed ingredient in poultry broiler
operations. The starch and any remaining water from the mash can then be processed in
one of three ways: fermented into ethanol, dried and sold as dried or modified corn starch,
or processed into corn syrup. The fermentation process for ethanol is very similar to the
dry mill process described above.

This process flow diagram shows the basic steps in production of ethanol from cellulosic
biomass. Note that there are a variety of options for pre-treatment and other steps in the
process and that several technologies combine two or all three of the hydrolysis and
fermentation steps within the shaded box. (Chart courtesy of the National Renewable
Energy Lab.)
Sweet sorghum is a very promising energy crop with high yields of grains, sugar and
bagasse. Sweet Sorghum in some special varieties has been selected mainly for
economic reasons: it is a highly competitive energy crop, as for some varieties, it has been
estimated that the sale of grains (yield 5-8 t/ha) could cover the cost of crop production
and consequently, the other components, for instance, sugar and lignocellulosic bagasse,
can bring in good profits and the sales can provide the farmers surplus income.
Demonstration projects at a scale of 800- 1000 ha could be sufficient for assessing and
demonstrating the feasibility, the economic viability and sustainability for large-scale
integrated complexes.
For the production of bio-ethanol sweet-sorghum seems the most promising feedstock
because:
It is world-wide applicable. It can be grown in temperate and tropical regions and on
low-quality soils, therefore it can be valuable for all the continents.
It is a C-4 crop with a short growing cycle of 4-5 months and produces high yields of
multiple components such as starch, sugar and lignocellulosics.
It requires little water -1/3 of the water required for sugar cane and ½ of that for
corn- and fertilizers inputs.
Plantation needs a lower amount of seeds: 10 kg/ha compared to corn with: 40
kg/ha and wheat: 150 kg/ha.
It can provide many valuable food-animal feed-energy products, i.e. grains-
sugar/grains-leaves-bagasse/power-heat-bioethanol-charcoal, etc.
The positive energy output/input ratio for the production processing routes to obtain
bio-ethanol , DDG and co-generation fuels, which is 2 : 5.
The integrated bioenergy complex, based on the exploitation of sweet sorghum for the
production of bio-ethanol and other energy/industrial commodities, after its high economic
viability has been demonstrated, offers a new sustainable path for production of bio-
ethanol, which is considered a strategic fuel for the transport sector. Such a project may
be implemented in Africa and other regions on a large scale, as past studies have shown
the high yields of this crop in terms of grains, sugar and bagasse in several different
climatic belts.
This “integrated” project, once implemented on a large-scale, or in a repetitive way, can

have important impacts on the economics of such complex in terms of reducing the
production costs of ethanol. Utilisation of particular varieties of Sweet Sorghum as
dedicated energy crops is, in this respect, of great importance because the process
“integration” comes from the opportunity of converting the several components of the plant:
starch, sugar and lignocellulosic. This very important feature distinguishes Sweet
Sorghum from other grain crops as i.e. corn, wheat, barley, currently utilised for bio-
ethanol production in other climatic areas. In fact, well-known bioethanol crops (i.e. sugar

beet- corn-sugar cane) are cultivated only to produce alcohol. Sweet sorghum plant, on
the contrary, can provide not only sugar and grains which can be used for bioethanol
production, but also large amounts of bagasse, which can be used as fuel to generate
steam, electricity necessary for the bio-ethanol production process, syngas, hydrogen,
etc., thus providing an energetic surplus for sale.
A ‘Small bioenergy complex’ based on a plantation of 1000 ha with good Sweet Sorghum
seeds, could satisfy the essential needs of a rural village with a population of about 5,000
people, and provide additional energy for comfort and production activities.
3.4.3 Bio-ethanol/DDG plants
3.4.3.1 Ethanol Production
Sugar juice after extraction can be converted into ethanol by fermentation (resulting in a
beer with alcohol percentage of about 7%) that is consequently upgraded to high-grade
ethanol (alcohol percentage 99.8-99.9%). Grains can be converted into ethanol as well.
However, since in grains sugar is only available as complex sugars/starch, the grains have
to be mashed and saccharified first to convert the complex sugars/starch into simple
fermentable sugars. The process steps following this mash preparation and
saccharification are similar as for sugar juice to ethanol (fermentation followed by
distillation). However, when converting grains into ethanol a non-fermentable residue
remains, i.e. distillers’ dried grains (DDG) that is a high value protein rich animal feed. This
so called stillage is processed separately from the fermentation and distillation processes.
A commercial technology is utilized all over the world for ethanol plants of different
capacities (from few litres per day of product to huge industrial production) and treating
different raw materials as cane and beet molasses, fruits, potatoes, grain.
The process scheme for a plant designed in accordance with the European technology to
produce about 1,000 liters of alcohol per day includes:
Fermentation unit (batch system) completed with one mash buffer tank, two small yeast
propagation tanks, two fermentation tanks and ancillaries such as pump, air compressor,
piping. In this plant a side stream of mash is fed to the yeast propagation tank and mixed
with fresh yeast available on the market (Baker’s yeast or similar), nutrients, and process
water, to produce sufficient yeast cells to balance process losses. The enriched yeast
suspension is then pumped to the fermentation tanks along with the mash main stream.
The fermentation tanks are maintained in anaerobic condition in order to maximise the
production of alcohol.
Batch (or continuous) distillation plant complete with one column (or a pot still) to strip
alcohol from the fermented mash and to concentrate alcohol to the required level and with
all ancillaries such as condensers, coolers and piping. This process uses a special
technique to recover most of the residual ethanol remaining in the whole stillage (or slops)
when it leaves the column as waste, preventing valuable ethanol from being either blown
into the atmosphere as polluting VOCs (volatile organic compounds) or discharged in the
water.
The plant is normally designed, in consideration of the low output, for indoor installation
inside a building of ± 8.00 x 6.50 x 9.00 meters high.

The investment cost for this fermentation/distillation/storage unit is in the region of 250,000
Euro.
3.4.3.2 Process steps grains to DDG
After the process steps described above the stillage from grain fermentation is processed
further into DDG. Process steps are:
Stillage separation: separates solids contained in the stillage water from the water.
Stillage evaporation.
DDG’s drying.
3.4.3.3 Description of the fermentation process
The components in this system are: carbon dioxide supply, circulation system, juice
flowing and filing system, cooling and warming system and measuring meter system.
The carbon dioxide circulation system includes foam collector, gas-liquid separator,
cooling and purifying tank. No.1 Luechi gas circulator, gas storage bag, No.2 Luechi gas
circulator, constant pressure gas storage tank, gas volume of flow meter, and gas
chamber at the lower end of biological reactor.
The juice flowing and filling system is composed of a juice storage tank, juice pump,
flowmeter of juice and biological reactor. The beer removing system comprises beer
storage chamber, solid liquid separator, and beer discharge. In order to make the reactor
cool or warm, a loop pipe is used for circulating cold water or hot water.
Before normal operation of this fermentation system, the fixed-yeast cells must be
reproduced. Firstly, the prepared fixed-yeast particles must be supplied into the reactor,
secondly, afterward diluted juice of sweet sorghum must beaded to the reactor until the
reactor is completely filled, at the same time, some aseptic gas were flowed into to this
one, up to when the number of fixed-yeast cells reach the standard desired level; the
normal operation starts. During the normal operation, several actions are required: First of
all, the carbon dioxide circulation system and the juice flowing and filling system must be
activated. In this stage firstly the No.1 Luechi compressor injects the carbon dioxide
(available inside the gas storage bag) into the constant pressure gas storage tank and
then, the carbon dioxide is led to the gas chamber at the lower end of the multi-stage
biological reactor. Where the fixed yeast particles react, at the same time, the juice of
sweet sorghum inside high position tank is injected into the reactor along two tangential
holes of the reactor (under the pressure) resulting in a circular movement of liquid inside
the reactor. Because of this movement, the carbon dioxide adhered to the surface of fixed-
yeast particles can be released easily at any time. Beside, the particles can remain
sufficiently in contact with the fermentation liquid generating vigorous reaction momentum
throughout the operation and an increase of the velocity of reaction. Finally, with the
gradual rise of fermentation liquid inside the reactor from the first unit to the beer storage
chamber the sugar is converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide within 9 hours. The
conversion rate can reach up to 90%.
The beer is separated into two parts: liquid and broken yeast particles by the solid-liquid
separator.

The carbon dioxide is accumulated into the gas storage bag, through the beer storage
chamber, foam collector, gas-liquid separator, and cooling and purifying tank under the
negative pressure of the Luechi gas circulator.
In summary the most interesting point of this processes the fast conversion of sucrose into
ethanol (∼9 hr), with the utilisation of immobile cells carrier (in replacement of traditional
ferment technology) which shows a faster conversion rate, higher productivity and
efficiency.
To obtain bioethanol-96 (or bioethanol-92) a conventional but efficient distillation

technology is enclosed. Steam derived from the power cogeneration plant operating with a
conventional steam engine and/or a small steam-turbine will be utilized for supplying the
required process heat.
3.4.4 European actors and Manufacturers
European manufacturers of bio-ethanol plants are for example:

• Ferrostaal AG – Division Kirchfeld Food Technology, Essen, Germany
• Frings Austria Ges.m.b.H, Graz, Austria
• Chema Anlagenbau GmbH, Rudisleben, Germany
• Maschinen- und Anlagenbau Grimma GmbH, Grimma, Germany
• Vogelbusch GmbH, Wien, Austria
• Frilli, Italy

4 Technologies of biomass to bioenergy valorisation

4.1 Small biomass cogeneration plants (gasifier – engine generator)
4.1.1 Generalities
In both the industrial world and developing countries there is a steady and continuing
interest in biomass gasification that has not yet been satisfied by the emergence of either
a sufficiently reliable or a sufficiently cost effective technology.
Biomass gasification can either be taken in a general sense to mean a process to produce
gas through a thermal process in which a limited supply of gasifying agent such as air
oxygen is reacted with biomass at high temperature.
There are three basic thermochemical conversion processes:

• Gasification
• Pyrolysis
• Hydrolysis
Fig. 36: The three main conversion processes and secondary products
4.1.1.1 Gasification
Through the process of gasification, solid biomass can be converted into a fuel gas or
biogas. Biomass gasifiers operate by heating biomass in an oxygen-free, high temperature
environment that breaks it down to release a flammable, energy-rich synthesis gas or
‘syngas’.14 This gas can be burned in a conventional boiler, or used instead of natural gas
in a gas turbine to turn electric generators. Biogas formed through gasification can be
filtered to remove unwanted chemical compound and can be used in efficient power
generation systems known as ‘combined-cycles’, which can combine steam and gas
turbines for electricity generation and can yield up to 60 percent efficiency of coal-fired
plants.15 The first integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plant fuelled by 100
percent biomass (from straw) was successfully demonstrated in Sweden from 1996 to
200016. IGCC plants elsewhere could become economically competitive using black-liquor
from the pulp and paper industry as a feedstock, but further analysis is required.17

4.1.1.2 Pyrolysis
This is a process that heats biomass in anoxic conditions, although well-established in

small plants, has yet to be used on a large scale. Pyrolysis can be classified as
conventional, fast or flash depending on the temperature, heating rate, particle size and
solid residence time of the process. Fast pyrolysis of biomass yields a liquid product called
pyrolysis oil or bio-oil that can readily transported and stored. Most forms of cellulosic
biomass maybe used as pyrolysis input. In laboratory conditions, nearly 100 types of plant
biomass have been tested such as agricultural wastes (straw), olive pits, nut shells,
forestry wastes such as bark and thinnings.36
However, large scale pyrolysis facilities are yet to be developed and in most instances, it
may be desirable to use a combination of different conversion methods for different types
of biomass in one production facility in order to optimize and regulate the amount of
required process energy.
4.1.1.3 Hydrolysis
This is a form of biochemical conversion for transforming biomass into liquid fuel.
Hydrolysis can convert biomass to bioethanol by using acids that break the bonds of the
larger cellulose molecule to form smaller sugar molecules ready for fermentation. The
process is currently expensive and a drawback of using it for cellulosic feedstock is the low
fuel yield. caused by the over-disintegration of the hemicellulose sugar before
fermentation. Hydrolysis using enzymes and microbial digestion is also currently being
developed that look to optimise sugar extraction from cellulose and hemicellulose.35
Biomass gasification can be viewed as a sequence of physical and chemical steps as

represented schematically in figure below:
Fig. 37: schematic representation of gasification as a series of consecutive and interactive

processes A to D

Drying, pyrolysis and gasification proceed sequentially, but with numerous interactions, the
nature and extent of which depend on the gasification technology used.
Gasification may also be regarded as a form of incomplete combustion. The heat of

combustion thereby provides the required driving force to the entire process.
Hot gas is needed to dry, heat and decompose the biomass feed. The liberated heat also
allows the required temperature to be attained of at least 700 to 800°C; below this range
not even the most reactive biomass char is converted by steam or carbon dioxide at
appreciable rates.
Mass and energy balances are also important in assessing the operating conditions. The
energy content of the biomass feed is distributed over the following aspects:
• heat losses from the gasifier plant
• sensible heat of the generated gas and of the ash
• latent heat of evaporation of the feed moisture
• chemical energy in the gas
Some types of gasifier allow sensible heat to be recovered and recycled to the process
(e.g. updraft units). Heat losses are minimised by insulating the plant. There is no
technology, however, that will convert a barely flammable, moist fuel, into good quality
gas.
4.1.2 Modern type of gasifiers
Gasifier technology has been a basic tool of the chemical industry. The first commercially
used gasifier was built by Bischof in 1840 for the iron works of Audincourt, France. From
then on several improvements were made to the technology until 1861 when Siemens
introduced his gasifier, which can be considered as the first successful commercial unit.
The widespread industrial use of coal also made possible the large-scale use of producer
gas. Gasifiers can be classified according to two criteria, namely:
• the relative motion between solid and gas
• the bulk density of the solid phase in the reactor.
Dense phase gasifiers are characterised by a relatively large amount of fuel in slow motion
and exposed to a limited amount of reactive gas. In lean phase reactors such as entrained
flow, circulating and bubbling fluidised beds, a relatively small amount of finely divided
solids are reacted while in vigorous motion in a gas stream.
Dense phase gasifiers can be subdivided into updraft or counter current; and downdraft or
concurrent units. Cross draft units were formerly used in automotive applications, and still
have some applications. Dense phase gasifiers normally rely upon gravity for the (vertical)
movement of the feedstock, characterised by feeding at the top with ash extraction at the
bottom. It is possible, however, to organise the solis' movement in other ways, e.g. by
means of a rotary kiln, an angle conveyor, a mechanical grate, a stirrer, an auger, or
rabble arms as in multiple hearth units.

Mechanical auxiliaries, however, are not in widespread use, unless are essential in solving
specific feed or ash handling problems. Mechanical extraction of ash, for instance, by
means of a slow moving rotary grate has been widely used.
Provision is often made to cool the hottest part of the gasifier to avoid slugging and loss of
construction materials, for example with a water jacket. This option, however, extracts heat
where it is most useful, i.e. in the hearth.
Many devices have been designed in order to:

• promote an even and regular flow of biomass fuels that have a tendency to bridge,
choke, or form channels
• organise the flow of condensable vapours and tars, e.g. two-stage gasoliers
• concentrate the high temperature zone at a specific and suitable location
• transfer sensible heat from the generated gas to the incoming feed
4.1.3 Utilisation of producer gas in diesel engines
4.1.3.1 Mixed and pilot injection
Diesel engines can be used with both diesel oil and generator gas as a fuel. In the latter
case the gas mixed with the intake air and the diesel injection system is equally
readjusted.
4.1.3.2 Carburation of producer gas in Diesel engines
In general, the carburation of producer gas in a diesel engine is the same as the one in an
Otto engine. The regulating system has to control not the quantity of mixture but the
quantity of gas. When using a stationary engine, the quantity of gas supplied to the engine
can be controlled by a second all speed governing system, depending on engine load.
4.1.3.3 Injectors
Apart from readjustment of governing systems etc. one has to pay special attention to the
injectors. The diesel oil does not only have the ability of generating mechanical energy but
acts as a coolant for injectors.
4.1.4 Main constraints
4.1.4.1 Problems in gasifiers
Generally there is an interaction between problems in the gasifier and those in the engine.
For this reason these problems are summed up in general terms.
The most important problem, with the application of gasifiers for fuelling engines, is the
variable gas quality (heating value and the amount of dirt), dependent on the solid fuel
feedstock and operating parameters. These may vary particularly in respect of water

content, ash content and chip size. Irregularities in feeding, in fuel flow and in hearth
position and temperature also affect gas quality.
4.1.4.2 Tar content of fuel
Tar formation is the most general problem, which can result in rapid engine failure when it
is not filtered out.
4.1.4.3 Ash content of the fuel
When the ash content of the fuel exceeds a certain value there is a possibility of ash
slagging in the reactor.
4.1.4.4 Feedstock size
Generally the feedstock size has to be adapted to the reactor design. Sometimes it is
necessary to reduce the particle size. This is labour and mechanical consuming.
4.1.4.5 General problems in engines
The most common problem with the application of producer gas in combustion engines is
the lifetime of the engine. This is quite a general complaint although documented cases
are known of very good lifetime combined with good gas cleaning.
Engine wear is a result of unwanted components such as dust, tar and corrosive
components in the gas. This is strongly dependent on the proper operation of the gas
cleaning system.
4.1.4.6 Dust
Soot, carbon and ash particles are produced in the reactor and carried with the gas. In
case the gas cleaning is inadequate, this material comes into the engine cylinders and
creates wear of the cylinder wall and piston rings.
4.1.4.7 Tar
Tar is formed during the gasification process. Although some manufacturers of gasifiers
claim that no tar is formed it is noticed that tar is always present sometimes as small
droplets. Tar as such does not create abrasive wear but can settle down on valves, piston
rings, etc. and thereby obstruct the operation. Sometimes tar becomes bituminous, which
can create problems particularly during start-up of a cold engine.

4.1.5 Full Systems Biomass Gasifier
Biomass gasifiers are process reactor to transform solid biomass in an operating gaseous
fuel. Depending of the sectorial market needs we get the following systems:
• Heat production market: gasifier + boiler
Several commercial technologies are available. In gasifier systems for industrial thermal
purposes the energy content of producer gas is usually far less than that of natural gas but
the economics of gasification were attractive enough since the early 1980's for industrial
and commercial process heat applications to become common in the U.S.A. and
developing countries such as China, Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia. Heat gasifiers, primarily
large system replacing fuel oil in industrial applications, are commonly located in urban or
peri-urban areas. Conversely, many rural applications are found for power gasifiers that
burn the gas in internal combustion engines. These applications primarily replace diesel oil
in small engines used to generate electricity, pump water, or mill grain.
Biomass heat gasifiers are presently used to provide process heat in a wide variety of
applications including: tea, grain, and lumber drying: glass, tile, and brick manufacturing:
cement production, food processing, and greenhouse heating. Heat gasifier systems,
consisting essentially of a fuel feed system, reactor chamber, and gas burner, are
commercially available in sizes from 100 kWth to 10 MWth. The smaller, manually batch
fed, systems are commonly used for crop drying, baking or other similar applications. The
larger systems are automatically fed and are used to provide heat for industrial kilns,
boilers, dryers and furnaces. As heat gasifiers can usually be retrofitted to existing oil or
natural gas burning equipment, the potential number of applications is extremely large.
The primary economic benefits come from being relatively simpler than power gasifiers
and their financial and economic attractiveness are more favourable due to low capital
costs and higher utilisation factors associated with the technology.
• Cogeneration market: gasifier + diesel generator (adapted), gasifier + turbine
As explained in more details in the following chapter, very few technologies are at
commercial or demonstration stage. These cogeneration systems able to supply
simultaneously heat and electricity present better economic perspectives.
• Transport market: gasifier + otto engine
At present there are no more applications, but in the past there was a wide use of gasifiers
to propel vehicles as shown in the following table;
• Chemical market: special gasification with oxygen with nitrogen largely eliminated.
MHV gas is mainly generated for its high concentration of hydrogen and carbon monoxide,
which form the basis of synthesis gas. It can be used as a raw material in chemical
synthesis. The following are the most common synthesis routes:

4.1.6 Application of Biomass Gasifiers for decentralised power generation

(or cogeneration)
Historically, steam cycles and internal combustion engines have been the common routes
to the generation of electric power from producer gas. In recent times however, the use of
gas turbines is receiving considerable interest. Much of the interest in the 1980s was on
small/medium sized fixed bed gasifier systems. In the beginning of this period, at least 10
(mainly European) manufacturers were offering small-scale wood and charcoal fired power
plants of up to 300 kWe. At least four developing countries - Philippines, Brazil, Indonesia,
India - started to introduce both power gasifiers and implementation programmes based on
locally developed and manufactured technology. Also a number of donor organisations
were involved in power biomass gasification programs, sometimes by financing foreign
made equipment, in other cases through technical assistance in the development of local
technology. As results of this activity, hundreds of biomass gasifiers were installed in a
large number of developing countries.
It has become clear that biomass gasification for power generating purposes is not a
technology that can be easily implemented in a dispersed and small-scale manner. On the
contrary, widespread dissemination of the technology is obviously dependant on a number
of institutional pre-requisites being put into place.
Important factors to be addressed are:
• Extensive user information;
• Standardisation and certification of commercial systems;
• Institutional training systems for operating personnel.
From the economic viewpoint, it is clear that biomass gasification is not a technology that
can produce power now at a lower cost than petroleum fuelled alternative systems.
Commercialisation of the technology in developed or developing countries has not take
place.
The present situation is that almost no small/medium power gasification systems are
commercially operating in developed countries. The majority of the power systems
installed in developing countries suffer from technical problems that have led to only
intermittent operation and sometimes to complete abandonment of the project. A few
installations, however, show a reasonable operational record and work to the satisfaction
of the user.
Almost all European manufacturers of small/medium sized power systems have stopped
production, due to the lack of a home market and high capital cost of their systems.

In the following figures is shown the general scheme of a typical plant.
Fig. 48: Martezo electric and thermic power plant
4.1.6.1 Main characteristics of the generator
Electricity generation from this biomass gasification plant is achieved by coupling the
following systems: a gas generation unit and a gas generator set consisting of a
combustion engine driving an alternator and some heat exchangers for heat recovery.
Together, these systems are called a gasifier-based cogeneration power plant.
The gasifier (down-draft) can operate on wood or agricultural wastes (in briquettes) and
consists of:
• a counter current gas generator, whose firebox is made of highly resistant refractory
material to sustain high temperatures and thermal shocks
• a pyroligneous liquid collector that eliminates most of the tars and oil produced
during the gasification
• a vapour condenser which collects most of the moisture contained in the gas prior
to end use
• a set of high-performance filters for the fuel gas
The downdraft gasifier is the most common type of reactor. The vessel is equipped by a
throat, above which the gassifying agent is introduced. In this region the oxidation
reactions create an high temperature zone sufficient for pyrolysis of biomass to occur and
for drying the mass above the throat. In the downstream section there is the reduction
zone where the remaining char is gasified.
4.1.7 Types of biomass feedstock
Feedstock characteristics: wood, agricultural wastes and agricultural wastes requiring

densification
As already underlined, the Martezo gas generator can use hard wood or soft wood, barked
or not. The dimension varies according to the power plant type.

The moisture of the solid fuel content must not exceed the 20 %, in order to obtain a gas
with a sufficient calorific value.
As an indication, at the cutting, the moisture of the wood content is about 85%. The
weathering is achieved after 3/6 months of air storage according to the site and
dimensions, or it can be executed in a drier at the pre-treatment phase for proper
utilization.
In many cases, briquetting of agricultural and wood waste constitutes in general an

interesting solution.
4.1.8 Environment
Biomass gasification systems produce solid, liquid and gaseous wastes, which, if not
adequately controlled, could lead to detrimental impacts for the environment.
Solid wastes are primarily residue ash. The amount produced may vary between one and
twenty percent, depending on the biomass fuel. In most cases disposal of this ash is not a
problem, and in some cases the ash has even a positive value when used by steel or
cement industries.
Particulate emissions are also low, primarily due to the low ash content of wood, which is
typically between one-twentieth and one-tenth of the ash content of coal. Gaseous
emissions from biomass gasifiers are also not a significant factor.
Biomass fuels have the potential to be neutral in terms of carbon dioxide (no net CO2
emissions), because the level of CO2 emitted in the combustion process is essentially
equivalent to that absorbed by the fast growing herbaceous and tree crops.
In comparison to other alternatives, especially fossil fuel based systems, biomass gasifiers
are relative benign in their environmental emissions producing no sulphur oxides and low
levels of particulate. The level of SO2 released by wood are even lower than those
released by other biomass fuels. Clean wood contains only about one-fourth the nitrogen
of an average coal, and conventional wood-fed plants generally emit 45 % less NOx than
coal-fired units. Therefore SO2 emission are almost unmeasurable, being far below the
levels set by air quality regulations.
The situation is not as encouraging when large quantities of liquid effluents are produced,
as in the case of up-draft power gasifiers. Fortunately downdraft and cross-draft power
gasifiers can be equipped with dry gas clean-up systems, which drastically reduce the
quantity of liquid effluent produced to be disposed. The design of the gasifier hearth was
optimised to recuperate the pyrolineous liquid containing an important proportion of
noxious substances (certain woods contain 100 different chemical products) and to
condense the water steam from the combustion to reach a fuel gas high quality.
Gasification combined with the gas utilisation in an internal combustion engine is the most
efficient way of converting solid fuels into shaft power or electricity and steam.
Small-scale biomass gasification allows the use of biomass instead of petroleum derivates
in small internal combustion engines. Gasifiers use a renewable energy resource, that is or

can be made available almost everywhere in one form or another. Therefore biomass
gasification presents local fuel alternatives in locations where the supply of fossil fuel
resources are difficult.
Providing that it is grown on a sustainable basis, the use of biomass does not increase the
amount of so called “greenhouse gas” (CO2) in the atmosphere. The technology may find
application on sites where petroleum fuels are either unavailable or where the cost of
power from engines fuelled by producer gas is lower than such from diesel or gasoline
fuelled engines.
Further project benefits are in term of local rural development, employment (as a result of
the implementation of new activities in bioenergy sector), environment (in terms of
reduction in air pollution, land recovery, and use of energy efficient technologies), and
market (through the creation of new commercial opportunities).
Finally, the proposed plant will be a useful base for the installation and subsequently
implementation of small-size biomass powered cogeneration schemes.
4.2 Large scale power plants (Cofiring)
The main reasons for the growing international interest in utilising renewable biomass fuels
is the new challenges to power producers to decrease the noxious emissions level in
general (especially the greenhouse gas emissions) and the attractive future emission
trading allowance possibility. Coal which is a very polluting fuel is at present the major
energy resource utilised for power generation world-wide (6,000 tWh/y are produced from
coal in comparison of a total supply of ~ 14,000 tWh/y).
Biomass is a very clean energy resource, but because it is a dispersed resource it is not
realistic to envisage the possibility of implementing very large plants of capacity similar to
those fuelled with coal, natural gas and/or oil (~ 650 MWe to 1,300 MWe).
In North Europe, e.g. Finland, Sweden, Denmark many examples of full biomass power
plants are available but always in the range of 10 - 100 MWe as shown in figures below.
The main reason for this limited size is the economics of transporting large biomass
quantities on distances of more than approx. 100 km.
Fig. 39: Co firing power plant (UK)

4.2.1 Biomass Cofiring
Cofiring refers to the practice of introducing biomass as a partial substitute fuel in high-
efficiency coal boilers. This is the nearest term low-cost option for the efficient conversion
of biomass to electricity. Cofiring has been practiced, tested, and evaluated for a variety of
boiler technologies. After “tuning” the boiler’s combustion output, there is little or no loss in
total efficiency, implying that the biomass combustion efficiency to electricity would be
close to the 33% - 37% range.
In North Europe extensive demonstrations and trials have shown that effective
substitutions of biomass energy can be made up to about 15% of the total energy input
with little more that burner and feed intake system modifications to existing stations. In
addition to CO2 emission benefits, biomass in general contains significantly less sulphur
than coal, so there is an SO2 benefit as well. Early test results also suggest that there is a
NOx reduction potential of up to 30% with wood biomass.
In Europe exists already a significant specific expertise (in different competitive

enterprises) in co-firing technology and biomass power plants.
4.2.2 Grate combustion for solid fuels
Grate boilers have been traditionally used for solid fuel combustion. The size range is
broad; grate boiler technology is available from 15 kW up to 150 MW. Grate boilers are
suitable for many types of fuels: coal, wood fuels, waste fuels, peat and even straw. Even
fairly moist fuels can be used if this is taken into account in boiler design.
Co-firing of recycled fuels in power plants is relatively safe as the steam temperature is
usually lower than 400 °C and there is no risk of hot corrosion. Nevertheless, special
attention must be paid to flue gas cleaning. Most plants are now equipped with cyclone or
electrostatic precipitators, sometimes even with gas scrubbers. Variation in fuel quality
also poses challenges to fuel handling and feeding.
The key issues in grate firing are homogeneous fuel particle size and quality, proper sizing
of the combustion chamber and efficient mixing of the combustion air.
4.2.3 Pulverised combustion for co-firing in existing coal-fired boilers
The main motivation to use biofuels in coal-fired pulverised fuel boilers is the need to
reduce emissions and to exploit available local biomass resources. Using biomass in
existing pulverised fuel boilers can be more profitable than building a new biomass plant
using 100% biomass. On the other hand, the amount of available biomass may be a
restricting factor.
There are basically four options for direct combustion in a pulverised fuel boiler.
• When the proportion of biofuel is rather low, it can be fed together with coal to coal
mills and then be burned together with coal through coal burners.

• The second option involves separate handling, metering and comminution of the
biofuel and injection into the pulverised fuel upstream of the burners or at the
burners.
• The third option involves the separate handling and comminution of the biofuel with
combustion through a number of specifically dedicated burners.
• The final option involves the use of biofuel as a reburn fuel for NOx emission control.
4.2.4 Fluidised bed combustion
Fluidised bed boilers can be designed to combust almost any solid, semi-solid, or liquid
fuel. They achieve high fuel-to-steam efficiency, typically over 90%, even with challenging,
low-grade fuels.
Coal contains large portion of fixed carbon which burns in the bed and freeboard or riser
and the gas temperature is clearly lower than the bed temperature. With a higher amount
of wood, the freeboard temperature increases. Wood contains large amounts of volatile
matter, which burns mostly in the freeboard area, thus causing the temperature to rise.
The new enhanced CFB designs can be a competitive alternative even in smaller biomass
fired plants.
One example of this type of modern technologies are shown in the figures here below.
Fig. 40: circulating fluidised bed combustion. Kvaerner Power.

4.3 Pellet combustion technologies
4.3.1 Introduction
Biomass combustion is a complex process that consists of consecutive steps: drying,

devolatilisation, gasification, char combustion, and gas phase oxidation .The time used for
each reaction depends on the fuel size and properties, on temperature, and combustion
conditions. During the first phase, free water vaporises. During gasification combustible
gases are produced depending on the temperature. There will always be a certain content
of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4), and other hydrocarbons. Then
combustion of gases takes place. If sufficient oxygen is supplied, a complete combustion
occurs where the residual products are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water. Where the
oxygen supply is insufficient, carbon monoxide (CO), soot (finely divided carbon), tar, and
unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) are produced. Finally, the charcoal burns. At the end of the
process, there only remains ash, which consists of incombustible inorganic matter. If
combustion is incomplete, the ash may contain unburned organic matter. In all cases, as a
result of the combustion process, different types of pollutants can be distinguished:
− Unburnt pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbon (UHC;
CxHy in gaseous phase), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), tar, soot,
hydrogen (H2), HCN, NH3, and nitrous oxide (N2O),
− Pollutants from complete combustion such as nitrogen oxides (NOx: NO and NO2),
carbon dioxide (CO2)
− Ash and contaminants such as ash particles (KCl, etc.), SO2, HCl, PCDD/F, Cu, Pb,
Zn, Cd etc.
A high combustion quality, in terms of maximal combustion of the burning gases, is

therefore very important for low emission level. It will mainly depend on the combustion
chamber temperature, the turbulence of the burning gases, residence time and the oxygen
excess. These parameters are governed by a series of technical details such as:
− Combustion technology (e.g. combustion chamber design, process control
technology),
− Settings of the combustion (e.g. primary and secondary air ratio, distribution of the
air nozzles),
− Load condition (full- or part-load),
− Fuel characteristics (shape, size distribution, moisture content, ash content, ash
melting behaviour). From that point of view, wood pellets are very interesting,
because they have a low ash content, a somewhat high melting ash point, and a
shape facilitating automatic operations.

4.3.2 Environmental aspects
One of the main advantages related to biomass fuel is their net CO2 neutrality with respect
to the carbon cycle, assuming that the CO2 released from combustion is re-incorporated in
the vegetal cycle during plant growth. But biomass combustion also results in other
emissions. Results from the first table below underline the relation existing between the
fuel content and the emissions it originates. Wood pellets trigger relatively low emissions,
which generally meet the national and European standards (although there is obviously a
wide variation of emissions according to the combustion devices used). In contrast, a
typical feature of agricultural residues in comparison with wood residues is their higher
content in nitrogen (N), sulphur (S), chlorine (Cl) and potassium (K), increased by the use
of fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides in agriculture. The presence of those elements
leads to higher emissions of NOx, SOx, and HCl than for wood pellets (see the second
table below). In addition to those emission problems, potassium (K) influence both
particulates emission and slagging (by lowering the softening temperature of the fuel) of an
increased ash volume (5% for straw – 0.5% for sawdust). Finally, a high chlorine (Cl)
content result both in corrosion problems on boiler’s surfaces and in formation of dioxins.
Typical environmental impact (emissions in mg/MJ) of produced heat from different fuels
(data for a heating plant):
Coal Fuel oil Natural Wood Straw Forestry

gas pellets residues
CO2 106,000 87,000 58,000 - 99,000 -
NOx 78 130 64 62 90 93
SOx 79 210 0.22 40 130 40
CO 46 19 12 290 600 300
N2O 13 0.58 0.53 4.7 n.a. 4.7
CH4 1200 2.9 2.8 5.2 n.a. 4.7
Particles 29 0.4 0.02 0.94 40 3.7
NH3 1.9 0.66 0 2.4 n.a. 2.4
VOC 2.3 47 2.8 19 n.a. 23
Residues [mg] n.a. 12 20 n.a. n.a. 1600
NOx, SOx and HCl emissions from wood chips, straw and whole crops:
Wood Straw Whole

chips crops
Fuel content of (in mg/kg):
Nitrogen (N) 670 1750 13500
Sulphur (S) 40 470 970
Chlorine (Cl) 44 1400 3000
Emissions of (mg/Nm3):
NOx 140 260 250
SOx 10 100 145
HCl 0.6 36 78

Environmental impact as well as current state-of-the-art of combustion technologies

indicate that pellets made from agricultural residues (and in general other ash-, N-, K- and
Cl-rich fuels) should be used primarily in controlled large scale combustion plants
equipped with sophisticated combustion control systems and flue gas cleaning systems,
whereas wood pellets can be used with practically any combustion unit, but might be
preferred for residential heating to let agricultural residues orientated towards big energy
plants.
The devices used for direct combustion of wood pellets range from small domestic stoves
(1 to 10 kw) to the largest boilers used in power and CHP plants (>5 MW). Intermediate
devices cover small boilers (10 to 50 kW) used in single family houses heating, medium-
sized boilers (50 to 150 kW) used for multi-family house or building heating and large
boilers (150 to over 1 MW) used for district heating.
4.3.3.1 Modern pellet stoves
Nowadays, modern pellet stoves are efficient heating appliances. While a conventional
fireplace is less than 10% efficient at delivering heat to a home, an average modern pellet
stove achieve efficiencies between 80 and 90%. Typically small combustion units (stoves
and small boilers) have higher emissions of unburned components than larger units where
possibilities for combustion control are better. But even small combustion units can greatly
enhance their combustion efficiency and reduce the emissions levels of unburned
components by introducing new techniques as catalytic combustors and staged air
combustion, or simply by better insulation of the combustion chamber and preheating of
the inlet air. Pellets, by their small size and low moisture content contribute to a reduction
of emissions, whenever air supply is sufficient.
4.3.3.2 Small scale boilers
Most of the small scale boilers for household use were filled batch-wise and had water
cooled furnace walls, resulting in low flame temperatures causing low efficiencies and high
emissions. In addition, they had traditionally been fired according to demand (direct firing),
where the amount of combustion air had been used to control the heat output. This type of
combustion control leads to very high emissions of many harmful products of incomplete
combustion, such as carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC) and tars.
Today, many of the small boilers available on the market use two stage combustion
systems equipped with ceramic refractory lining and are combined with a suitable hot
water tank for heat recovery. In this configuration, the boiler can then be operated at
optimal load with sufficient air and high process temperatures independently from the
heating demand. This leads to relatively low emissions of all products of incomplete
combustion. With this, over the last ten years, boilers thermal efficiencies have improved
from an average of 60 to 80-90%, while the emissions of VOC and tars have been reduced
100 fold.

4.3.3.3 Burners
One common low-cost solution when changing from heating oil to pellets in small houses
is retrofitting the old oil-fired furnace with a new burner designed for pellets. Several pellet
burners convenient for substitution for oil burners are already available on the market.
These are relatively simple but functional devices that in general give lower emissions than
the best firewood boilers. Oil furnaces, however, are not designed for fuels that leave
some amounts of bottom ash like wood pellets. Therefore a frequent emptying of ash is
necessary to prevent the efficiency from decreasing or even the combustion chamber from
filling with ash. This can be taken care of with simple equipment with intervals depending
on the season and what kind of pellets that are used.
4.3.3.4 Medium and large scale technologies for biomass combustion
The major types of large scale biomass boilers use one of the following technologies: grate
combustion systems (stationary or travelling), pulverised fuel (PF) systems or fluidised bed
combustion (FBC) systems.
• Grate combustors
With the techniques based on grates, the fuel is usually fed automatically onto the grate by
gravity. As the fuel bed moves, moisture is driven off initially, followed by ignition, burning
and finally cooling when the ash is removed. The air supply below the grate is often
sectioned so that the flow rates and pressures of the primary combustion air to each
section can be independently controlled. Those systems also require a fairly high
proportion of the air supplied above the grate as secondary air. Measurements of the
temperature within the bed and furnace have shown relatively homogeneous profiles with
maximum temperatures of 900-1100°C in the burning area of the bed, but as low as 200-
500°C in the drying and ashing zone. Temperatures above the bed and in the freeboard
normally range between 800 and 1000°C. In the stationary grate design, ashes fall into a
pit for collection. In contrast, a travelling grate system drops the ash into a hopper.
• Stokers
Spreader stokers, which feed the fuel by distributing it on the top of the bed throughout the
furnace, and retort (underfeed) stokers are less common for biomass fuels in Sweden, but
successfully used in some boilers that have been converted from coal firing.
• Pulverised fuel systems
Wood and agricultural residues powder is attractive for larger plants, since it allows
conversion to biomass fuels with minimal investment for boiler conversion. Burners for
wood powder are available in the range of 1 to 30 MW. In pulverised fuel combustion, the
fuel is introduced with air in burners similar to those used for oil or coal burners. The
particle size must be small (generally below 1 mm) to complete a rapid combustion.
Boilers equipped with oil burners or coal powder burners can be converted to use biomass
powder fuel, or blends of biomass and fossil fuels. The PF process is somewhat difficult to
control and may suffer from too high combustion temperatures (>1200°C) which may
result in high emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx). The high process temperature may also
lead to severe slagging and fouling problems. In the pulverised combustion system, the

fibrous structure of straw makes it very hard to grind into reasonably isometric particles.
Thus, feeding of pulverised biofuels poses problems unheard of in coal-powder feeding.
Therefore, the use of straw pellets, with a controlled moisture content and a particle size
already reduced could offer an interesting opportunity.
• Fluidised bed systems
Fluidized bed boilers are well known for their inherent fuel flexibility which is unmatched by
any other combustion technology. Fluidized bed boilers can burn fuels with a wide range of
calorific values, ash and moisture content. The fluidized bed combustion process has been
in use for more than 25 years and is now established as an efficient and environmentally
friendly technique.
Fluidised-bed combustors (FBC) burn biomass fuel in a hot bed of granular material, such
as sand. The primary air keeps fluidised the bed of sand (making it resembling a boiling
liquid), while secondary air, and in some cases tertiary air, may be introduced higher up in
the furnace to achieve a staged and more complete combustion. The bed is normally
operated at 750-950°C, which are considerably lower temperatures than for grate and
pulverised systems. The lower temperatures inhibit the formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx)
from the combustion air and allow fuels with lower ash melting temperatures to be fired.
These systems also permit the removal of sulphur dioxide (SO2) from combustion of high-
sulphur fuels simply by addition of sulphur absorbents such as limestone or dolomite in the
bed. Besides many different coals, wood, other biomasses and also waste derived fuels
have been successfully demonstrated in a number of FBC installations around the world.
As this technology allows handling high-ash fuels, it is therefore a very suitable conversion
technology for a large variety of agricultural biomass residue.
Two types of FBC are commercially available: the stationary fluidised bed (SFB) and the
circulating fluidised bed (CFB). The CFB system process
provides excellent conditions for the burning of several
different fuels in the same boiler – this has been almost
impossible in earlier technologies. Bed material circulation and
high turbulence in the combustor ensures good mixing of fuel
and combustion air, and also efficient heat transfer to the heat
surfaces inside the furnace. An efficient particle separator,
cyclone, is the heart of the process and differentiate it from
SFB units. The cyclone separates out all particles larger than a
certain size from entering flue gas and returns back to the
bottom part of the furnace via the loop-seal located in the
bottom part of the cyclone. The CFB process is shown in figure
below. The duty of the cyclone is to separate unburned fuel
particles and return them to the furnace, as well as to give the
limestone particles used for sulphur removal more time react.
Picture: Profile of a circulating fluidised bed (CFB).

Comparison between BFB and CFB

Stationary fluidised bed Circulating fluidised bed
Good for biofuels (w<63%) Limited with biofuel moisture (w<58%)
Fuels Limited with coal proportion (max. 30%) Full coal capability
Full capacity on oil and gas Limited capacity on oil and gas (max. 40 %)
Coarse bed material Fine bed material
Process
Low fluidizing velocity High fluidizing velocity
Low power consumption Higher power consumption
Operation Low erosion Possibility for erosion
Low maintenance More refractory => more maintenance
Good efficiency Good efficiency
Low NOx Very low NOx
Performance
Low N2O Higher N2O
Limited SO2 removal with limestone Efficient SO2 removal with limestone
4.3.3.5 Conclusions
To recap, thanks to the well-defined fuel at low water content, pellet furnaces can easily
achieve high combustion quality and efficiency (>90%). They are applied both as stoves
and as boilers. Until now, they have been exclusively designed for wood pellets, which
present a low-ash content and a high ash melting point, unlike straw. Understoker
furnaces are mostly used for wood chips and similar fuel with relatively low ash content,
while grate furnaces can also be applied for high ash and water content. Stationary or
bubbling fluidised bed (SFB) as well as circulating fluidised bed (CFB) boilers are applied
for large-scale applications and often used for waste wood or mixtures of wood and
industrial wastes e.g. from the pulp and paper industry. In fluidised bed boilers, nearly
homogeneous conditions of temperature and concentrations can be ascertained thus
enabling high burnout quality at low excess air.
The choice of different bed materials in CFB offers additional opportunities of catalytic
effects. Further, the option of heat removal from the bed allows controlling the combustion
temperature and hence enables an operation at low excess air without excessive ash
sintering. Since similar conditions for nitrogen conversion as by air and fuel staging are
attained, relatively low NOx emissions are achieved. Regarding pulverised fuel technology,
biomass can be co-fired with coal, in particular to reduce SO2 emissions.
The table below recaps the main furnace types, which are or could be used for straw pellet
combustion.

Types of furnaces with typical applications and fuels
Application Type Typical size range Current used fuels Water

content
Pellet stoves 1 kW – 10 kW Wood pellets 8 –
Small 10%
scale Pellets boilers 10 kW – 50 kW Wood pellets 8 –
10%
Boiler 50 kW – 150 kW Wood pellets, other biomass 5 –
50%
Stoker furnaces 20 kW – 2.5 MW Wood chips, wood residues 5 –
50%
Grate furnaces 150 kW – 15 MW All wood fuels and most biomass 5 –
Medium to 60%
large scale Stationary fluidised bed 5 MW – 15 MW Various biomass, diameter < 10 5 –
mm 60%
Circulating fluidised bed 15 MW – 100 MW Various biomass, diameter < 10 5 –
mm 60%
Pulverised combustor 1 MW – 30 MW Various biomass, diameter < 5 < 20%
mm
Stationary fluidised bed 50 MW – 150 MW Various biomass, diameter < 10 5 –
mm 50%
Circulating fluidised bed 100 MW – 300 Various biomass, diameter < 10 5 –
Co-firing*
MW mm 60%
Pulverised combustor (coal 100 MW – 1 GW Various biomass, diameter < 2-5 < 20%
boiler) mm
*: biomass covers typically less than 10%of the fuel input

4.3.4 European manufacturers of pellet appliances
In Europe most of the wood fuel is utilised in domestic boilers and stoves or in boilers for
community heating systems (<10 MW). Biomass boiler and stove manufacturers are
usually small and medium enterprises operating mainly in domestic markets or
neighbouring countries. In that section, we will focus on small and medium scale
combustion devices, i.e. stoves (for family use) and small and medium boilers for
individual and/or industrial uses. Some European manufacturers are listed below in
alphabetical order.
4.3.4.1 Baxi A/S
Smedevej DK-6880 Tarm, Denmark

Tel.: +45-97-37 15 11, Fax: +45-97-37 24 34
Web: www.baxi.dk/
Baxi A/S develops and manufactures central heating boilers for domestic use of up to 100
kW. They are one of the Scandinavian’s largest and leading producers of central heating
installations for individual home heating and domestic hot water supply. They produce
boilers for such different fuels as oil/(gas), solid fuel and biomass, which can be wood
pellets, grain/corn and wood chips. The technology offered in the biomass boilers is a
stoker principle. Primary and secondary air are added to the combustion in the right
amount and the combustion process allows us to obtain approx. 90% efficiency. Stoker
biomass boilers are very compact and low noise. It has a sophisticated yet very user-
friendly control panel, which allows for a high degree of automatisation. Among the boilers
commercialised, the MultiHeat range offers output power of 15, 25 and 43 kW.
4.3.4.2 Compte R
ZI de Vaureil 63220 Arlanc, France

Tel: +33 4 73 95 01 91, Fax: +33 4 73 95 15 36
Web: www.compte-r.com
Small-sized boilers Compact, with output power from 200 to 1,200 kW which can be
fuelled with dry biomass such as waste wood or wood pellets. Other types are specially
designed for wet biomass, with sowehow lower power ranges (150 to 900 kW). In the
upper range, Standard boilers accept the same dry biomass fuels for a 2,000-5,000 kW
power, and units for wet biomass fuels are 1,500-4,000 kW sized.
4.3.4.3 Danstoker A/S
Industrivej Nord 13 DK-7400 Herning, Denmark

Tel: +45 99 28 71 00, Fax: +45 99 28 71 00
Web: www.danstoker.dk
With a ballast of more than 65 years of experience, Danstoker has specialised in

manufacturing horizontal and vertical bio-fuel boilers ranging from 70 kW to 15,000 kW (or

15 kg/h steam). The boilers are of the fire-tube design - with the option of having a
combined fire-tube-water-tube design in operating pressures up to 30 bars. In the
Danstoker solid-fuel boilers all traditional fuels as well as biomass fuels may be burnt.
The range of their products covers hot water, high-pressure hot water and steam boilers,
specifically designed to exploit solid fuels with a moisture content up to 60%. The boilers
are according to the norms applicable in the country of installation, and the design may be
customised to meet individual requirements. Here are some products examples:
Hot water boiler High pressure hot water boilers Steam Boilers
Low pressure steam boiler
Capacities from 800 to 2000 kW Capacities from 1,000 to 20,000 kW Ratings from 700 to 4000 kg/h
Design pressure : 6 and 10 bar-g Design pressure: 8 to 16 bar-g Design pressure: 1,0 bar-g
Type OMNIMAT 16.1 PG Type Global-H Type TDL
Reverse flame boiler 3-pass wet-back boilers 3-pass boiler
Large water capacity Low heating surface load Low heating surface load
Super-insulated. Super-insulated.
Capacities from 1,000 to 10,000 kW Capacities up to 33,400 kW High pressure steam boiler
Design pressure: 4, 6 or 10 bar-g Design pressure: up to 20 bar-g Ratings from 300 to 2,000 kg/h
Type GLOBAL Type TVB-H Design pressure: 6 to 20 bar-g
3-pass wet-back boiler Twin-furnace 3-pass wet-back boilers Type OMNIMAT 33 HD
Low heating surface load Low heating surface load Reverse flame
Super-insulated. Super-insulated.
Type: DHF og HHF / High pressure hot water High pressure steam boiler
Capacities from 10,000 to 25,000 kW 3-pass open bottom boiler Ratings from 1,000 to 25,000 kg/h
Design pressure: 4, 6 and 10 bar-g Fuel: all bio-fuels Design pressure: 8.3 – 12,3 – 18,3 –
Type TVB Steam capacity 1,000 - 10,500 kg/h up to 32 bar-g
3-pass wet-back boiler Heat capacity 525 - 6,800 kW Type TDC
Low heating surface load Working pressure max. 16 bars 3-pass boiler
Super-insulated Low heating surface load
Super-insulated.
Capacities up to 33.400 kW Capacities up to 50,000 kW High pressure steam boiler
Design pressure: up to 10 barg-g Design pressure: Up to 32 bar-g Ratings up to 35,000 kg/h
Type TVB Type COMBO-H Design pressure: 8,3 – 12,3 – 18,3 –
Twin-furnace 3-pass wet-back boiler 3-pass combined water-tube and fire-tube boiler up to 32 bar-g
Low heating surface load Type TDB
Super-insulated Twin-furnace 3-pass boiler
Low heating surface load
Super-insulated.
Special boilers Special boilers High pressure steam boiler
Horizontal or vertical Horizontal or vertical Ratings up to 35,000 kg/h
Special designs acc. to specific plant Special designs acc. to specific plant parameters Design pressure: Up to 32 bar-g
parameters 3-pass combined water-tube and fire-
tube boiler
Special boilers
Horizontal or vertical
Special designs acc. to specific plant
parameters
4.3.4.4 FRÖLING Heizkessel- und Behälterbau GmbH
Industriestraße 12 A-4710 Grieskirchen, Austria

Tel.: +43 (7248) 606, Fax: +43 (7248) 62387
Web: www.froeling.com/en/
Fröling manufactures several combustion devices for wood pellets, all products being
tested by test authorities:
- The Pelletherm P2, with power output of 4.4-14.9 kW or 7.5-25 kW. One advantage
is a comfortable ash removal of the entire combustion residues by means of a
conveyor worm screw to an ash container on wheels
- The Turbomatic pellet boilers serie, ranging 28 to 55 kW output power (see picture).
Fuels with a water content of up to 40% can be used without difficulties (from dry
pellets to damp chippings). It is also possible to use split logs. Its optimum

combustion control (Lambda/vacuum control) guarantee an efficiency of up to 92%

over the whole output range.
- The Lambdamat range corresponds to medium-sized boiler, with power output from
150 to 1000 kW, with intermediate levels: 220, 320, 500 and 750 kW.
Turbomatic specifications 28 35 48 55
Output kW 15-28 15-35 20-48 20-55
Permitted operating pressure bar 3 3 3 3
Permitted feed flow
°C 95 95 95 95
temperature
Min. return flow temperature °C 55 55 55 55
Boiled capacity (water) Liter 114 114 185 185
Boiler weight kg 420 425 500 505
Water-side resistance Pa 650 750 1700 1900
4.3.4.5 Herz Feuerungstechnik GesmbH
Sebersdorf 138 A-8272 Sebersdorf, Austria

Tel.: +43 (3333) 2411 0, Fax: +43 (3333) 2411 73
Web: www.herz-feuerung.com
The Herz Feuerungstechnik biomass heating systems, fuelled by pellets, wood chips or
billets meet the requirements of modern, environmentally sound, low cost heating. Many
satisfied HERZ customers are enthusiastic about the wide range of possibilities offered by
the new technologies. all products are tested either TGM Wien, Institut für
Brandschutztechnik und Sicherheitsforschung, TÜV Bayern, TÜV Hannover, EMPA or
Prüfanstalt Wieselburg. Herz pellet-systems include the Pelletstar range (pellet systems
from 3 to 25 kW) and the Pelletfire range (in possible combination with billets) with 5–34
kW output.
Pelletfire specifications
Technical data 15 25 35
Output power kW 5-17 7-24 10-34
Behälterinhalt Autom. ca. Liter 150 150 150
Behälterinhalt Kompakt ca. Liter 150 150 150
Weight (Brenner) kg 325 (250) 325 (250) 584 (250)
Dimensions 15 25 35
(mm)
A 1260 1260 1560
B 1310 1310 1450
C 1450 1450 1450
D 160 160 180
E 910 910 1170
F 505 505 790
G 840 840 1275
Pelletstar specifications
Technical data 15 25
Output power kW 3-15 8-25
Inhalt Zwischenbehälter l 350 350
Elektrischer Anschluss 230 V, 50 Hz 230 V, 50 Hz
Wasserinhalt l 55 75
Max, water pressure (bar) 3,0 3,0
Max. water temperature (°C) 90 90
Weight (kg) 340 340

4.3.4.6 Kaukora Oy
P.O.Box 21, Tuotekatu 11, FIN-21201 Raisio, Finland

Tel. +35 8-2-437 4600, Fax. +35 8-2-437 4650
http://www.kaukora.fi/fi/
Kaukora Oy is one of the leading device manufacturers in its field in Finland. The main
products of the company are JÄSPI hot water heaters, central heating boilers ( operating
on oil / gas, electricity, wood, pellet ) heat exchangers and thermo-technical special
products.
4.3.4.7 KWB - Kraft und Wärme aus Biomasse
Raab 235 A-8321 St. Margarethen, Austria

Tel.: +43 (3115) 6116 0, Fax: +43 (3115) 6116 4
Web: www.kwb.at/
KWB activities cover R&D, manufacturing, assembling, sales and after sales service of
fully automatic wood pellets and wood chips boilers and fuel handling equipment. They
have about 150 sales partners (most of them are plumbers) all over Europe (Austria,
Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Slovenia). Their pellet-related products are pellet stoves of
10-30 kW and boilers from <50 -100 kW, both for wood pellets and wood chips. Their
manufacturing complies with ISO 9001 and Ökoaudit (EMAS). Following comes a link
toward one of their very complete technical data sheet about pellet small-boilers USP (10-
30 kW): http://www.kwb.at/PDF/pellets/techn_daten/usp_10-30kw.pdf. They have the
approval of Bundesanstalt für Landtechnik Wieselburg. Picture: pellet stove USP (10–30
kW) with efficiencies between 88 and 90%.
4.3.4.8 LIN-KA Maskinfabrik A/S
Nylandsvej 38 DK-6940 Lem

Tel +45 97 34 16 55, Fax: +45 97 34 20 17
Web: www.linka.dk
In Denmark LIN-KA Maskinfabrik A/S is one of the leading suppliers of medium-sized
wood pellet systems for companies, institutions, schools etc. The size of the system is
typically between 400 kW and 1500 kW. Wood pellet firing is a very convenient and
efficient method of producing heat, when speaking of solid biofuel. The system is
established with either an external glass fibre silo or container, or an internal silo (see
picture). The company has specialized in the production of fully automatic firing systems in
all sizes (from 25 kW to about 10 MW) for agriculture, industry and district heating plants.
All systems are based on the use of straw, wood chips and pellets. They have delivered
more than 1500 biofuel firing systems for the Danish and European markets since 1978.

Technical specifications for several Lin-ka small and medium boilers
Wood pellet boilers Nominal capacity kW Efficiency % Wood pellet consumption kg/h
P 30 25 92,2 5,5
P 40 41 91,0 9,2
F 120 131 90,3 29,0
P 200 235 93,4 52,0
P 250 258 95,1 56,6
Wood chips boilers Nominal capacity kW Efficiency % Wood chips consumption kg/h
F 120 118 89,8 33,0
Multimiser 10 180 86,0 65,0
F 200 232 91,1 65,8
4.3.4.9 ÖkoFEN Forschungs- und Entwicklungs Ges.m.b.H.
Mühlgasse 9 A-4132 Lembach i. M., Austria

Tel.: +43 (7286) 7450, Fax: +43 (7286) 7450 10
Web: www.pelletsheizung.at/
With more than ten years experience Ökofen is a pioneer in the production of pellet
heating systems for small capacities up to 32 kW. Burner manufacturer: Underfeed burner
with electrical ignition and automatic ash removal. Automatic pellet heating systems are
suitable for all low temperature heating systems (e.g. floor, wall, radiator heating as well as
heating coil stoves).
4.3.4.10 Passat Energi A/S
Vestergade 36, Ørum DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark

Tel.: +45-8665 2100, Fax: +45-8662 3028
Web: www.passat.dk
Passat Energi A/S has almost 30 years' experience in the development and production of
biomass boilers. They have sld more than 50,000 units in Denmark alone. They
commercialise the compact series, which are boiler models whose power output are
respectively 11, 23, 42, 70, 93, 130 and 185 kW. They can fuelled with wood pellets, wood
chips, grain or similar biomass fuels. Main features are: a thermal efficiency of 90%,
advanced P L C controls, stainless steel combustion chamber, unique fuel scraper system
for reliable, flexible and precise feeding of fuel, large ash pan, ceramic hearth for high
temperature combustion. Pellets hoppers have a capacity between 240and 600 kg, but
boilers can additionnally be fed automatically from a silo. Picture: Compact serie (11 to 42
kW)
4.3.4.11 Prosessiputkitus Oy
Address P.O.Box 430, FIN-33101 Tampere, Finland

Tel. +358-3-347 3600, Fax. +358-3-347 3657
E-mail: markku.makela@prosessiputkitus.fi
prosessi@sgic.fi

Equipment manufacturer, product development, testing, Construction and implementation

of boilers andì boiler components. Boiler reparations 24 h/d.
Prefabrication and installation of pressurized pipings. ISA 9002 quality system. Products:
manufacture of pellet-fired heating boilers and heating plants for residential and public
buildings. Power range 30 – 500 kW.
4.3.4.12 REKA A/S
Vestvej 7 DK-9600 Års, Denmark

Tel.: +45 98 62 40 11, Fax: +45 98 62 40 71
Web: www.reka.com
Boilers with power output between 10-60 kW, and between 100-3,500 kW. Their products
comply with the current European legislative framework, i.e. European norm EN 303-5 up
to 300 kW or directive EN 2000/76 for higher power.
A screw feeder feeds boilers automatically, and the fuel is burnt on a small moving grate.
Those boilers can be fuelled with wood chips, wood pellets, shavings, briquettes and also
straw, grains etc. Practically all kind of biomass wastes (in small pieces) with a moisture
content between 0% and 30 % or between 30% and 50% can be used. A fast adjustment
program electronically controls boilers. Thermal efficiencies are generally over 90%. As an
example, the 100 kW boiler produce hot water at 110°C and at 3.5 bars maximum.
4.3.4.13 Sahlins EcoTec AB
P.O. Box 2103, SE-511 02 Skene, Sweden

Tel. +46 320 20 93 40, Fax. +46 320 421 60
Web: www.ecotec.net/
Sahlins EcoTec AB manufactures pellet burners in various sizes for both private homes
and the heating of larger properties and industries. They also manufacture pellet stoves (7
kW) and storage and feeder systems. EcoTec pellets burners can be mounted on almost
every existing boiler, and present power outputs of 14, 25, 50, 75, 140 and 300 kW.
Automatic pellets heating with EcoTec pellets system is as simple as oil heating. The
pellets store does not require more floor space than the old oil tank and does not have to
be in close connection to the burner. A bulk truck that will blow the pellets into the store by
means of compressed air makes delivery to the store.
4.3.4.14 Viessmann Werke GmbH & Co
Viessmann str. 1 D-351 07 Allendorf (Eder)

Tel.: +49-(0) 6452/70-0, Fax: +49-(0)6452/70-2780
Web: www.viessmann.de/
The Viessmann group is one of the most important manufacturers of heating technology
products. Viessmann produces heating equipment in ten factories, both in Germany and
abroad. Their sales organisation comprises a total of 106 sales offices based in Germany
and in 33 other countries. The product range comprises boilers for operation with oil, gas
and solid fuels ranging from 4 to 15 000 kW output, as well as all modular components
designed for this product range.

Short description of Viessmann's solid fuel-fired boilers
Vitolig 100 Solid-fuel-fired boiler, 12.7 to 14.8 kW
Vitolig 200 Wood gasification boiler with stainless steel filling space for billets, 13 to 40 kW.
Wood pellet-fired heating system whose output may be modulated over the range 5 to 26
Vitolig 300
kW.
Vitocell 050 Type SVP. Hot water storage cylinder constructed from steel. Capacity: 600 and 900 litres.
4.3.4.15 WEISS A/S
Plastvænget 13 DK-9560 Hadsund, Denmark

Tel: +45 96 52 04 44, Fax +45 96 52 04 45
Web: www.weiss-as.dk
Weiss A/S is a very internationally orientated company, exporting about 80% of its
production. The company has agents in Austria, England, Finland, France, Hungary,
Poland, the Czech Republic and Sweden. During the last years the company export to
East European countries has grown considerably. Weiss designs, manufactures, and
installs boilers for all types of bio mass in the range 0.2 MW up to 20 MW. Plants up to 10
MW are built from standardised components, which are especially designed for burning all
types of biomass, and each plant is built to suit customer wishes.
Weiss boilers range from 0.2 to 40 MW with an operation pressure of up to 42 bar. The
following heating mediums can be used: hot water, saturated steam or superheated steam
with temperatures up to 450 C°. Depending on the heating principle used semi- or fully
automatic ash outfeeding systems are supplied. Demands on flue gas cleanliness are
constantly increased, and the allowed emission values are constantly tightened. Weiss
offers a combustion quality with minimum emissions of CO, NOx, and unburned organic
matter. Fly ash is separated by means of cyclones, electrostatic precipitators or textile
filters to the required marginal value. Flue gas condensing If the fuel has a high water
content and the return temperature to the plant is sufficiently low, the condensed heat in
the flue gas water steam can be utilised in a Weiss flue gas condensing system. In this
way plant efficiency is improved by 15-20%. Weiss delivers both simple relay, and
advanced programmable control and monitoring systems. The possibilities to - via the
oxygen percentage - constantly run the heating plant with the absolutely best operation
economy from a PC are today fully exploited.
4.3.4.16 Wodtke GmbH
Rittweg 55-57 D-720 70 Tubingen-Hirschau

Tel: +49-(0)7071/70 03-0, Fax:+49-(0)7071/70 03 50
Web: http://www.wodtke.com/

Wodtke manufactures a range of design pellet stoves (Topline, Smart, PE-Einsatz, CW-
21), between 2 and 8 kW, conceived for space heating. Technical data for Topline and
CW-21 stoves are presented below.
Pellet stoves specifications
Topline CW-21
Thermal power: 2 - 6 kW
Thermal power: 2 - 8 kW Dimensions: 790 x1000 x 560 mm
Dimensions: 660 x 1132 x 585 Weight: 110 kg
mm
Weight: 180-250 kg

4.4 Jelly ethanol stoves
Jelly ethanol cartridges can easily replace the coal fuel in existing little cooking devices
that are in use in Africa. This gives much less emissions and are much less dangerous
(stocking and transport) than normal ethanol. Moreover, it causes less in-door pollution.
The RPES project of the World Bank focused on this fuel for the solution to several
problems in sub Saharian African countries. The name of the developed fuel was
Millennium Gelfuel (Ethanol Based Fuel Produced from Agricultural Crops). RPTES states
also other interesting facts, for different African countries :
• The cost of this fuel is about half to one fifth of LPG,;
• The combustion is efficient, clean and safe;
• The emissions are typically tens of percents lower than of other fuels, which are used
with improved methods, or even two or three times better than of traditionally burned
fuels. Among these, particularly fuelwood and charcoal give high emissions.
In Africa, population has very limited access to cooking fuel, this is also a threat for health.
Therefore, technologies to convert local biomass into gelfuel are likely to create
successful partnerships between Europe and Africa.
4.4.1 The Greenheat Group
The Greenheat Group of companies were established to develop and commercialise a

family of non-petroleum, renewable energy, flammable products to sell into traditional
areas such as Barbecue and Fire Lighting, Camping, Catering and Gardening.
Over ten years research and development has gone into producing over twenty five unique
organic products all with the same minimal environmental footprint. Not surprisingly,
organisations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the World Bank are
keen to work with Greenheat to ensure the success of this new, revolutionary, organic fuel.
The demonstrated superiority of Greenheat Products from both environmental and

performance perspectives, significantly distinguishes them from other existing chemical or
petroleum based products. With a clear advantage, the Greenheat Group intends to
actively market its superior range of products, at competitive prices, in established retail
categories as a replacement for the existing non-environmentally products.
Source: Greenheat, UK

4.5 Absorption refrigeration units for space cooling / food preservation

Thermal Energy can be used in Absorption Refrigeration Plants (ARP) to produce cold
with temperatures down to – 60 °C (Source: ww.thermeq.nl). A conventional Compression
Refrigeration Plant (CRP) uses electricity to produce cold, while an ARP can be driven by
Hot Water, Low Pressure Steam, Exhaust Gases or other residual heat sources.
The Tri-Generation concept gives the opportunity to generate Power, Heat and Cold at the
same time, being independent from the grid. In this concept residual heat from the CHP is
used as prime driver for the ARP. This results in significant savings in power consumption,
increase in total plant efficiency and contributes to the reduction in CO2 emission.
An expired patent of General Electric that had much success in the early part of the last
century is an absorption system that circulates its fluid via natural convection rather than
with an electric pump. This type of system needs no electricity at all. The problem is that
the natural convection does not function if the unit is not very level, or if it is being moved.
Therefore, it is not very suitable for transportation. This has not to be a problem, because
in this case a compression or pump driven absorption unit can be used.
Dometic in Sweden makes the World-Fridge (see http://www.dometic.com) that works on

bottle Gas and Electricity, Kerosene and Electricity – whatever is available. The concept of
multi-energy input is interesting for reliability of cooling and also applicable for biomass
and solar energy. The enterprise uses an absorption unit in its small portable refrigerator,
too.
Extensive work has also been carried out at Asian Institute of Technology (AIT,
www.ait.ac.th) with the aim to produce ice or cool storage in rural areas. The figure below
shows a diagram of a solar-operated absorption refrigeration system. The solar collector
can clearly be substituted by any other low temperature heat source, for example based
on biomass. The above mentioned concept of tri-generation can be applied in an infinite
number of configuration, generating heat, cold and electricity from biomass, solar energy
and other (renewable) energy sources.
Fig. 41: Schematic diagram of a solar-operated absorbtion refrigeration system.

Source: www.courses.ait.ac.th

The meaning for arid and semi arid area is clear: the flexibility of tri-generation with
absorption refrigeration systems gives a development tool for rural areas. This flexibility
creates at the same time the need for development of the most economical, reliable and
energy efficient configurations.

CONCLUSIONS
This study shows the value of a co-operation between Arid and Semi Arid Area of Africa
and European Small and Medium Enterprises. These regions are in great need for
development and great opportunities in regard to economic co-operation, land use for
crops plantation, biomass based energy production, etc..
Biomass resources, most agriculture residues, but also forestry residues for energy
utilisation in those regions are available.
This large amount of biofuel is able to satisfy significant rural energy needs. In particular
major interest appears in:
• Heat production using solid biomass pellets in high efficiency stoves;
• Cooking biofuels production, in particular:
- Charcoal pellets
- BioSynGas
- Bioethanol (95°)
- Biogas
• Power (cogeneration) production, by:
- Gasifier - engine generator fuelled with biomass briquettes
- Microgas turbines fuelled with low-grade bioethanol or bio-syn-gas
• Activated coal production seems of great environmental interest for its high
capacity of drinking water purification.
• Production of animal feed and therefore also food (meet, milk and derived
products) for the population.
A supplementary amount of liquid and solid biofuels could be available using sweet
sorghum plantations because of the high productivity of best selected crop varieties.
This volume of biofuels could thus be able to provide a significant amount of the heating,
cooking energy, electricity and nutritional needs of rural population of those areas.
The viable local production of these valuable biofuels requires a wide spectrum of modern,
efficient technologies that are available in the European Union but mostly too expensive
for the African market. Therefore the only way to penetrate the local conventional fuel /
electricity markets is by implementing a technological and know-how transfer and by
establishing joint-ventures for a common business.
It is expected that the available potential bioenergy activity will have significant rural
development impact and important environmental benefits in Africa. Moreover, it will
improve the economic self-sufficiency and therefore the balance and distribution of
prosperity in the country.

5 References:
1) ’Partners for Africa’ Policy Dialogue Conference
22 – 24 June 2005, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
2) “Developing technology for large-scale production of forest chips”, Wood Energy
Technology Programme 1999–2003, TEKES – Finnish National technology agency;
3) “Wood chips for energy production”, Danish Centre of Biomass Technology, 1993
4) “State of the art of briquetting and eventual applications”, Ing. Sabrina Sorlini, Ing. Sara
Zoni, Università degli Studi di Brescia for “PuntoEnergia”;
5) “Biogas – Praxis“ Schulz, Heinz, 1. Auflage, Staufen: Ökobuch Verlag 1996
6) “Biogas - Theoretische Grundlagen, Bau und Betrieb von Anlagen“, Maurer, M.,
Winkler, J.P., Karlsruhe: Müller Verlag 1980
7) “Biogas - regenerative Energieerzeugung durch anaerobe Fermentation organischer
Abfälle in Biogasanlagen“, Kaltwasser, Bernd, Wiesbaden: Bauverlag 1980
8) „Biogas - Methangärung organischer Abfallstoffe“, Braun, Rolf, Wien: Springer Verlag
1982
9) “Biogas”, boxer99 (2000) http://www.boxer99.de/biogas.htm
10) “Jahrbuch Erneuerbare Energien 2002/03“, Staiß, Frithjof Stiftung Energieforschung
Baden-Württemberg 2003;
11) EUBIA documents
12) Schulz, Heinz: Biogas - Praxis, 1. Auflage, Staufen: Ökobuch Verlag 1996
13) Maurer, M., Winkler, J.P.: Biogas - Theoretische Grundlagen, Bau und Betrieb von
Anlagen, Karlsruhe: Müller Verlag 1980
14) Kaltwasser, Bernd: Biogas - regenerative Energieerzeugung durch anaerobe
Fermentation organischer Abfälle in Biogasanlagen, Wiesbaden: Bauverlag 1980
15) Braun, Rolf: Biogas - Methangärung organischer Abfallstoffe, Wien: Springer
Verlag 1982
16) Staiß, Frithjof: Jahrbuch Erneuerbare Energien 2002/03, Stiftung Energieforschung
Baden-Württemberg 2003
17) “State of the art of briquetting and eventual applications”, Ing. Sabrina Sorlini, Ing.
Sara Zoni, Università degli Studi di Brescia for “PuntoEnergia”;

COMPETE Project Coordination COMPETE Project Coordination

WP7 Coordination - Dissemination WP3 Coordination - Sustainability
WIP Renewable Energies Imperial College London

Sylvensteinstr. 2 Centre for Energy Policy and Technology
81369 Munich South Kensington Campus, London, SW7 2AZ
Germany United Kingdom
Contact: Dr. Rainer Janssen Contact: Dr. Jeremy Woods
Dominik Rutz Dr. Rocio Diaz-Chavez
Phone: +49 89 720 12743 Phone: +44 20 7594 7315
Fax: +49 89 720 12791 Fax: +44 20 7594 9334
E-mail: rainer.janssen@wip-munich.de E-mail: jeremy.woods@imperial.ac.uk
dominik.rutz@wip-munich.de r.diaz-chavez@imperial.ac.uk
Web: www.wip-munich.de Web: www.imperial.ac.uk
WP1 Coordination – Current Land Use WP4 Coordination – International Cooperation
University of KwaZulu-Natal Winrock International India

School of Environmental Sciences Contact: Sobhanbabu Patragadda
South Africa E-mail: sobhan@winrockindia.org
Contact: Dr. Helen Watson Web: www.winrockindia.org
E-mail: watsonh@ukzn.ac.za
Web: www.ukzn.ac.za Stockholm Environment Institute
Contact: Francis Johnson
E-mail: francis.johnson@sei.se
WP2 Coordination – Improved Land Use Web: www.sei.se
Utrecht University European Biomass Industry Association

Dept. Science, Technology and Society Contact: Stephane Senechal
The Netherlands E-mail: eubia@eubia.org
Contact: Dr. Andre Faaij Web: www.eubia.org
Dr. Edward Smeets
E-mail: A.P.C.Faaij@uu.nl
E.M.W.Smeets@uu.nl WP6 Coordination – Policies
Web: www.chem.uu.nl/nws
Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy
Analysis Network of Southern Africa
WP5 Coordination – Financing South Africa
Contact: Khamarunga Banda
Energy for Sustainable Development Dr. Charles Jumbe
United Kingdom E-mail: khamarunga@hotmail.com
Contact: Michael Hofmann charlesjumbe@bunda.unima.mw
Stephen Mutimba Web: www.fanrpan.org
E-mail: michael.hofmann@esd.co.uk
smutimba@esda.co.ke
Web: www.esd.co.uk
th
COMPETE is co-funded by the European Commission in the 6 Framework Programme –
Specific Measures in Support of International Cooperation (INCO-CT-2006-032448).

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SIXTH FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME

Second Periodic Activity Report

ANNEX 4-2-8: Report on innovative bioenergy complexes

Competence Platform on Energy Crop and Agroforestry

COMPETE is co-funded by the European Commission in the 6th Framework Programme –

Editing and Reporting: COMPETE - North-South Cooperation on promising bioenergy

Dr. Giuliano Grassi

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 2

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 3

2.2.3.4 Münch Edelstahl GmbH ................................................................... 58

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 4

4 Technologies of biomass to bioenergy valorisation .................................... 99

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 5

4.3.4.3 Danstoker A/S................................................................................ 118

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 6

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 7

1.2 Technical preamble

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 8

1.3 The advantages of biomass

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 9

1.4 Range of biomass sources

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 10

Supply sector Type Example

Forestry by-products Wood blocks, wood chips from thinnings

Starch crops for ethanol (e.g. maize, wheat)

Contaminated waste Demolition wood

Energy crop productivity is still at a very early stage of deployment in comparison to

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 11

1.4.1 World bioenergy potential

Source: Kaltschmitt, 2001

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 12

Source of graph: E. Smeets, A. Faaij, I. Lewandowski (2004). A quickscan of global bio-energy

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 13

Fig. 3: Estimation of global conventional and biomass resources

1.4.2 Bioenergy Production Potential in Developing countries

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 14

1.5 Energy value of biomass

Biomass is in general wrongly considered as a low-quality fuel. Because today many

1t of dry biomass ≈ 0.41 TOE

1.6 Description and characterization of the actual bioenergy consumption

1.6.1 Bioenergy characterisation

Bioenergy key drivers and advantages

Some bioenergy key drivers consist in its contribution to:

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 15

Other important advantages of bioenergy are as follows:

Barriers to bioenergy expansion

Overcoming these barriers

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 16

1.6.2 Conversion Routes to Bioenergy

Fig. 4: Conversion processes to biofuels

1.7 Analysis of E.U. Bioenergy technologies commercially available

1.7.1 Solid Biomass pre-treatment (Biopellets and briquettes)

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 17

Fig. 5: Density of Wood Wastes

Fig. 6: Bulk density of Refined Biomass

Fig. 7: Heat value of different fuels

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 18

1.7.2 Increasing interest for biomass derived Biofuels

This deficiency should be addressed for the following reasons:

EUBIA, Deliverable D4.6 19

1.7.3 Biomass for Heat and Power

Biomass can be converted for power generation using several processes.