Ab Marx Universal School of Music PDF

MARX'S
UNIVERSAL SCHOOL OF MUSIC.

NoncE.
Hani^ rtttmed to fi^fsM^ the riffht to puiUth the pretent materi^lfy aUered
efBtim if ikw my work m the jFVmeA amf En^lM languages, I have tranaffrr&d
my fight to the puUication of the English edition to M£88K8. Robert CocKii
AND Co. ^ London, bjf opeaal t^rtemaU dated January 28IA, 1852.
(Sifnml)
Db. ADOLF BERNHARD MARX,

I^^fmor mdlHMttor ^ Mmic at tit JMoermty.
Mtn, Juhf Ut, 1858,
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THE
UNIVEESAl
SCHOOL OF MUSIC;
T£ACHEB8 AND STUDENTS IN EYSBT* BRANCH OF MUSICAL ABT;
WITH
ADDITIONAL NOTES, A SPECIAL PAEFACS, AND SUPPLEMENT TO THE

ENGLISH EDITION;
ST
DR. ADOLPH BERNHARD MARX,

VROFIflSOK OF KUBIO AT TBI UKIVBBSITr OF BXEUK
flUMtUTBD moM VHB
FIFTH EDITION OF THE OBIOINAL GERMAN
wt
A. H. WEHilUAN,
nnoB or vm mabz'b mbooii ov ooimMinoir, mo, sro.
V^^^ LONDON
/'/
\ V-Y * )
IU3BERTC0CKS ^ND 00. NEW BURLINGTON STREET,
LEIPZIG: MESSRS. BREITKOPF AND HABTEL.
MDCCCLin.
'
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LOMDOII-
viaDOBB wnaxt.
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TO
PARENTS,
CONSCIENTIOUS TEACHERS.
PRINCIPALS OF SEMINARIES,
AND Tan
SUPERIOR AUTHORITIES IN THE PROMOTION OF EDUCATION,
Who esteem it a consdentious and impantive duty to see tliat the Miufcal
Education of jouth confided to their care be leally cakmlated to interest the

mind and heart — to awaken genius and elevate the soul — that the art, in its
di\inely blest power of deliglitiiig and purifjing the mind, and raising our
feelings to the desire and contempktion of subjects the most exalted and
eternal, be not so imbitteied and perverted as to become a nunery of languid
abstraction and vanity; or a sensualism enfeebling and uiBurpiug the phtce of
all the noblor spiritual and m^tal aspirations
THIS B00K»
IN FAITHFUL PABTIOIPATIOll OF TH08B SBNTIIIBNTS,
IS DKDICATED,
THE AUTHOR.
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THE TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
Thb leanMd Author of this work haiing My iteted its object in hia special
PreAce to die present traosliition, I shall content myself with expressing my meet
fen cut wish for as complete a realization of that object in EngUind, as lias attended
the promulgation of thifi system in the Author a and my native land.
Hie fiittiiiil mtcipretalaon of works like those from the pen of Dr. Marx may
be eompared to the operation of eonverting the beautiful and highly finished coin of
one country to the purpose of circulation in another: upon this occasion —and here I
have onoe more to acknowledge the aid of my frioid, Jamet — haa

Clarke, Esq. it
been my earnest endeayoar to guard against tfie loss of any portion of the precious
ore; and I trust that, although labouring under tlie usual generally appreciated
difficulties of the task I hare undertaken, the artistic impress of the original has
been m some measure preserved.
AUGUSTUS H. WEHRHAN.
THE AUTHOR'S
rilEFACE TO THE E.\GLI6II EDITION.
Fully appreciating the huiiuur of introdui-iiig this tnmsliition <it'the " Univei-sal
SchiX)! of Music" to the friends of art in EiigUmd, 1 ani desirous, upon this occasion,
to point out its speoitic objt^cts.
The history of music, 06 tliut of any other art, shows a continual fluctuation
between periods of elevation and depression, or decline. The former are indicated
hy the appearance of some new and raiovainig idea, whose influence eartends over
«fery sphere of art; tiie lalter are tfaote, during wfalch this idea fint apfeadi itself,
and tiien a new one is in^wvceptibly ripening. Periods of

gradually expires, while
devataon were thoie indicated by the names of Luther and Pkdestrina—Seb. Badi,
—
Handel, and Qhiek ^Hajdn, Uosart, and Beethoven ; names dear to, and revered,
not alone by one partienlar countiy or nation, but by the whole drilized worid, by
every lover of art, in Italy, as wdl as in Germany, England, and Franoe. Be-
tween such epochs, times of quietude and inactirily uitervene ; as evening twi]i|^t»
night, and the hopefiil dawn of morning divide our terrestrial days. It is in sudi a
pîod of artistie repose that we are now living. We need not here inquire what
days of artistie joy and greatness are in store ftr this or Uiat nation ; nor are we
tndined to entnr into a dispute with tiiose more hiîul and ardent disdples of art
who imagine that in many indications they peroeiTe the proôstics of a new
jubilee, and repmach tlieir doubting brethren \\?h hulifTerence or want of energy,
if not with utter insensibihty, or deathlike apathy. It is, perhaps, because the latter
entertain a really higher idea of art, and exist more fervently m it, that the arbitrary
and changing caprices of the day have no attraction fiv than, while they anticipate
and prepare themselves for nobler aims. But one thing is f^rtmn : whatever the
time in which we Uve, it is our duty to devote to art the purest and nobl^t feeUngl,
and to prepare ourselves for its service as diligently and carefully as possible, m
order that we may ourjielves be able, and enable those confided to our guidance, to
appreciate, enjoy, and comumnicate to others, all that is great and glorious in our
art, whether already achieved, or still in perspective.
But art moves in Sii extensive a sphere, and demands the c«)-operation of so
many different powers, and the expenditure of so much time, tliat no individual can
h<'pc, either for himself, or expect in any other, the power to satisfy all those de-
mands. It is a well-known fact, that many of our greatest compot»_r6 — as iustûices,
I name Beethoven and Mozart — were, m they thuniselveii have ciinfessed, or proved
bv their want of su< cess, but indifferent teachers ; while others, as Gluck, &c. were
(letii lent in technical ex<x'ution, and had not Iteen able to master the more com-
plicated fonn» of conipoijitioii ; and suuie of tlie moat talented and successful per-
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X THE iLIITHOR*lt PRBFAGB.
formers could not find tiiu' i.i make theinwlvcP a< qiiaintod with those branches of
musical art which lay J>oyond tin- s]>herc of their iiiiinediate practi»H'. Many pro-
fessional imisicians havt- only been emibied, by long practical experieiu c, and a kind
of artistic instinct, to lessen, tlioutjh not entirely to remove, the disadvanta^vs arising
from an iniiurtcct theoretical cultivation. Ilviucst- minded aii'l well-trained prac-

tical U.a<;li« r.s arc frcipiently s ' "'Vcrburtlu ncd with the labours <'t' tlicir daily avoca-
tion, that they posst ?s neither U isiire nor |H/wer t^ sustain and clu rish the highest
and only true idea I'f art; nor to prcacrve those uuiverbul j'rineijtles, froni wliieh the
individual requirements of their pupils tend to divert their attentinu. All thesic and
other members of the art, many of wliuui excel ui their pariicular line, often need
<>ccasiuiiui lunts and explanation, or a revival of that which is lying dormant in the
iiiiud, or has been forgotten ;
tliey wUl feel their powers greatly strengthened and
their knowledge increased by the &cilitie8 hcKoflfered to them, in eontemplaliiig ihe
whole, or a paitkobr difukoj of the field of art» fiom a point tufficientiy eleratod
to pfMMnt ft dew ykm of luntm boundariei.

its
To whaSerer eitent I may be MizpaBBed in partieuhur pointe by othen, I bate

ofinoeiTed it to be my duty to fiirther, with my utmoit ability, the aocompliihment
of the taak impoaed upoa all, by ofiering to the serrice of art, that wfaidi I bdieve
to have been eonlerred on me; via. a oomprdienttTe kftowledge and eonodoiuneM of
art in its totality. I have aought to attain tiiree partieular objects in the oompoti-
ticn of this wovk: Furstfyt to pve general information on all those demflntaxy
matters which every musical student oiiglit to know, and to prepare the way for
the spedal and highest branches of study i^Seamdfyf to awaken in the nund a
consciousness of all that is sublime, etecnaUy true, or moraBy and spiritoaUy elevating
in vi't^Tkirdfyt to incite all to more earnest and general reflection on Uie subject
of musical instruction and the method of teaching. It will be a great satisfacti(m
tome, should these aodeatours meet with the same approbation in Great Britain
the country to which we poor Germans, in so many highly important relations of
life, look up with longing dîre — as tliat testified in my ovm country by the r^d
succession of five large editions, which, considering the state of poverty forcibly
entailed upon most of us, is an occurrence most surprising and unprecedented.

It was also my wish to provide parents and guardians, as well as students them-
selves, with a book which mipht b'"ith induce and enable them to consider whether
the teachers, to whrmi they intrust a matter of such hi^h impi^rtancc as the training
for the " arf of tlir soul" fulfil their mission taitlitiilly, and m eUiciently m tlie
present development of musical art requires and enables them to do : whether they
sow in the hearts and minds of youUi tlie see<l, lor the culture uf whli h they are
commissioned. The artist and teacher of an art have a right, e«{ual to that of the
members of any other learned profession, to exjiect that their profession shall supjdy
them with tile means nf sulisistenee but woe ti> him who, throui^h l<'ve : of (;a in, loses
sight of the exalted position of an artist, and the sacredness of the tt aclu r's ittfrce
to the ruin of hiji pupils, and las uwii continual, though secret, mortification and
dissatisfaction ! To such, and those imperilled by tliem, this book may be a warning.
ADOLPH BERNHARD MARX.
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CONTENTS.
PACE
iHTRODurTiow. A suwey of the realm of Music anJ of the objects proposeci i»
till- Tlniveisal Scliool of Music , . . . . . 1
Part thk First. Tonology, or the doctrine of sounds and their signs . 7
SerHon the First. The tonal system . . . . .

0
Section the Second. The system of notation . . .

13
1. The G or treble clef . . . . . !;>
2. The C clef 15
3. The F or baw clef , , , , , H)
Section the Third. Abbreviations and siîs employed to simplify and facili-
t;ite the writing anJ readinir of music .

22
Section the Fourth. Sharp and flat sounds .

. . .
28
A. Slifirp sounds . . .
28
B. Fhit sounils .
, . ; . . .
2fi
C. Rostiirution .
; ; , , , ,
3<>
D. Double sharps and double flats . . .

HO
Section the Fifth. Definition of tonal relations .

33
^
Section the Sixth. The nmjor and minor modes ; .

U)
Sc' fton the Strt-nth. Miijor and minor keys .

.
iî
^
.....
Section the Eighth. On the nature and charact^'risiics of the keys in s:eneral. -Wi
A. The major l«>y.s .

^
<-t>
H. The niiiH.r ki-v^ fiO

Xii CONTENTS.
Section the Xinih
A. Si^;natures
C.
1
2.
.
........
The minor keys
Relation of the keys

.......
Tht: niajnr keys
....
.......
B. Tlie principal intervals of the scale
...
A more minut«? oonsideration uf tie kevs .'.1
51
.".1
.'iH
:.6
57
1.
2.
3.
Rthilioii
......
between
Relatioji of panillel
tlu-
keys
nuijor keys
Relation between tho minor and major keys of the

.
same tonic.
57
58
and between different minor kevs 58
....
tlie
Appendix. The ecclesiastical or church modes 60
tT THE Second.
Preliminari/
.......
.......
Rhythmics
Remarks
63
65
Section the First. ....

......
Rhythmical value of sounds 66
A. Bipartite value of sounds

B. Tripartite v;ilue......
......
<>{ Sdiinds
66
C. Compound rhythmical forms

D. Multipartite .....
.......
rliythinical ^.noups
71
*
-
Section the Second. Rests 74
Section f}w Third. ....

........
Indefinite rbytbmical si^ns 7»'
1.
2.
The
The
stiiecato
legato ........
......
76
77
Section the Fourth.
Appendix.
Of time
The pendulum and metronome ..... 70
82
Section the Fifth.
Section the Sixth.
Section the Seventh.

Arrangement of sounds
DifFpwnt kinds of time .....

in bars or
Arraniêment and subdivision of the bars

measures 86
8f>
95
Section the Eighth. Exceptional forms in the arrangement of bars . 106
1.
2.
3.
Starting notes
Irregular bars .......
. . . .
Different kinds of measures and values in simultaneous aeries of sounds

'
. 106
106
m
....
Stciion the Ninth.
Section the Tenth. Accentuation ......

Accidental chromatic signs
.....
110
112
1.
2.
Appendix.
Accentuation of the parts of the bar
Accentuation of the bar members ..... 112
113
Gradations in the intensity of musical sounds . 1 15

•••
Part thb Tiiird. Musical organics ...... CONTENTS. XUl
11.'
Siection iht Firtt
Strfion the Stcotid. Xm-A music ....

General survev of musicul
.......
orsriinics 121
12«
.......
A- Th<> hiimiin voic*»
t Cits
1. The ha*s 128
2. The tenor 128
128
........
3. The alto
X T]\(* (i\srn.t\tit or sonr&Hi* . . , . 12!)
B. Language
Section the Third.
Bow .....
String instruments (not played with a bow) 131
....
Section the Fourth. instruments
m
Section the Fifth.
Sfudirm the Sixth.

Wind
Brass instruments .....

instruments of wood
...... 143
Section the Seventh. The organ
.... 147
Section the Etghth.
Section the l^tnth.

Instruments of percussion
Instruments of fnction
The
.....
...... lull
151
Section the Tenth. .score
Part the Fottrth. Elementary forms
The sources of melody

......
.....
l«l
163
Section the First.
A. Succi-ssiiwi of
B. The rhythmical arrangement
Section the Second.

scunds
The fundamental forms

.
..... .
of melody
. . . .
lt)3
165
167
1 . The passage 167

2. The section 167
3. The period 169
SfXti'ni the Third. Tin- larger rhytlmiiral con.structions 172
Sfction the Fourth.
Section the Fifth.

Graces, or melodic embellishments
Introduction to harmony .... 178
183
Section the Sixth.
Section the Seventh.

The most important chords
On the employment of chords

in the
.... m^jor and minor modes. 186
191
2.
1. The duplication of intervals
Omission
3. Positions of chords
of intervals . .
. .
....
. .
- 191
191
192
1!12
i Inversion of chord'; . • . • .
harmony 195
5. Close, or dispersed . . . •
f» Combination 195
7 . The close (cadence) . . . •

• 197
l!»9
8. The prelud«^ . . .
•
xiv rONTENTS.
Section the Eighth. Modulation . . . .

202
A. The la ws o f m(wlii |a tit>n . . . . = 2U2

R. ThP mPAnK of moHiiUtinn . . . . . . 203
Section the Ninth. Progression of the parts in chords . . 207
1 Internal progression of the parts of a chord . . 207

2. Siniultane^nis proLrre.'^'*i"n of chords . . .
208
Dissimultaneogs proirression of tlie \uirt^
^
.
^
2( >8
a. Suspensions . . . . . .
'J( i8
b. Anticipatt j sounds , . . . ,
2U9
r. Pftdul m>U^s . . . . . . . 2Qa
i. Intermediate progression between chords . . 210
Section the Tenth, The figured bass .

.
215
Part thb Frrrn. Artistic formx ^ , , 221
Section the. FirAt. (ipneral consideration of artistic forms , , . 223
Section the Second. Distinct forms arising from the treatment of the parts . 225
Section the Third. The polyphonic forms ^

. .
230
1. Figumtion . . . . . .
230
2. The fugtio 233
3. Duublc, triple, and tjuadruple fugues . . . .
23>>
i. The canon , . . , ^ , , j 238
Section the Fourth. Homophonic and mixed forms »

;
242
1. Tlic air or song forni .

2t^2
2. Thft rondo form . . . ._

243
3. Thp sonata fnnn . , , = , , , iti
Section the Fifth. The special forms of instrumental music .

.
240
1 Th<» sonata . . , . , , ,
246
2. Th(> overture .
, , , , ,
'2}7
3. The symphony . . . .
247
4. The concerto . , , , , 2^8
5. The fantasia .
, , , , ,
248
G. The capricdo, toccata, and 6tude (study) ^
.
248
Section the Sixth. The special forms of vocal niiisic .

.
249
1. The recitative : : : :
249
2 The aria , , : : : :
249
3. The chorus 250
2.')0
4. The cantata .
: : ._ _
: :
f). The finale : : : : :

251
Section the Seventh. Music in connection with other productions 252
1. ThebaUet 253
2. T]ie melodramc , .
253
Thfldrama with music , .
, :
254
4. The opera . . • • • .254
CONTENTS. XV
Part tiik Sixth. Aitistir pert'ornuiiu-o . 2')!)
.....
positions 261
Section the Second.
luc rn>^nm .......

The signification of the
......
fundamental forms of music . 271
......
i\.
1. The movement . 271

2.
3.
The accent
....
Greater rhythmical members
. 273
27*
B. The quality. prooTcssion,
The .....
......
tonal succession
and combination of sounds . . 27«
276
......
1. .
The inten-als 277
......
2. .
3. The chords 278

4.
5.
Conclusion
The two modes
The keys ......
.......
. 280
280
281
Section the Third. The signification of the different artistic forms 282
Section (hr Fourf/i. The (•oinprehension anJ periornuuicf of spefiul conifKisitions. 28i-
Section the Fifth. Collective performance » . , 289
Appendix. Playing from score 2il3
Fart the SEVEXTn. Cultivation of music, and musical instruction 2Ha

Stcd'oii tlie Fir.'it. A glance at tlif present stutt* of nnisic . 301
Postscript. 1H.')0. 307
Section the Second. The true object and the proper means of musical culture. 30.9
Section the Third. Natural qualification. The artistic calling an

Section the Fourth. Development of the natural qualifications 321
Th<> intenâl preceding instruction 322
Thti iôLirst' of instrm tion 323
Development
Cultivation of
Section the Fifth.

of vliytliniical feeling
tliti
The
musical ear
objects
....
and seasonable commencement o f iuii&i£al
32J:
325
ifiKtnirtion 2S&
Sindng 320
Pianoforte playing; 331
Composition
Seciion the Sixth. Teachers, and method of teach in;; 339
ArpiXDix. A. Rhythmical analysis .

. 347
B. The futile form .
^
.
34S
C.The rondo form . 3.50
D. Thp sonata form 3^1
Special Supplkment for the Enci.i.sh Kdition 353
3iiJ
^
£REATA.
Viget 22, lirn 7, f"r rwUtt'(read octavrn
— 27, loist liuu, fur one-lined
f
read Uco-lincii
— 29, note, line 2, for ei» read m.
— S"), line 9, for n*iid bb.
— 39, line \t fat read
— rfbbb-
68, ponultnttato line, lor ft*Ml and sctni ftiKol read /law and Memi/unia.
— 83, linf 3 fn>ni hclow, fur Cantor Wcixske read Francfus LmMofJ^ru,
— 127, note 2, line 3, read ''pri$mpai part of tkt karmm^:'
— 172, lino 9, for (iU(i,i;iiiiyh!„<f read ^MwyMfML

— 17;i, la^t line, read Voikduder.
•— 177, insert at foot. See Appendix A.
«— 217. Hue 9, for iiistnnnints read morementt.
— 2GG, line 5
from bolow, Sosquin read Josquin.
for
— Bmr
— 806, lure andandelscwhorp,
293, linon 7 read 8, a knowledge ofhwMmmf, mvjUtmWim%*
mtieh
l read Ghtck.
for GIiu
— Ml, line 10, for thia
read key. <A<- urigiual
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9
INTEODUCIION.
A 8U&VSY or TOS REALM OF MIT8IC, AND oF ¥11 £ OBJ£CX8 PB0P08£I> IN

THE UNIV£&8AJ« bCUOOL OF MUSIC.
The Umversal Sishool of Music is intended tn j?upply every «ne who pnrj)Oses
making music* an essential object of liis study mui pmftice — whether m a singer,
instrumental perti>rmer, composer, or teaeher — witli the requisite general infonnatiuu
and lulvice, and from the commeneement to instruct him m far, that he will be
ptrteetly prepared andcompet6nt in the particular dtpajtiiient to which he dedicates
himself. It is, llicrefore, tor every musiial student, the esuential elementary seliool,
from which, and by whose aid, singuig, LnsU'umental perilirniance, or compusitiun
may be practised and studiol, but which camtot be dispensed with in either. As it
daunt tbe eharacter of a unhrersally neoeaMiy course of instruction, it oflfcrs, at the

Nine time, opportuidtiii fx imparting infbnnBtion on fpecial sufajecta (e. g. nadiiig
and playing from mok), which, althouj^ not abiolutely neoaniy to every mitudan»
may yet be aooeplable to many, and Ibr which no place eould be Ibund more suitablo
than this.
Hie UniTeml Sehool of Huiie is not ouliisiTdy dedgned Ibr scientific ajqnrants,
but ftr an who piactiae music jod will inculcate that complete dcmentaiy know-
;
ledge wfaidi is noccasaiy to off. Let us then pre-suppose the abeenoe of all know-
ledge^ ezoepting that whidi is sdf-endent to erery one, or is derived from daily
intereoune. Herein is our schod dedared to be a praetieai one. Its tdentific
demonstrations bdoi^ to the sdenoe of munc; to these we can manty point in some
CHca, and thcnanly in order to estabHsb prindpha with moredeameia and oertainty
than would be possible by more description or intuition.
Now, if we would here 'enumerate tlie general elements of nmsical knowledge,
We arrive in the next place at the enquiry-Hif what kind are these ? upon what
sutyects have we to gain information ? Tlie answer is upon eeerytku^ tkat Muni/s
:
to mu9ie m gmteroL Let us then consider music as it everywhere presents itself
before us.
• Music Moeived its name fivmn the sneiflnt Ofedci, who originaUy comprehendod in this
t«ntt all mutwm arts ; i. e. all arts oWT which the imiscs pre>«ided^ and which coim-quentty
eompri'?cd the whole spiritual dcveloprnf-nt of man, in contmdi«tinctinn from the yynwtutte
•rts in relation to those bodily exerciiscs which were coouderud Uuxumng to a true man.
In the preaent day, the term rouaic ^fenuei ly so ooiapidieuive<~ia applied exdurively to that
ait, viddi aims at the praduetaoii of diiOerent elleets opon the Mmaoa and mind of man, bj
aacuB of aonndt of difoent degrees of scateneM, dimtioB, and obaracter.

B
p
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•1
INTRf»l>l'CTIO!f.
We kil -w t!uit i!it!>=i.' o|.imt»s directly upon the sense of hisaring. ETerythhijf
that can be Imurd U iudicuted hy the genenil term af
Sol Nn.
without disiiiutl III um t«i whether itsefttx-t upon the ear be loud or soft, of short or
of long daratiou. A:c.
We percoivf also that music is |iro«hi» cî l«y human voices, or muiiica] inistru-
ments of vari'Mi'* kinds, a« Hut«'f<, vifHiis, tniinjH !-*. honia, &c. &c. Even' one
knows tliat th' varit.us iii-ti uiih iit> are (iistinguishe^l from eai'h othtr hy the
(iiialitv of t!i< II- : thn-r ot' tlir are tender, and flowing; tlie sounds
oi lite truni|Krl uie inoit* velientenl, iiarsh mid crusliing, &c. &c. The ptKûliur
quality uf tlietie various liuunds is expressed hy tlic term

JoNK.
Fin;dly, we ohsn xt , that tliere is still a ereat difl'erence even between the sounds
pnxiuced fiom the same instrumeiil. i hi- s lunds of the four strings of a viohn, lur
instiince, or of the many strings of a har|». are clearly distinguishable from each
other ; tliose of tlie longer and thicker strings being more rough and fiiU than thoae
of the tlunner and shorter struigs. Hue differenee in the gravity and acuteness <if
sounds, otherwise possessing a similar chancter, is called

Pftch;
and when speaking of the different sounds eni])loyed in music, we generally express
their rdatiTe difference of pitch. In this relation, we have a very ezteusive series
of different sounds. Those produced from the longer and thicker strings are called
low sounds, and those frcrni the shorter or thinner strings, ^»$fA ones. Thus, like^
wise, the voices of men are generally lower than those of boys or women; the
sounds of a flute, violin, or trumpet, higher than those of a bassoon, double bass, or
French^hom. We say j^nereMy ; f<v as every voice and eveiy musical instrument
b capable of produdng many difftfent degrees of sound, so the lowest sounds of a
high voice or instrument may be lower than the highest sounds of a low voioe or
instrument, and tlce rn-m.
Hie clearest id> a of high and low somids will )>e formed by glancing at the
piano, or any other iiistrunii nt with a key-hoard. Here every key, white or black,
has it« particular sound. Thus, by the following representation of a portion of the
key^board, we comprehend that its thirteen different k^ produce as many different
sounds.
1 n. -1, f; 7 m io i i i-- i:;
V The keys towards the left-liand give the low sounds, those towards the riirht-
hand the high ones ;

thus, the key No. 1 produces the lowest of the thirteen suunds.
each f blowing key has a higher sound, and the la^t ( Xa l.S) the hi):h« st of all.
It may lje well to notice, that, accordinc; tiun, it is said,
of a lower s lund, that it i.-^ the higher "He; and el' a lii',^her sound, that it is
a/^ce the lower one ;

tlius, tlie soiuid produced by key 1 is said to be below that of
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l.NTilom CTION. 3
tey 2, and this ogBin below thai of key 3 ; the sound cf Iwy 12 te be above that
of key 11 ; and that of key 13, above all. It will be seen froin this, that the actual
elevatioii of the abort keys above the level of the long ones does not affect the
gradation of thev Bounds.
We now proceed to explain other subjects.
Every sound must be produced at its due time, and must occupy a certain
longer or shortor measured spaee ^ time. The time thus allotted to a sound is
called its
Value (or Du&ation).
Thus we say of a sound, tliat it has the same, or htflf, or double the value of
another ; meaning that it continues as loMg, or lialf, or twice as long.
Tf a series of sounds of certain values in: arranged in accordance with some
fixed ibrm, so that long and short sounds follow upon each other, and are rqieated in
regular succession, that arrangement is called
Rhythm.
in a series of sounds, no such repîilar order ot" time is perceptible, or tiie
value of eat'h wparalt- .souiul is iml in ajireL-iiu iit with the uthen', the successi(fii is
tinned unrli/itlmtiml. Surli an altsciice of rhythm is particularly observalilc in the
singing of biribs. On the uth.-r liand, sounds of no dehiiite pitch, e, </. those of
drums, may shew in their bUtAcssiun a very decided and marked rhythm.
A succession of sounds arranged acctirding to some idea, and in rhythmical
order (independently of its more or K ss pleasing or expressive characUirj, is termed
Melody.
A piece of music may consist of one single series uf sounds ; then it in said to
be written
tft one part ; —
or of two, three, four or more dtflerent sones of sounds, to be performed simul-
taneously ; it is then said to be composed
in iwo, three, fmtr or more parte ;
the tarn part being applied to eadi of the series of sounds of which the composition
consists.
The simtdtaneous series of sounds, as apfiearing in the diffmit parts of a

composition, must have a certain relation to each other in accordance with the object
and biws of art; or, in other words, they roust agree with each other. Such an
agreement is tamed
a word which is also used, in colloquial hinguage, to express that certain things
(e. ff. dilftrmt ooIouib or difierent posons) agree with each otlier — harmonise."
The above elementa, viz. sounds, rhydmi, mekxly and harmony, constitute
together a
PiEci OF Mtrsic, OR A Musical Compositiom.
Any one who luts listened attentively to many musical compoîtinns. and com[)ared
one with another, must have obscn'ed that some are of a similar character and have
a similar arrangement, wliilst others differ both in length and construction. He must
have found, that there is a great difference between a march and a dance, or hetween
a secular song and a psalm tune or chant; whilst there is a general similarity in tlie
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4 INTBODUCTION.
MDfllnictioii €f aU nunnebea, dianti, pialin tenet, fte. Ae. Theie difleroaegt in

cautnictioD, by whkh the external firm of • work of art it charaeteriied, ai« termed
Akiistic Fokms.
Thus we may now already diituiguiah the mazdi, dance, iOQg, and chent, aa
eome of the varkwu artiitic forou. Of thcee finni, hmrerer, tiiere am alill eeveral
more. ,
We now return to the commencement of our examination. We hare afaraady

obaerved, that music may be perfomud it% well by meana of the human Toice, aa
upon muncal instnunents. Musical inatrumenti, and human Toicei wbm employed
in lin^g, are comprised uhder the general term of
Organs of Mrsic.
Accordinfj to the different lands of organs j-mployed, munc is divided into
diilerent classes. If only instruments are used, it is called
Instrumkntal Musio ;
il the human voice aluiie is employed, it in called
Vocal Mrsir or Sinoino.

Either voices or mitrumeiits may be exclusively employed, when it is (Ustinctively
called
VorAL, OR Instrfmental Music;

or they may be combined, uiid tlieii tht y Ih-* ! !!!!'
AcroMi'AMK.ii VorAi. Mrsio.

Finally, the object of music may be spctiiilly musical, or it may give its aid to
iome other purpose ; tlius it may unite itself with the social dance, as ordinary
Dance Music ;
or aesiat the really attiatie dance in ita acenic repreaentation of iâa ( BaOat and
Pantomime), when it la called
Balubt Hubic ;
or unite with the drama, aa

Dbamatio Mitsic;
or powerfiilly aaaiat the general derotion and edification' in puWc worahip, when it ia
caUed
CHtfBCH Muaic.
Theae are the general outlinea of the elenwnta, the fimdamentri ftnna wd objecta
of muaie.
In all theae directiona, we may cultivate munc
PRACZIOALLT,
aa aingeia, perfirmers, conductors, or compoaera ; or
Theoretically,
either aa studenta or teachors. Every branch of practical music requires, however,
a certain amount of theoretical knowledge.
The doctrine or acience of aound is called
TONOLOQT.
It compriaea the doctrine of melody
MxLODics
of haniMMiy—
Harmomics i
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INTRODUCTION. 6
and of Old eombiiiation of leTeral tndîendlsMl voices, or the
DOCTBINB OF COUNTISBPOINT. .
The doctrine of rhythm is called
RaTTBMics
to whkh, fioaUy, it added the
Doctrine op Forms.
Hie precepts ftr the artistic produ«ti<m of musical pieces constitute the
Theory op Compohitiox
It comprises, besides the whole of the tonology and rhythmics, the
Doctrine op Vocal and Instruitental Effbctb;
f. e. of the realization of musical ideas by means of tlie organ of song (sin^ng
voice) in connexion with language, and the different musical histrum^ts.
The sdentihc demonstrations of all musical doctrines form the
Science op Mrsir.
As a corollary to them, may be coiisidrml the art nf wTitlii^ music, or of
rf presfiiting tho (litVc-rent sounds and their combinutiinis liy sij,ni!S ami letters ; uiul
tile instruction in singing and playing. The latter we leave to tlw special vocal aiid
instrumental iiistnictinn l>'K»ks, ;uui to the proi'essors ot tliese branches of the art.
Tlie theory of conijiosition and the seience oi" nuisie re«[uirc to be treutei.l separately*.
The remaining dcKtrines bcluug either entirely or partially to the province of the
Universal School of Minic, and they form tiie contents of the present work. To
which is added on appendix, contairang himie general remarks on musiail education
on the nature of the calling of a musician ; and on the method of teaching ; as the
most important of the advant<êi> announced at page 1.
TotaUy exchided are the Hutmy of Music and the CoiutnuHm 9f UttuktU
InBtmmenU, which, like the theory of oompoeition, reiiuire to be treated in special
frarks.
To the intending student of composition, I can unhesitutingly recomniotKl, a« by far the

•
bc-»twork Ln <»xi<«t('n< e, tho author's *^ School of Cnmpfttiftnti," in four vols, wliirh will shortly
jiuhliikhed by Measrs. Itobert Cocks and Co. 6, ^cw liurlington Street, lyondon. This work lias
goue through BO Issi than Ave editiaiis'is Aft ooano of ten years, and, in Qemiany, has siêiv
ssdsd att other treatiass on compositiop. A. H. W.
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PART THE FIRST.
TONOLOai,
Oil ^:u.î
DOCTIUNE OK SOU.NDrf AND TIIEIU SIGNS.

! —
SECTION THE FIRST.

«
TBS TONAL 8TSTSH.
A '^TT SiCAL ROUND for tone) ia a sound of a definite pitch.
We liave already seen, in the Introduction, that there is a very extensive aeries
of sounds differing in acutenesi and gravi^ ; the ponible number of gradations may
truly be deemed infinite. In music, however, only a certain portion of all these
possible gradations can be practically employed, and these have been selected in
accordance with certain prindplee*. The eounda employed in music oonttitute
together the
Tonal Stbtem.
It contains more than a hundred diAerent sounds. To give a special name to
• Tho iîilation«< of «(nun<l prncf ically ii?^d in muiic havo not l)f'<'n arbitrarily chosen, or
hit upon by ohancc* but they have be«n selected— iu» stated abuvc— on certain /miii«y9&« derived
;
finm tk» toaenci of Mowfuw, or the productMO, motun, and physical efEacti of aoond. On tfaJs
•abjeety we can here make only rack obaenratioiH m
will BBsiat tho student to flmn m cleuer
and more definite idea of the meaning of the term*, mu>i( al miiiiul, and tonal system.
It is (lcmon^stmt<«d, in tho srirnro of aronstii >», that cvciy nnnnd owes its orisjin to the
trembling motion (called vibration) of an elastic body, lliis vibratiou may be easily observed
in the lowest atringa of a piano, when atrud^ amaidy while ihb dampers are niaedL Ae this
vibration flobudee, the aovnda of the atringa alao become more fteMe, mtfl, after aome time,
both Hound and vibration cease.
The vibrations of sotmdinpf bodip«i may sttrrwl cf»<;h other at inrpiilar intervals nf time
as in —
dnune then we havo merely a noise. Or they follow upon em h utiter in regtdar
mneeHloD, ceeh. Tifaietion occupying a oeitl&a and equal pmtion of time, so ae to enable
aa to eoont Ihem and calculate their vehMity : than the aonnd produced ia a tone or a
raiweal aonnd. A mttaical sound is the aggitftte eftct of a number of Tihrations, which,
oocurring in a certain space of timr, produce upon the car the sensation of one unintorruptod
soimd, and as such are measured, or, as Leibnitz says, unconsciously calculated by tho ear.
To what «:dlent ia anoh a pcrccptkn and ncwiiiement poaaible ? or, how oiany vibrations
mnat at leaat^ or may at the ulmoat, take place in a certain epaoe of time, ao aa to enable ih»
oar to diatfngniah a muatoal aonnd } A definite answer to tins cjui-stion cannot be given, becanae
thi <iifl'errnces in the menns employed in tho prr>duf1ion of sdund, tlic loTirlnoss; of the sound,
and the susceptibility of the organs of hearing, must materially alfcct the result of any cxperi-
nwnt made with a view to aettle thia question. Btmart (mt Is KmiU de la peretptiou de* tons
gfmm) was able to pcodnoe aounda whidi contained ftoin fimitoen to aixteen vibrationa hi a
seoood of time, whilst other acousticians (o. g. OkMnjff H. and W. Wek'r) assert, that from
thirty to thirty-two vibrations at least arc nM-f^^.ry to prorluoo a (li-;tinpiii.shal)lc Hmind. Still
lass determined are the limits of tl»e highest sounds some tako cis^lit tliou?an<l one hundred
;
and ninety-two vibrationa in a second (/V«eA^}, as the utmost uuniber whikt others extend ;
it to Ibi^-eifl^ ftowiwid, and even more (iSaasr^. If we accept die estmne boamdarica^
Til. from fourteen to Ibrty-eigbt tbou'âiiil vibrations, we obtain no less than foiljr •seven
thons.iTid and eighty-seven wnndn but, even if w o onfinc the ronliii of nuisir to tlic narrowest
(
limits hero indicated, wc shall still have eight thousand one hundred and sixty-one difiercnt
sounds at ova disposal
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10 TIIK TONAL 8V1«TEM.
oath ot tlit-i- smiukIs, wftnM of cnttr^^* l>i" inrotivi'Mi»'f!t ait'l tr'iul'l»*c)»Hn>. For tliis
reast)n. all suunda have been arranged in sect-u diiet divisions, which arc called the
seven
I hv&ti degrees have iieen iuunef these letters*.
We shall moot easily iHeeome at'iuaiiited vviiii these names and their order hv
lookhtg at the key-lward of a pianoforte, or its re}>resentation on the Jnd page. Here,
the white keys represent the alx»ve seven uuUinil sounds, whilst the black ones serve
US to find their relative p«itions, by b«'iiig arranged in groujm of two and three.
The white key which lies next Mow a group of two black ones (we alwayt»
proceed from the left to the right hand ; tee page 2 ; produces, on being struck,
the note C
the one next above thb (petveen the two black keys) produces D ; the Mowing, E
the one juit betow the three black keys, F; and so on until we arrive again at a
key situated like the itrst, below two black ones, with whidi the series, C—D—E—
It lies, however, beyond the piovutre and ix)wcr of m.m\c to make U5?e of ail the*?
gradaticais of sound ; bI kaitt, m defined and mathcmstically dctcn&itied qusntitiw.
Excluded sre, fin^y* all those eztremc hif{h and low Mnnida, whidi, altibouj^h poarible,
cannot be produced with certainty, nor (lintinpiishetl with caw'.
Of the rcmaiTiing (wjiind*, only those prndati in* rc-f fnijlMVi'd whii h the oar at onct*
rccognixes poriettly dLttinrt, and which staii<l m the most simple aud natural relation lu
each other.
That Inanch of lihe adenoe of acouattcs, whieh omipicfl itiiplf with the ealeulation of the
TBtioB of different .sounds, is ealle<l eanonioa. The deteniiiniition of tht^M' nttios ae<'ordint( to
the nature and wants of r)iu-.u Mi h, for n*ason« th i1 r;um it ht rr he exphdne^l, is sometimes
forced to employ other than tiie mof^t simple and nntiinil ratios of sounds), i« eodhÎ temjM^rnntettt
or ten^perattart. Finally, the adjiurtntent of musical instrumcntj (r. g. a pianoforte or violin),

aoooidiag to an aooepled temperature, is termed immf. An instrunMnt not thus adjoatedt im
said to be Mf^ ^ hm,
* The French, Italians, and other aonthem natioins do not employ theee lottcra, but mak«
use of the following nyUaltles instend
The fii -t six of these ayllablea ave taken frrwa the commenoemGnt of the lines of an dd hyaui
to St. John the Baptist
" (TV queant laxis
Jtrnonfurv tihrls
Min. geatomm
Amuli tuonim,
Soh v ]>ol]uti
irfibii realum (moatum :)

!
iâncte Johannes
And were mployed hy an
t old mttsic maater (t}i(> monk Gtudo Arrtino), in Ae elercnth century,
to ftdJitnte to his pupils the singing from notes. The naming of the notes after these syllablee
WHS ealled ASe/»/»w<r/iW*, and continue<l for a lon^ time to be a torture to the student, until ut
last flome one hit ttpon the huky idea (I) of erti; li>yinjr a >H'venth fyllnWe fur the si vi nth sound
also. Tina syllable wai( taken (rum the comiuding iim' (8autle Johannes) of eath verec ol the
above hymn.
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THl TONAL SYSTEM. 11
F—G, Ac. commences agnn. The muneft of this series are the name; but its
sounds, of coune, are higher than those of the preceding series.
Seeing thai each of these series of degrees occurs several times, the question
arises : how are we to distinguish them from each other?
For this purpose we tak^ the seven degrees of a whole series ooUectively, and
call them, together, an
'
OCTAVX.
An octave* therefore, b the aggregale of the seven degrees <rom the first of one'
series to its r^'tition in the next, which is reckoned as tiie eighth degree (whence
the name octave). The lowest notes on the pianoforte up to the lowest C are termed
Contra Sounds*;
the next octave is called the
Gbbat Octave;
next comes the
Small Ootavs;
upon vrhich follow in succmiun, the
Ouc-, Th'o-, Thrcf*-, Four-, lined ( Vtaves"!".
The l(nvfs?t ftonnds 4Mn[»lov<Ni in music are found upni the organ. Here the
lowt-jit note in a C, which Hes ;m <>ctave below the contra C. nn<l is sometimes calleiano« is routrn (\ which Ues an octave l)el<iw
//»v<t/ 6', tile lowi'st note u!i the viuluncello. An octave nhovc the latter, lies
xinall C, which is the lowest note oftlie tenor violin. Most pianofortes go now above
thtt4bur-line<i (', up to G or A\.
^ In writiiijr. thi- soun«is of the git ut oc tave are indicated })y capital letters, those
uf the suiali octave hy .•<mall letters, and tlie otliers by small letters once, twic«, or
more times, imd^rlined§.
• In England, called the Double Octare.
t This mode of ili.Htlngiushing thr (lilTinnt octaves T Im Hi vc, poruliar to the Gcrmnns;
hut w cnnvenifiit :inil jirrriw, both in language and writing', tli.it if^* sffTiprnl intn-Khietiim
cannot Imt be by every muaicion who Iiu.h Lxpet ient cd how tiHiiouA and
e(in.<«ideml as desirable,
tnmUesoaie pdst out s cfvtsiii notOf by dcierifatng itii poaition upon the ban or treble
it is to
staff. How modi dunter and easier, for instsnce, Is it to write Sj than to be oUignd to make
use of sneb a description as thia :
** The A upim the lint lodger line above the traUe staff."
A. II. W.
X The lowest '^'on tbo Arjmn, is tho imr %vlii( h t<»ui li«'H vnr with a vrloritv nf thirtv-
two vibratio&fl in a second. Q>ttit u O mimnnxnitXy roqiurcB sixty-four vibrations in a second
frmt one huiidied and tirenty-cight mnaU C, two hundred nid lUty-aix ; «itt4imd
; Ave
bniidred and twelve ; iwo4M one thousand and twenty eight; Jttt-lmed C wouU require
dght thousand one hundred and ninety-two vibrationji. This in the standard tune uecepteil in
aftm«ti< > lait. in practice, it is sometimo* a little highor, f«nm« •times lower, anrl tliin makes no
;
peretptjble did'eroncG in the effect of miuic, provided the pitch of oU other sounds i» raised or
lowered in due proportion.
From this mode of v»Titiug, the above terms, ffreat^ tmallf ouc'Utifd, &c. oetatrs have been
^
deiiTOd.As it ia the node in which Ihe notes of the diflbfcnt octaves wiO bo distinguuhod
thranôut this worit^ the student will do well to mnlce biuaelf perfectly familiar u itii it. (See
page 12.) A. li. W.
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12 THE TONAL SYSTEIf.
According to thii mode of writiiigp the wmnda of the luoeeBrive eeriee are
represented thus
Contm B,— C, D. E, F. G, A, B.-c, d. e, ^ g, a. b-^^ ltZ> «t ?» t~
~£» i £» Z» 2» A' ^ i 1» Z' A'
Such a aeries of founds, rising regularly from one degree to anodier, ii tanned a
Scale.
from the Latin or Italian word mt/a, which signiliee a ladder.
A scale is already complete when it comprises the seven d^^rees ; 4ar all
subsequent sounds are but re}>etition« in a higher or lower octave.

It is also customary to divide the whole of the sounds into two great sections.
All the lower notes, up to one-lined octave (and sometimes part of the latter also},
are comprehended under the general term of
Bass Notes ;
whilst tile soundiî from oiH -liiied C upwards (inclusive sometimes also of a portion
of the SQum octavej are termed
Trkim.k Notf.s.
Instead of tlu'sc two terms, the word-s ^"rs.'< and f />/>/, raily art' fre'iin-ntly em-
ployed ; thus wt' sjivak. tor instance, of a nutt- // in tlif trt.lile, or a noti- B in the
bass. The propi r Uouudary of treble and bass would be the uuc-liutJ C ; but tht re
is no need of our adhering to it so very strictly, as the whole di\n!»ion Ints brt ii
adopted only for convenience sake, in order to indicate the genertil punition of a
note, when a more accurate distinction is not required*.
• Is onr tonal system, as here roprcscntod, the only practicable and pnu-tiMHl one ?— By no
means. know, from hi<rtorT, thnt in aadeni mutto then wero ImO, Jk* degjnm of sound
employed, instead of our set'ai ; namely,
C, D, S, <?, Ai
snd some nstions sdhered to this nnmber after &ey hsd kwmis somisiirtinfl with the nnsm>
ing two degrees. Vpoa tiiut system i» founded the muno of the Chinesi-, the Indiani*, and the
ri.u'lie and C<'1tiV triho«» ; of wliiuh latter, then." an» fîll n'miiins to !>< foum! in the national
songs of Scotland and Ireland. In Europe, the Greeks were the tirst who adopted the sjrsteia
of eeveii degiees, which «t fljst weio srraiiged this order: m
a—A'-JB—O^B—X—F,
T\iis system was adopted by the Christisa chorch, «ad sfterwsrds the ssuilaoes were sdded,
not «U St once^ hot one sfter the other.
SBCTION THE SKCX)ND.
TBS 8TBTIM OV ROTAHOM.
The ligna employed in wridng and printing to represent mueical eounds, «re
called
Nona;
and the mode in which they are used and eombined, is termed
MvsiCAi^ Notation.
The invention of the latter proceeded firam the idea of giving a typical repre-
sentation of the 9cale, by drawing Unn or upon which the notes were placed,
in the shi^ of black ryund dots or open ovals*.
If this idea had been stricHy carried out> there must have been as many
degrees as there were sounds to r^resent ; tiius, an octave, fer instance, would have
required seven or ei^^t lines.
EZAMPU 1. * I
-G
cdeig a be
Upon the lowest of thê lines or steps, the lowest note, e. g. r. must have been
placed; upon the line above it, the next note d ; upon the thinl line, the note e,
Ac. Ac. But then so many lines would have been required, that it would have
beeome next to tmposrible to distinguish at a iânce the porition of the' notes upon
them.
For this reason, the number of lines has been confined to frf-\ ; and in order to
obtain a sufficient number of degrees, the spaces between th^lines, as well as above
and below them, are also employed a& places fer notes. ^These five lines together
are called a
Staff,
• Or raUier eilipsos. F< irni* rl y, notes ol" a square shape were used, a* wc ehall sec further on.
t Why just flrr linf s - Fii-atly, becauBC an odd number of lint^ hm the advnntapr of
pnescsaing a etmtral line, which dividt^ the staff into two equal* part&, and thereby iaeiiitatea
die nediog. Seoondly, becsuw Mrw

lines togather, widi their do not slibtd oreti
8pao<?fl,
faffldent plsee for a and thenifbre arc inadequate for the winti of onr toiul
octave,
KYst^m ; vhiliit, on tiie other hand, a greater aiimber than live—for inataiice, wMft-^woaU be
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14 THE }!IYKTBM OV NflTATlON.
utkI contiiiii. with the spaces iH twtcn. uhmv and below tbem, aeponUc plaoes lor
eleven diti'ereiit notes ; m may \k seuii iiere.
Ex. 2.
i. 2. a. 4. I. «. r. 8. 0. w. n.
Here aU« the Uutc reprt'scntiug the lowest soujul Ikl^ the k»vvc5t {.ilace, it l>ring
Hituuted Mo(C the jir»i line ; the next note stands upuu tlie first line, the third
between the first and second lines, or, us it is termt^, in Ute Jirst space ; and thus it
contioiues up whkh ilaiids above the last or fifth Itri^.

to die higfaeit note,
But, as we have &r more sounds than eleven, how are we to note the others
ibr instance, those which are higher than the eleventh of the above sounds?
ITie twelfth sound would reqiure a tixtA line ; but as we do not wish to go
beyond the number five lines to a staff, we write a short auxiliary line instead,
and thereby obtain two new places, without altering the general q>pearance of our
five«lined staff. Such short lines, drawn Ibr the purpose of creating additional places
whenever they may be required, are termed
Ledobb Lines.
We now may place the twelfth note ujion tke killer line, and a thirteenth oAoof it.
Ex. 3.
— ' » • • m .
11. 12. 13.
A second ledger Ime would furnish places fiir a finirteenth and fifteenth note,
&c. &c.
£z. 4.
11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
The some expedient is a<lr»y>twi, when lower sounds are to Ije noted. If, for
exnniple, we place one-lined r u|m.ii tho first lino, small b would have to be written
bt'luw the sttijf. Were still Icvvi r nntt-s iii>\v required, we ^hniiM have to draw a
IcdLjir line tiir isuiall a —
tiiis would he callt.l the first ledger line ki'w tin- stuff;
if \\ nul,l ha\ e to be placed below tins line, and lor / and e a second ledger line would
•
be reijuiied, ».V;c. ^:c.
Ex. 6.
• 9 ^ ^ ^ ^ •
jB b a g T" a ^
We should now be able to read and write all the notes employed in music, if we
only knew trAicA vmndit really re/fretented a note 9tandin</ tipon a certain line
or Bpaee, If, fi>r instance, it had be^ determined that the first line of the ^tajf in
Digitized by Googl
THE SYSTEM OF NOTATION. lo
No. 6 should be the place for one^lined e, then We should know at once that the
note on the fint space must be </, on the second line e, and that below the first line
small b; for the notes follow upon eadi oth^ in the same order as the sounds
themselves. But it b obvious, that if another note than one-lined e were to be
placed on tiie first line, all the other notes wouM diange their places ako. If, for
tnstanoe, e instead of £ were to occupy the first line, then the notes d and £ would
stand hvhw aiid above it, and // would have its place on the second line. It is
therefore plain, that tin- situation of one note must definitely tixed, if we are to
be enabled t<> il( lerniine the respective plat'es of the rest.
For this purpose, certain signs, called
Clefs,
have been intr<jduced, which point out a certain line as the fixed place of a certain
note. Of such clefs there are at present three in use, namely
The O or Treble Cie/ (sometimes called violin def ).
Tlie C Clef
The/'or.&iM 6V-
Thb G oe Tbxbm Clep

has thia form.
uiid indicates that upon the line encircled by its lower curve the note ^ is placed.
It is now always used on the second line. Fonnerly (especially in French music)
this def was also placed upon the first line, which thereby became the seat of the.
above one-lined ^. Employed in this position, the def was called the French
moUn ri^.
We shall now note a series of sounds in the treble def.
Ex. 6.
If we required to note in this def the small/, we should have to place it upon
a third ledger line bekm the staff; the tfaxee-lined a would have its situation over
die fourth ledger line aboi>e the staff, and so on.
2. TuE C-Clep
shown, tliat the line which it occupies is the fixed place of mie-Uned e. It occurs
in these forms:
or
and is employed in three different ways, as canto, alto, and tenor def
Digitized by Google
16 THK OF NOTATION.
The Canto Ct^*

placet one-liiied c upon the fint line, Here-
Ex. 7.
is a table of its notation, which may be extended by meant of ledger linet bdoar or
above the ttafT, aooording to the preceding directiont.
b. The A//0 Cl,-f
places the oni -liiied c upon the third line, and its notes represent the following suc-
cession of sounds.
Ex. 8.
3^^ 1
3S
^ fgab £.^*.£.£*^ cde
c. The Tenor Ckf
plaeet the me-lmed c upon the fourth line, and hat this teriet of notet
Ex. 9,
i
£ edefg&b
Thete tie the tlvee modea in whidi the C def it now employed. In andent com*
potitiona, it it often found upon the aecond line alto. —We now come to the third
clef; ra,
3. Thx F OB Ba88 Cutv.
It hat thit jfbrm
and indicates that the line which it encircles is the seat of small f. In modem
music, it always occupies the fourth line, and the remaining linee and spacta are
named aooordmgly; that
£x. 10.
Contn ^ m."^
1^ CDE FGAB
Oteet
All t defgab £.1^

When its range is to be extended, additional ledger lines arc drawn above and
below. Thus, rmlra G being situated below tlie third ledger line, we rt^juirc an
additional ledger line tor the notation r,utf,>t V; above the staff, a third le<Jger
line must be drawni fur unc-lined/y, a ir.urth tor /^ A'c. kc. In old music, we occa-
sionally meet with a l>ass def upon tht- tliird line, and also upon the hith.
* Alio called the «uprabu clef.
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TOS SrSTKM OF NOTATION. 17
But what is the use of so many deft? Would not one be Buihcient?-^We may
• toon convince ourselves to the contrary.
If we were to employ but one clef, we should require a vast number of ledger
lines, both above and below the staff. In tlie Imss clef, for instance, we already
fdiuired two ledger lines for one-lined^; two-lined r wmiH require live IHger-
lines, an*! three-liiied r no less than nine! In itnlir to \v>U- ^reat (.'and contra O
in tlie treble cief, we should, in tin- sunie manner, l>e ohli<,ad V> draw si)f and nine
ledjjer lines. But how lalxjrums would it be to write, and how inconvenient and
ditlicuit to read, such a notatitm
Ex. 11.
The trtl>h' clef is oijviou.^ly in<x-it suited iur tiie highest i'«.tav«'.s (inr instance,
tlnrse iiinijiri.-icd in the conipitss violins and flutes), whilst the liii.<s elet" ut^l-rs the
nii^t convenient ininie of noting aound.s helnnginjr to the lower octaves (e. those of
the contra-h;issu, or the lowest kind of lunnan voit e, tijc bass) ; wliilst the tunner
would be as unsuitable fur the lower regions of sounds, as is the laitcr lor the higher
ones.
*
Prom this it may already be uiferred, why even two clefs for — instance, the
treble and bass — may not be sufficient for eUl series of rounds and all voices. For
a voice (as, fer imtanoe, the tenor or alto) whieh extoids from about small c to
two-lined e, the ban def would be too liyw. and the treble def too high ; the ibrmer
would require faax ledger lines above the staff, the latter as many bdow. In this
case, Jmw mudi more oonvenient is the alto,
Ex. 12.
— ^
ereven die toior def! We require, therefore, de& which are more suitable for
middle ranges of soilnds than uther the treble or bass drf; and the three C
deft serve this purpoae : fat the soprano clef is a little lower tiuui the treble (two
deêes) ; apun lower (feur degrees) and two d^rees below the
the alto drf is ;
aho we find Uie tenor M,

ThoB every reôn of sound has its suitable clef*.
One eiqwdient remains sUfi to be mentioned, which is resorted to when a veiy
extended range of sound is to be noted. This is a cAonye of clefs, when s series
of notes aseends so high, or descends so low, that ndther of the de& would be quite
sufficient or convenient A range of sounds, for instance, fimn great Q to two-lined
* Too numy gradatiotu m the um of deb mi^^t, on the other hand, bcoome peipiexiiig aod
cmnbenane. For this reaBon, modem mosic has justly discerded, not only the Q dof upoii the
first line (as aln>ady mentioned), but also the C'l lef up<»n the second lino (as hkv.zo soprano
^lf•f^. and the F elof npnn the third anil tWtti lines («• bwritooc and deep Iww ck-f), whieh
are tmind in many old mu»i<- hooks.
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18 TBI «YSTBM OF NOTATION.
// could not well lx.> noted either in ii single treble or baiB del', nor in one of the
middle cle&, aa will appear Irum this trial
Ex. 13.
i
1
How, in such ciises, a thajige of clefs (at the proper placcsj uiay servw to fecilitate
botli tilt' UTitiixg and reading, appears from tliia example
Ex. 14.
ei:
-9 9 1
in wlikh bU the aminds of the three octaves are conveniently noted without the aid
of a lingle ledger line.
If, in a piece of miuic, several voices are eombined, we write them tqpon tepaiate
staves, prefixing to each that def which best suits the voice to which it is alktted ;
the treUe clef to the highest voioe, the bass clef to the lowest, ia, In thia
case, each clef regulates the whole staff at the commencement of which it is placed,
until a new def occurs. If this latter is to continue on the next staff also, it ia
customary to write first the original def, in order to indicate the voice, and then to
• One other case, although but rarely occumng, must here he mentioned.
Id ittsny>Towed oompodtioiMi iben U MUnetiinet sot mffident spMc to allot m tepante staff to
each Mpante or each deviating Ames of sounds. In this ca«i-, two Kurh vou-es as are moct eqiial
in ranfH' of 8ot:n<l mre compressed upon one pfaff, and to tliiA is pn fixe<l tfnit elef which n|>j»cfir«
most suit;. Ml lîit sonjetimos* one of puch two voices risen hi^h, or des* ends so low, thut the
eonmion eiel is no longer sufficient for holh. What i» to he dune in such a ease ? A special
def one of tlie parti^, whilst the other oontiuiMa to move in the def ftnt
ia introduced lor
adopted. An jnrtwicff of such a mode of notalioD we find in the score of B<^'thoven'A Grand
Mas«, p. 48. Hen tin L'r.'ftt number of voice* and inrtrumenta made it impos»ihk> t« allot
,
sopanto staves to the two baawoai, and it became nceonaiy to adopt this mode of notatum.
16.
-IJI,
'
-T5 i:?! J-' '^^^l
The upper Bonos of sounds is noted thnraghoot in the tenor clef; whilst, for the eoavcnicnee
of the lower |).i:t, a V>a»« ek^f is introduced in the serond har.
It sIii.uM }>e obsin-ed, that the l>o«<; drf, in onh>r tu < at< h the eye, is plaeed ujHjn the wrong
line ; this eireumstanee alone shows the iiu»de of ^-riling hen> adopted to he nothing but an
(xpedictity a laat nnource^ whieh, if po&jibU!, should have been altogether avoided, and might have
b«en avoided, it, instead of the tenor cH the ba«a clef had been ohoaen for both tnttruments«
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THE ST8TBH OF NOTATION. 19
add the new clef which hoi been introduced. For instance, if a treble def has
been introduced in a base etalf, and is to continue in the next staff abo, we write
thus:
5^
* It is most desirable that every student or amateur of muiiic should cou\anc« himself
Utoroug^'.ljot fhe escellenoe of our system of notation (wbidb will sppenr yet more deasly,
when, in the first Mctton of tho Second Part, we learn that it also contain.-^, in the different
fomu of tlie note?, the most simple, prr-riîi ami iiit< Ui^-iLL means of roprp?»rntiii^^ the idative
,
durations of sound) ; as there havt' 1)ecu, at diti'orent timcH, and. Htill continue t" It I. luught
fikTA'ard, suggestions und pluiiM lor new modes of notation^ aometimeii of the must extraor-
diitaiydesaiption. BncSt sttempts to mipplsiit n qrstmi of writing, whicli, in its gradual
derdoprocnt during a space of more than a thousand yeora, has beeome a part and parcel of
music itself^ and an inalienable heirloom of all miiyic-f ulti\ nting nations —ân imdertrikinp
whirh f»an only he ventured upon by men utterly iirimrant of tho c'on««tfnfy, uoiX"»sity, und
power of all historical dcvclupment» : such attcmpLtt cannot, iudccd. interrupt for any length
of tina tho growth and progress of an art like muate i but thiy way mislead individusls,
or etoii whole dssses of men; may cause tiiem to spend labour and time on useless things,
and even prevent tliem from ever attaining a high degree of proflrieney in practical or theore-
tical mu«ir. Of this description is the /f^^rfW nt/sfrm, whifh still finds some -stippnrtcrs, imd
which, having been proposed by well-meaning men of a deservedly high standing in their
professMO, hut little initiated in the real notnn of the musical art, has firand its way into a
great many sdiools. was based npim the idea of ropwissnting by three ntwa of
It figiues the
live degrees of time octaves of sounds; ftr fastanowi this seilea of flgores
is intended to represent these notes

Ex. 16.
It is obvious that this mode

t r>f notation is entirely devoid of the comprchensivcnesw of our
lim^r system, whilst no means to indicate the duration of the sound, except it bo by
it offers
ufing figures of different uses, sa expedient which is quite impnicticeble. The advocatoe of
due i^rslem tfkemselTes do not pretend that it can supplsat oar system of linear notntHin; it
is only sntended to saw ( hildn-n, /or a time, the task of learning the notes, until rendered
neccaeary by their progrfHs; they thn« enipldyinp tn-o .ayctrmo instead of one.
There is, however, scarcely any path or bye-way that has not been tried in the invention
or altenlions of mnsteal notation. The Greeks and their suoeessois made use of the letters of
their eîhabet (twisted and distorted in dilferont ways) to represent the dilSBrent soun^
Oat of this mode of writing arose a system of peculiar signs, called neuntOf which continued
in use until tlie twelfth century. Tlio netinm were placed lower or higher, according to the
pitch of the sounds, and, in order to mark their relative positions more clearly, a line was
drawn at the bottom ; to this a second line was afterwards added and, to distinguish them, the ;
one waa drawn with red ink, and the other wifli yellow. Guido, of Aiosso, increased the
nnniU'r of fines to four, and plaoed tiie names of the notes at the beginning of each. Real
notes (square or round appear to hnvc Ix . n intrndti'cfl ns early ;is the seventh r( ntur\'
but they did not come into gt iu i a! im- before the end of the twellth century. Wc find them
written upon staves of 7, S, lu, uuy, even 12 Hoes.
C 2
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20 THE srSTEM OP NOTATION.
MBTHOD OF LEARNING TO READ rEOM MOTEB.
Amateurs who do not iiit< ii.l It t iitrr deejtly into the thcnry aiid |iractict' of
TTuisic. l»ut MUTrly wmit to Icani to .sing, or to play tij>on some iiistrunuTit. will
generiilly tiinl the kiiowlt il'jr ut one or twu clefs suthcient lor this pur[Mj»e. Xever-
tlieless it imist !•<• <1( >iratilt' to every one to Ifam the notes after an easy ajid sure
niethi»l, and such luî will always tarilitato his Icartving to r«*ad music written in
dilicreat rl«'f>». To ttln t tliis, iit ithtr the k-aruiiig of tho iintcs by heart, nor Uic uae
of Logier'b guiimt-linard, is suttii i» nt ; hut it recjihns a cLar understanding of the
nature of our system of notatinii. and its a«rrrcnii lit witli our tonal 8\'»tem. It niust
be clearly understood, that the linear urriingenicnt is a I'aitld'ul rcjircsciilation of the

Bcule, and that the notes rise from Une to Unc, and space to space, as the sounds ascend
fnm one degree of Uie octave to another. Now, the tint ezerdiie in learning tli«
iic«eB»BlM)ttUbeto iU a certain def—Ibr iiMlum then write the ncCet

upon the itaff in regular tuoceanfm, both aioending and deioendmg, placing the name
of eadi note abore or below ; e. y.
Ex. 17.
We next observe, that a rising or felling from line to line, or 8|>ace to space,
consecutively, giv(^ eveiy third note. Hiifi should also be written ascending and
descending; e.y.
Ex. 18.
m— •
b &.C.
in ilu saiiu' niuuner, every alternate line or space represents a rise or fidl to the
iiith sound ; e.
Ex. la.
t e b f 0 &c. _
—
After this* the different modes of counting the degreea are combined in one exeraie
Ex. 20.
-— r •—•
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THE SV8TKM OF .NOTATION. 21
Anfdy finaOy* any piece of music at hand may be taken up, the no(e» read oflT one by
one, and whîever a note b not immediately name is to be ascertained
reoojrnized, its
by counting the degrees from the nearest note which may be knowm if no other,
;
the note of tiie def Hiis method may at first require more time than learning the
notes by heart ; hut it impresses them more firmly upon the mind, and has this
great additional advant^, when adopted in acquiring a knowledge of the notes in
one or two deft, that the student win be at home in all other defs after very little
practice, whilst his eye has at the same time become accustomed to measure the
diatanoea at a gôe —a proficiency which is so necessaiy in reading music.
It need not be mentioned that the student must be thwoughly acquainted with
the order of the sounds in the scale, both aaoending and descending, before he enters
upon the study of their notation in the linear system.
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SECTION THE TUim
ABBBEVIATIONS AND SHiNS KMl'LOVKli TO SIMPLIFY AND FACILITATK TllK

WRITING AND RKADING UF ML8IC.
Ws have no higher def than the G clef, and none lower than the F def. Yet
in both we require the aBsistanee of a great number of ledger linei, when, in the one,
very high, or, in the other, very low aounda are to be noted. Sounds bdon|png to the
three and four-lined octave would have to be written in the treble def thus
Ex. 2t.
S. s L 1 ^ L L I.
and oontra-notet in the baas def tbu*

Kx. 22.
T — — IT z:
B G F D G C
and in both easeo they would be difficult to read.
In the notation of audi aounda therefore, a focilitating mode of writing is adopted

viz. the high aounda are written an octane lowers and over the notea thia figure
8 or 8«a (ottara)
ia written, to indicate that they muat be played or sung an octave higô*. When a
whde amea <^ audi notea ia written in Ihia way, the octave-n^ ia prolonged, thua
and when the notea are ag^ to be read according to their real poaitkm, it ia
indicated by
/, or loco
(at the proper place). Thia seriea of notea, for inatanoe,
Ex. 23.
would bo more conveniently written thua
- 1
J' .1^
ABBEEVIATIONS AND SltJNS. 23
^ Ex. 24.
^
* J , - P. .- — •
When, un the contrary, very I av sounds rciiuire U» Ix; iioted, wc write them an
octave higher, and place the octave sign ( 8, 8ca, aca-- ) lêknr them ; e. y.
Ex. 26.
EF " ^~îrr- —— ^
— _H;
————-— m— •
— -
_ __ • "
8 8vM loco
Here the second note is to be read as 'Contro-C ; th»* eighth, ninth, tenth, and
eleventli. as contra-G, E, and C; but tlic twcHlh again iis great C.
This iikkIc of writing is of course appliailjle to cvory fief. It is, however,
advisiililt' nut t<» change ton frp'fin^rttft/ from uiu' ni<Klo of writing to tlie other ; other-
wise tlie notation, instead of l»eing simphtied and made eiuîer, may become indee<l
more compHcated and dithcult. For instance, it would not be considered a great
improvement, if this passage
Ex. 26.
were written thus

P Ex. 27.
1
but it
m
would be preferable ^ther to bring all the notes
Ex. 28.
8 8
1
under an octave sign,
8t»<
1
or, if for some reason or other this should not be practicable, adopt ledger lines in
preference to tlie lre<iuent repetition of a single ottava-sign,
A similar mode of writing is adopted when a series of soimds is to be accompanied
by a second series in a higher or lower octave ; ibr instance
Ex. 20.
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: , :
24 ABBREVIATIONS AND SKINS.
In mich cases we may leave out the upper series in the treble, or the lower in the
bass, and write above or below the otfier,
air 80«>f aW cttata^
(in or riM the ortave). No. 20 would therelbre be noted thus
Ex. ao.
air Sv.i-
all' 8va
In printcni music, we frequently find merely the word oftara (Bm), instea^l ot
a/r ottara : hut this is an inaceurate or rather faulty mtxle of nutation : for it leaves
us to guess the intention rf thr tomjxiser from other eircumstanref .

It, I t mstanre,
two series of notes had coninienced to move in octaves, and some time aiter an Uta
were to occur, as here,
Ex.
8va-
1
it wfiiiM |»c 111 ire rc:uMiiiaM«» to intl-r that tlu- M-tavc <eriea is lo continue, than that
tWe lower mh < al"iif an- tu U- j»lay»Hl an octave higher,
^ Of rarer
rai ocnirrenre are these signs
alia '^za (terza),
and
ft/la ii(a (s'usta)^
to indicate that a series of notes
Ex. .^2.
alia 3za- — — -^-.^ ^ 6tn--~—
11
is to be aooompanied by another, three or nx d^rees above or below it ; e. g.
Ex 33.
0 *
In compositions for many voices or instruments, as chwuses, or orchestral pieces,
we also sometimes refer from one part to another ; #. ^. in tlie tenor» writing, in
place of the notes, merely the words
(with the bass) ; or, in the part of the second violin,

ctd \ma ( Viollnn)
to indicate that the tenor has the same notes as the bass, and the second violin the
same as; the first.
We have, tiiially, to notice certain signs and abbreviations by which, in some

places, the writing of whole series of notes is altogether avoided.
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ABUUKViATlON.S AND SlUNS. 25
When a panage is to be repeated twice^ time, or finir times, we only write it
once, and place the words

Ami,—ter,—^•iwf«r,
over it, and, to guard agaiiist luistakes, sometiines draw a curved or dotted line over
the whole passage.
Ex. 34.
> bin
If a large portion (fyr instance, a whole strain) of a piece is to be repeated, we

the
Repeat, ob RBPBATnia Sign:
i
which consisU ut'two p^ rjHindicuIv strokes through the staff, with dots or short lines
placed before them aiid betwet^n the lines of the staff.
In rt'gurd to the use of tiiis sign, the lolluwuig cusw iiri' to be distinciiishcHl :
When a series of notes is to be repeated from the commencement of the pieee,

the above sign is written at tliat place whence we have to return to the begiiuiing.
If the repetition is not from the beginning of the piece, a reverted repeat
is placed ut iliat point trom which the rejxtition commences, the passage to be
repeated being thus enclosed by tlie two signs, e.^.
Ex. 96.
• ' m m ^ 0 • :i
Ac
lis strain is firrt to be played as fiur as to the note ^ inunediatdy before the
repeat, we then reoommenoe with the third note (e), and, after having arrived a
aeoond time at the above y, proceed to the next note a without fiirther interruption''^.
If the following strain or part is also to be repeated, the dots or short lines are
placed OB both sides of the repeatbig ngn, thus
or
in order to.pve the raiger or player a lunt before hand that he is to return to this
sign.
If a passage of considerable length Is to be repeated, but vrith an. atteralion at
• Hie iMdflV ihmilil look upon the notes between ihe two repeats^ mNo. 35, as
a vbole part or period; fcr the repetitioo. of nidi abavt ps—gw as tho above wodd be n
snttaUr indkated by a mere * hU:
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26 ABBREVIATIONS ANI> 8m.\8.
iti doee, that portion which is to be altered it marked by a eumd fine (or it entirely
tndoeed between dotted Unet), and the tign
Ima (prhtM volla
it written OY^ it» to indicate that tfait portion of the repelled patiage it to be plêd
or tting only the firtt time. "Die altered termination it then placed after the
xepeat, and it alto marked with a curved or dotted line, and the tign
2da (ieeonda)
written over it, to indictfte that, in the repetition, the plvjrer or ttngor is to omit die
notet marked Ima, and at once proceed to those over which the atgn 2dtt m plaoe<L
Unit, if No. 96 had been written ui thit manner,
Ex. 36,
• 9 '
9
Ate.
the enclosed passage would have be^ repeated as before, but atdy till the 12th
note (/ ; the next femr notet (
V jr e would then have been omitted, and the
notes (f—^,/, 0> ^ repeat and marked Sdb, taken tattead.
A timilar meaning it expressed by tiie vroidt

Da Ciq» ( D. C. or D. c. or d. c.)
" fiom the be^^nmng**
— (vis. to be repeated).
If tuch a repetition it only to extend te a certain pomt at which the piece or
movement finally dotet, that point it indicated by

jP.orJPiiieCtheend*),
over which lometimet thit sign
(which hereafler we shall have to consider in anotliL-r capacity) is placed, to mark the
point of termination more conqiicuously. Instead of a timpie D, C. we than write

D. C. al fine ;
i, e. " from the commencement to the ( indicated ) end."

Lastly : if a piece or movement is not to he repeated firom the comniencement»
but £roin a certain point, indicated by this sign
n
instead of da cc^" the worda
da! ifffnu (or tL
t. tf. "from tile sign," are written under or over the point after vôeh tiie repetiticn
it to commence. Hint, ftr inttance, if tfait fingment
£x. 97.
« . o
22 Fme. D.S.slfin«.
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BBREViATIONS AND SIGNS. 27
were a whole pieoe or movement, it would have first to be played through up to the
repeat, and then again from the sign (met tfie third note «) to the note e which is
nmrkod by the wurJ fim and the sign ^

as the close of the in(»\eiiieiit.
There are several utlier abbreWations and facilitations, with which we .«hall become
aciiuaiiiie<l as we proceed. Not properly belonging to this clas8» is a sign wiuch we
shall mention in conclusion : it is this
— —
«•
called the pointer or direct, and used at the end of a staff to indicate the line or space
of the note which follows in the next octave. Thus, here for instance,
£x. 38.
the two pointer! indicale diafc die next notes wiU be one-fined f and ik
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V SECTION THE FOURTH.
BHABP AND PLAT BOUNDS*.
Ip our lyBtem of notation, lo &r as it has heea eonsidered* be oomptred with

the key-boeid of a piaiio, or ita r^reaentatiuii on p. 2, it will i^tpear that we hare
not learned, or do not know, how to expresa all the sounds in writing, and that con-
sequently we are not yet in po^^session of the complete sjrstem ; the keys marirad 2>
Ay 7, 9, and 11 ( p- 2), being still unaccounted for.
We have submitted to this temporary incompleteneas, in order, Hrst, to obtain a

secure foundation ; we will now proceed with the previously omitted sounds by
means of the figure of the key-board (p. 2) as the clearest illustration.
A. Shabp Sounds.
If we place before any note this sign
which is called a Bharp» we thereby indicate that, instead of the sound originally
represented by the note, that which belongs to the next kicker ihy b to be sung or
played, wh^her this next higher key be a black or a wlute one. I( Q)r instance,
we place a sharp bôre tiie note r,

Ex .10.
then we have not to take the e (maiked No. 1), but the next k«y aibove it (marked
2), which here happens to be a black one. If a oharp stands before we take the
black key, Na 4 ; if a sharp stands before ^ we take key No. 8, which is a white
one.
Thus a sharp raises a note abore its origmal pitdi ; and, in order to dist>iq|uisK
the note thus raised from the wiginal one, we add tte word
*tharp*
to its usual name.
Thus:
r beoomes c tkarp,
e „ e dmpy
f f tkarp,
Ac. &c.
• The doDtrins oq whidx we are now entering osn only be oompleted in Ihe ninth wction
«f the Beeond Part.
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BHABP AND FLAT SOtTNDS. 21>
Here
Ex. 40.
we lee Uie notei of an octavie* each with its sharp. There appear to be fourteen
different sounds ; but in reali^ there are only twelve, for e duurp k the saê as
/, and b ârp the same as e. Thus the sounds of all the keys are now named and
noted*
We may, however, also lower the |Ntch of a note ; then we obtain
B. Flat Sounds.
T\\e depressioii of a sound is indicated by the letter usually written or printed
in this kxm
b,
and termed a Jiat. If tlik flat is pUuxKl l>elore a nute, we take iI k' key npxt f/rhir
tliv one originally indicated l»y tht- note, whether it he a white or a hlai k une. Thus,
for instatfice, if a flat stands helore r, we take the k» y No. 12 (p. 2) instead of Mo. 13 ;
if a flat otxurs before b, \vi uikr tin* key No. 1 1 . next l»elow it.
The sounds and notes thus depressed, are dititinûished by tlie word jlat added to
their naiae» ; e. g.
t becomes c fat,
d „ djiat,
e „ € fat,
f u /f<^t^'
Ac. fte.
Ex. 41.
c chb bba abggbffbe ebddbo

We see the notes of an octsre, each with its flat There ^rpear, again, to be
liHiiteen difierent sounds, whereas we have only twelve difietent keys. The attentive
student will, however, soon observe, that here âin two keys have each two diflerenft
oamest and that fat is the same as b, and fiat the same a.s c.
<*
f
Sudi sounds, which only differ in name, but are indeed the same (as regards
{Mtch), are tmned
BNHABifoifio Sounds.
Thus: b and c fiat, « and/ jCaf, b sharp and e, e sharp and d fait a fat and
• The Germana di»tini;ui>*]i the ^liari) ijounda Ijv ttit- a-Mition of the syllable it; m,
c. g.
du. CM, &c Sir. The French add the wtmi dieMf and caU0«Aafy^ utjiimi dtkmp,
rr (tit'xr , ( f/iUijf, mt du »c, &C. &C. — A. W.
t The Gcnnans add m to the tuuues of their flat Mttnds, the French t» mot ; e. g.
Gem. Ott^ dm^ f(»t 99»f kn, 9t»,

Fr. Vt 6e-mot; rt to- wut i mi mot ; fit h mot, &c. ice.
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90 8HABP AMD FLAT SOIfltDS.
sharp, are enharmonic sounds or notes. It may at first appear strange that ea^h
8c>und shnnM tliiis have two different names; and tlie student may he ilu•luK^lt«) a^k,
why ri 't ' iill tlie black keys always c sharp, d sharp, kc. kc. or d fttt, e jint , kc.
&c. V VV hy is to he ca!k»d pometimes f flat, and / sometimes <- n/mrp. For Xlii&
apparent supertluity i»f nanie^, there are very good reasons ; they are indispensable,
for the sike <it' eleaniesia iuid jTi i isioii ill iiiusiiul nutatiitn; but tlieir neewwity will
more fiilly appear in the study ol" the theory ui>d practice of niusiial luniposition.
A siaU' in which, U si-h s the seven original notes, all the sharpe or flats, excepting
those timt are cnharmoitic, arc inserted, is called a
CuBUSfAnO SOALB.
Here
Ex. 42.
A.
we Bee at A a chrnmatie scale with sluirps. and at H one with flats.
In fontradistini tiou {>> the rhromatic s<.'ale, ue ta!l our iormer serirs of Kûmds,
(p. 2 ), wluch aliKi cuiitaiiis ail tlie degree:^ ut tiie octave, but luw uidy mte suuiid
for each, a
Diatonic Scale.
C. RiBTOBAXION.
If» after havrng employed a sharp or Hat to change the WNUid of a note, we wish
to reatore flia original aotmd* we oae the foUowing sign
a
wfaiefa is called-a natarai, and cancels the eflRwi of a pievioua sharp or flat Diua
the naturals introdueed hate,
Ex 43.
4
revoke the sharp before c and the flat before e. C sharp becomes again c natural,
and fi jfat whose pitch hod been lowered, is rused to its original Ae^M, and
becomes e natural.
From this we observe that the natural a double eft'ect: after a previous
sharp, it depresses the sotmd of a note ; after a flat, it raitet it. Hiis observation will
prove useful at some future time.
D. DouBLE-sn.uu's and Double- flats.
In some cases, as we sliall learn hoeafter, it is necessaiy to raise or depress a

sound hy twice the value of a sharp or flat ; so that, instead of its proper key, the
second above or below it is to be taken. Such an alteration of the sound of a note
is indicated by a double sharp, or a double flat
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: :
SHARP AND FLAT 6O0KI»Sw di
The dmtbk tharp has thi« ahape*

X
The name of the note reeeiveB the addition of the compound word double shaip, e, g.
e becomes e douHe ikarp (in pitch the same as) d,
d ddouik skarp „ e.
e „ € douUe sharp „ / Aaxp,

&c. &c. Ac.
The double fiat
bb
depresses a note by twice the value of a Hat. Thus, if such a sign were to occur
before the note we should take, not d flat, the iK xt
</, key below, but the key below
this, whcê usual name is c, but which would then be called d d/mble flat.
Here we see how such double-sharp or double-flat sounds are noted
Ex. 44.
gX d
±:
db
^1
dbb
g g|
But how are we to rev<dce a double sign? By a double natural: e. g*
Ex. 46.
g g db <ibb d
liut what are we to do, if a douKlf sharp or ddulile ll;it is not to be entirely
revok«^. but only partially, so as to Kavi' a sivupli- flat or sharp note, instead of
rt'tiirniiifi tn the natural one? In this (.iuso, a single natural is einplnyed and ought
t« 1h- ci'Dsiih red sufficient. However, that no niiatê may possibly )»o made, by
BupiKMsiiig that the double sharp or flat has been altogether ricalle'l, the single sharp
ur fiat wliich is iiiUûded to remain is placed ailer Uie natural ; thuu
Ex. 46.
gX d db dbb db
The student will observe, that, by the use uf Uie double sharps and double Hats,
* It ttAy appear stnuige thttt «ign of the dottUe iluap should IwTe the shttpe uf a
(ringle (X), and that of tho am^ aharp the shape of a doable arosa ^ This ia ovuig to (he
r Mn;rk> sharp Imviog been intradueod firat and m its pnaeufc alnpe. The oomUiMtum
two Huch douUe <
appcaxed U» complicated for the sign of the lau-r introduced double sharp sounds, and muai-
cnaa adopted the ain^ ema instead. It has, moieoTer, happemed fortunaitdy, that the simple
•haip, being of much noie fivqncnt oocnnenoet baa Ihe Ibnn moat striking to the eye.
32 SHARP AND FLAT SOUNDli.
tlie au)nL>er uf different names fbr the some sounds is gtill m(>rv incroustii than it
was befl)re. We have now no less than three different names tor each sound ;
tiiuB,
for instance,
e may become b sharpy or d dnubk jUu,

c sharp d fiai „ b double sharp,
d n c double sharp, or e douhle Jiat,
Ac. &C.
For wliat reason these sereral namefl are neoenaiy, cannot, as befim ttid, be
here /ully explained, but in a later part of thia woik. Let us here only attend to
the names thems^Tea, and impress upon our reooUection that all audi sounds aa
have different names, but the lame pitch (or, on the piuno, the same Icey), are called
enkammtk §ound9. Thus, /, e sharp and y doudle flat; also / 9hairp, edmbie
Mkarpt and y flat, &c. &c. are enharmonic sounds*.
We must also confess that the varied operations of die natural cannot be
oomprehended at present; but we must first loiomr the eflect of a previous sign of
transpositionf. The infbnnation here giv^, is, however, sufficient to ftnn a gene-
rally ooneet idea of the nature and use of these ngns. We now return once more
to the
Skysn Dkgbses of thk Octave.

WHii n first pointed them out (p. 10), we UtttOk said that every sound vn»
either direi^y named after, or derived its name from, one of them. We now per*
ceive that every degree may appear under no less than Jire different aspects ; viz.
Ist unaltered ; 2nd. with a single shar{) ; 3rd. with a double sharp ; 4tb. with a
single flat ; and 6th. with a double flat. Ail these modifications of the aame dq^ree
of sound we reckop r;-^ iH-longinf; t" it ; therefore the sounds,
c, ^x, f^b, belong all to the degree of c,

d, dn, </x, '/b, dbb d,
and so on. On tho other hand, it requires little consideration to perceive that one
and the same soinul may. under ditVerent names, ItImh^ to different Uei;r«'es. Tlius
c finaltcri'd belongs to the HriJt degree, but. a** /» ^harp, it belongs t<> the sev^th (in
the octave below), and as d donbl^'-f!<if '/bb t>> tlie fjer und degree.
i *
At lencfth we now know the whuic uau nts ni" our tonal system. < It consists
of about eight octaves, each ut" which (ontuins, l.t sides* the ^rviii Mripiuil drj^retâ
(c, d, e, y, ,</, a, b, r), also five uther isuuuds, j>r"Miuccd hy lui iiht-ratiMii ef the pitch,
(viz. r*i. dt, f'U- !l% or e/b, t'b, ^b, ab, ^b), comprtjfht^, in ail, tttyice esseu-'
t tally dijferenf usuumU.
• Itnay be vc]ltoo1»crv«hei«, thstyinwrUjng or pniit^ b, and |1, an also
einôyed for the aake of brvri^, instead of the woids dutp, flat, and natiuu. TkqSy.
iia«iall7
inatesd of writing c nharp, dflat, « fHrfMm^ / d«tM$ Ûu p^ &c. Ac. we unmllf prrfor to write
f
4 0% /X, ke, Jl H. W.
* Tir t( rm a]>]i!;<^ to sll tiw signs employed Iv tsinag or lowering the ]iitch: via.,.
|, X, K bp, «ui iij.
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4
SECTION THE PIl-TH.
DXFlNmOK or TONAL RELATIONS.
As mxmo consists of a (dnibination of different aouuds, it is necessary that their

relations tu each oUiur sli.tuU In? defined.
The differences which exist lH't\vt.'t'n sounds of unequal j'itth, are tfriiit'<l ('u/d!
diJferenceH, and it is our object to show, in this section, Iwvv tiicse are determined and
measured.
In the most superticiul and geiRTul teniis, we iiiurely obser>'e that one sound is
higher or lower than the other ; as " <7 or a is higher than c in the same octave."
This definition is, however, much too vague, as in relation to every sound there must
be many othen, that are other higher w kwer. We» ihaefere, require a more
precise and defimte meaeurement
Such is the eomUinff of the deêe» between twe diflerent sounds. Tlie degree
from which we, count is eaJIed the jinft, the next d^ree is called the teemdf the
fitDowing the tkird, and so on. In theoretical works on music, the Latin instead of
the English numerals are sometimes employed ; we, therefore, sulgoin them here,
observing, that the first and eighth degrees are ahnost always called by names
slightly altered firom the Latin, viz. prime (fixm prima* the
*
first), and vetaee
(from ' oetaca* the eighth).
Latin.
Jirtt (prime) prima,

second, »ecunda,
thirds tertia,
fwrih, quartat
fifth, quinta,
eixtht eexta,
/lerenth, eeptimat
eighth (octave), or/am,
ninth, nana,
tenth, decima,
efferent k, tfmffcima,
twelfth ^ ihtmU'riina,
thirfreiifh, tiecima tertia,

fourteenih, ifrr'nvn qitnrta,
ffffenth, ilectina qi>n>frt.
Mnru than fiftetu dt-frrits art- n*>t generally f uiitt.l; and the student will
dl'scrvf. that the eighth, riinth, tenth, &c. kc. are Itut itpt-titions of the first, sccund,
third. tVf. c'te. in a higher wtave. For must purjH,ses\ the dij^tiiu-tion ot" nine degrees
will l.f suttii ient; ten, eleven, or more degreej^ are noticed only in one of the liigher
brandies of com|)osition, viz. double wunterpoint,
I>
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94 DEFINITION or TONAL KELATIOMB.
FVfiin llie above tal ic, the relation lHt\vft_'ii two nr iiKirc sounds is iiiiiicatr*! in
this nuunier: if C \k' Uikcu lor the first, then JJ i» the st i on.l. A' the thir-l, /' the
fiiurtli, ajid so on. If F be the iiist, then G is the seeoiid, A the third, SiC.
It will be sevu that ihis mode of defining tonal relationg, l>y counting the number of
degrees from one sound to the other, is by far more accurate than tlie more general
utatenient of the comparative pitcli ; t. y. tliat (J u hii^her than C (in the saiiie
octave;, or hirer than
If we compare two sounds with each other in respect to their pitdi, we thoeiby
institute a rdsdon between them, for whidi the general name is
iNTKBVAIi.
Thus we say € and D ibrm tihe interval of a tecond} O and D the intenral ef
a //Ih ; C and (7 (in the same octave) the interval of Bprimgf (or unison) ; in two
adjacent octaves, the interval of an oetaoe.
But even this mode of comparison is not yet suffidenUy predse ; ftr we have
learned that each degree oontains no less than five diflferoiit sounds, and we know
not yet which of these sounds is really meant For mstance, if we wish to find the
Ji/th of C, the question arises, is it ^, ^ or ^? To this questioa the
counting of the degrees funushes no answer.
We want, therefore, a more accurate definition of
Tonal Relations;
and for this purpose we employ the smalleet gradations that oocur in our tonal
system.
Of these there are two, winch we difltinguidi by the names of
Whole Toneb, and
SemT-Tonks (or fia/f tones).
J
* The mder will Iiatc oWrrrd, that the degrees aie counted from the hwer t9 the Jt yJbr
•OHHrf. In •omie fov caae* the vouniing jnxweeds in an opposite dnrction ; theoe will be notioed
hen-alter.
t As tlie wctnl intenal implies n dijt'i rtiia\ it is iu»l exactly applicable to a comparisrtn
of two ^jouiub betvveeu which there is uo (btferouic. Îs such a eomparistin is, howevtr, in
romy caflcs ncecMary, we apply to it the aame, though ioappropriate name, by whidi all the
other tonal tlitfi n-iircs are (l* >ipiatiil.
J The old sf li.Mil of nujî( c oiisidcn-d it iiccessar)' to retain fhret diffrrmt toHttl mmsureSy
which had bccti Ixirrowcd from the pcicncc of ncouHtics ; viz. the tch^fe fnnr, the major nfmitoHTy
and tlu' miiiur UMituw. The major semitouu tousiste*! of two adjuci*nt soumU, nonuually
belonging to two diflcivnt degreea; for tnatanvci h and <, «andrfb, and $. The nuwir
semitone ooiMiBtcd ahio of two adjacent sonnds, but which, by viztuo of their name<>, 1m long to
the Hame dcjn"c<- ; fur instance, h and h nhurp, r and e sharp, g fiM and g. The ditferenoo
Ik'Iwi en t^H sc two intervals, which wa» considered lie the în Hlf Ht tonol cUlfon^nce pereeptible
to the ear, w as aiccplod as the /utuiaMeHtal »iea*we of the three larger diîîooa. Jt was
tcnned a eimnw $ and nhte of audi commaa were icckooed to oonstitute a whole tone, Jim a
nujor flonitoae, and ^nar a minor acmitonc.
This uiiniitr- distinction if, however, altopothcr void of any practical applieahilitr, and,
thercfoH', to a prK tind muNician, entirely usele«'«. Frir, t!r«1, th( qnal t( mp-rnmcnt noMr i
univei'aally adojUed Ui practical miuic, hm removed ail (iirtcrenee Ui.woca major and minor
aemitones; cj|i«exa< tly tlicaaneionndasdb; the interval «--<'j| i£ theaainesa«—<fb, e—f
is the aame aa f—*^ Sooond, tho intervala may be detennined by means of two
measures, as accimiti-ly :i , 1>\ t)iree. The flat third of c, forinstanoe, muat he r^, and cannot
lK < !il!' d il nharp, for r —""^^ third at all. Third, the nami' r»t»sorvntion hold" in
rcfpoci to tlie htalc^, chordj», ^taaiiiag uutes, Si-c. ic. A soUd musical etluration nHjuins stu«ly
and inacHi'o enough, without the additKm of unnecessary distinctaons and obadetc tedmiealilace.
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— — ; — —
DEFINITION Of TONAL HEJ.ATIU.N«. oo
A wMe Ume oomuti of two MundB belonging to two adjacent degrees, between
wlndi there is cne intermediate lound (on the piano, one intermediaie key)< Thus
e tod d ferm a whole toner ^ belong to two adjacent degrees, whilst thwe is
another sound, c thorp or d fiat^ between them.
In the same manner, the sounds r thoirp and d akarp, e and / sharp, b flat
and r, form whole tones, for th^ belong to two adjacent degrees ; viz. of r and d,
t and b and e ; wliilst between each two tliere is also an intermediate sound,
between ejj^ and tlX f between e and f%b between ^bh 9ssA e*,)^
uA %enntotie consists of two sounds belonging either to tlie same or to two adjacent
degrees, between which tliere is no other sound in our tonal system. Tims b and
f and rt,. and y'X, ^/b and </bb fonn semitones, there \^'\\\^ no hitennediate
sound — (on the piano, no intermediate key ). Also b — r, r d b, y — lu-e semi-
tones, there being no other sound between them, although they belong to difierent
dêes.
By means of these two m ensures, every interval ur tonal relation oxistint; in our
musical system may be accurately tl< t<'nuined by counting tlie number of whole
toiie-^ and semitones of wiili h it i nn<ist>.
Jiius, if weexaniino the intervul ot" a /fWfc' tone — for instance, r d—we find that
ii oMitaiiis two semitones ; viz. c — c^, and c^—d ; or, which is tlie same, c — </b,
and </b
In examing the third, c — e, we find that it euiisists of two whole tones ;
—d
viz. c
and d — e.
In exaunining the seventh, c — <6, we find, in tlicsiune manner, that it contains
2 whole tones, c —d and d— c;

1 semitone, e~f; and
8 more whole tones, J'—g^ g — ff, and a — b.
Or, if we add the whole tones tqg^fthw, we find that the mterval e —b conaiats of
fire whole tones and one semitone.

The same result would have been obtained by proceeding in any other cider of
counting; for instance, in this
3 whde tones, e—d, d—e, e—f$ :
2 semitones, and s-"^ \

1 whole tone,
1 semitone,
^—a$
ol^—h\
we find fimr whole tones and three s^times, or five whole tones and one semitone.
In this manner we may measure erery interval according to our pleasure or
convenienoe, and are always sure to <^tam a correct result Thus, if it be required
to find that seventh of C which lies five whole tones and one semitone above it, we shall
airive afc ^ as the desired sound, and no other. For b fat is only four whole tones
and two semitones higher than c (e-^, dr^tf^^ 9^-^* ond e^-f, a —ih)> whilst
^ * Wf here wc the effect of a double series of nome^ for the different musical soimds.
C thm'p :ind I> •thnrp, nhr> c anrl f fhnrp, nrf wliol. tones; but J) Jiat and D sharp, e ajid y ât,
are no whole tones lor d Hat and d sharp belong to the same degree, whilst the dugrces of
^^
;
sdjacon^ but lepanted by the degree of/ And yet the toondB and
/ dimpimi fJUOfWn of tbe sunc pitdi.—Of whit we, then, v sudi a merely nominal
diitiBetion } We dull ibotdy be able to answer this quMtion.
B2
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30 DBFINITIOK OF TONAL BBLAT10N8.
{, siiurji is than e (c—</, 4

six whole tones higher e -f1H,f^ -^SfV^ <i|t— — — — —
Thia shews the aiivaiU;^ of the ineiisurement by whole tones and semitones over
the mere statement of the numU-r of degrees ; hoth h jiot and h% fiffm the interval
of a 8t;venth to but neither of them has the exact tonal mea<itire required above.
It wouki, however, occupy too much 8{m>e, were we to state the exact tooai
meaiure of every possible interval. Ueuce their division into
Four Classes op Iiitkbtals.
liiaeh interval hctiig deKiîated by an adjective, at onoe accurately expressing its

extent; every interval is said to Ih> either
M a. I oil (
i:rcuterj,
Minor (lesser),
DlMINISHKD. «»r
Ai i;\iF:NTh:i> ( .suj»ertluou8).
A Jiihior intcrml arifc« s ir-'iu ri .Im in^r a major one hy a Sfiuiti-nr ; '>r, in «>tlier
words, it is a semitoû' h'ss Uiiui the major interval; thus, a minor tiHh or sixtli is
a tit'initiiiu- less than a major fifth or sixth.
.1 </i//ni!iM/tf(i iiiterrol is one f»«Hnitone less lhaii a minor interval; or two semi-
tones leis tliaii tlie major interval.
A gttjxrjiuou^ iittfirrul contiiins a semitone more than the major interval Let
US here observe that, technically.
Diminished signifim less than minor,

Augmented „ greater than major.
So soon, therdbte, as we know the extent of the major intervals, we may csnly
ferm from them the minor, dinunished, simI augmented intervab, by ledudng the
mapor intervals one or two semitones, or increasing tfiem a semitone. Now, tlie
extent of the mi^ intervals has been definitely settled by the ibUowing rule, wfaick
is aooepled as nnening
" Every sound in the original series, C, D, E, P, 6, A, B, C, firms a major
mtervd in relation to the first*'
This rule is both eomprebensive and easily remembered. AooonUngly
e f 0 a h c d
\
is a môr second,
third.
fourth.
«—jf »
e—a „ sixth.
r—it „ seventh.
e^-c „ octave.
ninth.
DEFINITION OF TONAL BELATiONS. 37
Now, if we meanire these intervals, we shall find that
the aujat second contains 1 whole tone,

3* Ihiid tt 2 whole tones,
ft fourth n 2 >i and 1 semitone.
«» fifth f* 3 >» 1 tt
If sixth t> 4 , 11 1 semitone,
IF seYenth It. 6 *t 1 „
»» octave tt 6 «t 2 semitones.
»» ninth ti 6 ff 2 „
Should we ftvget any of these quantities, we need only refer to the ordo' of the
tonal degeeet, to detennine the eiiact measure of every required miyor interval*.
* Wv cannot leave here unnoticed a p4>ciiliar cJajMuflcatioii of the interrols, which Ls of a

Tcry remote date in nm»jc. and <>{ which— though, in onr view »»f the mu,*ii ,il art, it La of no
iiuportanct' whatever — the muîciuu or luver of muuu should not remain quite ignorant.
In <Htiler to oomprahend thi* dnwfliCiitiani ihc ftlWing data, taken from acoustics, should
lie noticed : the hei^t or pitch of a sound depends upon tbe veHoeify with which the smmding
bo^ vibrates ; the grester tiiia velocity, the hijfker is the sound, and t i< r r< r^<'t. 'Hiug, if any
pvcn sound 1* by one vibration in a f<
prfviurfd rtfiin time, then f'fo f»f the hitter will produce
the octave of that sound; thret^^v Jifih ulmvt tliis octave; foHi\ Hw ^rciffid octart'; fitr, the
mqjor third of this second octave ;
#ijr, the major jijth of it. Suppo«e, for inatanu;, that one
vibntion in ft second prodnced a eound equal to great then two wonld produoe the aound
•mall e; three, mattfs Ac and the ; suocessiye lounds would have the fnltoviringfatiM to each
odwr:
C ; C : g :
£ : e_ ;
g_
1:2:3:46:6.
Tfii ncvt ratio would be 6 : 7. fnr wln'i h wo nnt-:t in our system accept the sound b Jhl^
(the nunor se^'cnth of c) althoupli it u ouid in reality be a souml a little lower th:in tlii^.
Ve Aail now be able to comprehend the chwriflcation of the old theorit*iji; they dia-
tingiiubed two Idnda of intervals
1 ,
CottJionmeet, or agreeably .soimding, and
2. Th^^ 'Pfttfret. fir fli«!iyTi rably (or Iciw apTwubly) Hounding inter%'als.
Acct pted a« consouauccB, were -the prime, major octave, major fif:li, major fourth, umjor
and minor third and sixth. All otlicr intervals arc dossed auiongst the di^jsonunces.
This diattnction must be considered, fliatly, as «Uo§ethtr immoteruU, inasmuch as it is by
no nnans the sole or chief object of music to ticUe and delight the Ben<ieH with a combination
of mnro or leHS pleasing -iMuriilH, but rather to operate upon the heart and luiiid, tbruuL-li tliu
mednmi of thfise semws. Hut it is. secondly, also a verj' snj)cr^{til one. For the real imture
and character uf a musical uitcrvui comduts in iiomcthing quite different from and indc{M-ndeut
of its pleaaing or displeashig effect upon the ear, aa vrill be drawn, partly in the progress
of this wotk (in the second section of the sixth part), and more ftilly in the " Science of
Music ;" the superficiality of this division may alnâdy be gucs.sed, fronj tlie circunistuuce,
that Kuch heterogimeouH things as fourths, tbinls, n l:(vf <!, fil! ilimiiii-ihcd or extreme^ inti n'al?s.
A:c. &c. are classed under the âmo head, nvithout any other di>tin('tion or mudiiicution. J
&tinetion is, finally, ab<o altogetlitr m arMffwry at least, in tho manner in which it has
been eanied out For what more reason is tiiere Ibr drawing a Une of separation hetwcen
6 and 7, in the evenly progreiksing series of uumWrs 1:2:3:4:5:6:7. . than
between 5 and fi. or 7 and 8. Scvcnd tboorists, fi'<'ling that such a dcM idcd liiu- of dcmarcutiou
between absolutely pissing and absolutely dii»plt;asiug flouudi*, could not well be drawn, uad
yet ansiooa to retain the accepted doctrine of these two cLuees of intcrrals, adopted the
expedient of distinguishing between perftet «o«m(M«mm (octave and fiilh}, and imperfttt mm*
tmmtttt (fourth, major and minor third, and sixth), and of subdividing the didsonanoea into
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38 DKFINITION UF TONAL BELATIONS.
We may now find a major inteml to «ny other given aound, vrludb bong ddw-
mined, and the diatanoe reckoned, we muit inorcaae the internd, if too imall, or reduce
iti if toogreaft. Thus, ifwe want to know which b the ifuj^/biirfA of/, wefint count
lour degrees upwards, whereby we arriTe at 6; but, on measuring the distance, we
find that the interval /-^ contains three whole tonee, whereas our normal fourth
has only two whole tones and one semitone /—^ is, therefore, an augmented fimrth,
;
and must be reduced a semitone, by changing 6 into 6 flat, in order to obtain tiie major
interval, which thus includes the whde tones 9~^t and the semitone o—^.
Or should we wish to find the môr fifth of ^, then we perceive, on counting upwards,
*
that it must be a sound belonging to the degree of / (b ^ c d f)- But
which? The normal fifth oontuns three whole tones (c — </, d-^,
—
^
semitone (f—/) ; but the interval b-^ contains only two whole tones (r </, d—e)»
and two semitones — c and «^-/), and is, consequently, too small by a semitone.
We therefim raise /to / târp, thus converting the semitone into the whde
tone f—/tf and have now an interval {h—/t) equal to the normal fifth.
If we know the môr interval of any sound, we may without trouble convert it
into a minor, diminished, or augmented one, by adding or subtracting the neoessaiy
number of semitones. Thus, in order to conv^ the môr fifth into a minor
one, we have to subtract one semitone ; we do by changing g
this into y flat, and
thus obtain the minor fifth c—g)^. Thus, all the other minor intervals from C are
e d\> the minor second,
o-^b „ „ third,
e—ffh „ „ firth,
lb „ „ sixth,
b » ff»
seventh.
If e-~0 b to be converted into an aH</uu-ufr,/ f[i'tl<, g must be raised a semi-

tone; if ct, — (a major seventh) is to W ehang "1 iiiti a minor inter\al, h »harp
must hxHtme h mituml ; if the minor seventh rj 1> is to be eon verted iiito a
diminished seventh, A must I"' lowered to h jiat ; —fh forming a diminished
seventli. In this manner tivery minor, diminishod, or auginented interval may bo
easily determined.
We advifst' tln' beginner to exercise hiiti!*<'!f u|"iii llii >«• Mil'jLits in tw'i .iinVrent
ways. Fir»i in n ritinit: Let him tin l to eveiy sound all its majiT intervals (as
at p. .30) ; afterward.? all minor "lus fas alcove); tlien let liiiii sihrt this or that
major interval (^tur iiistajice, the major tillh, y — (/, or Jo — db), and convert it into
essential and aeci<U'u(f>f nm tht Intter of wbi h wi-re to compri.se all «)unds otrurriTijr arri-
deutally in a key to uiiu-h they do nut (omiriunly belong, but Uik MiU-divLuuu only Itxl to
BOW dtmbts and di^tea \ it vu M^wdally the fourth about whidi flme dispulM araae ; sad
thus theonsts did their best to perplex tiie todoiit and draw his attention away from other
nallf eiaoBtial mattent.
Boforo wc return from this wc mnrt rt-mind \hv tvailci that thi tbavc progrce-
digrei''<inri,
sive Horics 1:2:3:4.. .WM only rhosen to make the ration oi tiic vibmtionB of Mmnds
,
appear in their aimplesi fimn ; in reality, thim is no aonnd that has only one vihratMn in a
ieeond ; hut the lowsifc poanUe amind lequiraa (as has been stated elsewhere) about 83 vibn^-
tloBB in a aMoad. It is situated about one octave beW emtn C.
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DEFINITION OF TONAL HEL-\TIONS.
muior (sh-d\f, m —dhh), dumiushed (ff-^hb, y d\AA>*), and augmented

interval (y d% — tf).
Seeondfyj ki kim endetmmr to dktinpM the different intervab (e^tpecialfy the

major ami minor) soleh/ the ear. He will soon be able to do 80, by trying to
fiii<I, \\'ithout any other help, u certain intmal (ray the major fiflh, iuuy>r and minor
third, minor sevcntli, &c. &c.) to any chosen sound ; and shcmld he beli< m that his
ear has judged correctly, this may be tested by naming the sounds and reckoning
the extent of the interval.
It is obN-ious that many other kinds of intervals than the above four Q). 8<>)
might be distinguished hy a double elevation or depression of sound. Tlius the
diminished seventh cH \h, might, by a second depression of />, l>e converted into a
twice-diminished seventh (cJt \hh), or even into a three-times diminished seventh
(«-X— %b ; ; the auL,niiented fifth r — might be made a double (c yX) or a triple
(cb — gX, ebb

—gX) jiUL;iiu iitt il interval.
And if we were to yô hcyond a double dt'iiression or elevation of sound, and

introduce three shorîts or tiaUi, the niuiiber ot" intervals might be increased beyond
measure Happily (m luus alrea«ly Ik cu slated in the last f«v>t-nute) all these
unsigiitly and nnwiddy romliinalionij are of uo practical use in music, and it would
be well, wer(^ lliey alU^gelher klid Uiide.
In ilu- preceding section, we bcxuiue acquiunted with enhantmnit mundf. We
now liavL- set n tliat there are also inten'alsj, which, although tlu y have exiiLtly tiie
suuie toual uieaûre, may yet ap|*em* under quite different nauie:«. Such intervals
we will term
Enhakmonic Intsbvals.
They may easily be found by an enhannooie diange of one w both soun^ of
any intenraL Thus, i£ we change in the minor third, e—«b into d we obtain
the att^niêd whose sounds are, in our system, of exactly the same
pitch as those of the third e —^. If the name of gJt in e—^ be changed into oh,
we obtain a minar eixtk, instead of the augmented jifth. Thus also the diminiehed
—
eeeenA e% 6b msy be omverted into a mqpr eixtk (eft oJt, or db ^bb) ; and the — —
msjor fifth eft— ^
appear under the name of another major fifth, </b—<db. Such
and similar cnhannonic transposittons the student may practise by himself.
• Hero we meet with throe flate, or a sound reduced three Mioitanes \ of which, no mention
has been made on the Gist pwpe. Tho rcawm of our t«il< iu'e wa?, btv-Hu-so thos*' tJircr fVild
clerations or dcprcssionn of sounds are very si-ldoni uecrsnanj, or may be altogetlier avoided.
Such iutm'uk, which do not occur in practical music, but owe their origin to pedantic thcoristj},
bsTC been satirically called paptr uUtrvatt; beeauie ^bey exist only on this patient repontoiy
of manj other mA«s tables and ioffmatic rules^ batched in the brains of over-loumi d ti'achcrs,
tor thf aTTm><'ni<'*Tit df thi ir p<x>r pupils. Our m>f^nt trii.lc Hut miirlit also hwve Tn'on well
spared, and would hn\f Ik en, had we not trustc'l su mm Ik in the unimon ticnue of the student ius
<
to bcUcvc tliat he would look upon it merely a.-* un uuusûal form, to which he w;w led by
cnryiBK out sn otherwise luefitl and neocHsiy cxereise.
SKCiiuN THE SIXTH.
TUB MAJOR AND MINOR M0DX8.
We have now leanieer of d iff. rent sounds and comhiiiat? fns. It is
IKwsiltle for all these sounds and their comliinations to (xiur in some partu ular i >iii-
j><»sitii'n. As, h iwcvcr. rvcrv w»irk of art has t«» exj'n-*'^ a ep»»eiji] motive, or, at
least, a SMinrwhat fit i iJi-d tcii' l! a •Irlinit-' seru-s of ideas aiid tevlinp«, it is
natural that, in a c'.tii|»">iti''ii. tli 'm- ( "mKinations of sounds will U- ein]ilMy»»d

whi<li I Hat agree with its ii. ral ehanwrter, or 8t*eui \><>t calculati-d to jrnducc the
inteii'li il eflt'f't. Tt may, thrr. t^-re, he sjifely asserted, that every really artistic pro-
diu tioii ill iiiusi( I
itutines itself to a certain suitable range and clusb ui' »uunds aiid
tonal t'untbiuatiiias.
This circumstance greatly fmilitates the tafk of the ttather, in iatr'xluciiig his
pupils to the wide enijiire of musical firms, without his being exp^tsed to the danger
of bewildering and losing himself ui the midst of their endless Tariety.
The natural foundation of every musical coni{)OBition consiats of
The Ssvrn Dsorees of Sound.
Each of these, however, may, as we know, a]i}>car in five different lonm ; and
there is, consequently, a possibility of an ahnoet endless varied of combinationa
between the different degrees. 'Dius we might commence a composition with
the notes e —rf— or <*lt d — 3^, or rb d t f , or <• — rf tt € / » or
*?1>—rflf ^—ft Ac, Ac.
Of all these possible forms, the system of modern muMC establishes two as the
normal and only essential ones for musical compositionB. They are termed
Tonal Modes,
and are distinguished by the name of imjw and mlmr modes*.
Both modes agrê in this, thai they contain the seven degrees of sound. Whal
then distinguishes them from each other ? The ratios of the degrees, or, wfaidi is the
same, the character of their intervab. In the
Major Mode.
• It i* hnn* nrrcs-.inlo mention othiT distinrtionH, mudf res]K< t!ii'» thi^ manner in which a
series of sounds prfnerdit. All scrirn of s<nin(ls liave Ik-i u dividtil mV> threr tjcmlrrB or order* ;
vix. iho ditiimie order^ in which every d<>cive apjK'aj-s only oiu-e, .a* r— </ f-ff -a — A, and
wbicb, th«n«forc, coiii*i«ts of whole toncn «nd MinitoDPt mixod ; the tkromtUie •nbr, or a Mrios
of iiouniLs which |>ri>< i-i>(ts through sU the tiU' t i sMvt- semitv>neH of the octave; and the enhttt-
ttioftif ord< r, in whii li < v» ry «K'>rrLL- u|jj>t>iij'}i both in its dciin sst d iUid t lrvatvd fomi, as c —
db —d — « 7 -< /', Jtc. ice. Hut IK iflicr of the last two onli'i"s an> suitahlr iisu Ikuîm in our
Bystem of miu«icul tounKisition ; nor d.»t s it a|ipear to In? a eoiTert idcu, that the aut ieut Greeiu,
from whom thit dsMiflcation has heen derived, reaUy t in ployed tliem w mieh, although waie old
writ<'r» iipiu ij to t4)noborate that opinion. Soo the Author'n EsMJ 00 "The Mumc of the
in tiie Ottitxnai leritoinlrr TbdhMuf; or the TnosUtoKa oictnrt from it in the
Api>eiidiji.
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— : : :
TIIK MAJOR ANli MlNUll MODES. 41
4iff intemUit as the name implies, are major; that b to say, all intervak between
the /irit and eiAer of the fiiUowring sounds. In the niôr mode, therefore, we have,
after the first, a major second, third, fourth, Ac. kc From this we aee that our
onînal order of dqêes 10),
c d c — -
ff a bf
is a model of a major dicUouic xcule.
In (Nrder to obtain a general standard for all major scales, we luuuijurf the tomil
dtttanee between each two successive di^;rees. In doing so, we find tliat each sound
is either a whole tone or a semitone higher than the pmreding tme ; m.
1 1 1 1 1 1 i
And the soun^ expressed hi ^nhdt tones and

order tii semitones ts this
** Fir^,
tvo vkok tane$ and a temitime j then aâlti, three wkole tonee and a eemi'
lone,** In
The Minoe Mods,
the intnrab are also aO major, with the exeeptum ^ tie third and the st^rfA, which
are numr. As we know liow to change major into minor intervab, we may also
easily convert any môr scale into minor ; viz. by merely depressing the third and
the sixth.
Hius, ftr instance, the above major scale, commencing with c,
c d e f ifahtf
becomes minor by changing e and a into e fiat and a fiat,
e d eb—/* ^ a b A—c. —
From this model we find that the minor mode has the following tonal distances
1 J 1 1 I *ai
Peculiar to the minor mode is the inter\'al of three semitones (an augmented
second) iM tween the sixth and sevi nth degree. Tliis. like all other augmented
intervals, strikes the ear rather harshly, when o<xurnug in the order of the scale
Ex. 47.
but this ia not the ease in the Mowing series:
£x. 48.
where the augmented second is avoided. It is mrireover to l>e l>omc in mind, that,
in the |i»rmation of a normal order of smin<i=:. we have not Xo seek for the mildest and
most ]>leasino[ arran^renient* : hut rather tur a standard scale best suited to become
the basis of uiusical com|>oiiition.
* Tln<^ conMiIcration, which i* quitu foreign to the idea and purpoee of ftfldde, has induced
BMay theoiisto to alter th« pngresuoa of the minor losle in tiro diffiarent ys. Aooocding to
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42 THK MAJOR AND MINOE MODES.
But why have the two n\odiA been arranged in their present order, in f^rdennoe
to any oUier? AMiy luis tlie major m«ide major int. r\iils only? And why, in the
minor mode, are only the third and sixth, and no other intenals, minor ? These are
questions to be repHed to hereafter ; at present it is sufficient for the student to im-
press firmly upon \m memory the characteristics of the two modes, and learn to form
their scales.
their plaB) tha Motndiitg minor s< ali h.^ only one minor inU'rval, vis. the third)
e—d—f^- f p a b—-c ;
whilst tbc musu: iR-ule, in defcending, has three minur inton'ols, tiiirtl, ttixtii a$id aevrntk^
e—4 b a b —^—f—* b d—^

It is true tbst by thia alteration the siiccesrion of the soundH in made more ontoot h Mid
pleasmf^ ;
but, on the other hand, it is i riiuilly iiii1i8])utablc tint thereby the idea of a uniform
arc! rrmn'^f^t scale is altofrfthor (If'stroy*^!. For, in thi^ fnrni, tin xr'nlf' hm two nitt'T^Til*! nn
the same degree (ab and a on the sixth, ur «^ on the seventh), and must be considered
ttther ss a douUe icalei or as a diatonic md chnmuitic mixture',
& d t ^—e h—/ f * b—« ||—* h—i
and is, in both caM>$i, unfit fiir a Bttadatd order (or aiode) of aouads.. (See ^ AndMifs School
of Com^wsition, part t.)
It is, however, quite a diHerent quostHm, whether a eomposcr may aot, in some cases, be
allowed to deviate from the flyttcmatic Male of Ko. 47, and aubstitate anoihcr anaageaiaiU
with the view to obtsm a smoother progreenon of sounds. The theocy of eompodtian gmts
him this liberty, and tells him how and for what rpaaons he iniiy avail himself of it. For the
same reasons, a teacher of music may aUr> cmi**- his y»ii]>il to jiraetise both the sy^trmatic and
the modified form of the scale ;

iiay, as a Urhmeui tirmaty he may even give the prceedeuce to
ihtt latter, in order not to blunt Che ear of the pupil ;
and, by the eoostsat repetition, make him
inscnriUe to the strange bat charscteristtc e^ct of tiie augmimted aeoond. But viiilat ire
grant this licence to the coinjH>««>r for artistic reiwons, and to the teacher out of consideration
f If hi"- pupil, wo must proteot againat its being made use of to supplant the systematic and oa^
Icgitunato minor scale.
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— —
SECTION THE SEVENTH.
MAJOR AND MINOB KBTS.
Wb have alreaty observed (p. 38) that the intemlB may be ibimed from any
d^^ree and from any eeund of such degree ; for instance, from e tharp as wdl as c,
from 4:^01 wdl as «; and we have already done » (p. 38), by way of example and
exercise.
Consequently we may also form a scale, major or min(Mr» beguming firom any sound
we choose ;hr instance, from c){, d, e b, Ac. kc. There are, therefore, as many
diff«aent môr and minor scales as there are diifereiit sounds.
A piece of music being based upon a certain scale, «. e. one in which the sounds
are diiefly derived from that scale, is said to be written in a certain
Key;
and the word key is frequently employed in the same sense iis scale.
There are, cons»equpntly, both major keys (b;us»«d wy^wx the major mode), and
minor hejft (based up(A the minor mode), and, <^ both, as many as there are dilferent
sounds.
How niuiiy different sounds (1<h s mir system contiun?
firstly — ^The teten natural (unalt. rod) Roimds,
aecoodly
— ^The live iutermediat*- sLnnt..nc3,
or db — — b :i b ab bb ;
together tKeke. There must, consequently, be
Twelve Major Keys
and
TwBLYB MiKOB Kbtb;
and this number is not altered by the enharmonic change of the name of the sounds;
for, ss e sharp is the same as J flat, e sharp the same as /, Sic &c., so Is the key of
c lAwp the same as the key of d JkU, and the key of the same as the key of e /
How are we now to Ibrm the scale of any of these twenty-four keys ? Afler the
first note has been chosen, we write down the next six degrees in their natural order.
We then meastire the distances between the several intervals, to see whether th^
Bg^ with those of the normal scale viz. ;
in major, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, i, tones;
in minor. 1, ^, 1, 1, 4, 1*., \, tones.
Ajir] wliere we find thu distance between two sounds either t<Ki great or too small, we
r«ctj^ it by depriissiug or raising Uic upper of tit« two souuds.
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44 MAJUR AND MINOR KEYS.
Tliiui, ftr instance, if we were aelced to write s scale in the key of A major, we
diodd 6iit have to note down the seven degrees, commencing with a.
We then examine the several steps, from one dq;ree to the next Ihe first, from « to
b, we find to be correct; namely, a whole tone. The next, h-^, is only a semttone.
but ought to be a wbcde tone ; we therefore change t into r% and now find that the
next step, viz. e is also, what it should be, a senutooe. FVom </to e is a whols
tone, as in the normal scale ; but from etaf (from the fiflh to the sixth degrees)
should be a whole tone, whereas it is only a semitone. We therefore raise f ^f
•harp; and this alteration caiues us to change the next note,y, also intoy sAoip, in
order to obtain the third whole tone. Thus we have fi)und the intervab of the
nujcr scaleof atobe
a —— — h r It e—f t — t—
*/ a.
11 ill' r i
In the same manner, if it were re<|uired to find the mi^ scale of A fiat, we
should first write down the sucivssive de<(res8,
 r </ e —-f—
and then measure the intervab step by step. In doing so, we shall find the fijTSt step^
ab h, too great by a ticmitone, and therefore depress ^ by a fiat ; continuing in this
manner, we arrive at last at this smes,
ab hb c —d b fb — / —a b.
1 1 i 1 1 1 i
Tlie scales In the minor keys may be ft»und by the same process. But our labour
will Ix; much shortened and facilitatetl, if we know the sounds constituting the nuyoT
Bcale of that kt v of which we want to fonn the minor scale. For then we mav save
ourselves the trouble of meiisuring the distances imm degree to degree, by merely
depressing the third and the sixth of X\\f ' < a!e.
TlnH we ( lmntr<* tlv* «r silc of A maji r into A minor, by substituting c fur rft un
tlie third degree, uiid / tor / JJ on the ^\%\\\ :
A miyor : a—b — t— — r ^'

f U—y — a,
A minor: a 6 — d— r — n.
In the same way, the luaj t scde of A jhii \s chiuig* J into minor:
ab —^b— — —«b— / —ob. ^ *^b *~-/h — ji'—^ b*.
• With this sYstcmatio nu-tluHl ot loniiing the st ale*, every etudi-nt, who aims at a souni
knowledge of muiîi', ouglit to 1h> urijuunted. For the niltiTatian of the stOidnitrtmr, another kind
of exerciw i«, hoirerer, of mucli greater importance, and thcrcfntv must urgently recommendeiL
Let him frequently play and sing tl)e nonnal *»nvle in C major, imtil its tonal ruWm an
firmly impr<'>^«f'«l ny'm his ni<'niory; ho then should ]>r<M««c(l to find out the otht-r nmjor. unJ
alUi wardH liiMi tit** minor sotleh, wilhuut aay ttîÛini v but thut of hi." CHr. W'Ticn h<- thinki«
he has found the right aounda of a acile, let htm name them, and then mea«un.> the dii»taiitv«
between each two intenrala, to prove whether his ear has judged oorrmj^y. In naming the
sounds, be slioidd remcmWr that, in evcrj' t^calo, each of the wven degrecM' must OCCOT but 0>ica>
and in their regular order ; this will accure him against using im]m>per enharmonic namea ; ta
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MAJOR AND HINOK KETS. 45
Weliare maw » peifectly defined ben§ fiir aQ musical comporitiraa. We are net
only enabled to decide generally whether a piece belongs to the major or minor mode,
but also what particuhir major or minor key it is in, /. e. from which particular ecale the
sounds, of which the piece is composed, have been chiefly taken. As a general rule,
though not without exception, eveiy piece has a particular key, in wliich it commences,
and to which, afler occasional digressions into the tonal sphere of some Other key or
keys, it finally returns. This knowledge of the key in whidi, as mundans txpresi
it, a piece is written, will materially assist us in the oomprehouion and execution of
a musical composition.
instsnce, not to nolo down « tihwy, instead of bjlat^ for the seoond d^sree of the scale of ^Jht
AT h Amrpf instead of c, tat dio tiiird dngrao.
Excrt-isfs of this kind are of tiie greatest In^ncfit, and cannot be too frequently repeated ;
they produce that quirk pereeptinn nf mind and vw, vrh'wh nl<mo 0Ti«iirM the fontinitpd interest
tad consequent progress ot the student, but which is httle encouraged by a method of abstract
ymÂ^mltiMA iHil»iiU»i«nj ami rffll la— Ky « «itpAi-a«8J nSf ly \Jmt*^ wiA ^lofc ||l«|ijr
tsachers contoit themselTes.

SECTION THE EIGHTH.
ON XnE NATCEK AMD GHABACT£RI5TIC8 OF THE KEYS IN OSNKSAL.
It cannot be denied that the niethcxl prescribed iii the precudmg suction for
forming the scale, is rather tedious ;

esjK-cittlly when the same operation has, in every
instance, to be repeated. Hence we require a more concise means, by which we can
immediately represent to ounelves any particular key, or all the key* coQecttvely.
Novr what is it by which we ftnn the idea of a key? A knowledge of the
d^;rees in the scale which must be raised or lowered ; fix we know that all scalea
bare, in common, seven degrees.
Ibe fbUowing it the most concise method.
A. Trb Majob Kets.
C mqor is that miôr key which requtres neither shaxp nor flat, rince it cooBSts
only of the seven natural sounds,
C—D—B—F—G—A—B.
On this account it is catted the Normal Jfiyor Scale, We b^n tfierefore wiUi
C, pladng a cipher over it, as a sij^ that in the key C no sound is sharp or flat
We then write the fiAfa de|ree above C, and proceed in the same manner tucoea-
sivdj, un^ we aîn arrive at C. liistly, mark (out of the line) the fifth degree
below C. Hius :
F. 0.
(:_^(,^T)_A— K— B— K— C.
Now it will ho fiiimd that, in cvt'ry siuvco.ling kt-y ath-r f, one snitixi will be
raised, and eiwh sound so nuised is rttaiiml in tin.' sucL'efdini^ vs. Thus G major
has one 8liarp ; in D nuijor this sharji is rL'taincd, with the addition ot as^xmd sharp ;
in A major bulli reuuuu, and a lliird t^harp ih added, <^c. k/c. Here,
F. 01t
C—G—D—A—
234567
R—F— C,
the number of sharps required is expressed by the figure over eadi key.
Yet we do not know by this which degrees are raised. The new sharp is always
**
the next but one towards the left hand." Thus, in G nugor, f becomes it, as
pointed out by the sign*
It
F. 0 I
0 6 B A Ac. Ac
Consequenflyi in
F,
CODA
012
D mqor» e vriU become e t
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ON THE NATUBK AND CUAKACTBBHSTJCU OF TBB KEYS IN OEMEAAL. 4?
At the same time, the preceding £U ia retained; and ûs, in D mtjor, f and c
are raised to i't aiid c t-
We now perceive that the keys after B must not be called F and C, but F S and
CjJ; for every sharp must be retained throughout the successive keys.
At present wc will merely proceed according to our series of letter^;, in order to
$ee what sharps are employed in each key. G oiôr has i'H ; D major, f S and ct;
ctmseiûeoUy
A major has fit. c+J, and gJJ,
E and d jj,
B UJld u t,
and so forth. Imlee.l, if we would proceed to C sharp major and beyond, we should
then have (i^J major with ti.fht* ; D tJ major with nine; A major with ten;
ES major with thnn ; luid 13 5 mujur with ticelce sharps, lis i^, however,
tlie eiduirmonie equivalent to C. We have therefore proceeded through all tiic
twelve mujur keys, and again arrived at the tir^t key, C, by tiucccssive steps to the
fy'th aboce. This progression of keys is termed

TiiK Circle or Pboobession by Fifths.
We are swaie, however, that scales may also be formed with flafei. ^ We have
(p. 44) finrmed the scale of Ab niôr. Now what is ttie order of tuooenioD in these
keys?
As the operation of the flat is the opposite to that of the sharp, it follows that the
reversal of the prece<ling series of letters will shew the order of succession of thu keys
with flats. We tlu-rel'ore write the eirele hy tit\hs from ('. hepnninff at the right
haii<i, in reversed order, C, F, V>, kc. kc. ; and we know that C major luuj nu tlat, F
haf ">n\ and the next key tn-o, tVc. &c. ; we must also remlluet that (uj* in the kevs
witli sharps; i. \ t-ry Hat must be retained throughout the succession of keys. Here is
our new scheme :
F. 76643210
CGDAEBFC
b
* Here it must in-vnr tn it«, hn\r tin- (uihih sharp tn bo obtarrnxl, #inoe we have
only SSVen
tU.'greei!, which have already Ikcu luaJe uhan* in tlu' key of C'^ major?
\ —
>^nn. h ij* the la«t
P
mnnd raised ? B. Which must now le Tsised?
i
Following the order, P;
hnt that \\m nlrt'n'ly Imh'TI mi^rd, nnrl ha* brcnmo F^, ^^ni^quentlyy if it must Sgain be
nuaed, we must uow employ a double tkarp iiist. ml <il a gingk sharp.
Ex. 60.
i
D| ottjor will, therafiney have two doable sharps, f X and tbo fire single duups being
nuined ;
major, tiiree double shsrpi, fX, cX and gX» the fuur si&gk ehaips being ictained,
Iec &C. We shall soon pcroeivo that these keys are not emplfqred.
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: :
48 ON THS NATITBV AND ORAllAGTKBlimCS OP THE KBT8 IN OKNBRAIm
i But liow shall uf a« i ituiii which successively require flats''^
f " Alwav«« thi- iifxt ill thi- sfhcriK- t'i\var'i< tlie left hand*." ^ Thtrt-ffirr, in F
niaji>r. h lnrMiiii> lib: ik'^v \\>" at nuce |>ei«.eive tlial tlie next key catiiM't In- 1^ I'tii
lib. In Bb major, Uu- tirst flat lib) is retained, and e is lowered to t-b ; a<. niiiiixly
the next key i% not £ major, but Kb nii^r. Prucvtiding iu this manner, our scheuie
assumes tiiis order
F. 7 0 4 .3 2 1 0
Cb Gb Db Ab Kb Bb
Thus we s€e that hi F. h T .i).>r there are three fiats, hb. <^b. an<J ab; in Db
major, /oe, bb, eb» ab, dbâiid gb ; in Cb nugor; teten, bb* «b, ab» d b, gb> cb.
and fb-
If we would go further, we should, after Cb inôr, arrive at Fb major with uj/tt, >
Bbb major with nit>>«. Kbb major with tm. Abb major vrith f/rrcn, and l)bb major
with tK'elre flats. Dbb is, however, the enharmonic e<{uivalent for C niiôr ctmse- ;
quently, here also is the cin le |ty fifths completed, and brought again to the point from
which it conmienced. By iiu aiis of the;?*' s«-h(»mP5 nf the rircle hy fifths, in tlit- >lirect
progression for f^harps, and the reverserl order for fiats, wi' an- in a condition to }»oint
qnickly, aîd witlj f crtainty, to any ]i;u-ti< ular key. 'I hose witli few sharjis or fiats
arc vi ry eafy to tMnn and recognise, while those witii ma»y changed soimds are
naturally more tediousj".
This appears to W ooQtnulictor}* to the previous induction : that the fiatj would be found
in the uiJpoisito order of uoeMrion to tfiat of the chup*. Bat f3oSm dingreement Is only in
appeamuw, beoauie we IwTe not fitUowed the tenuuning portion of tlie cixele bj flIUu to the
end. If wo would cany ftother the mvuw (p. 49) thw
fc» ^» kJPi •Jtfr "ft cj» *4F,
we ahould find that (us pointed out by otu' former the ruifttnl Hoimds for £^ extend a» far
10dX (that U| in E major, d baa olxOidjbeoonie d| ;
and, in Ej| major, it nnut do miied one*
noie) and the loale of £^ is
«fi fX, gX, ajf, l.J, t'X, dX, of.
In major eaten the twelfth niaed aonnd (acoordiDg to the eoQciid eign) when araat
become AX
.Now, il we would chmigi. uiujor aguiii into E$ major,wu mui^ reduce the last raided
aotmd aX beck egain to and dhien we shall fmee man haTO the aoale of £4 The
depreiwion is then found immediately to the left hand of 1^ Ae key we were aeeldng.
BJf major is, howuvor, no other than C major, EJf major the same as F major, aX is the
onhannriiiir f-qnivalcnt for "h, nnd njf fnr h{?. Thna, as in changing from BjJ tn F.jJ wi' mti'st
iowcr aX to a^ so, in order to change tinm C major to F major, we must lower b to li^, as in
the wsheme. . ^
t The manner adopted by Logier to rcpnwul ajid impresM the major keys coUoctivcly on
the minda of a great nmnber of papila, ia rery ingenioiia. Applying Uiem to the left-band
(with the fingers extended), ho called the ami (the nM»t of the hand) C, and tlii.« thi root of tlie
k<^y^; the thumb, 0; th. r.ro.flnger,D; theaeoondjA; thothiid,£i the fimrth, B—the little-
tiiiiT" r of the right-hand F.
The root key (C) has no signs prctixtd. The next kt j ^(j) lias one shaip —the Htlii- lingt r ot
the xi^t-hand ii laiwd, dieivfine* for f ^ ; the next (0) requiroe a aecond ahari) (< feir which
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ON THE NATURK AND CHASACTERISTICS OF THE KEYS IN OENERAL. 40
But here we have the agreeable evidence, that the keys with numerouii ago$ of
tnofpoiition may be
entireljf ditpemed with.
If, for instance, we place tin- In tun'-naitit'd keys with tiiuirpii, aiid thuse with hats,
opposite to each other, for the purjmsc- ol comparison
Sharps, O 1 2 3 4 5 (> 7 8 i> lo 11 12

0. n. D. A. K, B. Ft C^, Cr^, Oji. As, Kr, 13^
Dbb, ^\bb, Ebb. Libb, ¥h, ^h, ^h, Db. Ab. Kb, Bb, F, C.
12 1110U870 5 4 3 21i) Flats
we fuul that
Dbb with 12 Huts 18 the same its C williniu any sharp.

Abb — II G with 1 sharp.
Ebb — 10 D — 2
Bbb — » A — a
Fb — S E — 4
Cb — 7 B — 6
B]t —
—
12 iharpstt Hie nme IB C without any ^
En II P with 1 flat
AH — 10 Bb— 2 flats.
Dll — 9 Eb--d^
Gil — 8 Ab— 4 —
CJt — 7 Db— 6 —
For aU the keys here plaeed o|îte to each other are mutually enharmonic
equivalenta ; on wliidi account also th^ are called
EnUA&HONIC K£YS.
Who now would truuUle himself with twelve, or ten, or seven signs of transpo-
aitiou in Dbb or Bjj, Ebb or Aj;, Cb or CJJ, when he finds in C, D, Bb, B, and
wc pciiiit u* the left-ami ; the followiiig key (A) ruquLrcs a third sharp (yjf), wiuuli is liijpiiiitHi
Vjrtiw loft drainb^ and so on.

In the reversed order, F receive.^ iu tl.it (i}}) from the UtUe finger of the l^ft-fc—il (before
CtDed b)f arA thp rest fÛ nv the sauio order.

Moreovi r, the .-liiiu arr/c /"/ fifthf is most n'adily comprebpnded by thi« means, a?< it b ads
us through all Lkc key a luuiid a^juiu U> the first poiuU may bu obacrved uLk), It ikat the
eaplojincnt of » idroie it a fiivorite mode of repraseating the aueceMbn of keys.*
C
Eji G
H A
* "t
• This subject in fully dinplayed tu Cl«tkv» Harmimk Compass, .sold by R. CociLS &, Co.
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50 i)S THE NATURE AND cnAAACTBEISnCS OP TEB KBYS IN OBHBRAL.
D b, the Kame keys without any changes, or with only two, or at mott five* ¥ In our
rule for keys, Uien, we will einfslov no key with teven or more signs of transposition.
Their greatest and indispnaable number ia «ur; t. f. nx sharpe in F t{ major, and six
flats in Gb major; 1m tli keys arc also cnharmonii ally the same. Only in few and
rare cases shall we advance to C U m^r with seven sharjis, or C b
find oecasion to
miyor with seven flats. Hub may be advisaMo, principally, when, already in a key
with many signs, we may wish to pr«M eod to another key with a grcntor immlxjr (»f
similar signs. If, for example, we had heen in B, or F JJ major, and would thence pro-
ceeil to CU, or Db major, it would evidently ho more convenient, ratlirr to txM one or
two more of the same signs, than to cancel them hy means of as many iKituruls aixl
thon add five flats. Am rdnig to tlie first ni»'th<Hi, we should only have o<. < a-îcn for
one or ftro siirn'' : in tin last, we should require ten or eieoen. This will become
more dear in the next section.
B. Thx Minor Kits.
For the fonnation of the minor keys, no fertfaer direetions are neeenary ; every
minor key may be formed from its môr k^ (beginning with die same sound), by
lowering the third and sixth ; t. e, C mmor fnm C mijor, which has been already
shown (p. 41). In the cirde of minor keys, A minor mtist be taken ai the normal
scale.
* In wder moTO oedly to imprMi tfie naaiber of signs upon the rMMOeetion, let dioervft m
that tho united signs of two cnhannonic koyt added together always amount to Itteire
t. y. BJf or l\ siim", nnd V nouo
twi i
E[>[j ;
ha5 ten, and D two D t Ikls ulnt an«l
, ,
Ejj three. If, then, we know tiio nunil>er of fiipn« in one key, we rnn, liy ilu( ui^' it lri>m <i( t
twelvtf ascertain their number for the other ; £or instance, G major has one sharp, couMrûtuitiy
A ^ mnit hsTe eleven iUta.
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A MOBB MINUTE CONSIDERATION OF THE KKYS. 51
SECTION THE NINTH.
A MORS Mnnm gonsidseation oy ths keys.
A. Signatures.
1, TAe Major Keys.
Ws ham teen, in the pfeoeding section, that in all môr keys, with the exception
of C, duurpa or flati are required. Tbeie are placed at the oommencement <^ a
piece, or rather at tiie commencement of evezy atafl« immediately after the def,
lofelher with which they htm what ia temed tfie tufnaiure of the piece. Here
G 7) A S
m
F
—Mlt^
\ro spf tlie signatures of the more usual keys. It will bo ohjêrved that the 8har}»s
and Hats are written accordinji to the order in whi< li they appear in the Hrrle by
fifths (pp. 40 and ) : first /' sliarj), then r sharp ; tirst A flat, then r Hat, \c. kc.
Tt\e signature aflccta n(»t only the octave in which it is writtuii. l>ut also the
same degreesi in every other Mttave. 'J'hus, in 6' mujor, the signalurt' I'laet-d in the
two-UneH <xta\ e indicat€.s that not only the sound / of this octave, but everj' /, in
wliatt ver situatirm, is changed into F tt/iarp.
When any single note is to differ from the siguaturi — fur iiistaiue, if in a coin-
posit! Ill m (r major, the sound F% is in a certain place not to be n tainnl — this is
indicated by a natural placed before the note ; and here we see, for tlic lirst time, a
necessity for the employment of this sign. In this phrase, for instance,
"^^*
, » # , m ^ ^ II
F must, the iirat three times, be read F tkairp, afiOttding to the signature ; but
the fourth F, by memi fi£ the natural, becomes the original F, and not F gliarp.
Thus also, if in a piece of music an entire change of key is tn take place, the
£nt mgnatiire miut be revtdced by naturals and the new signature substituted.
K 2
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&2 A %|<HIE MINUTE CO!(8IDKRATTO!9 OP THE KETB.
TfiiH may happen not only in the course of s piece, hut in any part of a ma^
staff; hare
62
where we see, first, the signature of D nujor and a few notes, intended to indicate
the close of a strain in this key. The next phrase changes into the key of ;
therefore, the two sharps of D nuyor are revoked hy naturals, and the two flats ftr
the new key of are substituted.
Sometimes only a certain portion of the ngnature is required to be revoked;
ibr instance, if we proceed from a key with leTeral sharps to one irith a soialkr
number, or from a key with sevâl flats to one vritfa a smaUer number, in sodi
cases it wouM, strictly considered, be sufficient to revoke only those sharps or flats
which are no longer wanted ; as here, at a,
« b
where a change occurs from the key of £ to that of />. For the sake of greater
clearness, however, and in Qrder to guard the peHbnner from any {u^sible error,
those sharps or flats wluch still remain in the new key are again inserted as at 6.
A similar case occurs, when we proceed to a key which has more sharps oar fiats
than the {trcceding one ; for instance, from Z>, or Bh major with two sharps or flats,
t<> or i4b nujor with fuur sharps or flats. Here again it would in reality !«
sufficient to attach the new signs ; as here
wluTe the twu ih w siiai jis, T/g and D^. chance the ]irevious kw <>( l> into tln> key
of ^^ But. ill n a-lin^' ra}'i'lly, the ja! t'ornier might niistiikr the nt-vv sharps fi>i a
nitrr n |n t!tloii I'l" the prtviuus sipniture ; nni, tln rt tbrv, it is generally pn lcrred
to re|»eat the [>rfvioii8 signs also, and insert the uhole signature of tJie new key.
Such a complete change of sigimtiin , however, Is only intr<^Jucod when we

intend to remain for a c<»nijidi'raMe time in Uie new key But when the change is
merely temporary, we retain the j*rennu8 signature, and indicate the new eleva-
tions or depressions by spedal sharps, tlats, or naturals. If we consider this sac-
cession of notes
« h t 4
n l -
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A MORE MINUTE CONSIUEUATION OV THE KEVji. 53
as part of a longer strain in the key of D major, we flee, at (a), the note C, which,
M it does not belong to the scale of 2), infficotes a change of key. As, however,
the note CU recurs at (S), it is pUun that the key of j9 has only been quitted
inadentally. For this reason, we abstun from changing the signature, and merely
fbee a natural before one C, and a sharp before the other. The same is the case at
cmd (/, where the nund b is first changed into &b,and is shortly after restored to its
original pitch. >
Such ungle sharps and flats occurring in the middle of a staff, and indicating
a merely temporaiy elevation or depreaaion of a sound, are termed
AcCIBBllTAUi,
in <-' iitra<li^)tmction irom the sharps or Hats of the signature, wliidi ore ii^rnuuient,
tocc^tiog where they are revoked by naturals.
2. The Minob Soalbb.
Tlie sit!7uiture of the niiimr keys is regiilaUxi l>y <i s])t'ciiil ;ui<l |it'iuli:ir law,
Tile th vatiiiiis ur dfjiiossious uf tliese keys are not iiidicuted by aii exatUy
corresponding number of sliaqis or flats; but
ecer^ minor ketf kiu ihe mine signature as tlml major key which situated
a minor third aboce it*.
Thus the signature of A minor not, as might be exjêcted from its scale
is
(a- b e —d € f—if t—a), a sharp on the degree of G ; nor does the signature
of D minor (d-ê—f—g—o—*b e%—d) oonast of one iharp and one flat:
but A minor has the ugnature of C major ; e. neither sharps nor flats ; while
/) minor has the signature <^ F mcyor (one flat) ; the major key lying, in both cues,
a minor thud above the minor one. Here
we see the signatures of the mmor keys which most frequently occur ; that of E
mmor is like that of G major ; of D minor, like that of F major ; of B minor,
like that of D major ; &c. &c. Ac.
Tiro keys (the one môr and the other mmor) whidi have the same signature
are termed
Paballel Keys,
or parallel i<onei. The parallel tone of a minor key is situated, as we have seen,
a minor third higher ; consequently the' parallel key of every major key is to be
{bund a minor third belotc. Thus, the parallel key of ulb miyor is minor ; of
B major, it is 6^ ft minor ; of major, minor ; and so on. In this manner,
• Let lb( student well ob8or\-.' tlio difforunco- ovei-y minor sculc is f>mai (.U riveii) Iroiii
Ht own major scale ; i. e. that wliicli Uaai tlic iOint ttmit i sii/nature is lliat of the majui-
1t»y foand a ounor third above it.
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54 A JIOBK MINUTE CON811>EaATI0J« OF THE KfcVb.
the difierait parallel key* may be eadly ideotified, and thenoe the ngRatuna ef
the minor keya detennined. *
And now only do we understand My the meaning and purpow of the difierent
iignaturei. In the firtt placet they serve to indicate vdiich sounds^ in a muncal
piece, or m any part of it, are to be raised or lowered ; in this way they save the
trouble of wTiting a sharp or flat before each single note req|uiiing to be altered.
Secondlyt also they serve as an
iNDIOATlOir OF THE KXT
in which a |iiece is composed. In tliis resjiect, however, they are so far deficient as
indicators, that they do not inform us which of tlie two parallel keys represented
by ever}' siiniature is intended. This last question wl shall ii 't bo ah]c tn decide
with certainty, until we have h> ar<l something of liurmouy and niudulatiua ; as a
temporary help, however, the student may notice, that
T/ie fast note
of a eompotttiony or, should it close with harmonic cximbinalions (p. 3),

The lowi'st »tnmil
of tills harmony is t/enend/// tlte key-n 't!- rf t!ii' piece.
Thua, if a composition have two sharps tor its signature, we know that either
the key of D mai<^r, or of /? minor is inf1icat<»d, Nmv, when the last ssnnnd or the
lowest wund of the ia^t harniuDy is it may be presumed that B minor, and not
J) major, is the key of the pirt c.
But what Ih^coiucs ut" those degrt rs ot n minor key wlu'sc alteration is not indi-
cat***! ill the signature? Wlietwer smli dt'git-e& titviir, iheir ekvaliuu or depressiun
ih in-licated hy a ?'|'«'( ia!-i" r /'/. ///^/''-sharp, flat, or natunU. Thus the signature t-f
1) uunor, ihr iiistaiirc, is "H,' tlat ; Imt wi- kin-w tliat the scale of JJ minor has uUu
a C thmp ; thn. liire, whenever a note on the degrtn; of C apf tears; , we place
before it a sliari , unless it be expressly intended that the sound is not to be raised,
but is lu retain its natural pitch.
Whence then arises this practice of prefixing to the minor keys a signature
which is only partly correct? —This system must be followed, on account of its
general adoption ; but we can only feel satisfied when we {lercdve that this general
custom rests upon valid grounds. Of these, vre can here mention only the fiôwing:
Ftrttfy : an attempt to give a precisely correct signature to all minor kejs
would in many cases be attended with great inconvenience. Two minor keys
2> .. ~.
/— ^ a 6b e j^—<f,
would require both sharps and flats, and thus entirely deviate fiom the natural
development of the signatures, to which we have become accustomed in the forma-
tion of the major soaks. The other minor keys, for mstance,
il—* — e—d — e^f—^m^-a ytt
B^t—g^ a — A— e^t—€ f%uAd%
C d e h — / g ah h c and «b,
jp-y—ab—6b—<-^b—e-/. bh, ab, and d^.
would have the same number of sharps or flats as some major keya totally diflemt
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— — —
A MOBB MINUTE OON0tDKRATION OF THB KEYS. 55
from them ; and as, in the major scales, we have been accuBtomed merely to look at
the number of sharps or flats, in order to recognise the key, how easily might a
performer mistake the ngnature of A minor £»r that of G miôr, or of J* minor for
that of E\> major*.
A minor. G mtyor. ttUnor. £\} uuôr.
It would, therefore, be neceuaiy to nodoe in every lignature, not only the

mmber of aharpa and flati, but abo caiefully to examintf tfadr poeitiona on the
which again would be so much move laborious a task in the minor keys,
rtaff ;
beeause thereis, in the latter, no trace of that regular progrenion of the flats and
ihaips which is found in the successive mqor keys, and which enables us to know
at owe what sharp or flat imuit /(^w upon one or more preceding ones.
Seamdfy: Most compoiitions, especially those of considerable length, and in
which consequently the signature is id greater importance, do not remain m the
same key, but pass through one or several others. 'Dus change of keys is not
altogether a matter of aoeident or choice, but is based upon, and regulated by, certain
artistic laws ; Miost general and important of which is, that in such a change a
nearly related key is to be preferred to a more distant or foreign one.
Now, if we wish to pass from a minor into a nearly related major key. we have
the choice between two major keys, both staiulinjf in Uie suuk' tletêc of ri'lation to
the minor one; vi/. the iiiajur key on the same tunic, and the jiarallel key situated
a minor tliird higher. For reasons wliieh ciui only l>e fully explained in tiie theory
of compu-sition, we prefer, in ;i<'iii'r<ii to j.ass into tiie parallel maj^-r key, nustead of
that upon tlie same tonic ; for iiistaiu o. having commenced in tlie key <jt C minor,
we would procecl to the key of E\) (the jiaralK I major key), in jireferenee to that
of 6* mfijor. Tins heiiij; an iJiiiost general rule, it ij> ohviniisly an iklvantagi' that
no iilteration of tiie si^îiature is necessary, but that one degree of the srale unly
requires the em[il(tyment of mi uccusiuiial sharp or flat; as, in the above change from
C minor to Kh niujur, a flat on the degree of b.
C—d—eb /— -9 —ab b — —d—eb.

c
E h—f—if—a b hb — d-r^c b.
^
• For tlus noBon, it has also been proposed to indicate bj meaas of MAiraft those degrees
of the eculu whicli, in the major key on tlic snme tonic, or in tho parallel key, undergo an
altaiatum, and write the sigitttiirefl of ^ and C minor tbiis:
But, leaving oat of oonsiderstioa that this mode of writing would not be suitable to all
nuBor keys (for instance, Oot I) minor), it is al-n, to say the least of it, uppuscd to coumion
MTOic to employ a sign of levocatiaa (a natural) where no previous elevation or dcprenion of

•ottods ba* taken yiaee.
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A MORS MINUTE CONSIDBRATIOlf OF TEE KITS.
B. The Pbimcipal Imtsbvals or tok Soalk.
We have teen that a major or minor scale may be eatablithed upon every aound
of the octave. Hub «mnd, upon which the acale may be Baid to rest, and fiom
which it derives its name, is distinguished by the speoal name
ToNir»
of its scale or key.
The fifth degree of every key (tlu* major fifth above the Ionic) is called the
Dominant
or (jor^rniitg touttd. In a subsequent part, which treats of harmony, we shall learn
why this sound bears such u •listinctive name. Here we will only intimate tlmt the
dominant k that sound at which, in the cirde by fiUhx, wt lirst arrive after the
precc.rmL: key-note. Tims, for instance, the dominant of C n G, and tli" 1
nant oi* G is /) ; as the circle by fifths also leails us from the key of first to thai
of O, and next to I), ^c. &r.
Hut there is also another circle I'V titlhs, |»r(K.i'eding in an opposite direction;
nnmelv, that of the kevs with tiats, whidi len ?- ?m frîm a certain kov-note t-T one
«itiui*n<1 tiv«' <?»'CTei'8 Ai/c/T f»r instnnce, from (' l-t F. tln iice to i>'b, »'^c.
; b.
Til.' r. V. r- d progression may also be iollowt^.i in the keys with sharps; frt»m
/> to (t, Irom O to This shows that tlie mujor-firth the i»v.ir k also an
im|>'>rtant iiitenp'al ot the scale, and it is therefore Uicewise distinguished by the
«l)ecial name
SnBDOJtrNANT,
f>r the dominant '"t (hu//) the tonic. In the key of C, therefi^, the sub-
dominarit is F. in the k. v of G it is C, in tlx k» v of A it is D. A'c
AVe have ntill to iiimti ii two other. thoii;^'li l -.^ important and usual, terms.
The third degree in every major or minor scale is called tl»e
Mbdiant ;
in explanation of which term, we confine ourselves, for the present, to the observatiQii,
that it is situated between the tonic and dominant, between whidi it fi>nn8 a
mediating link. In what maimer it serves to connect those two intervals, we dudl
see in a suhseqtient part of this work.
As the third abore the tonic connects the latter with the dominant ; so the third
l/rl>ur the tmic serves as a connecting link between it and the subdominant; and is
therefore termed the

SlTU.MKDlANT.
T\i\i», in the k^<tf C major, tlie sound £" is tlie maliant, and .1 the submediant
i*' is the connecting sound between C and (/, luid ^1 pertJjrms tlie s;une office
between F and C in C minor, the mediant is j^b, and the submediant Ab*
• It scarcely reûire^ to \w i>l>ervetl, thfttsU these tems sre given to «vory eound tmt^
in one particular hy, and ilia? luul thr same sound may have quite ditTorunt imtnou in
diflercnt'kcjtt. Thus the eound A u th« fulhitnhuut in C'niaj .r, tin- nuiiattt in /* uiaj<nr, tbe
iamktamt ia J> niujur, the mtUhMittani in JT u):ijor, mid the ttmk mA uiujur or uiinur.
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— — ——y y —
A MOBS MINUTB 0ON8IDE&ATION OP THE KST8. 67
C. Relations of tbm Kbts.
If we wnsti to the preceding sectioD,- vin find that every key dif&ii fimn all the
mt, but that the difference la greater between aome than othen. IIiiib, on com-
paring the aede of C major with that of G mijor,
c d—e—/—y a —6—c—d—t—/ —
g" b —e— d '
e ^ —Stt
we find them to diilfer only in one ws^fib notCi C uujox having and G major
/sharp; all the other degrees, ^ a —— b e d e, are the aame. But if we
compare the nujor icafe of C with that of
—
e— d •€
e — / — y y —a-a
'/^ •••i
b e
e |F —
d
U
e,
we find that they differ in no leaa than four degrees ; the natural Bounds, t/, r,
and d, of the scale on C, being railed to /% ff% cii, and dU, in the key of JH,
Two keys, whose scales have several sounds in common, are termed
Relative Keys.
Now, the difference between two scales being in some cases greater or less, it is
obvious that there must be various
DEasBSS or Rclation.
We have already seen that a miôr key is most intim^y connected with those
iriucb precede or follow it in the circle by fiflhs ; while a minor key is connected in
most points with its parallel key, and the mqor key of its own tonic. Thus there
are three kinds of rdation.
1. RXLAIION BET¥nS£N THS MaJOS KSYS.
This relatinn and its different deêes are indicate*! in the circle \\y fifths. ITiose
keys, which in this circle inimciliately tldlow or j)reeede eaeli other, differ only in one
ringle sound ;
they stand, therefore, in tlie jirKt dc<ir»'>' r>f rplat'uni. Thus, if we
look at the combined eircle by fifths, both of the keys witli sharps and fiats,
66 4 3 2 ibO 1^2 3 4 6 G.
Oh Z>b Ah Kb Bb F C G D A E B Fz,
we find that every key has for its nearest relations the next keys iinnie<liately en
the right and kit. C major, for instance, is situated between its two nearest
rdations, the keys of F and G ; the key of E has on both sides its nearest rela-
tions, B and A môr. Which m'e the nearest relations of 6rb nujor? On one
fide, Db miyor ; on the other (p. 48), Cb nuyor ; in lieu of whidi, we may employ
its enharmonic key of B*.
• For xhmo who w i-K tu ]» in trato mow Avv\t\y into tho nature and Diysterica of the
smicol wc will not kavu unnoticed that llicro exists between diiTcrcnt keys ft idstioil
art,
^^lieh iiof a more epiritual—one might say 4ymjNifMi0—nature (Ihis is eepeeially the case
vitb tlioM) keys whoie tonics are sttoatod at the distiiiu of a third from each oUicr; f<T i;
•Mtttncf, between C major and minor, or A A

flat major below, and Jf minor i»r F.^ unijnr
aknre) ; while only the broader kinds of txtmuU reUtion (vith which erety pupil must be
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68 A MOKB MlirUTB OONBIDBRATION 0¥ TBS UTS.
Those keys which, in the circle by fiilh^, are sef^rated by one intermediate k«y,
are relate] in the necond dt'(free ; for instance, C major and /) or B\> major. The
more difitaut dtêes of relatioo may be <^«iili>tArf in accordance with this principle.
2. Rklation ov Parallkl Km.

Major and minor keys having the lame signature are related to eadi other in the
^rst Jeifree, for they differ only in one sound (p. 56). Tims tli. k< ys of ^môr
and A minor, C minor and J5b major, «.^c. &c. are relations in the first degree.
A combination of the ]>renoui kind of relation (that of the m^r keys in the
circle by fifths) with this, between the parallel keys, leads to a secondary comiexicm
between minor and major keys. We have seen that every major key it related in
the first degree ;
firstly, with its two neighbouring maji)r keys ;
and, secondly, with
ita parallel minor key : C major, for instance, with G and F major, and with A
minor. Now, each of these two nearest related major keys has* again its parallel
minor key f Ij an ! I) minor), to whielt it n ulsn related in the tirsi degree. Tliese
latter, IhtTclurc, may 1^*- cnns-idcrf.! aii rekit 'xunt in the xecond detfree to the first key
((7 major). This kitt l i t relation may be thus represented:
C' major
F major A miwir G major Relattona in the &st degree.
I I
D minor E minor Relations in the second deg^ree.

By a fartlier extension of this table, we cbtaui relations between more distant
degrees; for instance:
C major
F major A minor G major
B b fnajor D miner E minor D major
„ minor
G
.1
B minor
I.
We see relations in ttie jirat degree G major, F major, A minor ; in the second
degree D major, E minor^ Bh major, D minor} and in the third degree
B minor and G minor. But it is unnecessary to cany this examinatioa ftrther, or
even so &r.
S. Relation bbtwxsn tbi Hinoe Kbts and thb Majob Kbtb op

TSB SAIB TONIO0, AND BBTWXBN THE DtPFKBSNT MufOB KbTB.
Wo have set*n (u. 44) tliat (.very tninor key differs in two <>/ if.-! intervah from
the major ki y nf the saiue U iiic ; viz. in its third and sixth. Such two keys, there-
fore, must be coiuudered as relations in the gecomi deifree.
made Boqiismted) have been poiatod out It ii only by looldiif upon the csterasl i^n^Tiflii
of the scales, that the kt^ys cf /? m:ijnr (for un CJJ major (instead of D)}), can be«dd
!
to \v} in the nearest n.>lutiou to thi- key of G9 major. Hut mon^T extcmn! ooncidfrntion
eutliccs here for the whub ttrm of muait J study. A prL juulure eiKjuiry mU) the more hidden
ties <tf a£Bnity would Uid to ao beaefldal result j but might, on tho eointrary, give rise to a
train of mcrdy fantastic ywnlstions. The proper place for the aolution of these sod nsukr
questioiM) is in the Sekm* ^ Mime, which the aotliar hopes soon to lay hefine the piablic
A MOHK MINUTE CONtilD£RATiON OF THE KEYS. 69
But hers a peculiar dnumitanoe lerret to draw ckMer the bond of umon. A
mqar and its minor key have in common die three meet important intervali of the
acaie; m.
the tonic,
dominant, and
aubdominant
and them ao cloeely (as we shall see in the doctrine of har-
this eircumstance unites
mony), that we must oomider them aa relations in the first degree.
For the tame reason, we conndor as relatione in the first degree those minor keys
which stand to each other in the position of tonic and dominant or subdominant ;
or,
in other words, which immediately follow each other in tlie circle by fifths. Thus
the minor keys of E and D are considered as relations, in the first degree, to A
minor, solely on account of the close connexion between tlie tonic, its dominant, und
subdominaTit ; for the scales of the latter diHtur from that of the former, not only in
one, but in tiircc of tlieir intervals :
i> e—/—^—a — bb ct —d
^'
A, b C ii 1'
O ^ (t
E- f'Z— ii
— — — — ^—
a b r <l r
If this dominant relation between the niin^r ki vs themselves be eunibined with
parallel keys, we obtain relations in the 8ei ond degree between minor and major keys
' A minor
D minor C major minor
FJ- major
'•
r major
G
of tlie same kind as those found above (p. 58). The tracing of such and more dis^
taut degrees of relation may be left to the industry of the pupil.

60 APPBNDIZ.
APPENDIX.
THB tCCLISIASTIOAL OB OHUBOH MODBB.
In the j^reoeding tecttom we have given an eiqpotttion of the different mode* and
keys as Uiey ale now in use in our mcMlem Eimpean syitem of munc
niis system, however, has not always been m existence or in fierce ;
and, espe-
cially in rtigard to the modes and keys, there was employed, for a I niij time, and
down to tlie sixteenth and seventt eiith centmries, a system r.f scales which differed
entirely from those now in use, and which aie deeignated by the name of
Cbukcu Modes,
or ecclesiastica! fnnr.f, or sometimes simply nncimt mo<{es. It was, at one time, al?-*
customary to call liitui Greek modes, aiid the scalejj thtuiselves had Greek juum s,
although they had no connexion with, or similarity to, the dilferent systems in which
the ancient Greeks arnuiged tlicir musical sounds*.
I.,
yj In this system there were distbguidied five w six difibent modes; vjt.
the Ionian: e d t f y a h t;
„ Dorian : —
d ^—f—g —« — —d; f> p
„ Phrygian : e—f—<f a — — —r^/ h e ;
Lydian (wliich, however, has never Ix'en able to attain an

independent position amongst the others),
—a— — d—e—f:
f—-p b c
Mifxol^dtan : — — — —d— — —p
<f a f> f f -f ;
„ jEolian: a— — —d—e—/—^— a;
1> c
of which, as will be seen, only one (the Ionian) oprcs cxadly with our major mode;
and this, let it be observed, only so far as regards the intervals of the scale. Two
others, the Myzolydian and Lydian modes, are milar to our mfôr keys, but not
exactly the same, for the one has a minor seventh, and the other an augmented
fourth. The arranj»ement of the three remaining church m<xlee resembles that of our
minor keys ; but the Dorian mode has a major sixth and a minor sevi nth ; the
.^lian, a minor sixth and seventh ; and the Phrygian, besides these, a minor second.
From these the ancients formed coUateml imdes, which were situated a fifth
above or a fourth below the ori^nal ones, and acnuiged exitctiy like tliem. These
• And even the names given to ti>e«« church modes were not oxaclly the samo m tkote of the
Greek soales. The Orseks hsd, at int, oidy three soalea, the Doriaii, ?h>7gisii, and Lfdisa
hetwoen whieh there weie sfterwirds inserted the Atlu, or /omeii, and tK modest Of s M m
.
iny»dydien mode they knew nothbig.
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THE ECCLS8IA8TICAL OR CHURCH M0DC8. Gl
were distinguished by tin- jirefix hypo*. Thus the collateral of tlie luiiiaii mode was
called Uifpo- loniaiif and had thcê sounds
y —a — b c d e /g—y;
the ooUatenl key of the Dorian mode wbb called Eypo-Darian mode, and ttood thus:
Hiese scales could also be transposed to other degrees ; for instance, the ^^kiUan to 6^ :
and» lastly, fineign aounds eould alao» under oertain oooditioiia, be introduoed into
their scales. For the andenls also employed, besides the original sounds c, </, e,/,
0,a, 6,ihe sounds bb and eb, /% e% and sr$f l>ut the temperament of their
entin system was so different firom ouis, thai they eould not employ, aa we do,
6b and eb in place of «1| and djf \ nat/% elt, andy 8 instead ofyb, db,taidabif»
These ancient modes, which differ from the modem, especially in point of modu-
lation, are of peculiar interest, not only historically, but also because we are still in
possession of a number of sacred oompositions (and amongst them are our finest
jpuka and hymn tunes) which are based upon the old systun, and whidi, without
a knowledge of these modes, cannot be properly understood or harmonized. Ereiy
sound miuidan, therelbre, should have at least some knowledge of them.
The fill! explanation of the nature and peculiarities of the andent modes belongs,
however, to the province of the " School of Comporition," where it finds its imme-
diate pradkal application |. Here we have hcen obliged to conime ourselves to a
few general hints, to which we add examples of the most usual clffsen of the diffiient
church modes, as a temporaty means of distinguishing them from each other
1, 2. Jkrum.
fi7
r~p:
* The Gndc pnAx, hypo^ signillM *' below it must there£>re appear stringe that it
AonU have been uaed to indicate a tnnspoeitioiik to the itmbuHU^ which liet above the tonio.
TheiMMn ia simply this, that tlio word and its application ha l»>cn adopted from tliu mudcal i
terminnlti^y of tli-' Gm ks. I5ut tlio latter did not drvrlop their system of scales by fifth?, rvn
we do, but by Jourths ; consequently, Uteir hypo-modes (*. g. Hypo- Ionian upon G) were, in
itality, situated upon the fourth below the original tonic.
t The old system liad no equalized temperament like ours (sec note, p. 1 n) ; there was then
a roil difference bctAvrcn major and minor semitmir^ ; A 5? fi"^' ''b woidd have been toolow to
ici ve and d jj, wiiUc f% e ^, and g Jf
would have been too high for g)fy d\fj and a]f.
t AU nrrr«sary iiifomintion on tin's interesting and still practiriiUy iinportrint «nbject willhc
fuuad in tlie hrst Tolumc of the Author's Sehool of Composition, published by Messrs Kobert
Cocks and Co.
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62 THE ECCLESIASTICAL OR CBURCH MODES.
4. LyUan.
ri— « «
t 1
1
o u
-> II
«
1^
5. Myxoljfdian 6. yHoUan.
—^1 i
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FART THE SECOND.
EIIYTHMICS.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
It has already l>cen pointed out, in the Introduction, pp. 4 and that every
sound must continue tor a definite or indi tinite length of time, arid that the cuntinu-
ation of a certain order in tlie division of time ]iri>duces what ia tt rnied Jihi/tlun. It
is the province of rhythmics to examine this inipyrtunt element of tlie muiiieal art.
In doing so, (hri'v rssi'ntktUi^ diflWent fmni« have tu l)e broiiglit under consideration.
Firstly : Hie space of time during wliich a .sound may continue. This duration
may be fixed in an absolute manner, by determining tliat u sound is to last fur sucli
md such a part of a second or minute ; or it may be given ajfiproximattotty and in

a kBB dfifiiute manner, by taking for a measure of time» general usage or feeling. But
tiie durttkm of time may alao be determined in a rdoHve sense, by comparing the
duration of one sound with that of another ; &t instance, by stating that a certain
sound is to last as long, or twice as long, or only half as long, Ac. Ac. as a certain
other sound. This rdadve measuranent ia that which detennines the rhyttunica)
9abie of a sound, to which allusion has been made in the Introduction.
(The afaedute measure of time vrill be considered in the Appendix to the fourth
Mdian ; the conventional and generally accepted measurement, in the fourth section
ifeKlf ; and the rkytkmieal wUue of aomids, in the 0x8t section.)
Seemuty: The relative «rdler of the successive divisions of time. An arrange-

mont-^hatever may be its objects-must necessarily be based upon some specific
idea or law, which determines that this form, and no other, should be em|doyed. A
rh\thmical division of tune can only consist herein, that certain sunilar or dissimilar
dinsions are component parts of each other, and, as such, should express themselves.
The most simple of such rhythmical forms is that which rr*nsists of a repetition of
equal divisions of time ; because here the law which Regulates the order of sounds is
most easily perceived. With this most simple arrangement, our present system of
musical rhythm, therefore, coirnneneea* ; as will be seen in the sixth section, which
treats of the arrangement of bars and measures.
Thirdly : The Accent. In every rhythmical arrangement, one of the sounds in
each group stands fonvard as principally to be noticed (e. g. because it is the first of
the group, &c. &c.), and engages our especial attention. We therefore distin^ûish it
from the rest — indc jiendently of other kinds uf expression —by giving it a greater
force, ^fhis stress, laid u[kjii certain sirunds <it' a rhythmical group, is termed Accent.
Mi^cal aceentuati>in will he considered in the tenth section.
If Tliesf few preliminary remarks will serve as a genera! survey of the doctrine ut'
rhythm. If, in the following sections, the above development nf this doctrine be
wmeUmes deviated from, it is done either to enable us t o Instow the necessary atten-
tion upon important details, or to accommodate tlie theory oi tlie School as much us
possible \m the re<j[uireniciitd and general usage of practical music.
* In fiMioer times (fov histttice, in muaio of tfa« Gi«eki, and duriiig tiie middlo ages),
the rhy*^ f muaic had not yet tntved «t an independent developiaait, but depended chiefly
I
von Vox, rkythm v& poetry.

F
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66 BIITTHMICAL VALVB OP SOUNDS.
I
I
/ SECTION TH£ FIRST.
RHTTHMICAL YALUS OF SOUNDS.
Thk rlnihmicnl value < ( n ""^'unH is thf* nitin whirli it hears in resjiect to tlu- <\\\-
ratioTi t't" ntlicr smiukIs. It dot-s ii"? tliii tore detemiint- tlio absolute Hurati'.a of
sound, liut >>r\\y its relative value as ( 'in]';aLd with others, liy imlicatin;; that a cer-
tiiiu tiuuud iis to last twire, three, or lour times as Innjj n.s aiiotiur; or, on the COD-
tmry, has only half, a third, or fiiurth part, \'c Sir. oi its duratiun.
The most simple ratio bctvvtcH the rhythmical value of two sounds is that whiclt
arises from a division by two. With this we conunence.
A. liirAUTiTJc Valu£ Of Sounds.
In the com pari soil nfthe rhythnural value of different si>unds, we prix-eed upf'Ti
tno axiom that the Innp-st snund has llu' u lu le i.t a rertain p^rti iU of time allotted
to it Such a sound, as well as the n<.ie I v wliich it is represented, is called a
The duration of the semibreve is di\ided 'mU> two equal jKtrtions of time. A sound
which has the value of one of these halves of a seraibreve m called a
Minim.
tlie mmim ib again divided into two equal parts, eadh of whidi ia caUed a
Cbotcbet.
A crotchet is divided mto two
QUAYKBS;
A quaver into two •
SKXiQUAVSna
A semiquaver into two
Dkkisemiqvavers ;
A demiieniiquAver into two

Sbmideuisemiquavers.
We have hete divided each note into two smaller ones ; but tbia itiviuon showa,
at the same time, that
A semibreve ia equal to 2 nuniros, 4 crotchets, 8 quavers, Ac. &c.
A minim „ „ 2 crotchets, 4 quavers, 8 semiquavers, &e. &c.
A crotchet „ „ - quavers, 4 semiquavers, &c. kc.
How are the rhythmical values of sounds indicated in written music ? By the
ahapea of the notes themselves.
Uiyiiized by Google
RHYTIIVXCAL VALUE OF 80UNUS. 67
A semibreve is repreaented by this note
A minim
A crotchet **
(D
A quaver ft
A 8eiiuqu8?er >»
A demisemiûaver
A lemidemiienuquaTer
1(f)
We see here dial the Bemibreye by an open oval, that the inmun
ia represented
has a perpendicular tine (called a stem) attadied to it, and that the erotchet and all
Rinaining smaUtf notes consist of a round bla^ dot with a stem. The rhjrtfamical
vahie of the quaver, semiquaver, Ac. &e. is indicated by short, oblique tines (called
crooks), which are affixed to the stem, and increase in number as the note deoeosea
in value. When notes with such crooks occur in succession, the crooks may be
drawn together so as to fiinn continuous tines
The yiusition of the stem and its crooks, vvliether they be drawn upwards or
il-nvnwards, whi ther situated at tlie right hand or the left, &o. 4^c. does not affect the
Vidui' of u iiMto. It has, however, become (. ustoniary to dra.v ihe stem of a note
upwards, wht.-n situated below the tlurd line, uiid dowuwai-di> when above the third
Une. In the lirst ca^, the stem is usually drawn at the right hand of the note ; iii
the btter, at the left. The crooks arc always appended on the nght-hand side of the
stem. When crooks of several notes are dnwn together by strong, straiglit tines, the
position of the latter and their stems is regulated according to the greater number of
notes thus united, as may be seoi in the above example. Here
J
r
J J J
9 90 m mm
we lee once more, arranged one bdmr another, all rhytiunical values arising from a
^virion by two ; but only the subdivisions of the crotchet have been fully carried out.
F2
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G8 BHTTHMICAL VALUE OF SOUNDS.
How are we to note wmnds of greater rhythmical table than the ieiiiibt«Te?
There are three different wayi of doing this
Firatly : We find that chaiacters representing longer durations of sound than our
semibreve were formerly used in music. During the time of mensural music*, the
following rhythmical forms d* notes yrere employed
CZI^ maxima, or duplex longa
SS^ Imga ;
^ st miifrevis (semibreve), haif a brevw
The minima, it will be seen» was, in name and shape, the same as our minim
(excepting tiiat the head of the note was square, instead of round or oval) ; the
gemibretU was no other than our present semibreve. Of the longer notes, we may
still employ the
BasviB tSi {or Breve),
which has the valua of two semibreres. The moxima and hti^ are notnaw in use.
SeetmdfyWhen a sound Is required of longer duration than can be indicated

:
by a siiiê character, we may join two or Airee notes togetiier. Hits is done by
writing so many notes as ooQectiTely express the duration of sound required, and
then joining them by a curved line, oaUed a
Bind, or Tie,
Notes thus connected, are considered and played or snng, as one single note of
the same value as that of all united. According to this mode of notation, a sound of
the value of four senubreves is indicated thus
A sound of tlic value of tive or seven crutcliets may be noted Uius
e-J I «r-^J
and tiie foUowing series of tied notes
« The mme of numtiinl mnrie (mmtim mmmmJk, or mMutmOa) has been given te tiiit
of music which liuil a rln tliTuiral nrrnngoinent, fnim tin tiiiif <>f the first appearance of
msriilrir fTTWipinp into dtviaione anil h uu (whidi, probably, had it> -iniciii in the Icn;; ami -hoit
i'vvl nt prosody, aa they appeared in the words of hymns and rchgious songs, iu»d of which the
monk, Franco, of Cologne, waa^ so wc know, the firat teacher of any note), down to the
far as
aixtcentik end leventeenlih oentoriest when the old rbytbmicat tmngement was nipenoded hy
onr ineaent aysten of bars and measures. Oppoeod to the muMica metmirtiti$ was the m imm
plana, or catitiu planuA (plain chant), a kint! of eonc, which had no dccide<l rhythm, and con-
sisted mostly of wounds of eqtial Icnprth. A> fur mensural Biaaic, ita theory waa cxoccdin^y
complicsitfil, ami little a<ir\])t«.'d to prutti< al puqmscit.
t CotupimTti uf urgan music appear to have been the first to employ erotehets, (luarcrs, and
seiniquavcrs, under the names of teutimimimoy ftisal^ tcmi/uaaJ. Wc find that tluise
notes wen wed so early as the fifteenth century.
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:
HHYTHMICAL VALUE OV SOUNDU. G9
would re|NreKiit a tound of libe vshie of teven crotehete and three aemiquttven. It
it clear HaA, hy tlus mode of notatioii, any denred rhythmieal quantity may be in-
dicated.
l%Mfy : We may make um of the

Dot;
vHiich, placed after a note, imareaeeB its duration of sound one-half; thus, for in-
ttanoe, a semibreye is equal to two minims ; but when Mowed by a dot,
it has the value of three. A quaver i& ecûal to two tieiiutûaverb ; a dot placed ailer it
renders it equal to three. A second dot has half the value of the preceding one.
Thus, a crutcliet with two dots
J" I
tt equal to a crotchet, a quaver (for the first dot), and a semiquaver (for the second
dot). A minim with two dots has the value of seven quavers.
We may also employ a third dot, as here, at a
m b
J— 1 «HJ-
where we see the notation of a sound of the rhytfamieal value of three crotchets and
three semiquaven. But this crowdxi^ of minute characters, the values cf which
have to be found by calcufaition, makes die reading <^ muric difllcult, and exposes the
perlbnaQer to many mistakffa. For this reason, it is generally more advisable to write
a second veal note (at at ^), instead of the first dot, and then add two dots only.
StiD, in tome partjwilar cases, the first mode of notation may be preferable.
B. Tripartiti Valui of SouHDe.
Having seen how the subdivisions of rhythmical valiu s liy two are signified, and
that each subdivision is distinguished by an alteration in the shape of the notes, it
mij^t naturally be expected tliat the subdivisions by three would be similarly ex-
pressed; that aaemibreve would be divided into three thirds, the third of a semi^
tiRve again into three ninths, and so on ; and that each of these subdivisions woulo
be expressed by a note of special form. This, however, is not the case, because it
would overload musical rhythmics with a perplexing mass of names iuid signs.
Jifevertheless, the matter lias not, on this account, been left unprovidcil fn".
If we would indicate the third part of a rhythmical value, the name and sijî of
the bipartite value nnist he employed, l»ut witli the indication that tlorf buch piu t-s,
and not ttoo, be reckoned tor one. Such groups of Uu'ee sounds (or iiutes^,
having the value of two, are termed
Tmi'juKib,
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70 RHTTHMICAL VALUE OF SOUNDS.
and thar tripartiu> character is indicated by a eurved line drawn o?er or under the
tfaiee notesp with the figure 3 placed within it Here
^ 1
1£; 1 «^
we iee triplets of crotchets, quavers, and minims ; a triplet of crotdiets has the
same value as two ordinaiy crotchets, or one minim ; a triplet of quavers has the
value of one crotchet ; a triplet of Diinims is equal to one semihreve ; 4kc. &e.
Qf the three sounds of a triplet, two may be aipun united into one, and this la
indicated eith^ by joining the two notes by means of a tie, or by employing a note
of double their rhythmical value. Hius we here see
f r r '
ti?
a triplft of crotchets having the value <>t a ininliu, and a triplet of quavers repre-
HiMitinij tilt' vnhi<' "f a cr >tflu't : of tlu* luriiK-r, tin* fir«»t two crochets have h»H»n
joined by a lie, aii'l tin; saiiir liiis hr. n dniu' with llu- last two fjiia\»-rs nt the latter.
In both rn'««'<*. llu- iw^ ûuuds have liecii cuuverted iut" Mut; of double the value ; the
twit cruUhi-ls iiiti- a luiniin. the two f|nnven« into n ' r"trlipt.
Tlje sanif iit^m may be iiiiii< at.-l Irv «'in[il i\ 'mil,' a nule ol" double the rhytii-
luical value, insteiul oi tying the two smaller ones ; thus
r ; r
where, instead of two crotchets and two quavers, one minim and one crotehet are
emjiloyetl.
V/e have ti"w before m a series of rliythmical divisiona, entirely cUfiiarent fimn
those of the bipartite rhytiim. A seniibreve may be divided into three noinil
minim into three crotchets, a crotchet into three qusven, &c. &c.
Ac.
Fpun th< M' tn|iariit(' ti>rins aiixthi r kind of rhythnucal group may be obtained,
by joining two triplets togetlier. Here,
two triplets of croti'hets and two of quavers have been thus ujuied, eai:h tonning a
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AHYTBMIOAL VALUE OF SOUNDS. 71
group of rix MundB, whkh are equal in value, the one to a semilireve, and the other
to a uomim. Such groups are designated by the term
DauUe Tr^pkU,
and must be distiDguished from another land of rhythmical grouping, in which alio
nx noteB coUectiTdy repnaent the value of one of longer duratioo, but which is
obtained, not by joining two triplets into one group, but by a subdivision of the notes
of one triplet
Both kinds of ffaytbmical groi^nng are usually indicated in the same manner
viz. tfius:
it would, however, be better to distinguish the doiiUf triplet, being, in origin and
character, a different fonn, by indicating each triplet in the usual way, thus
/
^
C. Compound Rhythmical Fohms.
We may, finally, combine the bipartite and tripartite groups in mixed or com-
pound riiythmtcal forms.
Thus, we may oommenoe with a bipartite rhythm, and thence proceed vrith a
division by three; e,g,
Here a crotchet has first been divided into ta-o .[uavers; but each quaver
apiin (lividtxl into three semiquavers. The result is u double triplet ol" tlie descrip-
tion above explaiiied.

Here,
J
J
- I
^ 3
^
6
•
the eroCdiet is first divided into a triplet of quaven, and then by diriding each
quaver by two, vre obtun another group six sounds. This tt is to which we
befiire aHoded, and which, not only in its darivatran, but also in its character (as will
be seen hereafter)*, diffen essentially firom the double triplet
• In the t<fth SMtion of this Ftot
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; :
7S BHYTHMIOAL VA1.UX OF SOUMDtf.
However frr the aubdiTision of rhythmical tbIum may be extended, aueh groupa
as 4, 8, 16, Ac or 6» 12, 24, Ac Ac. can alwap be again redueed to aiiiiiiie
bipartite or tripartite forma ; but this ia not tiie caae with the fellowing
D. MULTIPAETITE RHYTHMICAL GbOUPS,
to whidk we now proceed.
When a note, e </. a jiuauii. ur u crotchet, k divided into êe equal parts,
ULstcod of four, we oLtmn a rhythmical group of five noU»,
J J
whidi have collectively the Taloe ordinarily ^preased by Una audi notea. Ihua
the five quavcr« or aemiquavm of the above groupa are equal in vdue to ftur
ordinary quavera or aemiquavera. Such a group ia termed a
Quintuplet,
and ia noted as in the example.
In the same manner we may also form
€houp$ €f Seem Sommd$,
^
7
^
wlucii together are equal to the ordinary value ofybur, or Bometimee six* notes of
the same kind

Groups qJ Nine îounds,
which together have the value of eipht, or $ix ahnihur notea.
Groups ^ Tm Swndst
* A group of aafen qoavaio ia rix-cight time (a subject aooii to

the vahift of six qaavms, instsad of fimr.
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BHTTmUOAL YALITB OF 801TN1M. 78
which represent a division into ten equal }.aa ts, instead of eight or four ; and thus
aiiv ihyilunical value may be divided into eleven, Uiirteen, or any otlier de&ired
number of parts
here a crotchet lias been divided into fifteen parts, insteaii of '/ or eight , and, in
all these cases, the figure indicating the numher of x>\\\U is a sulficient guide, with-
out die necessity for scru{)ulous attention to the number of horizontal lines which
give to tlie notes the appearance of quavers, semiquavers, &c.
In the Section on Measures and Metrical Arrangement, we shall learn more oi'
the nature and prq)er treatment of these irregular rhythmical groups ; which, how»
e?er, let it be ebierved, appear \»aX farely, and imlated finni in pnetical mnne.
* Series of mdi motet era usually rcprcMnled by tin eaioe duroolen as l&ose of the
oeduuny ffayUuBiealTsliies pfeoediag Hum; Ar initsnoe, difieioiis of mne notes Iflie dmnons
of dghtfl. Thus, in a group (^nine, the parts of a mmim arc represented by scmiquaTcrs, thoM
of a crot<"hot by il<>Tni!»cmiqiiaTcr!«, S^c. &c. Soin<» coniposors, howevor, nsp Tnrn'ly one or two
connecting lines indiscriminately for all such groups of irregular rhythmical form. Thus
Ra^n^ finr instanoey id the Introdnotion to the CMh»m (Score, p. 6), writes that olwraetflristio
sod fageoiena nm for the darioneti omwirthig of U notosef Che aggregate tbIiib of a nunini,
in the iurm of âaverB.*
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: :
74 BJS8T».
% SECTION THE SECOND.

EB6T8.
Wk have now learned to digtinguieh tlie definite vahiet of single sounds, and
also of several sounds, appearing as ^lortions of a greater iliythnueal value. In the
latter case, we proceeded iipoD the presumptifiii, that the diffnreni tomi^ fiiUowed
imniediately upon each other. But it is likewise p(«sible that between the tenm-
nation of one eound and the commencement of the nest there may be an intemd
of ailence. Such interrab of silence are termed
RiSTB,
and their durations are indi< at* .! irt nnmc In the sanie way as the durations of
sounds ; viz. by differently formed cliaracters, termed rests. Tht charactera used
fyt this puipose are
1. —— Hie 8EMIBREVE REST (of the sanw value as the semibreve),

consists of a Uiick short liiu l>clow one of the lines of the staf)'.
2. — — ^_ The MiNm BS6T (of the value of two orotchets), a short thick
line above one of the lines of the staff).*
3. f The OBOTOHKT BIST, a Stem with a crook on the right-hand side.
4. n Q17AVSB BlBTy a Stem with a crook on the lefi^hand side.
5. ^ The tiEMiguAVEB rest, witli two crooks.
6. ^ The DK1II6B1UQ0AYBR BBST, with three crooks.
7. ^ The 8EMIDEMI8EMIQUAVER rest, with four crooks.
Tht' rhythmical value oi the hist t'>iir ri>t.>?, like that of the subdivisions of the
crotchvt into quavers, semiquavers, &c, kc. is indicated by the number of crooks
appended to the stem.
All these rests, like the not^, may be prolonged by means ol' one or more dots.
* It i« iiuinatcrial upon which of the iiia s thfso rr«?o nrr pl.-ir * <1 ; in<i- ed, should ih.^ Trhnle
statf be oocupicd by two or more parts, so that xLvtv la no pl u ( lur a rc»t that may occur in
one of the parts, we draw a short ledger-liiie, merdj fbr tho purpoô of placing the rat above
or beknr it This mode of wxitu^ is shown beie
i i
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For reitt of longer dtintioD, whidi oocnr frequently in the deferent porti of a
eompoiitum m aeveral parts, we employ the Mowing characten
1. a reit of the value of two fiemibreroe
2. — 1^ a reatof theTalueo(y«Mr eemibfeines;
d. =^ a reit of the value of semlwevea I
4. ^ of the value of eij^t aendhrevee.
By combining these diiTerent rests, we may, aa will be easily peiodvedf r^re-

sent any duratkm of time in which one or mote parte of a oompoailion remain
Blent Thua we aee here,
fiiit, two leeto cadi equal to eight aemibrevea, then a reat of aix aemibrevea, and,
laitly» a aing^ aemibreve reatp ooQeetiTely filming an interval of reat equal to 2d

MsnSireTea. Thece is, however, a more convenient, and, in modeni musie, a more
gnetally adopted mode of writing leste' of so long a duration. One or two oblique
finea are drawn acrosa the staff, and figurea are written over it, npuQnng the
anmber of bars during whieh a voice or instrument is to reat Iliua the above
rata of 23 semibrevea are uaualJy noted in Una manner:
When a note is subdivided into smaller rhythmical quantities, the latter may
port^ of nolea and partly of rests. Here, for instance,
J J
^1 J 1 ^ r ^
we see a crotdiet note divided:
1. Into a quaver and a quaver rest
2. Into a triplet —a quaver, quaver rest, and quaver.
3. Into another triplet, consisting of a triplet-crotchet rest , iiiul a triplet-quaver.
Such, and similar combinationa of notes and reste, the student will be able to form
without any difficulty.
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76 IMDKFlMiTJK lUIYTHMIOAL SIQMS.
SECTION THE THIRD.
Ik the preceding eeetiooiy we have beeome eoqaamted wHfa notee and rerti of
definite values and fixed fatioi. Tbere now lemainB to be oonndered eeveial cmm
m whidi the rhythmical valuei of notee or reeti are indicrted, more or leee, in m
indefinite manner.
1. Ths SrAfxSAXo.
Sometimes single sounds, or a whole series of sounds are required to lose a por-
tion of that time, which according to the value ot" their notes Klungs to them. Tliis
is iii licuted either by the word Staccato (short and detached), or hy ahort dashes
written oppoeito the heads of the notes
t
6^2
or, when they are not to be quite so short, by dots
^
— e •
68
i •
In both cases, the exocf «ammU<f time that is to be subtracted finom theb
original ?ahie remains undecided. The abore notes with dots are rather (about one
fourth) shorter than real quavers; those with dashes are shorter still (about half
their value):
if
r f f i I irrrttf
the lime subtracted firom the value of eadi is filled up by a rest, as in the above
example. If still shorter rh^-thmical quantities are required, rests and staccato
aigns may be combined, as here
66
or the word
may be written over the notss.
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IMDSFINITS EIIVTUMICAL SI0N8. 77
*^2. Thi Lboato.
If every sound of a aeriea is to be suBtained for the full time of its value and
until the next sound commences, or perhups even longer, so that l»oth sounds are
bleoded together, this mode of playing or singing is indicated by the word
Legato,
(in a unoolh and conniBcted manner), or
laSOATO A88AI,
(T«ry smoothiyj, or
Leqatissimo,
«
(as smooth as possible) ; or, instead of the first of these words, a currod luie^ called
a shir, is dmwn over the notes.
When it is required that parlieiilar care should be taken not to make the snud-
kst rest between two or more eonsecutWe sounds, the intimation
Tbnuto (abbr. fen.\ or Bin Tbnuto,
{fuitamed, or wett stuimned) is employed. Inmodem music, a short horuEontal
fine orer each note is frequently used to indicate this mode of execution. Thus the
three last crotdiels in this example
are to be sustained their full length of time, or even a little longer.
There are cases in which it is not required that the j^ythmical valuf of tliu
notes be strictly attended to, or where it is even purposely to be disregarded and the
duration of some notes prolonged, and of others, shortened. Such cases are indicated
by the words
Tempo Rubaio,
(violated tame), or
(at the performer's pleasure) ; or
Ad Libitum,
(at will, at discretion).
If, in ;i composition for several instruments or voices, such an ad iibitum or a

pi<in-n' he giwn to a leading voice or in.strument — for instance, to tlie voice part of
an air — the other voices <ir instruments must lie gui<lcd by the- leading voice. Tliis
is indicated to the performers of the subordinate parts by the words
CoLLA Paste (e.p.),

(with the principal part).
If no attention is to he paid to rhythmical measure, the words

Sbnza Tempo, or Sekza Ritmo
are written over the' notes.
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TKDSFIKITE EBYTHmCAL SIGNS.
All these irregularitiee and licenoea are revoked by the werda
A Teupo, al Higob£ del Tempo,
(in ttme, in atriet ttme.)
Loitfy: If the duratioii of a note or reat is to be considerably increased, a
Pause*,
whidi conaiata of a curve and a dot
ia written over it. The power of tbia aign variea according to dnnunalancea. Some
have propoaed that it should double the value of the note or leat over which it is
placed ; but thia cannot be adnutted aa a gienenl rule, aa regard muat be had to the
diiierenoea of character in musical compoaitiona.
In conduaioD, we will mentioii that reats or pauaea ooeuiring nmultaneoudy in

all the parta of a composition are termed
GsNXKAL BB8I8 and Gknibal Paubu.
• The Italian name for pau^ is corotia, a crown.
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or miB. 79
SECTION THE FOURTH.
OV HHB.
All rfaytfamkal proportions giTe to the notes and rests only a rtkike valiM
they decide that a crotchet has double the ûe of a quaver and half the value of a
minim, and this again, half the ûe of a semibreve, &c. &c. But kom nmeh,
triiat actual portion of time — for instance, how many seconds or parts of a second
an to be allotted to eadi note—this cannot hi decided merely by their rhythmical
TBluee.
Now, it is clear that some ctnnpoeitions require a quick and lively movement,
and that for others a slower movement is most suitable. A joyfiil or excited state
of mind animates and accelerates all our movements, and consequently our musical
efiusions also ; a melancholy and depressed state of mind, on the contrary, renders
our movemeiiti^ slow and feeble, and this influence shows itself in music, as well as
in any other of our effo rts. Tlicrefore difierent degrees of movement have been
distinguished and imlii ut( I ))y artistic terms, and musieal motion, as thus considered
in its absoluie velocity, is called simply
TlUK,
vmeamre.
Five principal degrees of movement axe generally adq>ted, and of each there are
Tuious minute gradations.
1. The slowest Deprees of Motemeni
are indicated at the commencement of a piece by the words
Lar<fo (broad), largo assai (assai means very), or largimmo (exceedingly slow).
Adagio (slow), adagiosissimo (very slow).
Lento (lit dragging, slow).
Qraoe (tit. heavy, slow and solemn),

Lar^ and its gradations are generally considered as indicating the slowest
degjree of movement ; Adagio is sometimes taken slower than LetUo; so is Qrwoe,
Moderatelg 9I0W Degrees of Moteinenl,
Larghetto (somewhat broad).

AmluiUe (Ut. pacing — consequently not fast), abbr. And^*"
Andnmente (after the manner of an Andante),
Andantino (" moving a little" — consequently slower than Andante).
So^ttenuto (the motion a little restrained).
Commodo (quietly, with composure).
Here, also, tlie diflTerent gradations h;ive h( en arranged in the order from the
ilower to the quicker. Tliere is, however, a want of agreement amongst composers
Uiyiiiêd by Googlc
80 or TIMS.
and teachen at to the meaning of these modii^riiig terms; Amhnfim especially
» considered by many as indicating a ilower movement than that indicated by the

wmrd AndaiUe.
J
3. Moderately quicJt MooemenU.
AUet/retto (rather lively).

Moilrrato (moderate).
Alhyramrnte (mmewhat like an AHegro—ahnoet aa lively).
Allegro modetota (moderately quick).
AU^fro, ma non trcjppo (lively, but iM»t too quick).
4. Quick Movements
are indicated by the following terms
Allegro, abbr. All"- (quick, lively).

Animaio (animated).
Allegro con brio, or brioso (briak aftd animated).
Allegro con moto (with a lively movcmcTit).
ASkgro eon fuoro, or fnocoso (quick and with fire).
Allegro ogiUUo (quick and agitated).

Allegro a^tptuiionato (pawionately eidted).
Lastly, /
V 6. T/ie quicJtest Degree* of Movement
have these indications
Allegro astoi, or AUegrissinw (veiy lively, very quick).

AU^ro pwaee (very quick).
Vimce, Vioaeuaimo (with great vivacity).
Presto (very quick), Presto amtai, or Prestiuinm (as quick as possible).

It is, however, obvious tliat, with all these terms, and even if there wero many
more, we cannot express all possible degree of movement Musicians, therefore,
have nr >Mr>;>^ to modifying adjuncts, such as asMt, which has already been employed
in the above terms, and
Piu (more),
Mem (less)
for instance
Piu Allegro, more lively (than previously).

Mem Allegro, less lively.
Piu mofn (or mosso), more animated.

Piii rito, more sprightly, quicker.
And, ader all, the nicer distinctions must be lefV to the proper feeling o[ the
performer, and to the favoralile influence of the moment.
AH tht'so expressions are intended to ensure, as much as possible, a proper, and
at the siune tinie, steaifti and unmrging degree of movement. But there may be
casi's ill which a certain j>ortion of a com^KMition is intended to be taken in a
•iui( ker or slower time than that of the piece or movement in genwal; this is indi-
cated by the words

Piu viro (more lively).
Vdoee (rapidly).
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: ;
OF TOIB. 81
RUemiio, Mn, rUen. or rit, (lingering, or keeping back*'}, which are revoked by
A tempo Qn the original time).
Or, it ia aometimes required that the peifitrmer should proceed fiom one degree
movement to another, not abrupUy, but gradntaSy^ To exprev this, tliere are
abo dii£forent termi employed in musical language. A gradual change of time ia
generally announced in these words

Teti^ auimilando al Mmmento aeguewte.
Of tlie terms which indicate such aehange more definitely, some relate to a slacken-
ing of time; as
Rilasciando (slackening).
Ritariiando, abbr. riiard. (retarding).
RallentamlOf abbr. raU^nt. or rail also sometimes aUeniando, lentando, slentando
(beoMning dower by dêes). These last terms are ordiniuily employed as the
strongest expressions of a keeîing back of the movement There is another word, via.
Cahndo (calmly, appeasing),
which also causes a diminution of movement, althou^^ it relstes principally to a
decrease of tone.
Other expressions direct a gradual increase of velod^ ; as, for instance,
Accelerando (gradually quicker).

Precipitando (hastening, in a hurried manner).
Striu4fend» (pressing onward).
If, lastly, a change of movement is to take place very skiwly pud iinperoeptibly,
to the above terms are added the words
PSsco a poeo (by little and little) ; e. g.
Pceo a poeo raUenlando, gradually slower.
Poco a poeo pm moto, gradually quicker.
Sometimes the movement of an entire part or section of a pi< c o is to be hurried,
so as to grow quicker and quicker from the be|pnning to the end. This manner of
perftnnance is indicated by the words
Piu iHtretto,
(always qiucker) ; and the section of a piece thus BUperscribed is termed a

Stbxita.
A beautiM example of such a $(reUa oeema towards the end of the first Ffaiale
ef Boo QiovHinL
Wb«n, after ona of liie above changes of movement, the orignial, or a difiisrent»
bat regular, time is to be observed, this is either expressed by the worcb
Ten^ Primo, abbr. t, p.
sr tiie new tune is introduced in a regular manner by its proper term; thus:
AUeffro \\
Aoedemdo \\ Pretto,
Beiire we ckse thia section, we must notice a rather strsnge phrase, sometimea
met with m music. It is
Tea^ Giutfo (in proper time)
a very innocent mode of expression, as it says exactly nothuig, every composition

requiring to be perftnned m the **
prefer time.**
• î0miit9 m tin mmt^xoM eomidenA aM wfn^

Q
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82 APPENDIX.
/
^ APPENDIX.
THE PINOVLUM AND MITROIIOIIB.
Thx mdicaticitt of movement hsve not, any mote then the deBnitioni of ydae,
given UB an a^nlute and dedded meaiore fer the duration of oounda ; they only
tell 111 that the movement in one jnece or portion of a piece it to be quidur or
dovrer than another; that, for instance, erotcheti are to be played or aimg m an
Andante dower than in an AU^gro, and &rter than in a Largo. Still, tfaeiefne, the
qiieition remauui : what is the duration of each sound in eveiy morement ?
This can only be precisely determined by applying an aboolate astiononBiioid
measure of time, minutes, seconds, &c. If, therefore, an absohite measuie fae
required, we must decide that a erotdiet or a minim must have a duration equal to
certain portions of a minute or a second. Of the many contiivanoes devised ftr tfak
purpose, an instrument invented by Malzel has met with by iar llie greateat
approval This instrument is caDed the
it on^sts of an inverted pendulum, which

,
is put in motion by means of a spring
and wheel-worlc, and has a moveable weight attached to it, whidi regulates ita
vibiationB. Behind the pendulum there is a table, divided into 110 degrees (from
00—160). If the regulator (weight) of the pendulum be placed opposite to eitfaar
of these divisions, the pendulum will vibrate so many tunes In a minute as the
number indicates, or from 50 to 160 times, according to the position of the weighL
By means of this instrument, any definite portion of time may be allotled to a note.
We have only to determme how many sounds of a certain rhytfamicsl value, say
crotchets, are to fill up the spece of a minute, phMie the regulator against ih»
number decided upon (say 60 or 120), and alknr the pendulum to vibmte;, whoi
each of its vibrations will give the exact measure of the sound.
In this manner, the degree of movement can be indicated with great prednoo.
The above two cases would have to be eipreMed in this way
jr. if. (M«lsd*s Metnoome) J=: 60,
^f. M. J =120.
If the moYCTTipnt be too slow to allow of its being indicated on the graduated
scale for one kind of note, another of less rhythmical value may be substituted.
Hius, fir instance, if the time were required to be so dow that only ao crotchets
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i
THE PENDULUM AND MBTftONOMK. 83
ihmild ooeur in s minate, then tfaa metronome would not enable us to count crotchet
befllB» w the smallert number of vibrations which the pendulum peffonns jb 60 in a

minute. But by i>ubititutiiig a quaver for a crotchet in the indicati<m of the move-
ment, and doubling the numbor of the scale,
Jf. if./ = 60.
we obtain the desired meiisiire of time ; Ibr li' qimvcrs last a minute, i^0 crotchets
must fill up the same siiaco ot^ tinn'. The only diirercncc is, that two vibrations of
the |jenduluin, instead of on*.*, are to be allowed for every croteliet.
If, on the other hand, the velocity of the movoinent should be so groat that u
cert£un kind of note oecurs oiWor than J 00 times in a minute, we should then
have to substitute a nolo of greater value. If, for instance, three croteliets were to
be played in the' space of a second (or 180 in a minute), we might tlius express
tliis degree of velocity
M.M,ci =9o;or
M.M.ci'= 60.
Here we see also that one and the same degree of movement may be indicated
n diflennt wqnh by choosing different kinds of notes finr standard Tolues*.
A nune simple ecotritanoe, whidi is cheaper and less liable to get out of ocder
thm the wfaeehroik of MaImI, is the
recommended by GottfiriedWeberf, consisting merely of a string divided into

certain proportions, by means of knots, &c. and to one end of which a small leaden
weight is attached. Holding the other end of the string between the fingers, a
pendulum is formed, which can be made to vibzate by a slight motion of tlie hand,
md its vibrations will be quicker or slower, according to the length of the vibrating
j art of the string. By holding the string at diflTerent points, as the occasion requires,
any desired measure of time may be readily obtained. Thus, for instance, a string
measuring .55 Rhenisht Inches will vibrate 50 times, and, when shortened to 6
inches, ICO times in a miimte. The tirst degree of movement, taking a crotchet
$x the standard value, might therefwe be indicated thus
Jss (5 inches,
the second, thtti,
W =5 inches.
* The translator takes great pleaauro in directing the attention of musicians and amateurs
^
tDOelfetraiomet (with ertrithoot bell) sold by MeMCi. Oodn ft Go. Hebu inspeetodand
tried ft graft amdMrof iSkm, end esn testily to Ihear cleganoe^ saperior worirmiimHp^ and
pnciacncM of ieliaiL (tÛe sleo Hamilfoa'a Tratise en the HetMUMOM^ inibtulied bf the
MM film.)
t Ibe Ihit idea oi%iD«ted with OeatorWeiMk^ of flteinl^
X The Kheniah exceeds the SigKah inch by neariy mmtA : this meaMin may boeesQj
dofiUd in Uie constnietioa of tiio ttring peodulum.
G 2
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APPENDIX.
The ftOowing is a comparative table of Weber's pendalum wd MAlxei*8 me-

tnKKHne:
Mfltnni. MetroUt
60 — 66 92 ss 16
62 — 60 96 16
54 47 100 14
66 — 44 104 18
68 41 108 12
GO 88 112 11
03 84 116 10
66 81 120 9
69 29 126 8
72 26 182 7i
76 24 188 7
80 21 144 6i
84 19 152 6
88 18 1 160 6
We may chooee either die one or the other, or use both modei of lliea>uzeiiieiit»
to indicate the predie degree of velocity of any required movemenL Thua, if the
string be held at one end, so that its whole length (55 inches) may be made te
OtdUate, it will perform 50 vibrations in a minute. If it be taken ihorter, so that
only 88 inches are in motion, there will be one vibration every fleoond, vduch is tin-
degree of velocity indicated by the metronome with the regulator at OO. If the
string be shortened so much as to !« avc only 9 inches free, eadi vibrstioa will last
half a second, which is equal to M. M. 1 20.
It mif^t still be asked: what definite portions of time, as measured by the

Metronome or Pendulum, accord with the various terms employed by composers
to indicate the movement? With a view to settle this question, it has been pro-
posed that, in an Andante, treated as the second degree of movement, eveiy
crotchet should have the absolute value of one $ecand of time; which would be
tndifalftd thusi
Andmte if. Jf. J=60, or
fr.!*. j=88.
AoooKding to this scale of time^ the sknrest degree of movement would have
about this measure:
M. M. from J= 50 to J = 90.
The tkinl degree about Uiis
if. if. fiera J= 90 to Js=: 120.

The /iwffil about this:
M. M. from J= 120 to J = 130.
llie fifth al'out this
if. if. from Jss 140 to J = 160.

Should a quicker or slower movement be adopted ftr the Andaiite, the Melio-
nome mevuies of the other deg;ms would require a eonesponding alteration.
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TBS PSNDVLUM AND MBTBOVOMC. 85
Mufie, nol having, however, to expreas matfaematical quantities, but rather to

reveal the emotions of the toul and the free action of the nund, does not» in &ct,
require a measure of time so mathematically adjusted ; which is, indeed, rather
opposed to its nature ; and conaequentiy the vague but less restrictive indications
by means of general terms appear to be mora congenial than a rigorous subdivision

into minutes and seconds by the metronome. The mtuieal exeeutant, or the director
of a grand performance, must iiuleed endeavour to conceive and represent as faith-
My and earnestiy as possible the spirit of the (xtmposition ;
lience, it is incumbent
on liim nhr, to pay the greatest attention to the time indicat«Ml by the composer.
Bui all ultimately depends upon his own ammut, and the degree in which the
work identifies itself with his feelings ; from his own inspired conception alone
for
can it be rendered v«rith animation and effect; while, if performed according

to mere abstract and mechanical rulcf?, it remains inanimate and unanimating.
Finally : there are indeed some external circumstances in which it may be advan-
tageous to employ a metronomical measurement of time. Thus, if, fas instance, a
eooôoition be performed by a very numerous and powerful array of executants,
and in a room of large i&nennons, the movement must be taken slower, espeosUy
m figurative passages ; because sound requires time to travel through wide spaces,
and therefore, in quick movements, the sounds of the diflferent instruments and
vdces are apt to mingle tcêther, and become indistinct and confused, however
correctly performed. It is ther^bre only necessary that the student should become
familiar with the aicerage d^ree df movement which the difierent technical terms
for the indication of time are gener<dly understood to express ; the nicer distinctions
and modifications may, and must be, confided to the proper artistic understanding of
the performer, and to the state of his feelings at Uie time of tlie performance.
On this point we shall make farther remarks in subsequent chapters on the
peribimance of musical compositions.
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8C AftftANOIMBHT OP eOONDS IN BABB OB 1IBABUBB8.
SECTION THE FIFTH.
AERAKOlMIIfT OV 80inn>8 IH BAB8 OB mASnBM.
Wk may now form whole series of sounds either equal or unequal rhyth-
mi«J value. Such a series, however, particularly it' of great extent, a i
uld nut be
readily traced, and would fail to produce upon us that jileiining and sutiiil'actory
mpreiiîoa wiucli (/^nPr alone can create, even if tiic series itself were regularly
constructed; for instaijce, ii' it consisted entirely of sounds nf equal value.
By what means are order and a conse<iuent fa^'ility of perception ol>Laintid in
reckoning any number of things or individuals ^ By a divijiiun intu smaller group*.
TluiH, for instance, in counting a great ijutiu>er of small coins, we arrange them in
i\tws ut f lur, six, or eight jiicces eiu h, and are thereby enabled to etiect our object
both with greater despatch and less liability to error.
I^t us aJso apply this method to a series of sounds commencing with notes of
equal value ; for instance, crotchets. Here is such a series
j J J J J j J J J J JJJJJJt.^
in whidi we perceive the difficulty of counting the number of its sounds at a glance.
But we divide the long series into smaller portions, and are thereby enabled to count
the whole with &cility. This &cility is increased, and at the same time unifMiiuty
it obtamed, by allotting on equal number of leunds to each eubdiTiiion of the entin
series.
The Bmallest numerical division is two. The anangemsnt of a leries of notes in

gimips (or measuies), each ooptaining two, thus*
12 . 12 , 12 , 12,
I i I
f r •
r r r f r r
is called
BiMA&Y Measu&s,
or bipartite time.
The next divisor after two is tAree, The division of a series notes into groups
of three each ; e. y.
12 3 ; i 2 .3 ,12 3
r r f 1
r f f f f f
is termed
TBBTiAEr Mbasues,
or tripartite time.
In a very long series of notes, however, not even this sub-divisioii into measures
of twos or threes is sufficient ; tor these divisioni then beeome so numerous, that it ia
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AB&iLlfOBMBlIT OF SOITHDS IN BASS OB UBA61TBB8. 87
ai difficult to reckon them as if they were so many sin^ Botes. When, therafore,
we ham to deal with a leries of gnat length — lor initanoe, rach as this,
f f '
f r '
r f 1 r f '
f f
i
f r I
f f r f 1
fre hove reeonrse to the old eacpedient, in ofder to make the airangeroent more
simple and ckar. We consider each of these small groups as a unit» and combine
two of them in one iaiger difision. By this proceeding we obtain
Ck>ifPOUin> Mbabubbs.
Jhe first of these is the
Measure of Four,
m which two binary measures are united in one of lour sounds; vis.
t 2, 34, 12, 34
I ; i
i S I
i S I
I
From this we mi^t again fiom a
by combining two measures of four.
We obtam in the same way, fiem the simple triple measure, the compound
Msature if 8ix,
lit I
IS! i
IS! I
iti
in which each measure contains a doulde tripartite measure, or six sounds, liy
^diii uiiitiiig theie two iiicusurcs of six, we anive at tlie %y
Afeast/rr of T>rphi\
1 .-1
6 7 s ') 10 11 12
1 2 3,4 5 6 ,
t ,
. u o
\% % \ \ %% \ \t t \ \ \ t
in wiiich euth racasure consists of twelve single ports ; viz. four tripartite measures,
or two measures of six.
If we combine tliree tripartite groups, we obtain a

Measure qf Nine,
12 3 , 4 5 6 , 7 8 9
itt i
IS! I
1 S t
in wfaidi eveiy measure contains nnie parts, or three tripartite measures. In this
manner a still greater number of different measures migfit be ibrmed.
Hie first Miund (or part) of erery measure is called the
Principal Part (Haupttheil) or Principal;
it has been maiked in the above examples* with a hrger figure. In combmed
measures, eveiy principal part in the smaller measnies of which they are composed
is called **€rfîmU principal part* (Oewetmer Estn^keil); and all others are
compnsed under the name of
SMonSmate Parti,
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88 ABRANOnitlVT OW SOITllDe IN BAB8 OB UASUBXSb
Thus, in the measure of four, the note marked H is a pre\nous principal part
in the merujurr (^t" six, the |
urt iiuirkt-d with 4 ; in tlie meatûre of iiiiie, th-ise
iiiarktxl with 4 and 7 ; in the nuiisun- of twtlvf, th";ê marked with 4, 7, and H»,
are original principal part.s. In the hu^t-nanied measure, that part wliich is marked
witli 7 claims preccdt-ace htlore those marked witJt 4 aiid 10 resj>tK:tively ; for the
fonner was the principal <il the imme-liatjely prtHNniing measure of six.
It is nljviuus that, besides the twn simple (Inpartite and tripartite) messures,
uUier simjile divisiim?. e. y. into groups of five ur seven partij tiieli, may In? made;
and tliat from thene, ci'injiound meiLsures. conaifting of ten, fourte*;n, or more parts,
might again be formed. But tliese we may now unnoticed; [lartly because
they are never, or very seld'Mu, emjiloyed in prai-ticiU music* ; and also, because the
above explanationB are sulticicnt t()r the formation or understanding of all kuids of
measures.
• Thrrt» is a want of projiorti tn in l]ir-«e mcnsiiroi* witli f -nr. six, and more subordinate
p&rtu agaia&t a itmgle )>niR ii>id purl. Fur Uiis reason, they are but ill-auitcd to form the rhyth-
micdl basis of a whole muaieal comimsitlan. It would^ however, be too much to condemn them
abialutely uttku and mmmtttr^ •one thoorifte have done) ; may sometiniM Ito, not
only proper, but absolutely neceiwary, as most strikingly appears from the following oldOennan
song Prinee Eugenitt^C* {Erk'n Deuhche Lieder), in which the 6^ riiTthni ie q[aite
and ooold not be changed without defonning the music f.
t Tha Volkalied here alluded to, is uiiually sung thus
Ur-.
Pruu gen, der ed - le Bit> ter, woUtf dam Kai-aar*
kno ' gentitadtond Jf'cstong Bel-ge-nMli £r lieaa aohU-gen ei- nen BnM^fla,
daaa man konnt bin • ii - her ni- cken mit dfAr -nee
^^^^^
•
woUiw we Stndt.
Tnam.
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DlfFSaSNT KiNI>8 OF T1M£. 80
SECTION THE SIXTH.
DIFFSaKNT KINDS OF TIMS.
In the sketch of the di vision of music into measures, the value (or duration) of
the notes was not taken into consideration. It was merely decided that the parts
should be of equal value ; and, for the aake (tf oonTemenoe, the examples were
written in crotchets.
When a definite value is given to the different parts of a measure, the arrange-
ment is called
Tuts.
fiadi measure is termed a
Bab,
and the sounds it contains are called
Pabtb or THB Bab.
Now, as we may give to the parts ofV ach measure any of the values enumerated
at p. 60, it follows that we may iV»rm as many diffort-nt kinds of time as there
art- [yi.-v<iblo couibiiiatioiis of sounds into equal measures and valu^. Each species
of time is indicated by a distinct
Rhj/Omiical Signature,
wfaidi is placed at the commenccxiient of every piece of music, or at the point where
anew kind of time is to oommenoe, and which generally roncists of trvo figures
written one abov9 the other, and separated by a line, hke the numerator and
denominator of a numeral firaction. The lover figure (denominator) indicates the
Talue of each part of the bar, and the upper one (nummtor) shows how many of
luch parta are contained in each bar, or, which is the same, the rhythmical order of
ttie co mposition . Here follows a list of the kinds of time most common in name*
A. Bart Two PmU.
FVom this order ansei
1. f time, with two erotehets in each bar.
2. { time (seldom used), with two quatvers tn eadi bar.
3.
I time, also marked with a 2 or wiili (^
contttmng two mnums in eadi bar.
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90 DIFFEIiENT KINDS OF TIMS.
4. { tune, aho called ABa 3me time, with two leiiiibrefat (lee ire9i», pw 9B)
in eadi bar. It would appear more onrrect to oonBider thia aa a mniiiim of fiur
parte, like the three kmds below.
B. Bars of Four Farts.

To tliis order belong :
1. The common time, which has four crotcbeta in each bar, but is marked with
C inatead of |:
2. I
time, with four quavers in each l«ar.
3. I time (of rare occurrence), with fi)ur minims in each bar. Tliis time ia
Bometimes mistaken for the | time, and niiirkt^ aeeordmgly.
C Ban ^ Tkrte ParU.
Amongrt theae groupa we have to diatingiuah:
1. 1 time, with three erotcheta in eadi bar.

8. f time • • three qusvm . * . •
8. I time • « three mhiima . • • • (addom uaed).

D. Bars of iS'tx Parts.
To thig order belong
1. f time, with six quavers in each har.

2. ; „ crotchet. „
^nolcommon.
3. 1% „ „ „ Bemiquaverg „
E. Ban Nine ParU.

1. I time, with nine qtuivera in each bar.
2. {time, ., croldieto „ occurrence.
8. i^tmie, „ „ aemiqiiayeiB,, „>
F. Barii of Ttrelve Farts.
Amongpt theae gnwqpa we will only mention the V time ; aa the othcw ftr in*
atanoe, and If^we very rarely met with.

Now and then we may find a eompoaer employ
O. Bars of Five Parts,
with the signature |. On tliig, and other oHnbinataona of still rarer occurrûx, we
have already given our opinion (p. 88)*.
* Every thing that hat been thcro said about such irregular combinations is perfectly true
tnd it can Ik' hy no means approrwi of, if eompoeors make use of them for no le tter motiYf than
a wish to ni)p(.'ar uriginal (what a du ap originality ! !). Nevertheless, the n al artiut should not
be deiut.nl the liberty of eiupluyiug such rhythnuoal ooeabbuttioDfl, iHiere they present then*
telTM M
aatnnl uid pnpor fonna ef eipnawoii. Tbua the tnthor has intrahwed, in Uf
100 of the pianoforte anangnmcnt), a movement for which tb< '>-4 time wx*
Onftorio, JCbii (p,
dmen, am nt novdty, Init from flocoarity, MMing, in tfag
neither arbitrarily, nor with an
oompoior'i aund, from hia oonoeption of the wunls and lituatioa ,
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DimBBHT KmBfi OF TDII. 91
It has been stated that the dilT-mit ni< nsiires in any kind of time are called
l»ar3. Tliese bars aro divide troni each other by perpendicular Imes throu^^ the
ttaff, termed
Bax LZNIS,
flrmenly dorr.
Gicatar pcrtioM of ft pieoe «rft teparated by
DouBL£ Bass,
which ore thus formed
or 'or
and fAaA are abo placed al the leniiinfltion of a whole morement or piece. We
have employed nidi doable ban already, at p. 89» and elaewbeze; and H will
acanely require to be menticned that from them the repeats (p. 26) have been ibnned.
The indication of s doee ie often more strongly eonfirmed by additkmal marls
thus:
But if; after a double bar at the dose of a starain» another is to Mow inunediately,
the wordi
at tarn snhitn
(go OD directly) are writtoQ afler or below the bar*.
In erery species of time all the bars are of equal value

1 . An equal numbtf of parts; and
2 . Parts of the same value.
Thus, for instance, m { time each bar contains two crotchets ; in { time, three
qoavers ; &e. &c.

But a bar may consist of as many or as few notes as, collectively, are equal to
Ifae^gRlgatevahieof that bar. Thus every part of the bar may consist of one note:
• h
or two, three, or more p£ut9 may be united in one note of lunger duration :
and any, or all the parte, may be subdivided into several notes of less vahie, asheie:
• Wp irill here mention apr.u tioi- wliidi is rommnn ainonp»t nuisic copiers and cngravcni.
In quids inoTementA, they usuaUy write the words Volti SuihUi (ubbrcviiUcd V. 8.) at the bottom
of the page, tOMOiiiidthepeilbcmer, ortidstantitliathe
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02 DIFFERENT KINDS OF TIMK.
In the fbft bar, each port is divided into twoqiisvers ; wluto in Ihe third, there an
four wnuqiUKrerB to each part In the last bar, the teeond part reniatna entire; but
the fini ia diTided into two quaven, the leoond htmg again lubdhrided into two
wmiquaven. Sudi notet of tmaller value which arise from a subdiviaion of the
parts of a bar are termed
Mmhen a B&t (Gennm, TnktgUeder).
Erery part and every member "f a bar may t>e represented by rests, instead of
notes. Of Uiis we here see uii instance :
72 Si
12 8 4 13 3 4 1 2S 46 6 IS 3 4 k 6
At a, the second and third parts of the first, and the fourth part of the last bar, are
occupied by rests. At 6, the fourtli an<l fiiUi parts of the first, and the third part of
the second bar, are rests : the sixth part of the first bar is divided into two members
(semiquavers), of which the a rest the kwt three
first is ; parts of the aeoond bar aie
each divided into a semiquaver and a semiquaver reet
Entire ban mayaJso consist afreets, thus
« &c. h
73 "^Ê^^^^î^^^^^^^ i
Here we see, at a, a bar rest in common time ; and, at A, one in \ (Alia Breve)
time, llespettiiig these rests, it is necessary to mention that, in all species <^ tvuit
in which a bar contains four, or less than four, crotchets^ the semidreve rest reprt-
sents the value of a whole bar^ and is then called a
ynUit Rest;
when used as such, its absolute vuJuc depends on the kind of time in which it occurs,
and is, in common tune, only equal to four crotchets. The evne rule applies to rests
of longer duration ; so that the rests at p. 76
mm
repreiitiit two, four, six, and eight hars rv&\)ixii\c\\,\ without reference to tlieaUoiuu;
value of each bar. Thus, for instance, in | time {bb at a),
74
the semibreve rest, which would ctMfrwiee repreeent the value of fiur entekeu, has
here only the value of lArw; becsuee in this time a bar contains no more. At 6^
we see a breve rest, which, as such, would be equal to two eemibreves, or twice
Uiyiiiêd by Googlc
93
fbor croteliete ; but bdng employed as a bar rert^ it only repreaentB two ban of the
time in wUeh Uia (tose is written ; t.«.oftwocntdietieadi, inBteadof feur. Thia
rule, however* doee not apply to half-han, Hiey are always filled up with tuck
rati as lepceMUt exaet^ tfadr rhythmical Tolue. Thus, in | time, a half-bar rest
ia not ezpreved by a minim rest, but by three quaver rests, ur by one crotchet and
one qosver rest; or, sometimes, by a erotehat reet with a dot
When a group of leet aigna repreienta the value of a great many bars, their ag-
gregate number it written over them in figures, thus
81 &c.
caae also, aa already obaerved at p. 76» aahorter mode of notation ia adopted,
nomdy, that of merdy drawing two oblique linea acrosa the ataff,
31
witli figures writton owr tliein, expressing their number.
U«re we may add an explanation of several

Ahhrerintrd Fnnm of Notation,
which are haêJ n\m\ the division of bars int parts and nieinltcra.
>
Wlicii a seinibreve (or a note of still greater value), or a minim, with or without
a dot, or sometimes even a crotchet, or quaver, is to be divided into smaller members,
&c. these are indicated by tlie requisite number of strokes above or below them,
or aocota their stems. Accordingly, these notee
nutft be read aa if they were written thus
Q( a similar import are the tollowing abbreviations
aie to be understood, thus
The mode of notation employed in the laat bar is frequently intended to indicate
that the aubdiviaiona of the long aound are not to have any d^Bnite value, but ahaU
be repeated aa rapidly aa poaiiUe. In auch caaea it ia uaual to add the wovda
Tarn. (IVemando) or TbnioLo
On e tremulous kind of motion}.
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94 DUPVEEKNT KJNi>8 OF TULB.
When a group of mindi, Ibmiing part of a Iwr, half « Iwr, cr a whole bar, w to
be repeated, it b not written in full, bat meidy widiiatecl by ope or two olfiqpielmei
aaoMtfaeitelt Ifaaalhegroup of quavenintliefintbaroftiiiieiMniile
is to be repoate<l once ; the group of semi'iuavers, in tlio second l.>ar, i« to bo ropeato<i

tliree times in the same bar ; and the whole third bar is a repetition ut the preceding
one.
When a group of notes is to be repeated tor a considerable kogth of time, the word
Scaux
(oontinue in the same form), or
Snaui («tm.)»
ii added.
Abbnmtei like the abova abo oeeor in thii Ibnn:
to
..^^^^
show that the notes written above each other must be pUyedin fueeeanon, like the
preceding gEOV^:
Strictly, however, in this fcim, the word tftmt/e (sim.) should not Ix,' omitted;
Uxauhe, othenviBe, Ex. No. 81 irught be read in the same mann^^r as ^lo. 70 ; and,
according to tlio general rule, should be read thus
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I
AARANQEMSNT AMD BUBDIYISIOR OF TBB BABH. 95
ABEANQ£M£NT AND SUBDIVISION OF THE BAB8.
All musical compositions, at least with very few exceptions, are written in a
certain species of time indicated at the beginning. The same kind of time is not,
however, always retained throughout the piece or movement, but firûently a

OHANQE OF TIME
talm place : t. e. the composer, in the course q{ his composition, changes into another
time than that in which he commenced. Such changes may take place repeatedly
m one and the lame piece. A composition may commence in a tripaxtite ovder, and,
s diang!e to a b^parlifce order, may âin return tnthepiwruHu tripartite order*.
aftor
Sudi a cbange of time mmally ooeun between dutinct portionB of a componticin

•efanled by a pauie or doable bar. Sometimee, however, it takea place m the
come of a atrain. In aU eaaee It Isindicated by a regular rhythmical lignature as, ;
fir imtoaoe^
Ac
Here, the melody, without any close or rest, suddenly changes firom ^ to common time.
If the degree of movement is to be changed witli tlie change uiciisure, it must

be specifically indicated. In the absence of such indicatiuu, it must l>e inferred that
each member of the bar in the new time is to retain the value which it had in the
previous timef ; that, for imtanco, here
S r f f '
r r r ' S r r I r r I
* Of such a chango weUnd fta emnitle in Beethoven's Futonl Sympiiony, whidi peiws
tvies torn ^to | tiaie, end flotDj ratunifl to the finmer.
t Thiebto betakaoae the gmund rubg in portieiiler eeseib however, a eoHposermey

beve leeaon to deviate from it Thus, the Author, inliis Oratorio, iiiw(pieiiolneaRai^
p. 2S), bad occa.'îaii to change from { to | time ; tiifttis to say, he intended that three quavers
of the tiiiic should have the durutinn of tu-o quavers in the now « time. But, iufltcad of in-
I
trrxluciiiir tlii- Tnnvcment hy the proper ."îgiiatiir", he wrote |. ^Vliy Because he thereby in-
uiCttlvd Uiai ikc <û&vcrii aiiuuid bu rendered in u particularly flowing and smooth manner:
the awnttiation of the parta in | time being e«ecntiully ditforent from that in | tiitu' the
tenth aectiou of this part). In the score of the Orntono, all doubta about the iiiteisti >u ui tlio
wnpoeer arc at once set at re&t, by tiic fact that, m the other voioeSi the grouping ul thu noted
ielo thnes eooliaiMB in tiie
| meesoxealao^ in thefiMm of triplettu
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96 ARRANQEMENT AND SUBDIVISION OP THE BARS.
each crotchet is to have the eanie duration iii the } that it had in the | time. To
prevent mistake or doubt, the words
r istesso tempo, or medesimo tempo
(the same degree of movement), are generally added.
Sometimes, however, the kind of time is changed without any change of the
signature, or even without any alteration in the external arrangement of the bars.
An instance of this is contained in tlie following (rather incomplete) extract from the
Andante movement of Mozart's Fourth Symphony (in C major) :
1-2 I - 2-8-4
The Andante is in | time, and it will be seen that the above passage is also in that
time yet the music unmistakably moves in J time.

;
Mozart has arranged tlie
melody in four groups of two crotchets each, and indicated the connexion of the notes
belonging to each group by a bind : the bass is formed of two groups, each containing
four quavers ; the bonis intonate four minims. From this, and the employment of
the f and p signs (the meaning of which will be fully explained in tlie tenth section),
wê plainly |>erceive that the time has been clumged without tlie signature or even the
arrangement having undergone any alteration. After this | time, follows anotlier
internal change (if we may use the expression) to common (double |) tê ;
and
then only, the original J as indicated by the signature, is resumed. A similar change
of rhythm appears in the same movement, a few bars farther on, although in a less
decided and conspicuous manner :
A —
1- 2-3 - 1-21
Google
AABANOVMBNT AND SUBDIVTRION OF THE BARS. 97
2 1 2 1-2
Here, it id only the similarity m tlie progression ot'tlio melody and hannony by
which we reci>gnize the siihs>tltute*l | time. Tiie iii;vires ht lnv the staves cftliisand
the preceding example are inteuiird to mark tlie division ot llie existing kind ot'Ujiie,
but not that which is externally indicateti*.
Subdivision of Baus.
It hai been befiyre obeerred that the immediate object of the anangement of
miUKal aounda into ban, groups, members, fte. it to impart to a oompoôn.
Olderand symmetij in the movement and duration of sounds and rests. For the
aeeompfishment of tl^ object we are now fiilly prepared
We are abeady aware that in every kind <^ time aU the bars contain the same
number of part^, and that these parts are of equal value, although this value may
be represented by notes or rests of various duration ;
thus, in common time, each
bar muat^xntun either a semibreve, two mmims, four crotchets, eight quavers, &c.
or two triplets of erotehets, or four triplets of quavers, &c. ; or compounds of all these
values, ftrming the aggregate falue of four crotchets. Hence it is evident that,
in the execution of music also, every component part of a bar must have its
sUotled duralioo. How is this to be effected ? Were we to measure the value of

each aeparale note, we should, in combinations of different kinds of notes and rests,
very soon find ourselves involved in confusion. In a strain like this, for instance,
we should be obliged to nieiisure se|tariitely, now a minim, now triplets of quavers,

now 8enii<juuver:<, A:e. ; the minims would not serve to detennine the duration of the
triplets of quavers, these again would form no measure for the semiquavers, and
ilius the one would destroy the other.
This difficulty is avoided, if we adopt a standard metuture, by which the value
of each separate note or rest may be ^determined. As such a standard measure, we
may employ, firstly, the comjmient parts of the bar.
We examine which notes or rests belong to the first, second, or other parts, and
thus obtain the principal division of each bur. In the al)ove examjtlc, for instance,
each note of the first bar contains two parts (crotchets), and each triplet of quavers
in the next bar contains one part, and so on.
* An instanoe of such a sudden rhytîniir.i! change, Kiirpa.ssin); in grandeiir and power mj

i&aSin prodiic/tioiii, occurs \s\ Scb. Uuch'^ .Viutiato, twchu dnh mcht."
n
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ASBilNOlMENT AND SUBDIVISION OF THX BABfi.
From this wc learn, at least, that the first three notes of the second har have
only the value of one rr tt het, that the notes d —e —e must not occupy more or
leSB tuDie than tliose of the first trijilet, &c.*
Having thus determined the larger divisions, it only remains for us to measure
tiie smaller groups of notes into which tliey may l»e suMivided. This will now be a
comparatively easy task ; and even if an error should creep in, the consequences
will not bo 80 great and important as in case of a mistake in the distinction and
measurement of the princijtal jiarts. Supj)ose, for instance, the notes of the first
triplet should not receive an exactly equal measure of time, but be rendered erro-
neously thus
—a-
itUl, the second port of tke bar would commence at the right moment wHh tfae note
dt and the principal diTirion of the bar xemain undittorbed.
It is, however, tmderttood that the moet minute detaih of tfae riiythmkal
arraojênt muet also be earefuUy attended to, and the shortest note or rest teceive
its due Talue ; in short, that the piece or song is executed throughout <*
m tme^
If our own perception of time does not enable us to give to tfae smaller notes or
rests their proper duration, we must adopt a tmdtkr ttamlard meature than tfae
parts of the bar. As sudi we may employ
The Members of the Bar.

Til l •. f^)r iiijjtance, we might subdivide the third bar of >» rj; iato eight mem-
bers, of the value of a quaver each; the first member would be the quaTcr, a; the
second would consist of the two semiquavm, d and e % &c.
By marking the commencement of each successive member, we should give the
time of the quavers correctly enough, and the only matter left to our rh^tlimical
calculation would be the [»roper division of tlie second, third, and fourth membeni
into two semiquavers each. Should even this be found too difficult, we might
resort to a still smaller measure of time.
The whole proceeding explained above constitutes the
SnBDiTlSlON OF Babs (ToiteintAeUm^).

These divirions are rendered sensible and striking in practice, by marking with
the hand or foot each part of the bar, or by audibly reckoning
One' Two! Three! &c. &c.
* This mode of mMraranient cannot be adopted when the arraugcmcnt uf the notes of a
bar is mich that no parts can be diitmguiihcd. Thus we see here
a strain, in i>ommon time, in M-tiicb the fourth bar, howevor, coataiua a triplet of crotched,
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AaBANQKMENT AND SDBDIYIBION OF TUB BABS. 99
in which last case, the words should be uticixd in a shurt imd decided manner.
When the movement is very quick, mid in coiubiued measures, we only count by
hahea or third parts of tlie bar
One! Two! One! Two! One Twol Throe!
<^rrffi •ffffffi Sr f r r f r f r f
If the nidvenient he very alow, we count by bar menil>ers ; t'>r instance, hy quavers
instea..! df crotchets, or, in com|iHeated rhythm, l)y menibers of still less value.
After these explanations, the division and subdivision of bars will present no
particular difficulties. If we were, for instance, required to divide the strain
No. 71, we would at once observe that, in the first bar. each iToup «^'f two quavers,
and, in the third, of lour semiquavers, constitute resjieetively a single j*ai't.
In the second bar, the note// is a cr<itchet, and ii^nns the first part of the bar;
consequently the dot and tlie ijuaver form the secnnd juirt. The last note of the last
bar fills tlie second part; therefire the preceding m tes nnist form the first part.
Were we to measure these hist notes hy bar nienil»ers. the first (piaver, e, would be
the first membeFi aad the following two semiquavers, ^ — e, would constitute the
second.
We may facilitate this process of subdivision, in difficult cases, by first dividing
the passage into easy md distinct groups ; as
instead of a distinct third and i'uurth i>art ; and such triplet gix>ups continue during the next
ihrcebtn. It is fdaintiiatlliMo triplets eaniut be eomvcn^^
beenue two of the latter are la long aa the three notea of the former. In anch eases, we
innst adopt s larger measurei wliioih ahaU aerrc to •letirmiuc the valur of the triplets as well aa
the ordinnrr parts of the bar ; we must count minims. But even minima do not atwsya giTO a
measore laigo enough for the calculation of rhythmical groups. Here,
k —
r
for instanre, we oIim i vc two triplt t" of miuiins, in the ^th and 7tli bara, iu a coiiuuon time
moYcment. It is ubviuua thut they tauuot be measured either by two minims or flHir
crotdiets; tlie only measure that will include botii two miniau and a triplet of minima is
the«imar»M.
II t
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100 ARRANOEMENT AND SI BDIVIHION OF TUE BARS.
Here it is at once obvious that the fourth j)art of the bar (of the value of a crotchet )
is contained in the last three notes ; the two quavers in the middle of the bar also
I'orm one of the parts. From this, we naturally conclude that the notes from the
commencement of the bar to the two quavers, form the first part ; and tliere
remains only the group of notes between the second and fourth part to be examined.
We are aware that this grouj> contains the third part of tlie bar ; and as the triplet,
—
U a ft, is equal to two semiquavers, or a quaver member, we know also that tlie
remaining groups must constitute the second member of this third part.
The mode of writing adopted in notation, assists us generally also in the division
of bars, l^sually, all notes with crooks (quavers, semiquavers, &c.) are joined in
such a manner as to show tlie parts or members of the bar*. It is not customary,
• Sometimes a composer deviates from this nile, iu order to indicate that the members of
a part are not to bt> conHidered ad one rhythmiail group, but that some of them are to be imit4>d
to the member or mcmboni of the prc<-eding or following part. Thiis, for instance, we bcc hcK
that the finrt note of each semiquaver ffroup i« detached from the remaininp throe notes, except
in the second part of the la.st bar, whore tlie arranfrement is again rt'||f\ilar. The first semi-
quaver of each group in the second bar is intended to l)e detached ; in the third and fourth
bars, on the contrary, it is to be joined to the last three notes of the preceding gtx)up. This
mode of inilicating rhythmical niceties has been carried to a great extent in modem pianoforte
music, especially in " tnorceaux de mlo»," as tin y are termed, in which the most exquisite and
refinetl toiich and execution are demandc<l, to enhance the internal bi-auty of the composition ;
or, as the case may be, to cover its defc<-ti». A form of notation like the following,
93
in which the notes are united by a quaver line (even extending over two or three bars), and
divided by the intersection of the semiquaver lines, is not scry difficult to be understood
altliough the same rhythuucal arraug«<nieut might, with the aid of occasional staccato dashes,
have bi-en indicated thus :
in a manner less strange to the eye, but also, it is true, not quite so prominent, In the
following rhythmical group, from the Norma Fanta»ia, Ay Liiat,
95
'
Google
AEEANOEMENT AND StTBDIVISlON OF THK BAB8. 101
however, to write le&s tlum three ('r tour, and in general not more than i-iglil. auch
notes, except when they are arranged in rli'itltnnral qrotips of niiic, ten, or more
For this reajjiin, it is prcterable, iii
f
time, to unite tour quavers, or to form two
groups of four semiquavers each, or unite a .quaver with two i>einit}ua\'crs.
In throe-four time, |, we unite all the Biz quavers, or arrange them in groups of
two. «|id the semiquaTen in groupa of four.
In six-d^t time, \, we unite either all the six quavexB of the bar, or divide
them into groups of tliree (because this time arises firom a combination of two
nuasttiea of | time), or &rm two groups of six semiquavers.
In I time, we connect ttther two, four, or six quavers; in V tune, three or six
quaven, or six semiquavers are united, &c. Ac. Demisemiquavers are generally
united into groups of four, or (at the utmost) eight each; and the same rule is
observed when conseeutave notes of still smaller value occur. The notes vrluch
bekog to a particular rhj^tfamieal group—for instaaoe, a triplet, quintuplet, &c. are —
also always connected.
Ihm fiff, upon the division of ban in a single series of sounds. We have been
made aware, however, in the Introduction, that a musical composition may ooosiBt
of two w more nmultoneoualy moving series of sounds ; that there oe not only
oompositians for a single voice or instrument, but also for
Two or more.
& finm of notatiou has been lucd which u intended to show that thu notes for the right-hand
are tobe played evenly, and without marMng the principal parta of the bar, in order diat the
mi-lody in die left-hand may become more pvomiTiont. The tuune object might have been
attained by writing aa at although the f<irm employed by Liszt may perhaps better uidicatc
that the acconipriniment in the treble staff 18 to trip along a» lightly aa poaaible. But in tli«
foiiuwing mode of writing ( ').
adopted by Dreytctrnk^ the bar meiabora appear to have been nanecc—arily dislocated; aa tba
WBaibydua night have bean rcproeontod just aa conectly is the maniier ahown at ^. It ia
tnu^, that a perfocmer of the cumpowtiuns of a T.is/t < >r Dveywshock may reasonably be sup-
posed to have mastered the djffi( ulti< Hi nf ihytliniiral l-irms long a^n but this is nn jiistifit atiun
;
fw the rfipricious dcranpf mnif of the imtural nnl. i , wliich jshi nlfl mt rt ^rith •severe n»i»roor in
^ cases when; the aimplc ami luual fomu of uotatiou uru autiu icut lo iutlicuti* the iatcntiuu of
the eompoecr.
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102 AKiiANOEMENT AND SUBDIVISION OF THE BARS.
The diTinoa of such BunoltaiiBOUs series requires a special notiee.

Fintly, as regards the notatioii, there are hro methods. We ehlier plaee the
two or more parts upon one sta^ as m No. 90, where two aeries of sounds, moving
in octaves, have been thus compressed. In such cases, we distinguish the dil&venft
parts, when necessary, as in Nos. 86 and 02, where the duration of the sounda is
diflerent, by drawing the stems of the one series upwards, and of the other down-
wards. Or, if there are too many notes, or the division of the bars in the difierent
parts is too dissimihur to admit their compression upon one staS^ and in one deC vre
employ two or more staves, and different defs (as in No. 86). The itKvea are then
connected by means of a
Brace
(Fr. AcaMe), in this manner:
2
where two staves are thus united ; and here,
tlirco. In the first example, tlie connexion of the staves is also indicated by the
line immediately after the brace ; and where tliere are several staves running
parallel to each other, as in No. 101, the bar lines are often extended from one
staff to the other, although tliis means of connecting them is not always resorted to.
In pianoforte music, a peculiar mode of notation has of late been introduced,

with, ay we think, a good show of reason. It is this : that two or more parts are
connected in sudi a manner as to present the appearance of one part ;
by which
means a number of unnecessary signs are dis{>ensed with. An instance of this
mode of notation is fimnd in one of Liszt s " Reminiscences de Rol>ert :**
i^- . i»f tail A ^
102
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A&EANQEKENT AND SUBDIVISION OF Tliii BAAS. 103
The mode of wTiting adopted by him at (a) mdicates the rhythmical movement
just as accurately aiid much more conspicuously than the ordinary form at A ,• only
the disarrangement of the parts of the bar was quite unnecessary, and should have
been especially avoided, as the sforzando sign expressly indicates tliat the diilerent
parts of the bar are to be distinctly accented.
In dividing the bars of compositions in many parts, we first examine each part
separately, and then compare the principal divisions and members of the different
parts together. Now, as all the parts conmience simultaneously* ^ so must the
first, second, and third crotchet or quaver, &c. (either note or rest) of one part be
in strict time with the corresponding divisions of all the other parts. Thus the first,
second, and third crotchets of the three parts upon the upper staff of No. 100 are
sounded simultaneously, while the part upon the lower staff commences, indeed
nmultaneously, with the other three, but with a loiiiid of koger duration, which is
equal to the three crotchets of the upper parts. In the first hor No. 101, the
three highest parts begin with a note occupying two parts of tho liar (t»ro onrtdwlB)
against these, there appear in the nuddk staff eight aemiquanren ; while, in the
knrest port, the same space of tune Is filled rest and three quavers.
by a quaver
The last part of the bar is filled by a crotchet, m the middle by
in the upper staff
fiiur semiquavers, and in the lower by two quavers. Thus occur simultaneously
1. The jrIimiiis of the upper parts with the fint semiquavers of the middle part
2. The cnitdietB in the upper parts (at the end of the bar) with the nhnih
semiquaver of the noddle part, and tfie last quaver but one of the lowest pari
8. Hie tkkd iemiquaver of the middle part with the jir-st qamer of the lowest
a rest).
part (the aeoond in the bar, the first being
Of this regular and usual division and comparisoi^ of diflerent rimultanecnis
parts, an exception seems to occur, when the word
in the style of the harpf, b applied to several notes of equal value, and placed one
siiove the other; or when this sign
* i
ii
'i
is prefixed, to indicate that they are to be played in the vrp^gw or arpeûitwrm

i^le. In this style, the notes which apparently fi>rm a chord are not to be stni^
nmultaneously, but successively, generally oommendng with the lowest If the
sueoessive notes are to ibUow rapidly, a Ime is drawn across the notes. Here
103
• That ia to say, the bars and their diviaions, which may bo liUod up cither with rcsta or
M.
t Tho word arptggiaiA ia derived from arpa^ wUeh is tho Italian term fur harp.
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104 AEIUiNUKMKNT AN1> SUliiilVitilON OF IU£ HABS.
we an example of a dower, and at ^ one of a nme rapid, arpeggio ; the

see, at a,
approximale value of the notes in eaeh instance being aa shown in the kwer staff.
But this exception from the genend rule of bar division is onfy an sfipannt
one, as sounds which compose an arj>eggio must be ooosideied otij as s ucccasiw
notes of a single part*.
In order to fincilitate the rhythmical division of several simultaneoos partly it is

customary, as in the above examples, to write those notes cr resia which oeeur aft
the same time exactly one over the other. By this mode of writing, we an oAsn
enabled easily to divide and arrange the notes of one part by a reference to the
other. Thus, fer instance, the rh3^tlun of the u]>per part of tiiis short stnon
104
is complicated enough to make it^ proper division a task of some labour ; but, in the
lower etaJT, the division of the bar into six quavers enables us to see which of the
groups in the upper part belongs to each of Ihem.
It would not, however, be safe to rely implicitly u}>on the rdaftive position cf
the notes ;
they should always be aocmrately placed as in the above examples ; but,
through the negligence of writers and engravers, they are frequoit^ so placed aa to
be fiable to nuilead the perfermer. There occur, in vnitten* and especially in printed
music, two Idndi of maoeuracy, which must be mentioned here. The cue is the
placing of whole-bar notes, not at the begmning of the bar, as at a,
m
10.)
but in tile middle, ius at fj. I1ie other, which occurs tTe<niently in ancient comj>o-
sition, is the indication of sounds extending to another Uar, not by means (rf" two
bound notes, as at (a), but by one note placed upon tlie bar line, as at 6.
Here let us once more revert to the pecuUar changes of measure brou^t under
our notice in Nos. 86 and 86 ; the first especially. It cannot be denied that such
ihythnucal ferms present considâble difiiculty, both in regard to division and

execution, on account of the apparent contradiction between the ferm of notation
and the rhythmical movement
• In tliti acctiuufl on Pianoforte and Haip Music (vol. iii and iv of the iluthor^s School of
Compontion), this poiiit is ftilly explaiiied.
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ABSAROBMINT AND SUBDnnSIOM OF THB BAB8. 106
In No. 85, aiiJ in most cases where such contriOvlictory forms txour, the accom-
('anyiiig jiarts indicate and make us feel what kind of rhythm really jiredomiiiates.
In this instance, therefore, it is only in the upper part that the division presents any
ditheultics. But if we convert tlie ^ time, indicated by the notation, into a real
I
time, as here at a.
107 ^!==^??5itt E^^*^
or conceive it to W thus chanm'«l, that difVirulty also disappears.

But now in this pius.sage there still remains a degree of difficulty. The four
iûavers which constitute the parts or members of the bar do not present themselves
intelligibly to the eye ; but the second, third, and fourth quavers seem to be dis-
sected, as at A ; tlie last halves of the first two being connected with the succeeding
quaver, while the second half of the fourth quaver remains, as it were, detaciied
and by itself. Sudi notes are called
S'/ffn>j)afi'(f Notes,
and the rhythmical form in which they appear, a
Sthoopation.
I>et us mention, finally, that the ambiguity we attached to all rhythmical groups
"f six sounds (p. 71) may often be removed by a referenc e to the rliythm of anoUier
acctmipanying part Thus we see Ixere, trom tiie lower part at a,
that to each quaver there are tliree notes in the upper part. The groujis of six
notes in this part nmst therefore be considered iis J iuble triplets. At //, on the
contrary, a quaver triplet accompanies every six semiijuavers of the upper part,
which must therefore In* real sextuple ts ; i. e. a subdivision of the notes of a simple
triplet, and two semiquavers arc played to each quaver.
Ill all cas(;s where difi'erent parts have to be rhythmically di\ided, we may
ftdfitati- the task by commencing the division with those parts presenthig the least
difficulty. This ha.s alreatly been suggested at p. 98. In No. 104, therefore, it
was best to commence with the lower parts, in which the six members of the bar
^pear distinctly in lus many notes of equal duration (quavers). For the same
reason, we would connuence with the division of the upper part in No. 106. In
No. 101, it would be advisable to be guided by the part moving in semiquavers
ftr it u the most evenly arranged, and the different groups of four notes diltincUj
hovr the three different parts of the bar. This part would also be most suited to
Most the beginner in dividing the other parts, as he Vould only have to count tiro
groups of semiquavers for each minim in the upper, and two lemiquaYen ftr eadi
fnnrer in tlie lower staff.
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100 EXCEPTIONAL FOBHS IN THE AURANQKMSNT 0¥ BABS.
SECTION THB EIGHTH.

EXCEFTIONAL FORMS IN TDB ARRANGEMENT OP BABS.
Of these, we can here notice only the most importttit, m it ii not ttie province
of an elementaiy achod to enter into those nunute detaik which are inudi bcto
left to special instruction, and in which the necessity ftr them will occur.
I. SxARTiMa Notes (Aujlakt),
This term is implied to those notes at the eommencement of a miuiGal compo-

sition, or separate strain, which do not finrm a complete bar, on 10001011 of the
absence of the first or other parts or members. Here
b 9 i
5
wo have scvtTul i xain]'le8 of such starting notes. At a, the firist crotchet is wmit-
ing; at ^, tho strain (.uiiiinriices with the fourth part uf the bar; ate, with the
eighth quaver (last im nilur) ; and at tl, with thf sccuml.
What. vcr is .i.'ji( ii nt in the full value of a liar at surh a bopnninp. must ap{>t.ar
at the end df the strain nr period, so thai the startiag iiotc» and tlu se together
complete tlie value uf a bar*. In No. 109, therefi)re, the last 1 ar i)f a must con-
tain one crotchet ; i
f Z», tlu-ee crotchet* ; of c, st vcn (|uaver8 ; and of </, one quaver. In
vers" Inng compositions, howtver, tliis rule is sometimeis neglected, and the hist bar
wiiiu 11 out in full, either for Uie soke of convenience, or in order to obtain a more
powertul close.
2. I&RSaUJLAR BA&S.
We hare abeady nut with instances (p. 96) in which the repilar measure, as
• But how is the appearance of tlicao starting notes to be explained i It follows naturally
ttim tho om which our divinon and ainngeiiMiit of Hmndd iuKwe ben bued; and we
principle
luiTO omitted to take notioe of it, meralj hecniae it would hare led us into a digreeeiaifc froat
our direct course of instruction. The principle upon which our aznqgements of notes into
bars was fonnJr-d. is the divisirm of lon;^ "rrir^ of snmiJi* into ^mfdler firruip? nf equal valtif,
with a virw tit iiifuîc into tlu-ni ord r ;iiid rof^'itlarity. For this rtason, we at lirst eonniicni-e<l
each diviitiou with u principal piut oi' Uiu bar. liut wv might also have commenced with any
other part, provided that eseh diliflon letttsttd the nine Heie, ftr fnataaoc^
wo have oonmeooed, aa the ihiia indicate,
fJ^r
2
fi^r1
1 2 3
r7i~r
2 3
r5
1
a tripartite} series with Uie t^'cond port; but the ports 2, 3, 1., constitute a tripartite group,
just as well OS tlic parts Jly 2, 3. Thie ia the explanation of the appearance of starting not^.
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XXCBPTZONAL WOBMB IN THE ABBANOSlUirT OF BA^S. 107
indicated by Uxe sign;iUu L'. wiis changed during a purtiuii of a strain ; such changes
Iteing either indicated by a new rhytlmiieal signature, or left uninarked. But such
a tiiiuigc imiy lake place without being jiohitcd out by a iicw signaUiio i»f time, even
in single hars ;
and, indeed, especially tluit thereby, in a cnnijupunJ nuLisure, ibr the
Huk)- of the rhytluiuc'ui arrangement of the whole, we may udiiut an occosicmal half-
bar ; as here
110
or 8->niLtimfS, in ordor to lay a<lditional stress upon a cfrtain passage, tlie vahie of
the ydrU, of the bar is doubled; as iii Uiiu weU-knuwn passage from Grauns " Twl
Jc4it" (Death of Jesus) :
m ^
nndmuteritt - sa • get, halt w go •
The third bar in this strain might be explained aa a contraction of two bars into one
or
112 —cv
whOfi the abort bar in No. 110 may be eoiuidered as if the tfanun were in simple
initenl of the oompmmd f time.
\l
3. Different KhuU of Measures and Values hi ximuMmwom Series of Sounds.
Sometimefl, though rarely, we meet with different rhythmical signatureB in

flmultaneous series of sounds. This is a mode of notation adopted in most cases, as
an expedient when one of the series contains such rhythmical groups as cannot
without inooavenieuce be noted aocording to the signature of the other. Hero is an

eiample.
-^n
—— ^
1 1 1
b =^
If the upper staff of tlus passage had also been noted in f time, we should have
been obliged to employ groups of notes (sextuplets) of a veiy ambiguous form*.
* T!u ini>«t remnrkaTIf and ingcniouB application of mitcfl monsurr^ in to lie found in
the fii'st Finale of Iktu GuHtiHui. When the Minuet coniraeucc^ the hi nnil <tinn Mnzart ,
iatrodooc* tvro addiUonal and ifldepcndcnt bonds upon the staj^c. During the repetition of tho
•eeood part of the Kitniet, one of the other bands begins to tune and throws ina ibw oeoa-
•kmal notes in the time of the Minuet. But now, when tho latter oomnuDQeo sgsin with the
part, this second band tarts against it with on Angloisc in 2-4 time. Bo1llhend« continue
t<ipl.iy independently of each other; hiit when tho fir«t nrrirfs at the commcnrenirnt of the
s(-<ond irurt of the Minuet, Uie third band Ijcgins to tune and show an inelination to join in
tk mcTT)' sport. It ducA s«j, when tiio Miniirt c<niiiueuco« for tfau third time, striking up a
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108 EXCEPTIONAL FORMS IN TIIE ABRANQEllENT OP BA&8.
We may allude, fourthly, to the numerous cases of binary or quadruple, against
triple or quintuple groups of notes, e.g.
Such tnonent oontnrieties between siiigle grotipi cannot be equafiied by maaom

of counting, which here in the proper lenie would " lead to fiactiont;** but can only
be overcome by habit, denred from practice. The more simple of Ae twogroupa
must be allowed to proceed mechanically, while the perfonner*s attention is diiefly
directed to the other. Until the beginner hai oreroome the difficulty connected
lirely waits in 8-8 time. And bow there are at voA three dil&mnt btDds» esdi viUi a dif^^
tune sad in a diiEuent morenient:
and the merry dancers twist ami twirl about in the must h.inninj vaiirty of forms and group?
(
;
everything seema to be in ciiufuaioii, and yot onltr and grace prevail thn.)uyhuut. The iunjjcra,
too^ enhanoethebetntjrof this enehsntmg seene, by joining their ehoroses to the instiQaiHita,
now hi this time, now hi oaoUier.
Wo cannot but admire the happy idea of this picturesque and delightful scene, and ^till
more the ingenuitj', facility, and sportivoness vritli whicli i1 h;\s lH>en realized by the prcat and
amiftblo compow-r. This we all must acknowlcd>»o ; nt vi rtlu lcsjj, the technical arran^niont
of three combined atraina is simple and clear enough. To every crotchet of the Minuet and
ibiglaise flMTB is allotted a whole bsr of the Walts (as itwere a qnarer triplet) ; and two ban
of the Ifinnet (twice 8 emtohets) stand sgainst three bars (three times two entehets) «f the
Antabuse.
Bttthovrn alî<i hai made ii'k' of an exccedinfrly slcilful, dt-cply conceived, and lonp-oon-
tinued combination of two ditlerent measures in bui second QmHtetto (in C major, Op. 29), of
which we can givo here only the oommenocment,
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t
EXCEPTIONAL FORMS IN TUE ARRANGEMENT OF BARS. 109
with the execution of luch fonns, he may be allowed to allot the two but notes of
the triplet to the leoond member, and give to the fint the value of a whole member;
ae at a .*
but it is decidedly objectionaijle, though frequently done, to play such groups as

noted at b.
4 n p n I
with thetwo MibjeGta which appear against each other. Hoiarffa combination wai inyented
widiaTiewtoaoeiuoeftefia; BeethovaiwaaledtoluBbyianlymiiiioilybiitnotleMliD^^
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110 Aa'IDEN«rAI. CHROMATIC SIGNS.
S£OTiON THE NINTH.
ACCIDIKTAL CBBOKATIO SIGNS.
We may now pive the final cxp isition thv ciTeet of chromatic signs. Every
sharp or thit marked at tln' bpfrinninir of" a piece r< tains its effect (as before sliowD,
p. 51) to tlu' vui\, or until a new signature i*' fuVi^tituti il l^r tiie first.
To this wo now a'M, that every nrru!r,,t,!i chromatic sign, a(>pearmg before a
ain^ note, afiects all the note^ ut' tlie tuinn- nanie
THRornnorT tue whole bab,
but no farther. Thus, in this short phrase.
1 2 S 4
the sharps before c and ^, in the first bar, affect also the sounds marked 1 and 2,
changing them into c sharp and g sharp. But these sharps have no effect in the
second bar, where, therefore, the notes marked 3 and 4 are again c and g natural
As a chromatic sign affects the notes of the same nimie, not only in one, but all
octaves, so, as is self-evident, such a sign appearing in a bar, affects eveiy note upon
the same degree in every octave. Huts
1 2 3
Here the sounds 1 and 2 muit be read h flat, until the flat is reTokedby the natural
at 9. The same rule applies to di£forent series of aoundi, if an accidental ap|)ear in
one of thsm ; as, finr instsnee.
Here, tho sliaqi hi f'tro f in the u]'j'cr st rii s also affects th<' <m tuve below it. When
tliis is not intended, it sliould be expressly indicated by a natural ; e. y.
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ACCIDENTAL CHBOMAXiC SIGNS. Ill
Ye^ atthough theie rules may be oonaidered aa uniTenally accepted, a oompoaer

usually adopts a more complete and minute mode of notation than that which has
been pointed out as sufficienL He prefers employing a few additional signs, rather
than kaving the perlbnner to doubt or misapprehension. For this reason, and also
with a view to the symmetry of the notation, accidentals are repealed in each octave,
88 beie:
12-
Indeed, an accidental is often repeated in the same bar in a single part, when the
aounds are so numerous that it may be feared the perfonner will forget its pre-
oocorrenoe. Thus there has been in this bar
123
a sharp placed betore the last note l)ut one (r), altliouph the same note had akeady
been raised by an accKientaJ in the first gniup. UndoubtecUy it would have hoen
hetter. had als** the tiat, introduee*! het(»re the first b, been repeated at *. In con-
CLTti^l jiifCLS, too, it is advisalÎe to rejieat a previous accidental, when the harmony
pr<x;et;dti in such a manner that it niiglit letul the pLili'nner to think tlie previous
accidental ouglit to he revoked. Owing to a negh-et of this precaution, tlie hass of
the fullowing simple harmony, occurring in a composition of considerable magnitude.
AiuUmte. KoA. No. 2.
has been played wrong in sevml' rehearsals at ditlorent places. At No. 1, the boss
has taken e flat, instead of e natural and at No. 2, a flat, instead of a natural
;
because the preceding chords utualfy proceed toeb —^—^b, andab —e—eh,
Te«pe< lively.
This precaution may, however, be carried too &r —encum!>erlng notation with
unnecessary s^ns, and sometimes even causing tlie perfoi-mer to doubt whether a
mistake may not have occurred, and a sign contrary to that employed have been
intended.
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112 AmNTOATIOK.
SECTION THE TENTH,

ACCINTUATION.
1. ACCSNXUATIOK Of TUE Pa&TH OF lOK lUo.
Wl hivv.' Iicti»ri' examined, arid licivMne iu-curately acquainted with, the leading
priiici[»le6 "f mu-îcal rliythmics, u\m\ \vhi« li the division of the hars into i'rinoi| al md
subordinate }
arts, nu nil'vrs, iSlt*. is hiusi d ; mid have learned how to time the diflt-reiit
notes in a har liy the aid "'fthMse divisions. The ijuesti -n whieh now remains is:
What ((»inj>arative \'alue have those divisions in the peribrmaxicc oi apiece; andhiovr
art' they to be distinguished?
A distinction b due, above all, to the principal part. This we erttjct by laying
.In Accent,
or stress, ujmn it; i.e. by fîving to it a more powcrtul sound (,'>o/i'fyro<<jr/ii'*«j, to
enaltle the ear to distinrjuish it Iriini the rest, as easily as tlie eye and the under-
standing distingtiiah it in notation. Thus, for instance, in this strain in | time,
all the gminils over which the accent has been placed aie pUyed or tung pero^ldy
louder than the rest.
Of the other parts, tlie next degree of distinction belongs to the originally prin-
cipal part (p. 87) ; it has a stronger aoooit than the subordinate parts, but not so
strong as the principal part. Here
i:
—U — i
we h*Te repeated the abore itratn (No. 125) in a compound time. Hie principal
parts having the strongest aoeent are indicated by double dashes ; sing^ dashes mark
the weaker aooents ; the subordinate parts remain unaccented.
In double compound measures, ^. m ^ time,
three deirrces of accent may I k- tiistiiiguiBhed. We know tliat a measure of tliiskind

is a combination of two smaller measures of six quavers ; and this again is composed
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ACCENTUATION. 113
«f tiro analler ample maaittrei of three quaven. Thus, here appear—firstly , prin-
eipol pazta marked witii triple aocents ; secondly, parte idiieh had heen piindpal in
the preoeding q>edes of time (here, {), mailed irith double aoeents : and thiidly,
psrts which had been piineipal in the simple measure (}), but had already ceased to
beio in the fint combined Older ({), mazfced with smgje accents. FinaUy, we hare
sabordmate parts left unaccented.
S. AOOBNTVAXXON OF THE Bar M£MB£B8.
If we subdi?ide the parts of the bar into members ; for instance, into quoven, or
triplelB of quavers,
c;' iis
the same play of the accent recommences. The first number ot t iuh })art is tJie
principal, and is accented; the following are subordinate nicmbers, and arc uiiaaonted.
We might carry the subdivision of Uie parts still farther, by distinguisliing even
subordinate members. Thus, the quaver members of a bar whose parts are
crotchets, might again be subdivided into semiquavers, and even these into demisemi-
quavers. If the law of accentuation were also to be rigidly applied to such subdi-
^008, the first of each gi »>up of four semiquavers would require to be again distin-
guiihed by a greater stress ; the third (as a previous principal sub-member) would
have a less marked ac^nt, and the second md fourth no accent at all. But the
description already shows the fiitalitf of this infinitessimal calculation, under wliich
sH freedom and ease of movement, and all inspiration, must cease to exist This will
beeome stili more clear in the fint Attempt to reduce such signs into an intelligible
farm. In the following strain.
ws see that six degrees of accent might be distinguished. To the abstract reason,
nch a splitting of the accent may be comprehensible, and appear as a natural oon-
wpience of the law of aocenluaftion ; but the performer, as well as the hearer, will
<ibey and ftllow it in aU mmute details only so fiv as sensibility of ear or mechanical
teerity extends, or according to the necesrity or demand lor it Thb degree of
norement^ especially, must have a material influence over the minuteness with
which the law cf aooentuation can be practioally carried out; as on it depends the
time which is allowed to the perfinmer to measure and mark the degrees of stress to
lie Isid upon the different notes. Hie fioter the movement, the more impracticable will
tttome such a minute subdivision of the accent; andif a series of notes of small value
W noted in very quick time, there will be neither a possibility, nor a necessity for the
I
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114 AOCKMTUATION.
per&rmer to obteire any but the more impottant degrsei of aooent Hie above
itrain, if written in Andante or Laryketto time, could not weU be aooentuated moce
aocuntely and minutely than tfaua:
In a nuire rapid morement ; in AUegro:
the single accents, too, would have tn be passed over, in order to incTiê the flow
and smrvithness of the runs marked with a slur. Such, and other licences, by which
a player or singer is partly freed firom tiie stringency of the rule, will have to be
considered more fully in the ohsen'atinns on Musical Performance. It is, however,
necessary to knoir the rule and all its coiisi'qtience5!, in order that we may, in all
cases, he ah!e to art up to it as tar as the occaision demands, or it aftpears practicable;

esj)ecialiy as those siîs which we have employed in the above examples, to indiole
the different aceent-^, are not usually added to written or printed music.
Here we return nn. f more t<> those rhytlimienl forms which may be derived in
two different ways, and tht-rell re a lmit nf twi> ditlen nt interpretations. Those mf>?!t
frequently o<Tt!rrinj]f are the Skxti plkt t ^noup of six). If we ron?idor it as a
d nihle triplet, it.s hr.st sound rercivrs tin- stion^t accent, and its fourth (beiiig a
previous principal partj a teebler one, as at a.*
but if we look upon it as a subdivision of the notes of a angle triplet, we mut ae-
oentuate the first, Uiird, and fiHh notes (the latter two again as preriouB principal
parts). Thus we see that these two foims, although externally alike, ore yet inter-
nally quite different from each other.

The same diD'orence exists between § time and the aix Cûavers of | time. In
the former, the acoeute lie upon the first and fourth quaren, as here at a .*
131
in the latter, upon the first, third, and fifth, as at b. Thus we obeenre the same
difference bet\v< en the bisected parts of a bar in ] time, and the members of a bariD
I time, which we found to exist between a real sextuplet and adouble triplet
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APPENDIX.
OSADATE0N8 Of THE UTmVCST OF MUSICAL SOUNDS.
In the preceding section, intensity of sound (Schallkrofl) has been considered

merely as a rhythmical medium, by which those sounds representing rhythmical
momepf" (] irincipal partSj principal mendbers, &c.) were distinguished and made pro-
minent But, in many cases, single sounds, or whole series and mass^ of sounds,
may require an increased intensity of sound, not only irrespectively of their rhyth-
mical importance, but often in opposition to the usual laws of accentuation. Such an
increase of power is required when, according to the idea of a composition, single
sounds or whole masses are to appear as more important than the rest ; or, some-
times, merely in orclcr to prndure a pleasing Tarioty of expression.
This subject can only be tully expluined in the sixtli part ;
it is, however, desir-
^le that the student siioiild hero he nia<le acriuainted witli, at least, the principal
decrees of intensity of sound, and the signs and terms employed to mark and distin-
guish them.
When a single s<»un(l, which, according to the general law ol rhythm, would re-
main unaccented, is to be distinguished by a stronger stress, or wiien a sound which
lias already an accent on account of its poeitioa in the bar is to reoeive additional
weight and importance, this sign
> or V
fir one of these words,
sforzcUo, sforzamh (i^f.), rinforzando (rf.),
is written over or below the note. A very high degree of intensi^ is indicated by
sforzato a»»a% (9ff»)t
« by the oombinaiiaa of one of the above terms with a sign of strong emphasis.
Not only single sounds, but seversl in suooession, or even a whole strain or
'
period, may be mtended by Ifaeeomposer to receive a greater degree of intensity. In
the first ease, a slur is drawn, and a dot or dash placed over thenotes which are thus
to be distinguished (see A)
or, when the stress upon each note is to be particularly strong and markcil. the signs
employed at B are used; or, when the perf ormer is, at the same time, to linger over
each sound, the signs shown at are introduced. Instead of these signs, we fre-
quently employ distinct terms, such os
I 2
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lie URADATiON.S IN THE 1NTKN8ITT Or MUSIOAL BOmfDB.
ben prmunziato (well [disluietly] prooouiiced)

aecentuaio (accented)
mareaio (in a marked, emphatic style)
martelhto (" hammered**—^th ibrce and power).
When whole strains or parts of a composition are to be eieeuted with more or
less than average ibroe of tone, the following terms and signs are used, distinguisfaing
agiun about five different gradations ; viz.
1. pianissimo (piano ajusai), pp. or Bomctimes J>pp*t 8* Mft SS
,
|ios8il)le
2. piano, p. soft ;
poco furU: (pf-)^ mejizo forte fwj/J, rather lottd. Also, maw forte,
less loud, at\er a previous forte; and mmo piano, lent txSi, tSbts a
previous pia/io ;
4. forte (/'.), loud, with force ;
6. fortissimo (^//. or sometimes fff), forte possibile, eon AiMa Ut forsM,

very loud, as loud as possible, with all possible force.
As in the terms whidi indicate the principal degrees of movement, so here, also,
different modifieatioiis and intermediate degrees of intennty may bediiluiguiahfldand

expressed by meana of modi^^g adjuncts. Thus, for instance, between forte and
ybrtfitsi'mothe foDowingîntomeduite degrees may be distingotthed : forte—pi ii forte
(louder) ;
j^fico piii forte (a little louder)—^V/isniwo.
All these terms apply to whde stiaini or portioni ef a eonpoaition, and ranaiB
in fbroe until they are either revoked or modified by others.
The five prindpal degrees of intensity, as indicated above, areoonndered aa dii*

tinet and perceptibly different fimn eadi other. But it is also freiûcntly inteodsd
that the intensity of sound u to increase or decrease in such a manner that no sud-
den step from one degree to another shall be perceived.
The gradual trandtku from^Mindto/wIe is indicated by this sign
or (especially when a gradual tnereaae of inteniity ii to entend orar a long series of
notes) by one of these terms

ereeeendo (eree.) incieasbg (in force) ;
poeo a poco erst, gradually louder
eree, al forte, or al fortisoimo, increasing to forte or fortistimo,
The oppodte change from forte to piano is indicated thus
or by the words
decrescenJo (dfcr. decres.J, decreasing;
diminuendo, diminishing
with the occasional addition of poco a poco, or tUpkmo, or al pkuiktmo. Instead of
the latter expression,we sometimes write
dibundo, dying away
maucaiuh, gradually decreasing
perdendosi (perden.), vanishing;
omorxando, extinguishing;
Woremlo, expiring
and several other terms of similar impart
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OllADATIONS IN THB INTENSITY OF MUSICAl. SOUNDS. 117
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
The whole of the preceding part has introduced us only to one branch of Musical
Rhythm namely, the arrangement and mhdicmon of the bars, and the rhythmical
;
forms to be distinguished therein ; with the rhythmicai endue of sounds, the different
de^prees of mnrfnrtient (time), and accent.
These explanations, however, by no means exhaust the whole doctrine of rliythni,
which will be resumed in the three first sections of the fourth part Tlie separation
of the elcnu ntary branches of rhythm from the higher ones is necessary ;
because, on
the one han»i, tlio doctrine of melody cannot be understood witliout a knowledji;c of
the constriic tion and sulKiinsion of bars, and, on the other, because, without a pre-
vious acquaintance with the laws tliat regulate the formation of melodies, it would l>e
unpossible for the student to obtain a clear insight into the nature and charart-rij^tica
of the higher forms of rhythm ; at least, any attempt to explain the latter inde-
pendently of the former would only lead to a superficial, and, tor all practical pur-
poses, ludess knowledge of empty names.
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I
PAET THE THIRD.
MUSICAL OUGANICS.
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UENEBAL BUEVEY OF MUSICAL OBOANICS. 121
SJBCTION THE FIRST.
QBKBEAL 8UKVBT OF MUSICAL OEQAKICS.
Music iiquiies a medium, an Oboan, in cfder to become a peroeptilile noUty.

As such, emplop the human roiee and a number of artificial
it initruments. We
hare oompiieed both (p. 4) und^ the name of
Musical Oboaks
(or briefly orgam).
Every musician should acquire a general idea and some sjxx'ial knowieiige of the
m'TSt usual organs of music : in order that, in iiib departinent. he may at least, in
sttuic degree, be conversant witli, and enahled to participate more fully in the
appreciation of, their eflPects : only so far will our present communications extend.
A more minute acquaintance witli the nature and peculiarities of individual organs
<\ music, such as is required for their practical use, can only be acquired by special
iiiAtructioa and study ; neither can we supply such information here as will enable
the student to compose for the different instruments or voices ; this he will hnd in
Ute School of Composition*.
The human voice is the musical organ given to us by nature ; and its apphca-
tion to musical purposes is called
SlNQlNOf.
Smgmg it usually combined with

liANOUAaS,
which also demands the coosideratioa of the musician.
Artificial organs of sound, under the name of
iNSTBUAIJiNTS,
are of great number and variety.
Instruments may be divided into

Four Classes.
1. Those of which the sounds are produced from vibrating strings
Stbino Instbuxiiits.
• By the same author, publishofj by Messrs. Cocks and Co.
t Beoulai sin^g, wo might ;ii:<o ( onaideT whistiing as tlto }>n>dijction of a natural organ of
nrie; flie IiMor, hoverer, has very justly never sttained any rcaUy nttiitio ioqpoitsnoe.
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122 OIMBBAL 8UEVET OF NC6I0AL OaOANIOS.
S. Thme of which the wrandt are caiued by the i^tatun of an endoeed oqIuhiii
ef air:
WiMi> IiimmfiiiTs.
3. Those of which the soundji are produced by etriking ui>on a plain Nirfiwe
iNSTBUMBRXa OF PlBCfUSBIOK.
4. Such as produce iMMinds by the friction of lolid bodies
iNSTBunm OF Fuoxioif.
Each of these daases comprises aereral Tvietiee, of whidi we here mentkn only
the most usual.
Strino InBntrnniTB
comprise two kinds; viz. those from which the Rounds are jtrvniuced by striking nr
drawing nwny the stnngi firom their position of rest fW these we have no other
apecial name than

Sfrinq Imtrfinu'Hts •
and those of wliich tlie strmgs are put in vibration by hrictkm wi^ a buw ; tiieise
we term
Wind Instbitmsnts
onmpriae three kinda; ?is. thoae Ibnned chiefly of wood, ivory, Ac and which are
tenned
Wood Inttrmmmtt ;
and those made of metal, called
Bratt InttnmmUi.
(Thia clamification, however, ia only superficial, being adopted merely for the
purpose of a general enumeration ; and we ahall uUimately leain that it admits of
several modifications and exceptions.)

llhe iiiiKd kind in this dass is represented by
X The Organ,
in which a number of wind instruments (pipes) are caused to sound by means of

bellows, and one or more rows of keys.
Instbumenis of Feecussion
are represented in our modem European oieheatras chiefly by those inatruments
which have a skin fitstened by ita boiden, and alretched out in such a way that it
may be made to vibrate and emit sounds by h&aag struck with a stidc or muUet
There ore one or two other instruments of this class, consisting of metal disks or
rods, which we shall have to mention mcrdy by the way. Others, for instanoe,
bells, &c. we leave unnoticed, as not being strictly ctgaas of music
Instbumsnts of FRionoN.
Of these we can take but little notice, fan nasona iriiich will be given hereafter.
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QENBIIAL 8U11VBT 01* MUSKIAL O&GANIOS. 123
When aU or many IdndB of string uutroinents ave joined in a muakal per-

fnniBDce, they form what is termed a
String Bani> (or merely " Strings'*).
The ccnnbmation of all or aeYeral kinds of brass instxumeats is calltxi a
Bkasb Band.
String and wind instruments together form an
Oboheskba.
Ihe union of the insfarunientB of pereunnon wd bratB iosbnunaitB, with the
strings and leeda, femui a
Gband Obohbshia.
The union of several
Chobvs.
Musical compositions iiro ck\ssilie<l according to the diflerent kinds of organs (in-
struments or voices) employed in tlteir periormance. Coniposttioiis fur voices only,
constitute
Vocal Music.
Comp<>sitioniftr Instruments,
Inbtbumxntal Mubio.
Vocsl music may also ather be combined with, or prafenned wifliout tibe addition of
any instruments. In the hitter case, it is termed
Unaccompanied Vocal Music.
Clioruses without instrumental accompaniment (espedaUy those intended for the
Church, or in that style) are designated
a cappella.
OompOBitions inteoded for the combination of many and dififerent kmds of musical
cigsns, are usually written so that each has its own staff upon a page where all the
staves are drawn parallel to each other, and the bars are divided by perpendicular
Hnes numii^ throu^ the whole. A composition written in this mannor is called a
SCOBX.
Most seores have also been adapted for fewer instruments, or for only one; m. the
{nsDofoite. Such adaptations are sometunes termed lâtueriptiont. The best
and niMt carefully arrniged transcription, however, supplies the phioe of a score only
m tiie same degree that a copper -plate print presents the efiect of a richly coloured
paiiiting. It must therefore be desirable for every lover of muiie to understand, at
kasti the genera] arrangement of musical scores : to composers, conductors, and
teaefaers, the capability of reading from score is an bdispensable requinte.
It is necessary here to notice a difierenoe esistmg between the real pitch of some
initrunients and their notation
Fk-ttfy ; there an instruments producing sounds which are in reality cm oetaoe

Ineer than their notation, on whidi this passage does not sound as here represented
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124 OBinaAL gURVIY OF MUSICAL OEQANICS.
but thus:
134
To such iii£trument8 are attributed

Sixteen-feet tone.
Secondly ; there are also instniments* producing sounds two octaves lover than
their notation ; these are said to have
Thirty -two-feet tone.
j
Thirdly we have instruments producing sounds on Mfoof higher than their
;
notation, on which a passage like that in No. 138 really soundi if written thus m :
These instniiiMntB an said to have

m
186 ia\
Fanir*feet tme\,
Distingqished from these, instnimeiits and voioes all agreeing in sound with their
notatifln are termed organs of
Eight-feet toneX.
We shall hereafter beoonie aoûainted with ether donations from tfaa ordinafy
OMtde of notation, fta instruments producing sounds, one, two, three, or more de-
grees higher or lower than represoited.
• HdsUytiispedsliapasofccgsas.
t Inoqsii% wemeeCaJsowithpôf l^siul«*»',/b»rtoiM; i «. such ss piodaoe sonodB

icspeetiTilytvo aad time octaves liiglier than thflir notation.
X Aoohmmoffairpiaangthna^ a tube (organ-pipe, or sunple wind'instniiBent) tight

feet in length, fBodvoes great (7, which is the lowest, and thcrcforv normal note, on the key-
board i>f thi- Drpin. An organ-pipe of t}i»> samr rnn<?tnirt ion, Imt twice n« long (ffix/m» ft fl!)
produrc*! contra C, or tho ortavp bolnw pn nt C. A pip*- thiny-tw n fpot Ion*? pwdnres a C ?till
an octave lower. A pipe only four feet long prttduces the htgher octtut of uunual C ; and so on.
Aflooidittf le these âwmrions of the lowciit pipca, the difierent organ-pipes aredisliagniehed
from each oilier is slops of sîU, >bHr, mxtrntfeety tn. The diffiwtet dimiîiiTW nler, in
thoflnt place, only to open stops (the meaning of tin i i
will l>o ( xplainod hi fllS
scTontli H( ( tion), nn<l next, only to thr lou-eît (C) in each ,-<{np. It is tluTif jro imne-
ceasary to obtit i vf that iA\ the other pipeu of the same E^top arc of ditfi nnt giiJca, tlie pipet« d^-
crvasing in length us the ttduad^ bocomc more acute, so tiiut »tiudl V on a sixtocn-Duct stop has
a pipe only eight (bet kog.
This mode of eooipdsoo his also heentnawfeEied to other ins Thns, As tube of
a C horn (see Section VT) required a length of 1 6 feet it in therefore called a tiriem
jmt in-
; i
jitrurocnt. But thtrv an ti1s<i nther kindf^ of hums, wliose l.m'e«it «oJinds arc one, two, thrrf, or
more t'liu^ I'lwer or higher Uma that of tlu- nurwal hurn. The«se are also, thoiijrî imiir i]" rly,
chissed amongst the sixtecu^fect homii. Of aU these, the notation ia an octavo higher than their
pitch, end tlds, chiefly hecanie they are often oomliinsd with odier initmmpnti (is tnuniwCs)
playing the lanie notes an octave higher.
Pinalfy, there arc instruments whieh are uaually tre:it< <1 h mere dupliouti«)n» of other in-
stniiTK'ntu of the snme i'tnictiiro, !mt (if smaller s>ize. Such m the Double-IJass and Se<'ond
Bassoon, wiiich are unittni with the Violoncello and First liassoon. Neither of these inMni-
mcuts has a sounding body of sixteen feet length, yet Uiey ore termed tixtpm-feet instnuuentA,
and their notation is an ootaTO hij^ than their real pitch, heeniie their soui^ are genenlly,
or very freqnenlfy, in octare lower than flicoe of the imtnunente to whieh thoy ere related.
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i
aSN£RAI« S0RV8Y OF MUSICAL 0R0ANIC8. 126
The next important point for consideration in this secticm is another musical
element; viz.
The Quality op Sound (Timl/re).
AH organs of music, with the exception (•I sonie instruments of percussion, afrree
in this, that they p: Hluce several of the sounds of our tonal system. They dirt'er
herein, that sumu }

r lu •
a greater and some a smaller number ; that some poBsesji
a higher and otlier-^ a low r range of sound. But all sounds of tlie same name and
pitch are, tonally speaking, alike; and it is by no means an r,s.<<eniial and char;ii -
teristir point of difference, tliat a certain instrument possesses such and such notes,
and no otlitrs.
But the diflerence in the iâalitt^ of sound at once cliaracterizes the different in-
struments, and the notes which tiiey produce. A note intoned upon -a tlute is felt
to possess a character, and to create a sensation totJilly different to that produced by

the intonation of the same note i»y a violin, trumpet, or human voice, &c. kc.
On this very important point, however, n general schwl of music can only otler
a few passing hints, and even then merely with a view to excite the attentive and
susceptible student to observation and study, tliat he may ac<juire a tolerably correct
idea of this branch of musical art*.
* A more nniple, and, 90 tor as possible by verbal cxplaaation, oompletc, explanation of this
•abj«ot bttbeen attomptod by the Author, in the Third and Fowth Parts of hia School of Oom-
pontiioii.
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126 VOCAL MUSIC.
SECTION THE SECOND.
VOCAL MUSIC.
The human voice applied to musical purposes, cither in conjunction with, or

independent of ianguage, is the organ of vocal music.
A. Tins HtTMAN VOIOB
is known to all, ami the maimer of its pr'nlut tinn, at lea««t su]'<'rficial!y. Hence, we
shall only call att< ution to the two most impurtaat kinds of sound distinguishable in
the voice, and termed
The
*
sounds, for instatue, whieli

If
li>'ii.sti'r-'<
j
r-êeed
of the Voice.
fn-ely and pi'wertuUy from the voice,
witiiout interuid eftort, are termed chest soamk, and constitute the
Chest Voice.
It is that in which we usually s^Kiak, whirh is most iiafiirn!, tlie niist under our
control, and in whidi, also, we express our feelings witli Uie greatest eloiûeuce
and fffeft.
From the chest voice we may easily distinguish the
Ilecul Voice or Fahefto.
The sounds of the head-voice are prndurr d by a inore or less strained contraction of
the glottis*. By means of tliis straining beyond the natural bounds, the voice, in
certain eases, acquires a flute or flageolet-like tone, and may be very sweet and
pleasing, but never su pmvcrful. open, and impressive as the chestvoice. The înt^tr
also feels constraint and pain in tiie continued employment of these notes ; and this
is easily perceived by the cultivated ear.

The falsetto voice is only emy>loypd in the lii^her and highest sounds ; all the
lower and, generally, by far the greatest nuinl er «•!'

sounds belong to the chest v -ire.
Some of the higher notes of the natural v-n o may be produced by the lalsetto
voice also, and therefore belong to botii regi-t. rs.
A peculiar modihcatiou of the voice is that termed

Mezxa, voce.
* The sound of the btinwn voice is formed in tlie fjari/njr, a cavity, eniloacd by a târtilagf,
tendons, aud muaclcs, in the upper part of the trachea, of which it may hi' eoiissidercd the su-
perior member. The larynx is that part of the thniat which, e^peciollj ia men, may be Kcn
Slid mt octemally. The tondona (rings or arCieulatiiona of the tnchea), witti the miudea and
flatiksle combined, form thi ja -vigc for the Toice from the tnu In a to the ^lottia. Upon the de-
gree of tension in those articulations, and th^^ r ontr-ictinn M' the ul <irp<-nrl« tho jrravity or
arut<>noBs« of the Mund ; the nrutenr^^" hi'in<T in proi>ortion to tlie tension anil ("iitr;i< tioti. The
quality of the tone depends upon a sutiic u ntly powerful cmiision of the breatli by a wcU-regu-
1atsd«ipuMWn or controctiea of the gôttia.
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VOCAL MUSIC. 127
a kind of artificial piano, or " undertone" in which the voice becomes very soft and
tender, but retains its perfect harmonious quality*.
ThK DlFFKBENT CLASHES Ob' VoiCR.
Human voices are divided, according to the sex, into two classes,
the male, and

the feinale rotres.
In the latter dass also are included the voices of Itot/s, and, wli^^rt* ûch abonnnations
still exist, rnsfrnti. Tlie differences between these secondary kinds of voices and the
principal unes, wi- will pa<is over.
Tlie female is an <K:tavc higher than the male voice. Womuu, or htiys, for in-
stance, intoning the note wiiich, in a male voice, would he small c, sing one-lined c
And, vice versa, a male voice imitating tliis passage, sung by a female voice.
wyaU ling it an octave lower ; tfaiu
Eadi of these daases indudos two lands ; -viz. a higher and a lower oompus of yoioe.
The principal lands of male voice are
the BaUt whidi b Oie lower, and
the Temrf, the higher vmce.
The diief kinds oF female voice are
AkoX, or the lower, and
DiMcant (Soprano), the higher Toice§.
•Amongst modem singers, Jminj [Aftd, and, prtn-tonsiy, ^[all. S^r.utnrf, have been much extolled
f'T tlii ir ttiezz/f rorr_ Still <^n :itrr praise would luiVf in en <lui' uii this account to the greftt
Cataiant, who uBc<i rarciy, but in her bust daya, with au incuuiparuble graco and charm, to in-
teweave it with her Bwjeatie and powerM song; She had an inimitiihle sfyle of staging the
awcwnding scale nmm »«a% repeating each sound three or fow times in a mot rapid and delicate
trmob.
f The tenor voice J rives its name {temr^ the chief^ or fuetaining voioe) from the OtrDttlB.-
«t'ince that, in the time of merlia-vtd thun h music, it waHfjcnernlly made to suatain the melody,
which, a? the flxofl portion (cantius fermttsj formed, of coum\ tlie principal harmony. Thus,
John TiucU^r,
»ays in his Dictionary— /"c/wr ett cîtuHiue cant tut composUi /imdatncnlum reUt'
Ml.—A. H. W.
X -AUo, Lttt JUmt «fl0 vox, means, literally, the high voict ; it vaa ao called because it was
fc^her than the tenor or leading Trace.
\ The Aeemle
(alio emife, «aR(i»~the proper aong or nielod7—end aqfwww, the upper Toioe)
W itsnamc during the middle ages. At that tiijie, as stated in the preceding note,
also received
the cantw fcrmmy or uTithorizcd melody, wa» sustainrd hy thf t< nur but ?<iii£r< rs bcjân, either ;
vith or without autlimity. to introduce a rude (Sort of harmony, by accompanying the nulody
ia fborths or fiflhs. Thin kind of harmonic singing wa^ termed dvscantare, because it originated
ia a deviaticiL from the real cantoe, and, at ftret, was eererelf cennized h^ the Churdi, aa indi«
eetiag a great le?ity on tiie part of die eingers. Ultimatoly, however, hamony began to aeeert
ita daiffiB to due c<mflidcnition, even in tlie Church and then it was Uiat the art of di»cant be-
;
came !t n iîtLir and ut knowledgud branch of mueic, oocnpying the aame puaition in ancient, as
tomtcrpoml in modern, musiu.
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128 VOCAL MUSIC.
Bteidee tliMa principal IdndB, several intannediate Toket may be dirtmpiaifaed.
Thus, the
Baiitmf
is fhe medium between tlie boss tnd tenor ; the
Mezzo Soprano^
orlov soprano, a cnoebetiPse& the soprano and alto; or these different gradal&ot
may be diftiiftg fl iffhfKi as
fiislr—eeeood — third, Ac
jBflW» Tmoft Ako, or CSsnIo; m which case the word * first* mdicates the higbeit
compass.
LeaTing out of eonrideiatiop the inlsimediate gradatiops, we will noliee the te
principal classes indindiully.
l.» TuE Ba8S (ital. Basso; pi. Baim)

extends from great F or G, to d or e. It is almost entirely a chest voice^ and has
therefore a tUU, open tone, surpassing (on account of the tex) all otfaert in tnatfff
and power, but, at the same time, poesmsing a degree of roughness. The notation
of its sounds is, ahnoet without exception, in the boss deC

2. Thb Tinob (Ital. Tenore ; pL Tenmri)
usoaOy ranges from small c or d, to or a. The three or (bur of its highest soundi
gLiierully belonp to the t'alsottx> register. Tliis voice is softer, more flexible, youth-
fully fresh, and, lu umst uust s, niurf capable of a fer\*ent and inspired expression Uuu)
tlio hiiss voice. The ii(»tati<>n is, }
r( |u'rly, in th«* tmor clef ; and it will be observed
Uiat thi.s clef is by fur the most suitable, m it includes the whde o>mpa88 of the tenor
voice, witli aearcely any ledger lines
or
Hue is another instance and proof of the advantages (see p. 17) derived from the
employment of different dels. When a tenor voice is noted in the violin def *, iti
sounds are an octave lower than indicated by the notalioa;: thus, the jmssage sft a,
• h
when sung by a tenor voiee^ sounds as at 6.
B, Thx Auto Q>L AbiJ.

The compass of this voice «ctends from about small gora,tocord. Mor most
of its sounds are from the chest ; their lone is hill, but of a mild and feminine cha-
racter. The best clef for this voice is the proper alto clef; the soprano clef is less
suitable, and, least of all, although firetiuently employed &a the sake of the unlearned,
the & Of violin d«if.
* A Biode of iM^tationwhif^vf laU}, kMfonndmudi&Toaramoiigit
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VOCAL MUBip. 129
4. Te» ]>IB0A1IT0 (CqhAo or S»pra,m ; pi. Canfi, Soprani)
ranges from about c to g, a, or even b*. Its highest sounds generally belong tu llie
— *• —
&Iietto register. Hie tgne of this voice is particularly sweet and mellow ; not so full
li that of the alto» but Mgliter, fresher, and better adapted to the expression of lively,
joyoiiB, or highly impamoned ieelingii. "Die notation ii either in the soj^vno or
tnbtecfeC
B. Lanouaox.
As language geiMwrally forms a constituent part of vocal music, we have lu re to
consider it also as a musical element, without, however, taking notice of the signih-
caticij of the words, or the ideas they express.
In a few hasty remarks, we shall merely olêr\'e that, in language, we also
distinguish long and short sounds, more or less strongly a<'cented syllables, and a rise
and fall of the pitch (though not tlirougli regular and measured intervals). Tlius
language contains all the essential elements of music. But it also shows (jimlitcUite
differences of sound. These differences arise from the various mtnl. > 1
y which the
(organs of speech are called uito action, and which, as a peculiar fimctiou, is called
Artirnlafion.
By means of articulation, a series of vanous sounds is pr(xluced. Of these are the
pounds known by the napie of mweh, or s^.^rwh. The following letters,
I_E—A— U,
represent the five principal degrees of openness and pitch observable in the vowel
series from i, which has th^ sharpest and highest sound, to U, whose suuiid iis the
most hollow and deepest*!"/ Dipthmt^s and Tr«j>ti"in'ix are coalitions of two or three
simple Tuwel sounds. Con!to)iants are not independent sounds, but require tiie as-
sistance of vowels. They may albo be arranged in difierent series, according eitiier
* This is the nsoal eompa«s, which may be required even of good chorus- singers. liut, in
aD dassea of voioea, we meet with individttailB whose oomiMaB extenda tu bûnd the ordinary
fimita Thuis the old baaa sfaiger, FiMc/urr, sustained great J> throngh four bani agsinat tniin-
pets and kcttlc-drums. In the year 1770, Mozart heard, in Panno, the fiemale ahiger, JBMar>
dUiR, execute a shake upou throe-lined /, and then doee in thia maimer
Ibe amfaor himaeU; and maiiy oUier living nraaioiaiiB of Bariin, have friiquontly hoard the little
nat(>r of a native singer intoiurte/iwdiiE^^ (small, one, two, three, and finip*Imad
* b) with the greatest clcamem and, pncision. A Petersbui^ amateur found almost all deep
ba^ parts <oo AyA for him; he oonld aound ooatn A with a fiill, beavtiMveioe^biiteonldoiily
^ to c.
f XoU of tht Tratulator. —

must be understood that the above comparison of the difiiBrent
It
vowfls (<n1y holds thfw otln rs in whieh the roxrcls
in respect to the Italian lanpijn«j:e. or
»re pronounced iii the s&me lummer. Of the £ngU«h vowel?, :is rriufsint* d tlie iibovu five
httna, three â, 0, and arc altogether impure. Of the reuiaimug two, one (ij is a dip-
flang, and the other (§) ia onl7 pure under certain oonditioiia.—A. H. W.
K
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: : : : ;
130 VOCAL MtTBIC.
to the (irgans which are chiefly empbyed in their production, or the greater or
smaller deêe of force with which those org^ are made to act Such a aeriea, fer
instance, is that represented by these letters
Sh, z, c, sch, ch, B, tz, &c &c.

The whole of this purely tonal material is employed, and is stiificknt to
giye to language a variety of musical expression, independently of its power of
CMUveying thoughts and ideas. Without paying attention to tlie latter point, we find
that, in respect to its phoru'tic character alone, one language (as the Latan} is par-
ticularly clear and iuli mounding ; another (as the Greek), more sonorous and lofty
another (as the Ilehrew), lii^^lily ]ucture.<"pie and sublime; or impassioned (as the
Italian and S|>ani8h) ; Uquid and vivid (as the French) ; or impure and clouded (as
the English). iVb^ in point of mere external euphovi/, hut in the deep si^nifiraneeof
it$toundt, the Genrmn lanûn^f fffimds pre-eni 'meiit awl une>fuaUed, before all othert.
It must, however, be undersUxnl that Uie al>ove observations and comparisons are
mere general hints, intended to direct the attention of the student towards a subject
which, to every musician, must be highly iiTi|>ortant and interesting. It would he

an especially hasty and unwarrantable mode of arriving at a conclusion, were we to
judge ot the chara»'ter and comparative superiority or inferiority of any language

merely from the external euphony of its sounds. The French language has fre-
quently, in the moutlis of p<xts and orators, and (under Gluck) in connexion with
music, also proved itself to be capable of great dignity and force of exj)ression ; and
icho trifl erer forget tchu*
(f hnmortal'tti/ ShaJi»j>eare and Byron har^ gpfJxn
I<
to UJt ( Gennani*), and to all uatumg that can nndt'rutand amf citmjn-eheml t/ietn.
We have one more observation to make in connexion with this subject. It n»
lates to the mode of
Aôtation
adapted iu vocal music witlrvvurds.
On a former occasion (p. G7), it was observed that two, three, four, or more
consecutive quavers, semiquavers, &c. &c. might be united by continuous lines in
place uf the crooks ; thus
But when words are added to the music, such notes can only be thus connected whore
they belong to the same syllable ; thus
A- - - - men.
Notes belonging to different syllables must always be divided aooonliii^y, at here
On the other hand, .if several notes without crooks (as crddiets), or of diOennt
values, are to be sung to one syllable, they arc connected by means of a bind ; Aui*
143
A • - - - - - men.
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STEINQ INSTRU31ENTii. 131
SECTION THE THIRD.

STRING IN8TBUMENTS (not plai/ed mUt a Bwc),
ReferrINO to our previoTis category (p. we proceed, in this section, to

the exclusive coiisiileiiitioii of those strin*; instrununts not plavfM^ with u bow;
and of these, only the moet usual, which, being generally known, require but few
remarks.
Hwm SnuNo InsTEiniiNTg*.
This is the generally adopted name for all instruments Iroin vvliich the sounds
are either pressed or struck by nieuiis of keys. Of ull keyed string instruments,
1. TUK riANUFORTE
it the only one which has maintained its pie-eminence.
* Sapofinoiu us it would be to enter upon aa «:i^laii>tion of the aatove and ooaistmotioa

of all theie trell-laioim iiutniments, still it appoaza that, hare, a tem rcntatics upon the priiir
dple of thit and all other string inotntraonts will be nuitallla.This is the aoiindinfîotnlf
which, in instrurnoiit:^ with n kfy-ljoanl, is "iiftiiffd l>« low, K'Motn above, the strings and ;
which, in the harp, f»rm^ hat i.i termed the body ;

while, in the violin and goitiur, it ooiuti-
tute« the box over which the bUiugs urc stretched.

The stxinga of all these instramentt, of themselTes, produce but a Toiy feeblo sound, which,
i) ho rendend eSeetive for musieal pufposee, must be ttreogtbened. Now it has long been
diseoTcred that if a sonorous body (a wind-instrument or string) be made to sound, all sonor-
ous bo^!:!:-? near it, r iji '.Vli nf bîns; put into vibration, producing the some, or the nearert
Pckted sound, wiil eound siinulumeously, and thereby iuctn ade the volume and force of the
sound of that body to which the moving power has been directly applied. Thus, for instance,
if a low note, say great C, be struck od a pianoforte, the dampers being luacd, the nearest
filiated strings, Tia. flfsUy, the octave sniaD C, then the fifth of this OOtave, Kmall g, and
fcirtljcT on, the strings Cj e, ^ b &c. (sec note, pp. 9 & 10) will begin to sound also, without
being touched. If the force applied to the key of irn it C It.' « r>n9idcnible, and the iustniinent n
t^^'r^f] one, th(^f* nntfs? rriv he distinctly heanl. Unt thr vibration of the untouchi'd .'itrint^^
mny aho be made visible, by Iblding small light pieces oi paper, and resting them like saddles
190U the strings ; these will bo thrown off by the vibnition, while others placed upon strings
aol relaled to the one which is aetualty ttruck, wiE remain iatmoTeable. Sonorous bodies
thus affected bysounding of others, are termed tj/Hytatketie, Of these, tlio air is the one
tlie
which is alFected by the viln it'or^" crfry ''nvnfrmg Ixxly, however high or low the soimd
pruduood ; and it that portion "t tlir air whicJi is below tliC sounding-board, as well as the
•ounding-board Uscll, by whose sympathetic vibrations the sounds of the strings on a pianoforte
sre so aradk strengthened. The some is the case with all other inatnimentsi and a violin-
llqrcr may inereaso the power of his inatnunent by placing an open vessel (an empty bowl or
bain) upon it.endoaed in this vessd. vibntes sjrmpaOieticulIy with the strings phyed
The air
upon, and thereby gives them nfMiti'<nn1 powrr. To this cau«e n1« iittribntrcl the some- i ^
times lavourable, sometimf^'^ ? > strung und confusing, rûnaace observed m high atone vault*,
in rooms with a thiu uud hollow floor.
K 2
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132 STRINU INSTRr^KNTS.
It IB known that the ttrings of a pianoforte we itrack and canted to sound by

hammerip to which motion and ioroe are communicated by meani of the leeyt ; tint
its range <^ sounds extends from contra F,wE,wC,Ui feur^fined or still
higher; and that it produces,, simultaneously, as many sounds as there are hey*
to which the fingers can be extended. The peculiar quality (tmire) of its
tone, the power and duration of which is less than of most other instruments, ii
also well known. It is scarcely necessary toadd, that music composed fisr this instm-
m^t is generally written on two stoves and in two difierent defi ; vis. the treble
or O clef for the higher notes, and the bass or F def for the lower ones
or also (in ancient music) the soprano and bass defi.
The imp<»rtnnci; ui" this instrument is lounded iqK ii tlio circumstance tluit wo
can pnHkiLe i'r><m it. not nim lj melody, hut also (to a lertaiii < xtent) a lull and ricU
hanni'iiy. Iiistruniriits vi' tliis kind, whicli, without the aid of any other in^tru-
raents, are capable of giving » lVt < t to a complete work of art, may be termed
Irtdepeudent Organs of Muttc.
With this great advantage, the piant^rte also possesses that of having a me-
chanism pro{>ortioned to the amount and variety of its resources, and presenting but
lew difficulties ; its strings, too, are less liable to go out of tune than thoee of most
other string instruments. It is not, then, suiprisii^f to find that it is the most
filvourite and extensively cultivated of all instruments ; that our g^nat mastos have
composed for it a larger number of works, and, among these, more important ones,
than for any other ; and that most of the hi|êr kinds of composition, audi 8S
orchestral works originally composed ftr other instruments, have also been airanged
for it
It is cliiefly owing to this great popularity of tlic pianoforte that the G or
treble def, in which ita higher notes are written, has become so fomfliar to those
who practise music, and has to a great extent supplanted the soprano, alto, and tenor
de&, even in vocal music*.
2. TfiB Habp CItal. Arpa; pL Afpe.)
Tlas instrument is so \V( U kn^-wn as t" r. 'juin' but a tihort notice.
The harp has a set of freely vil>rating strings, which are made to sound by
being pulled or twitched with th<^^ fni^t ra of both hands. This instrument is also
capable of producing both melo4y and harmony ; but, vrith respect to the latter, there
• A nide kind of harpsichord, or rather an intermediate grade, between that and the harp,
is the Dulcitner, which we still meet with ocr.isionnlly as a «trr>( t irt=5frnn:f tit, an«l wliusc iiu '-il
strings are htnu k with u metal rod bcl.i in vach hand. The Dulcimer may be considered a«
having led to the invention of keyed ini^truments.
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STBIMU lNi$IKUM£NTS. 133
being no means of sustaining its sounds even for a short time, su as to show the
progression of different parts containing notes of varied durations so clearly mid
distinctly as on the pianoforte, it is inferior to that instrument. On tlie other hand,
however, its tone is more brilliant, being not only more pure and full, but often
pOMCBtting a bcU-like clearness, which, especially in the pianmimo, is capable of a
truly aerial and charming effect.
A gtin greater defect of the harp, in comparison with the j

iann, is the impossi-
bility of having all the semitones at the same time*. Originally, the harp was
calculated for one major scale only, and a string, required to produce a sound
not belonging to thui scale, had to be tuned acoofdingly. There are two modes of
effecting this alteration of pitch ; and, according to the mechanism introduced for
that purj)ose, harps are dBvided into two diffefent daises. The first is liie coaunon
harp. In its upper arm, close to the pegs, are inserted little hooks (one fer each
string), which, on being turned round, press against and shorts Uie vibrating
portion of the string, thereby raising its pitch a senutone. But the operation of
tuning the hooka occufaea a coondeiable time, and consequently mterrupts the
performance, as eadi hook must betumed separately. The second kind of harp,
therefore, in which this imperfection has been as nearly as possible overcome, is
deservedly held in much higher esteem. It is called
The Pedal Harp,
because it is provided with pedals, by means of which every string may be raised
a senutone without interrupting the player. The pedal harp is tuned in E\} major
but, on pressing down the pr(^)er pedal, every d string is tuned to ^b to 6, e to
' b fo <\ f to $\Offt, and ab to af

The harp has a compass of five octaves ; its notation is like that of the piano-
forte, on two staves, in the and F cle&.
Finally, we will mention the well-known
Guitar^
an instrument of the harp kind, but much smaller and more imperfect. Over its
sounding and finger-board are stretohed Mx strings, tuned thus
Upon the finger-boaid, small transverse pieces of ivory or brass, called form
elevations, which enable the player to shorten all or any of the strings, and thereby
phoe at his command all the semitones firom great ^ to e inclusively.
• This of r/)nr»f rplatr?? to tin ( ornrnoii harp only. To the English reader it must W
known that the iFeUh imrp has independent string* for the aenutonea ; but this instrument,
hsring only a local importanGe in SMoe districts of Groat Britun, caimot be traatisd (tf in
mffk which deacribesoidy the most ooinmoii and univenallf employed oiûib of music. ^Tbaxs.
t The pedal harp here deiscribcU i« tc^nucd a single-action harp ; by meaas of the iomhk
srtMN^ each string can be successively raised Am ttmUmm,
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STBtNO fHBTBUMSNTB.
Guitar mueic is written in the treble defy an octave higher than its raa)
sound. Thus the sounds of the open strings are mdicated by these notes
from which it also appeen that this instnimmt has nxteen-fett tane» (See p. 124.)*
* Tho guitar is one of the oldest inHtrumeuts, it having been kaowA for mor^ tiisa m
thousand years, in (ri. - -
, n- v. r\] -ti India and China. DitlVrcnt voriotica of thia Lastnimcnt
havo iKK-n and are «tiH in uîe ; lor instance, t)ie rithara ((n'nn. Zifhtr), nnd nuif^dohW. The
laUer is found in tho haads of the Ituliaa peasant, and the fonucr (vrhich has metal strings,
made to coiaiid by ntesn* of a quill) in sobo mountaidoiu diitricu of Qenuaj Sitons.
A very &TOurite uutniment in tonaer times wts tho £Mf«, tho meUow and fiiD tooea of
which dorivod additionsl power fi-oni a second set of Bvnipatlutio stringa. It> liabflitj ts
get out of tnne, however, caused it to be set aside. Of still greater importance was the
Thtorbo, .i l:u instrument of \hp iîutar kind, provid' d with ftevcnil ru* nf •-•nnffs. It was
employed m the orehostra m an obligate accompanying insirumeut, and conaidercxi to be
porticuhuly luited for thorough-bBas playing.
Wo might fl]«o ckm; but it is « nstond, ntherthsas
include the JEdian lisxpiii this
inactical inatrmnent ;whidi are stretched over A sotmding>box and tuni>d in
for its .<;tring^
unisoni, tiro not played with the fingers, or hy meniri of a mcehfinir-ftl spprtrnl H, liut nrf
actt'd on merely by a curreul of air, which puts theui into vibration, and draws from tium Uie
most enchanting and almost supernatural strains, formed by the natural notes of the strings
sod titeir qrmpethetio soundi (bsniMmics). For artistic purpoeea, the JEoliaiL hsip neither iS
nor osa be tuod.
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*
BOW INSTRUMENTS. I'So
SECTION THE FOURTH.
BOW INSTBUMBNT8.
Bow instrumentg are those of whidi the ftringB (mostly feur) are stretched
ofer a sounding box and finger board, and from which the soundA are usuaUy
produced by diairaig the how acrosB the stringy. Whesn produced in this manner,
the tone is brilliant, and indeed (jm. the high sounds) penetratmg, and its gradations
of forte and piano are so iiwitmniteit as to render it suitable ta afanost every posnble
tariety of ezpressiQii.
The different sounds of a string are obtained by prctnng it with the fingers
agunst the finger-board at certain distances, whereby the vibrating portion is more
or less shortened, and the pitch raised accordingly. This is termed sfo^'n^r. There
is, faowevo', another and peculiar môd of producing high—and very high—notes.
Thk consists in stopping the string in such a manner that it cannot vibrate in its
whole length, but only in some certain parts (aliquot parts*). Sounds produced
in this manner, are termed
Sormonks;
their tone differs from the ordinary sounds of the instrument, resembling more that
of a flute or flageolet
A peculiar modification of the sound of bow instrumoits is elected by the
application of the tmUe; whereby the tone is not only softer, but acquires a muflled
and tremulous quality, whidi, vriien rightly employed, is capable of great effect
The qipUcation of the mute u indkated by
c. s. eon owdino
(with the mute) ; its discontinuance,
s. s. tenta tordino
(without the mute).
* In ordinaiy playing, the aoufid pvodwicd is ttlAt ci the whole ttringi or of that portion
which is left free to vibrate (from the point of ttopiiiiig to the bri^) ; tnd the vibcutionfl of
the ftring may be teprosented thus
When, howOTcr, a atriag is not at certain pomta pro—ed against the finger-board, bat
Bicnly touched m iih tin fin;;! r, the string doca not vihrute in a tmiformmanner over its whole
length, but dmdM itadf into differoat Tibnitiog portiona, Mmewhai in the manner hew
reiacKuted,
the aouud pniUucud being that uf ouv ot the scotious.

The fill! explanation of thia Ruhjcct hclonga to the acienoe of acoiutioi^
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136 BOW INSTBUMKNTS.
Bow iiutrumeiita may aUo be played with the fingen, m tiie manner of s harp
or guitar. Hiit mode of playing ia called
The sounds thus produced bear tome resemblance to the hig^ notes of the
harp, but are harder and less sonorous. The ordinary mode of producing the
sounds with the bow is indicated by
c. a. co/ area
(with the bow).
Of bow instruments there are now four dilforent kmds in use.
1. Thb Violhi (ItaL Fiofifw; pL ViolnU*).
It has fiNir 8tringB> which are tuned thus*
and on which, by means of stopping, all the semitones firom small g up to e (and
still hiêr) may be produced. Two strings may also be played upon at tlie same
time, and ihree» or all the f ur may, by one rapid motion of the bow, be
trings,
made to produce the effect of a simultaneous combination. By means of these

Double Steps,
as they are called, the violin is, to some extent, capable of harmony ; but this capa-
bility is a very limited one, and polyphonic inuîic, properly speaking, is beyond its
reach. Like all other bow instruments, the violin is chiefly an instrument of
melody, and therelbce commonly employed only in union with other ii^truments-t-.
For this purpose, however, it b eminently «M^ted| more so than any other instru-
ment, from its having an almost unlimited command over its wide range of sounds,
which may be intonated with any possible degree of forte or piano, in long runs and
the most rapid movements, and in all kinds and degrees of legpiKto, staccato, &c.
Its notation is in the violin (treble) clef.
2. Th> Tbhob (ItaL Fm&i; pL VkkX)
is a larger kind of violin, its tour strings being tuned thus
148 ;
« VioUm w the diminutLve of Vioto^ and mesiis therefiDn a mull fiddle.
t It is jMimMt^ however, to Meoutea complete piece of muaio upon a angle uutnmiat;

indeed, Seh. Bach has written a four-port fuguo for ono viulia. But nuh oompositioas Sit
exceptional praductions, ba^d npr>n artificial conibinationi}.
\ The nppnipriatc nrnni <if \\\\^ iii^tniment is Viola di Braceio (orm-fiddlc), of which the
Ocrnian name /hotgfh^ is a con u[>tion. Hy the aHjiim t di lirncrin, the t< ni»r w&s distinguished
from iu predecos.sor the Viola da Uamba \^knec-tiddlc), M hich was held butwcea the ksees like
our prcBflOt violonoello.
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BOW INSTRUMENTS. 137
Its compass extends from small c to g, or higher, and its notation is in the
altocle£
3. Thi Violonosllo (pi. ViahnceUi)*
baa oiil^ four strings, wliich are tuned thus
149
khi —— •
» n
Its coni{)a5s extends to a, and, especially by tlic aid of harmonics, one or two octaves
higher. Its signature is usually the bass def ; tor higher notes, however, the teoor,
or treble clef is employed.
What has been said of the chaFoctehstics of the violin, applies also to the tenor
aod violcocello. '
4. Thk Double Bass (ItaL Contrabwô ; pL Contrabaui^)
has ordinarily fi)ur (soiivetimes also five, or only three) strings, which, from great E
upwards, are tuned in fourths. It is an itistruiiR-tit <)\' Kijrtrru-JWt tone ; its notation
is in tlie bass clef, but an (xtave aixjve it<» real piteh, so that its great E represents
the sound of contra K, kc. Double stops can never, or in very rare cases, l>e intro-
duced on this instrument; nor is it generally suited for the application uf the mute.
Its notes extend to one- lined e, or even iugher, which, in sound, is equivalent to
small e.
Bow instruments are eni])loyed either as solo or as orchestral instruments.
As solo instruments, they ore employed in
DUBTS
(genenOy two Tioliiu, or violm and vioknoello) ; or in
Trios
(usually violui, tenor, aiid violoncello) ; or in
Quartets
(uiuaUy two vioUns, tenor, and violoncello) ; or in
QmilTIlS, DOUBLI QUABTKTB, &C. Ac

or in comtMnalion with a pianofiffte, or nnê wind imtnimaits.
When employed as orehestnd instnunents, aeveral of each daas play the nine
parta. A eompootidii fiur a itring band is generaOy written in ibur-part harmony,
• The ;rcnerir name of the contrabajsiû li* I 'wiohv, the great fiddle (double bass). By way
of ujoipunauu, ihf iustrumcat next in aizc and pitch was termed Violono cello (contracted into
yMwiiMffn), the %A fld^ or «mply baas. Instead of violonMUo^ w« aometunsa merely say
«A j fhe OennanB tomeAj called it baaaetto or small baas.
t In Tsry tare caaea only, two diatinct doable-bass parts are mtrodooed. Sab. Bach has
dona tiua m his Fhaaion Huaio, wban two distinct orcheetraa are opposed to each other
Mozart ba« even introduced three distinct doable-baas parts in tlic first Finale in Don Giovanni,
vbcre p. 108) throe different orcbestraa are engaged simultaneously, and yet indepen*
dooly (if eavh uthcr.
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138 BOW INSXaUMENTS.
two parte being sustmned by the two Tiolins, oae by Uie tenor, and one by the
viuloncelloe and double baaaes together; the latter genenlly playing the kunr
octaves of the former. Thua a string bend usually conristo of these parte (eadi
sustained by several instrumente)

Primo (1^)$
Violino
YMino Seeando (2^ ),
Ttola,
VtohneeBo e Oonirabasto,
If a passage is to be played by the vidonedlos alone, it is marked
V.C. (Viohncelh.)
The point where tfie double basses are to resume is marked
G. B. (ContraboMO,)
When one of the parte is finr a time subdivided into tero^ three, or four parts,
this is imUcated by
Dw (diftise) ;
*
if only two or tivee of the instrumente engaged in one part are to play while the
others cease,
a dtte^ d tn, Ssc.
Tlie bow instruments, on account of the great extent, completeness, and variety
of their tonal resources, as well as their efficiency in the accompaniment of voices,
must be cousidered as the chief and most important mass of every grand orchestnu
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WIND iN6TBUM£NTt} OF WOOD. 199
SECTION THE FIFTH.

mND IN8TK1TMINTB OF VOOD.
It luis already been stated that under ttus name are comprehended all those
wind instruments which consist of tubes generally fermed of wood.
AQ these instruments have, more or less, a soft, smooth, atrial tone, similar to
the human voice. By means of holes and keys, their compan is very extensive
sad nearly complete ;
tlicy can produce only one sound at a time, hut this they can
intone with almost any possible degree of forte or piano, gradually increasing or
dinumshing the tone in a msmner not to be imitated on any bow instrument, and
nutaining it for a considerable length of time.
We have to notice the foUowing species and varieties.
1. Thb Plutb (Itel Fkuto; pi Flcaai)
hss the smoothest and most aerial tones. Its compass usually extends from
d (or c^ up to a, or still higher, and iU notes, which have eight-feet tone, are
fnitten in the 6 def.

A derivation from the flute is the
Octave FLrxE or Pircolo ( Fhiuto Piccolo ; p\. Flauti PiccoH),
who>t' SMmid- of tuur-lect tune ixw -mi *><•(( ic hiîher than tluir notation; so that
its two-lined d is iu effect the same as the three-lined d of the ordinary flute or
pianoforte.
Kext to the flute in quality of tone iu
The Clarionet (ital. Clariwtto; pi. Ctarinetti).
Its sounds are more full than those of the flute, and possess a peculiar quali^,
hj means of a tongue or reed of cane in the mouth-piece. Its compass î^tends firam
maQ e to three-lined e or f, and its notes are written in the G clef.
As every scries of sounds is not produced with equal focihty upon the darionet,
and scales which differ much from its natural key cannot be rendi iod without con-
nderable difficulty, musicians make use of clarionets of different pitch, choosing
tbat which is best suited to the required key. The different lands of darionets
eonunonly used in our orchestras are
Tax C Clabzonxt,
nunds of which cnrespond with the written notes
Ths B\> Ciabionbt,
of which the sounds are a whole tone lower than the notes ; and
The a Clabionet,
of which the pitch is a minor third lower than the C clarionet
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I
HO WIND INSTBUMKNT8 OF WOOD.
Thu8 this series of notes
will sound upon a C clarionet as it is written ;

upon a i» b clarionet, a whole tone
lower
and upon an A clarionet, another semitone lower
or, the kejrs of O, G, and D nugor, become, upon a B\f darionet, Bh, F, C major;
and upon an A clarionet, A, £, and B major.
Of the above three varieties, the C clarionet has the most brilliant and poweriul
tone; the Bb clarionet is equally M, but milder the A clarionet has the moit
;
t^der, but also the least powerful tone.
Chrionets of still lufîer pitch, in Z>, Eh, or F (upon which e sounds like ^,
eh, or / respectavdy), are used almost exduslvdy in military music ; their tone ii
still more brilliant than that of the C darionet.

A modification the clarionet is
(/Lbm Bassbt-HOBM (Corm di BoBietto),

of which the sounds aie a J(/ih /imwr than its notaôn — its note esoimding as small (,
or this passage
m
like
164
Its tube, which is loo^ Uiaii that of the clarionet, is hmi about the middle, forming
an obtuse angle, and has at the lower end a small mr/al fx'll*. By the aid of special
keys, it produces two notes which are wanting on the clarimiet; viz. small c and d
(reaUy, large F and G).
Its scale is written in the O clef, extending from small e to three-lined d ; but
its sounds really extend from great F to two-lined g.
Tliis soft-toned and elegiac, or rath^ lugubrious, instrument is comparatively
little used ; the more powerful clarionet has not yielded to it. Yet it is an instru-
ment which, under certain circumstances, is capable of much expression, and some
of its peculiarities can be but imperfectly imitated upon a darionet Mozart, the
The bell is the widened opening from whidi the sound is emitted. On account of tht'
tube of the l>:us.'t-horn Tiring; Ifi r.t. tho Gi'rmnni rnlli'd it Krn'.iin-h"m ; i. i'\ r n.îkcd h-n. i
whirh term iî -till applii'il tn a jxculi ir i>ri^:ui-Mt'i|i iiitoiided to imitate tke souiul of tb&t mstni-
meut, unJ iu sKimc urguus eirunuuu&ly labelled Ciuûna.
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WIND 1NSTAUM£NT8 OF WOOD. Hi
great master, was fiilly awue of this, and has, with great ttbdt, availed himaelf
it, in hk Opera, li (Uemmma <U TUo; and ftfll mora in tiie Bequiemt wherein the
whcie ehonu of wood inatruments is repreaented by twobaaaet^honis and two baaaoana.
Hie fflournfiil toiiea of theae histnunenla are ao entirely in keeping with the idea of
a fimeial tervice, and impart aucfaa character of solemnity andderoticn to the muaie,
as wouULoiily he maned by the addition of daiioneta* flntea, or oboes, in whatever
way arranged.
A more modem modification of the darionet, of stiU leaa value, was, some ten
yean since, introduoed by MftUer, under the name of
Thk Alto Clarionet.
which haa lately begun to supplant the baaaei-hom. This, also, ia a larger kind of
dariooet, and, like tfie Como di Bassetto, is curved, but near the mouth-piece,
instead of at the centre of its length. The pitch is a Ji/tA lower than that of the
darionetk but it has neither the two lowest notes of the basset-horn, nor its peculiar
and dmracteristic tone. Ito manipulation is rather easier, and this is probably the
reason why it haa been recently ao much employed in the full arran^menta for mi-
Utaiy and other bands, and that amne directors have evinced a preference for this
iastrument, to which, however, they may also bave been led by the scard^ of good
perfonnera on the Como di Bassetto*.
3. The Oboe (also JECawtiey; ItaL Oboe; pL 06ai}
is an instrument similar to the clarionet, but smaller and narrower. Its sounds are
produced by breathing through a mouth-piece, termed a reed, formed of two pieoea
of reed or cane, joined in a peculiar manner.
The compass of the oboe resembles that of the flute more than the clarionet ; its
scale generally extends firom small b to three-lined d, e, or f, and its notation is in

the Q deC But, in character, it differs greatly firom the flute. Owing to its shape,
the narrowness ot its tube, and the peculiar construction of its mouth-piece, the tone
of the oboe is sharp and cutting, more resembling that of the vidin ; still it is ca^
pabie of great tenderness, and no inconsiderable power.
A variation of the oboe is the
/CoBxto Inouss, or Enoubh Horn,
da> called Came di Caeeia. Its notation is like that of the oboe, but its sounds are
lower, ao Hut this passage
isîneflfect, thus:
166
* A II Clarion^ also (an ortriTo lower thaa tixe Cw £\f dsrioiiot) baa very latdy been
Employed in the compositions ot Meyerbeer.
Uiyiiiêd by Googlc
142 WIND INSTRUMENTS OF WOOD.
Hug imtroment bat abo nearly Men inlo diBiue. In Seb. Bach*t aocra we
meet with it frequently : amongrt modem compoeere, Spontini haa occaaofwlly em-
ployed it
4. Thb BabsOON (Ital. Fagotto; pi. Fagotti),
The InLssiK.ii is a wiinl iiistniiiit lit, with a Ihh;^' ami jir >portir.nably wide tube ; ii&
gouii'ls arL' jtriKliii cil hy iiifuiis ni' ;i .ImuMc rrr i, s'.iiit wliat hircrr than that of the
oh'K-. and ailixffl tn a iiarri-w metal pijtf, wUii-h in btiit in the shape an S-
tone is tiill atnl niell iw, sumcwhat res^'nihling that f>f tlic violMiicello, but, owing t')
ita intonatiun throu-jh therei>il, it i'^, hke that nt'the "isoe, rather nasal. The nmge uf
this instrument extenils from ci ntra Bb t*' uac-liUcJ g, or a fewdep*c'es hi^'her. Its
notes aie uU written in the F tlet'. w ith the exception of tlie higher ones, tor which
BOmetimes the Ten'ir del" is enij^liyed.
A larger species of bassoon is the
CoNXBA BA8800N (Contrafogotto),
whfifle compaaB, In notation, extends from great I) to one-lined d, but wboaa aoandi
are an cetare htcer, the uistrument haying sixtccn-feet tone^.
In combination with the baiioon and eontn-baawon* €apecia% in military bandi,

tfa«
Bass Horn (Cm- no Basto} and
OpniCLElDE
are employed, in order to strengthen the V>ils<;.
These instruments form an exception to the daw treated of in thia section, as

their tubes are of metal Their entire eompaia it from contra B to c, nzteen-ieet
tone, but of diflScult intonation. Besides these, the
SkuI'KNT (St'rfH'nte)
is ii<»ed for the same )>urpo!se. All the tlirec instruments are vtrv ilistinct from the
bassoon in their c inîntctinn, and are intrmluced here merely he* ause they unite
wnth it in character and t'Hie h*^tter than any other elae« f»f in-tnimeiits. The mmi
nn[)ortant of them i«t tlie .-< rjient, which po's^s >m s a eoni|iass extendinL: tVuni
contra Bb to g; indeed, sometimes to c ; and its tone b a medium between the trom>
bone and baasoon, from the latter of which it has derived ita mouth-peoe.
In a fiill ovdiestra Uiere are genially two flutea, two oboea, two darioneta, and
two baasoora ; also (when required) two basset-homs, and one or two picoob flutes
but of the yarietiea of the bassoon, only one, as the eontra/agotto, the ophideide, or the
serpent; and each part (excepting when there is an unusually lull oombination cf
bow instruments) ia single.
• There are two other insinimonts of tin ]> i- ion species ; viz. the Quarto Fd'ji'tti', v,][\>]i
is a f .nrtli Inwrr, find th«' FiM^fthvi (ar< un ing ia Italian orohestni), which is a fifth higlier.
liut they are rarely uscti, and arc unnecessary.
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BIIA6S 1NSTEUMEN18. 140
SECTION THE SIXTH.
BRASS IN8IBUM£NI8.
Under tliis hcuJ we comprehend those instruments (seep. 122) whose con-
struction is of metal —with the exception of a few (as the ophicleide, &c.), winch, m
accuULiit uf their capabilities and tone, associate more readily with the precediiig
wood instruments.
Thret: kinds of brass instruments daim our chief attention.
1. The Horn (Ital. Corm; pi. Carni*).
This instrument consists of a long and narrow tube, which is wound into tlie shape
of a ring, and has at one end a wide opening, called the bell, for the emission of its
sound. Its tones are particularly iii' How and sweet, yet, at the same time, full, and
capable of greafc metaiUc power. Ot^ its natural sounds, the tbUowing are the mott
practicable:
Huj may be depreawd a tone or aemitone by the insertaon of fhe hand mthin the
bdL Sounds modified in tfaia manner (which is tenned stcqpping) are, hcfwerer, less
dear and fiiU, and, at the some lime, of more difiicult intonation than the open and
nafuial tones. For this reascm, and in order to rend^ the horn {«aeticable in dif-
tami keys, several of different pitch have been introduced. Of these we mention, as
ttemoat usual,
Ths low Bb Horn,
the sounds of which are a whole tone /bicwr than their notation, so that c sounds as b b
TlHE € Horn,
Ths D Horn,
Thb £b Horn,
Thb E Horn,
Thb F Horn,
Thb O Horn,
Thb a Horn,
Thb hiqh Bb Horn.
The stuikiit will readily |>erceive that un the JJ horn the note c sounds as d; on
Uic A'b hum, as eb (every note being aminor third higher); on the AMmrn, jis e; i^:c.
* Tius iB&trumcat is also somvtinies called the Frcuch-hom (luii. Vurm dt C^tccia).
Digrtized by Google
144 BBA86 INSTBirilEllW.
All these horns arc of tixtem-feet tcne^ i. e. their soundi are an octave lower
than indicated by the notet. This panage.
Ifaerefinre, soundi upon theae varioua homi aa if written thut:
Como in O. Como in D.
J-r ^ II J r r ^ r-H-MH
Oolniomf1^ OannmJF,
;tr:
Oomoin O. Como in A. Como in dto.
The notation tor all kinds of liorns is in tiie G clef, and, in reading, must be
transposed, first to the proper degree of the scale, and thence into the lower octave.
The lowest octave, however, is mostly written in Uie boss def
160 b:
anil in this case the sounds really Ulnns; to tliut octave wliich the nutes uidiuite
t. e. they liave eight-feet tone, instead of sixteen.
2. Thx Teumpxt (ClarinoQt Tnrmba*)
has the sanie natural sounds us Uie French horn ; but they arc of eiifht-jeet lone,
instead of sixteen.
Tlie kinds most usual are
Tin: lib Tuumpet,
.» O ,,
„ A'b
/.'
F
On the ab Iruuijicl, Llit> note c sounds as small bb; on tlic D trumpet, as d; uo
the Strumpet, as f; &c. &c.
* Flur. (UmrimuaA Ihmie.
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BRA8B UmaUMENTS. 145
Tbe tone of the trumpet is brilliant and powerfnl, and its lower Bounds poBseai a
pealing clangour*.
^
3. Th£ Tbombonb (ItaL Trombone)
is tit be considert'd as a larger kind of tnmqict. Its tube, however, i nn.îsts of two
separate parts, so constructed that the two ends ot'uiit.' til int" th-isu "t'thc other, aiid
couskj«ûently, by drawing the one part in or out, tlic tuht; through which tlie air
travels may be shortened or lengtliened, and the pitch changed at pleasure. ThuB ,
the trombone contains a coniplote series o{" semitones.

The tone of tliis instrument reseuiblet* that of the trumpet, but. On account of
its greater compass, is gi ander luid much mnre powerful.
We may employ three kinds of tronil»oncs, of different pitch and compass:
a. The Alto Trombone (Ti-f,ml>i)nr A!ti*),
having a compass extending from small c or e to one-hned a, or two-lined c ; uiid its
notation in the alto clef.
h. The Tenor Tromhonf (Trom/mir Tmore)

ranges from small e to onc-Iined g; Imt its tones, especially in the lower sounds, is
stronger and more lull than those of the alto trombone. Its notation is in the tenor
det
r. The Eas.s Trombone (Trmytlmtf Ji<fs.sn)
|to>>esses a < otnpass extending from gr^ C to one-Uned e, and its notes are written
in the ha.<s clef
In a full orchestra, two (sometimes foiu:) French horns, two trumpets, and three
trombones are generally enqiloyed.
Besides tlie above, there lias \>vcr\ recently intrcxhiced an entire class of instru-
ments, consisting of old ones slightly improved, and some lu w invention??, first, into
military bands, and then into orchestras. These may be designated by tlie general
term of
4. C0BNST-A-Pl8T0Nt (Tuha).
• In onlfT tn attain and facilitate the producti ni of a t om;il('te scries of somif m.v', tnmipcta
and iiornB with pi-stons or valves have lately, and alter inaiiy previous attempts, l>een intro-
duced. By means of these valvea, a portion of the tube of the instrument may he shut off with
gicat ftcflity, And thus the nfttuml pitch of the uutrument mised. Bat the cutting up of thMe
juitrmnents into difinent aeetioiiB, and tli« oontnurtion of the curves thereby necessitated, al-
most destroys their natural charactOT, depriving them, to a ;^re:it e xtent, of that freshness and
fidness of tone by which they arc so pre-emin< ntly diutinjûishi-d. Moreover, a enmjiletc scale,
to instrumcnta of their peculiar charnetor,
is quit, u nueee sârj* tliat scriea of sounds which ;
Bstundly belongs to them, same time, for them, the moi>t cifoctiTc and characteristic,
is, at the
u is mffieiently pro?ed in the works of our gteatest masten, especially those of /. EByim and
^mMsmw. Only in military music, which, in tiin< s of peace, must be subservient to fhshioa
Mid caprice, even though its character bo thereby ile^troyed, these valve instruments have be-
r-nmr- f. nfcessiiry evil. It is, hnwfver, a fnct mnrh to hi Inmentod, and chiefly attiilxitaWe to
liie iuliuenee of the French Italian Opera, that the simple, but healthy and charaeU'riHtic, horn
ud trumpet are driven from our onduetiM more and more by these mtrudora. For ftrther in*
fimMtioD on this natter, eoosult the fourth part of ThtSehoot^fCuiônimt,
t Also esEsd the Cornopean.

L
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14G BRABB INnBUmNTS.
Of thew, we ihaU deicribe the moit important

a, Tbm man Bh Cobhxt
has a tube which ia wound aomewhat in the ferm of a trumpet, but ia wider, and
inoeaBea more auddenly in width towarda the lower end. It ia furniahed with three
valTea, or piatona, and haa theae notca (a)
which, however, sound one tone lower, as at b.
h. The J?b Coenkt

ranges from one-Uned c to three-lined c. Its notes are wTitten in the G clef, but
sound a major sixth lower, so that the real compass of the instrument extends from
small eb to two- lined eb.
c. The I'enob Horn, also called Chmmatic Tenor Horn

(Ital. Corno Cromattco di Tenore)^
ia written in the tenor def» its compa.«is extending from ipreat A to two-lined c.
Tux Xknor Bass

vL
ia written in the def, and rangea from great F to one-hned bb.

€, Thx Tuba (Bom Tuba)
ia pnmded with five valvea, and haa the moat extenaiTe oompaai.of aD, leachingfrom
eontra D to two-lined eb or g.
Of theie inatiumenta, the hif^ Bh comet may he eonaidered ai the diacaato
(diacanto-tuba), the J^b comet aa alto (alto-tuba), die tenor hom aa tenor (tenor-
tuba), the tenor baaa aa baaa (baaa-tuba), andthetubft(orbaaB-tuba) aa double-baBa.
Other inatrumenta, the ban-trumpet, kejed-bu^, paat-hom, &c &c we may
leave mmotioed.
The above inatrumenta of the ^ba apedea partake, m aome degree, with reapeet
to tone, of the character both of the trumpet and trombone, between which they may
be aaid to fi>nn an intermediate luik. Aa regîda their capability of producing a
complete aeriea of aounds, they muit be eonndered aa a medium between pmper
the
braaa inatrumenta (which, on the one hand, they threaten to dialodge or drown) and
the wood inatrumenta, whoae pure and diatmct tonea they are incapable of imitBtmg.
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THE OROAN. 147

THE OBOAN.
Tbk cspn is esBentially no odier than a combiimtioD of many mod inBtnimentB.

The oounds, howerer, are not produced by tfie braedi, but by the admiinon of air
into the pipes from the wind-ehest» with whioh the keyt touched by the perfinmer
are in copununicatiop*
The organ is incomparably rich in the number and variety of its pipes, both with
TBspect to pitch and quidity of tone.
The instrument is played by means ofoneormore rows of lie^rs, of which there is
cither one, thou^ genendly two, and rarely more than three for the hands, termed
Mamiab; and, unlen the ofgan is too smaD, another row for the feet, termed Pedak,
The manual has the same arrangement as that of the pianoforte, and usuaUy
eitends from great C to three-lined d, or a few notes hiîer.
The pedals hsfe a Hmilar arrangement, but the number of keys is less, and, on
aeoonnt of bemg played hf .the feet, they are of laig^ dimensions, and more distant
from each oêr. Their compass is from great C to one-lined d.
To each row of keys bdong not only one, but several, and frequently veiy nu-
merous ranks of pipes, of which each may be employed singly, or in combination
with some, or all Uie rest The panage of the wind to these various ranks of pipes
is opened by means of levers, which are termed That rank only, of whidi
the stop is drawn, can be made to sound by pressing down the keys.
"Die manuals and pedak may be connected (emipMi) with each other, so that
ttie pipes of aU sound when one only is pkyed upon.
Every sound continues with equal fcroe so long as its key is kept down*
The stops difier both in pitch and quality of tone. The lowest stops have Uikty-
beo-fect tone, and consequently somid two octaves lower than their notation; i. e.
me-lined e like great C.
The stops next in size have sixteen -feet tone, thdr sounds are an octave lower
than thenr notation ; i. e. one-lined c sounds as small c Afrer this follow
stops of ri<iht-feet Ume ;
stops a^fouT'/eet tone, sounding an octave higher than their notation
stops of tlPo and one-fwA tone, sounding respectively two or three octaves
higher than their notation.
Other stops sound a third or fifth above ; and some, termed Muctures, contain
•ereral pipes tuned in octaves, thirds, and f\(ihn, to sound simultaneously ; so that
when a single key is touched, its own sound, with its octave, or its octave and fifth,
or these intervals multiplied in several octavM, or, finally, ev«i in oombination with
the m^ third, will be produced*.
* Some theoristo and ofgsa-bnildon ham objected altogether to tihewo of thcee mixed stopei
L 2
Uiyiiiêd by Googlc
14U THE OR(JAN.
In respect to tons, some of the stops are intended to imitate different orcheitral
instrumenta, ftumerly or still in use. Of this kind are the Violon, 16 and 8 ^
Fbuto, 8 feet; Bassoon, 16 and 8 feet; Oboe, 8 feet ; Trumpet, 8 feet; Ac* One
stop, the Vox Humana, is in imitaiUon of the human voice. In other stops the tcoe
is peculiar to the organ ; vis. tibe IMapasons, Principals, and fleveral others.
According to the shape and construction of the pipes, we distinguish two general
dasses : Seed Stcpg are those in which the sound is produced or modified by mesnt
of a tongue or small piece of metal within the pipe, and festened at one end, irinch
is set in vibration by the passage of the wind, as in the reeds of darionets and oboes,
from which they have derived their name. Fhtie Stcjw are those mtb pipes baring
a tapering neck, like the flageolet Of this kind are the Frincqials, which are gene-
raUyofmetd, and are placed, when practicable, in front of the organ; also the stopped
registers (as Sttg» Diapaton), the pipes ofwhich are stopped at the tops, and Iherdiy
sound an octave low«r than, according to their length, they would, if open.
If we consider that the better kinds of organs contain as many as forty, nxty, or
even more stops, of which the variety, in character and quality of tone', may be
greatly multiplied by combination, some being of the sofiest and sweetest tone ima>
^nable, softer than any orchestral instrument, while others, when employed en masse
in /uU crffan, as musicians express it, possess a power so pealing and overwhelming
that no orchestra can ap])roach or equal it,—we may thus appreciate the wonderful
power of the organ, which, very reason, and because no other instrument can
for this
oompeto witii it, is called orgamun (instrument of sound), aa if it were the oni^
insûment in exi'^tt nee. The suitable eni{(loyinent of the stops, in their elianges
and combinations, alone requires considerable study £md talent; and tbis bmnch of
an organist B profession is conaidered of sufficient importance to constitute it the ait
of registration, or stopping.
The notation of organ music is, like that of the pianoforte, usually upon two staves,
in the treble and baas def. In compositions of an earlier date, we also meet with
the 9€pram, oAo, and tenor clefe. The 1 1 lal notes are signified by
those of the manuals by

Man. (Manuulet Manualmente),
or by
A. p. (seuzn fnulali').
When the part subtiiined by tlie pe«lals is richly developed, or contni.sti.i witli
those of tlie manuals, a se|)arato staff is devoted to it, and placed below tiie other twy,
which are, iu that case, exclusively assipicd to tlie manuals.

Tlif selection and iuinl>i nation of stoj>3 is but rarely indi(ated by the composer;
nor would a precige and uni\« r>a'ly aitphcable «lin\tinn m} this land be possible, as
urguiis vary cunsidurably in the uuihUt, seleoliun, aiid cliaracter of Uieir stops ;
so
that a combination of sU>j»s, which niitdit be very proper and suitable for one instru-
ment, would, perhaps, be quite iiiiûucticable, or at kasl uiiiuiluLtk , llr another.
When, however, a j»cculiar mea.sure "f lone ; ?. c. sixteen feet, four feet, or different
iiianuuJij, a* the full organ, or only soil stops, kjc, are required, this is ijidieated by
special terms.
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INSTBUMENTb OF I'KRCUSbiON. 14U
SECTION THE EIGHTH.

INBTRUMENTIS OF PKRCU88I0N.
Or these, we here notice only the most usual. The piincipai u

1. Thi Kcttlb DritM (ItaL Timjyam; pi. Timpani).
Thi?? iiistninit nt LiuiU but mte practicable sound : it mny, however, be tuiie<l to
any ih sin ^ senutuiu', from great F to sma!! f. In orchestras, two are usually em-
I'l^yt'd, and playe4 l>y the suine jiertbrmer, I'l-ing fênerally tuned by fourths to the
dominant and the tpjnic of the key in which the niDveint ut is composed*.
By covering the kettle-drums, whii h is indicated by
tiinp. ( thnpanij coperti,
their ssound is dtaik-ned. When thus employed, they are termed Muffied Dnnin^.
Tlie notation for tliese instruments is in the clef ; the key adopted is eonnuouly
that of Ct the real pitch being indicated ut Uie eonunencement of the staff ; thus
162
a, A.
Sometimes their notes are written as they really soundi according to their indicated
pilch; thus:
Timpîn fcti^l j
168
J
but this mode of notatiim cannot be approved of, as it is contrary to that employed in
music for homs, trumpets, and other instruments Nvith which kettle drums are usually
united. For, il the above example be read in the manner of horn -music, the notes
d and A would represent the soimds e and B; wherea«<, here, the pitch of the two
sound? is to be the same as that ot the notes, while, in tiie usual notation, a
mistake would be impossible, with a proper direction at the commencement
2. BaMSA.
Under this class-name arc comprised
The Great Drum (Ital. Gran Tamhuro) ;
The Cymbals (Ital. Piatti or CineUi} ;
The Triangle ^tal. Triantfulo) ;
instruments which do not produce sounds of a definite pitch, but merely a noise
and which are too well known to require any explanation.
In military music, several other instruments of percussion are empbyed as the ;
Crescent, the wooden rolling drum (Tambwro RtUanU), and the proper miUtary
drum ( Tafnb. Miiitaire), In orchestral bands, we also meet with the Tamtam, an
Indian instrument of enormous powo^.
* A ucwly mveutcd mechxiuum much facilitates the operation of tuning these kcttlc-druma,
to that it can bo effected with rapidity and certainty, even during the perfimnanoe.
t The TaiHbvurine^ an instrument of very ancient date, and the Spanish VastamUf which
k?c become so common in our baUeta, most also be ledkooed ia thti olaas.
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INMKLMfciNTh uF fciilCllON.
SECilUN THE KINTH.
IMBTEUMKITTS Of FBIOTION.
Ik tiui dan of iiiitntiiienta, the luperiority miift be aieribed to
1. Tbm Habmohioa,
from wliich the sounds are produced by the application of the finger to its aemio
glol>ular glasses, while in rotatory motion. The tone of tliia instrument is inde-
tcribably sweet and tender, and is also capable of a moat effective crescendo, from
t)ie sof\est whi8[ier to a thrilling forte, and an equally gradual decrease of sound
indeed, its pecuHar intensity hrts, iti enme instaooity proved •<> excitiiig to peraoDt of
weak nerves, as t^ cause fiuntiiig mul liystcrics.
In spite of its merits, this instrunu nt, invi iitoi by Benj. Franklin, 1762, has
been unable to maintain itself; because its manipulation is very difficult and fatiguing,
and its capabilities too limited, being cdnilatt*d only for slow uixl simjile harmonies.
*Tliis incapanty t<' accommodate itself to tlit- creative inKi<:i nation of tlie oompaeer»
the sensual charm of its tones can but inadequately compensate*
2. Tq£ Clavi Ciumdkr
probably oirad its gencni notoriety to the reputation and tnveb of its uiTentor. Ibe
oelebrated acoustician, E. T. Chladni ; as it has also gradually sunk into obUnon
since his death. Its sounds, which somewhat resemble those of the darionet, are
drawn from glass rods pressed against a reTolving cylinder of the same material* by
means of Iceys and a mechanism similar to that of the piano&rte.
Farther particulars rdative to these and other similar instrumenta, of which

none are in general use — the Euphon, Terpodion, Uranion, and oHierSj —need
not here be entered into.
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TUE SCO&S. 161
SECrriON THE T£NTH.

THl 800BX.
^^^^ «
Wb have abteody teen, at page I2d, that eomporitiQiis intended to be perfonned

bj diflerent iutnunenti or tttces are usually written in leoro ; t. «. tfafly are
disposed so, that each instrument and a Beparate staff allotted to tt» and
voice has
that the difihrent staves are placed cne above another, bar by bar. If there be not
sofScient space ftr as many staves as there are parts, or if some of these be so
litQe employed that it is inconvenient to assign sqiarste staves to them, two or
more parts of the same dass, as two flutes, two dariooets, or the three trombones,
canto^ alto, Ac Ac. aie placed upon one staff.
Whichever of these modes of writing be adopted, the score in either form is a

ftithfiil representation of all the individual features, as well as the etuemik or
entire eflbet of the composition. No arrangement feat the pianofette or odier instni-
ments, however careful and skiUiil, can in any degree supply the place of the score
of a composition in many parts ; and no means of studying and enjoying such a
compontion, equals in point of oertamty and fiuality thsit aflbvded the score
itsdf a proper understanding of the manner in winch scores are
Therefore,
arrsDged, and the abiU^ to read and play them with ease and certainty, must be
esteemed a most useful, if not an indispensable, acquirement of every composer,
conductor, or teacher, as well as of every sound mustdan, or lover of music denrous
cf the deepest penetration into, and real eigoyment of, musical art
It is only 1^ a soUd study of composition, or at least of harmony, that this skiO
cm be fully acquired. Meanwhile, every step whidi brings us neamr to this desired
end, is in itself gratiîng and of great value, the hdbour required being in no pro-
proportion to the reward. It is hoped, therefore, that the following instrudiona in
the art of reading scores, containing general remarks on their arrangement, with
lome hints to assist the student in his researches, will prove acoeptsble to the
Qsjority of muddans and amateurs.
Another reason for treating this subject more fuDy here, is, that various prac-
tices and irregularities have crept into tiie arrsngement of scores, not all of whidi
esn by any means be approved; and by which, even in the first instance^ the want
<if agreement must appear unsatisfactory to every one. It is, tiier^)re, time that
eompoeen and editors should give general consideration to this subject
Aocording to the object wludt a score is intended to serve, it must contain on

CTory page aU the parU, in staves one above another, so that the general con-
tents of the eompodtvm may be sem at one view. Only in the greatest exigoocy,
when there is insuflkient space for all the [mu^ upon the same page, a division of
the score should be resorted to, by sepaiating the least important parts firam the
bulk of the soore, and inserting them as an addenda at the end of the compodtion.
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162
All the parte must be written har by bar, exactly one above anodier, at in the
Mowing ezampkB and Uub ; accuracy of notation Bhould even extend to the di^
ftrent parts and membera of each bar. These stavea are connected at the beginung
by meana of braces, and at the end by the dosing doable bars ; frequently, every
bar Ime in the course of the compositiQn is drawn tiuouf^ all the stares, from the
top to the bottom of the score.
To each staff is prefixed the proper clef and sigpature ; and, at the commenoe-
ment of the fneoe, the name of each instrument or Tcioe to whidi a separate sbdT
is assigned is distinctly marked. If, at the commencement of the piece,
some of the parte are not employed, but have several bars rest, we may, Ibr
the sake of saving space, leave out the staves allotted to them, and merely write
those parte which are actually engaged. In this case, however, the parte tfuis
omitted diould be distinctly named, and the word

Cent (Cfontano)
— ^faey count, or rest—<added, to indicate that they wiU subsequently appear. Tlw
same precautioa should be observed, when the temporary silenoe of one or man
parte in the middle of a movement allows the score to be, ftr a time, reduced to a
smaller number of staves.
The necessary terms or signs of expression (forte, jnofio, &c.) should be written
over each separate staff, or at least over each of the difierent masses. Should even
this be neêcted, the indications pven for the principal part must be considered as
^plying to ail, exo^tang where dSierent signs of esqsession are dialinctfy sppGed
to some <^ the parte.
Every part shodd be vrritten in M. But, for the sake of dispatch, or in order
to avdd over crowding the score, the staff of a part moving in unisons or oetaves
Op. 29) with another, is sometimes left vacant, and the words
CoL (CoUa), or air eoL

are written instead of the notes. Thus, in the oboe staff, the words Col FbmH, or,
in the staff of the second violin. Col Primo, may be written, to mdicato that the
oboes are to phy in unison with the flutes, or the second with the first violins.
Sometimes, instead of re»writing a passage previously occurring, only the upper,
or the upper and kwer parte are written, and the words
/
are written obliquely across the staves, to indicate that they are to be played as
before. This mode of abbreviation is, howevw, always an inconvenient and ques-
tionable task fiur the memory of the reader ; it is still more so for the conductor, aod
cannot, therefore, be recommended.

So fiir respecting the formation of sowes in general.
A most important point now to be conudered, is the arrangement mtd order cf
ike different part*. On this jxtint, the two following rules are essential in most
cases:
Digitized by Google
THE t»CO&£. 163
1. Tbe ports beloiigiiig to the same mass or chm-ws are plaml near (above
<Hr belovr) eadi other
2. Hie highest parts are generally placed uppermost, and in Uie Bume
order down to the lowest,
WHh respect to this, however, much depends upon the number and nature of
the parts employed, and we shall see that more than one form of arrangement is
poaatMe and necessary. We can consider here <Maly the |>ri!i( ipal cases.
Hie moat vmple and easily arranged score is that which contains only a single
cfaorua of voices. For such scores the second of Hie above rules is sufficient, and
there is scarcely any oecasioD ibr a devSation from it
A toetd ekonUf be it in three, finir, or five parts, is arranged according to the

pitch of the voioea. Each occupies its separate staff, unless one staff be made to
contain, either both the soprano and alto, or tenor and boss, or two soprani, two
tenors, Ac &c. The hitter mode of notation u termed compressed score it should ;
onlj be resorted when the parts move veiy near to eadi otho*, or when there ia
to,
an absolute want of space and of the two parts thus placed upon mie staff,
;
the notes of the one should have their stems turned upward, and of the other
downward. Here
-M
Sopnuio.
Ky - 11 - e kt • wm!
Ky - ri - e lei - son t
Ky • ri • « o - lei
] •> mm 1
m
Baaso
^1 S" J^-^
Ky • li - e
=ffFT-T^ l«i-aoa!
is tiie ^ iiimtiicoinent of the vocal chorus of Seb. Bach's admirable mass in A major,
in tiiH scuru (witii the omission of the orchestral parUj ; and here
Ici - 8on
m
Tftiore.
Basao.
its repetition (wherein an interchange of melody has taken place between the
soprano and tenor) in compressed score, the alto bdng united widi the soprano, and
tiie tenor with the bass.
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164 TBI 8C0BB.
Equally simple and coy m tfie Hnngpaent of the «<lrtRy quartet or ctooi of
bow iutniiiienli, from the fint Tidiii down to the vioknedlo ; at in tUi eiample,
die oomnwneenMPt of a quartet bj Haydn
lôlino 1.
Violiao 2.
166 /
Viol*.
•
• • • ' ? • •
i i
'VifllMtteDo.
J 1
1— 1
-
If a double ban be added, it takes its position upon the violonodio stafl» as has
already been observed (p. 1.38). Only when the parts ibr these tifo instminenla
difler frequently and materially, a separate staff is asiigned to each ; the double
bass taking the lower of the two. In mere occasional deviatians» it is sufficient to
draw the stems of the notes in opposite directions; as here
and, in such cases, the notes with stems turned d'j\vn\var<l are for the double baa.
Tn a chorus of wood ipntnnneiitif (p. 142), instruments of the same kind, as
two tiutes, clarinnets, &c. are usually compressed upon one staflf, unless one of the
parts, as tlie first Hute, be so extensively employed as to leave no s^vace for a second
on the same staff. In other respects, the second rule is to be observed in these
combinations also.
Instead of a full score, which would occupy too larpe a sjtace, we here give two
draughts for the arrangement of such wood choruses ; the one lor a small, the other
fiv a more numerous orchestra
FTanio Pieeoh^
FkttUi FhttH.
OM 06ai.
(ârmetto m Eb^
darineUi tn Bb. . . . Cbrinetto m si,
Cami <& Bouetto,
FagalH FogottL
Centra Fcôtto,
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TBI 800&I. 166
Should there be no space lor a full Bcore of the more numerouB band, the contra
hafistKjii, with its companions Q). 142), must be placed upon the staff of the fegotti,
where it either piuys in unison with the second bassoon.
Col StTondo,
or has ita uwn notes wiLii tiiu stems turned downward
168
wfafle the DOtM of the two banooni are turned upward; or iome other mode of
distinctkn is adopted.
In regard to Srati imtrummU, fha ftOowing it to be oliaerred.
Die tmmpetB, having the hiêtt pitch, are generally placed above the honia.
When flereral hmiB are employed, êy are usually arranged aoeordlng to tfieir
pitch; imlen it be deemed more advantageous to place those bonis nearest to the
trumpets which are tuned to the same pitch. With the trumpela and boras are
joined the hetUe-drums, forming a bind of bass. The latter, however, bear a greater
affinity to the trumpets than to the hom ; a combined chorus of
i^ therefiire» in
wood and brass instruments, the herns should more with the wood instni"
associate
ments than with the trumpets, it may sometimes be more advantageous to make
a deviation from the second rule of arrangement, and place the tnunpets Moic the
boms and immediately above the kettle drums, as belonging to a separate chorus.
We give a couple of draughts for comtanations of this kind
darini (IPrambe) in D, Tromhr in O,
Corm»*<inD, Cor hi in E\),
Comi in (7,
Tmpam ind,A, Tinyaam in e, O.

The first of these rejiresents a chorus in the key of D major, the other probably
in G minor. If, in the latter, the tT'-trumpets and C-homB should be much em-
ployed together, it might be more convenient, agdn, contrary to the second rule,
to place the horns in E flat, bek»w those in C As an example of the third of the
above cases» viz. the trumpets placed near the kettlo'-drums, we subjoin a passage
horn Alexander's Feast, composed by Handd : ,
Corni
in J*.
Comi
109 i
i U u ^
Trombe
in a
—
-P P- r r
'riiDpani
^^^^^^
in F, Q^jf J
^
^
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156 TU£ SCOEX.
in reference to which, we wiU not enquire whether it be a correct copy from the
original score, or exhibit the most proper treatment of ^ nutrumenfii. Suppow
the horns and trumpets were intended to be employed u hete, then the arrangemeni
of the score as above t> certainly the most proper, beeaoie it it tiie moat liiiiple
and perspicuous.
The Tr9f)Aene§t as we faunr, belong to the brasB choir. But they eonititate a
ckiM of their own, with which those initnunents comprised under Haib term of
Battda meet naturally unite, forming, aa it were, their ban. The trombonea aJao
an arranged aooordxng to tiieir pitch. Sometimn the alto and tenor trambonea are
joined on one etaiTi and, in tlus caae, are unially written in the tenor def ; scmetimea,
when there is a want of space, all three trombonea are compressed upon one ataff,
and th«i also the tenor clef seems the most suitable ftnr tiieir notation.
When sereral chorusea of instruments are united, the primary rule comes first
in operation ; viz. the parts are to be kept together; after this, the second; that in
each chorus the higher part is placed u|>permost But now arises the question,
whal xêlatiye positions are the different ckanuet to occupy?

Here it appears generally most advisable to place that chorus lowest wfaidi has
the most predominant bass part ; because, and as we shall learn in the tnslructioas
on harmony, the dher parts can be concdved vnth a greater degree of certainly
from the bass,dam from any oth«r part
When wood and brass instruments are united, it ap{^>earB best to place the ftrmer
bdow the bitter, as in this draught
Corni,
Timjmni,
(F/auti,
Oboi,
Wood ' CUirinetti,
Fagotti.
Contra/agotto.
When string instruments unite with wind instruments, the latter will again be
pbced above the r>rmcr.
In combinations of this land, it appears, however, more advisable to write the
wood chorus above the brass instruments, so that the latter occupy the middle of the
score, as here
r/TbiKi, &c. Ac.

^*
KFaôttu
{Trombe, &c &c.
Timpani.
{VioUno 1, &c. &c.
Vidimt^ t CaiUrobauo.
For then, at least, the second rule of arrangement is observed, while the order in
which the different uutruments are placed oAers several important acUiticasl
advantages ; ibr instance, that the flute staff, being situated at the top of the wore,
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I
TUE SCUKE. 167
IB nuMt convenieiit for the iiuertion of hig^ notes and patnges, such as the fint flute
has frequently to execute ; that the brass instnunents, with their firequent rests,
form a rery conspicuous line of division between the string and wood instruments
that the staff of the kettle-drums, standing immediatdy above that of the first violin,
flflers the least obstruction to the frequent high notes ii the latter, &c. kc StiU, we
meet with aoores, espedatty of modem instrumental compositions, deviating from this
Oder, the biaas instruments being placed uppermost, and the wood instruments bdow.
In vocal eompovtions, consisting of two or more ch4Hruses, the first rule is observed
by V^pTTig the different voices of each chorus together. If solo voices are added, Ibr
which dwre is no space upon the staves of the chorus-voices, th^ are placed on sepa-
rate staves aboee the chorus.
Finally, when Vocal and Irutrumenfal Choru9e$ are combined, it seems most
desirable that the staves of the former should be situated immediately above those of
die most important instrum^tal parts ; viz. the wdoneello vAeofUrabafto, In tibia
case, ther^bre, a deviation from the first general rule of arrangement is necessary,
the parts of the string quartet being divided by the intervening vocalchonis. An
anrangement of this kind we see here
\
Flauti, &c.
C/arini, &c. &C.

Thii/kini,
j
Tromftniii- A f/Of &c.
f Violino 1,
Violino 2,
Viola,
CmUOt
Mo,
Ba»io,
VwhnceUo e Conirabatto,
We find this arrangement frequently deviated from in old scores, where the staves
of the violins and tenors are placed at the top of the score, and above the wind in-
ilrumentB, in order that the two most important parts in the band, the first violin
and the double-bass, may also occupy the most conspicuous phioes in the score ; via.
the one the hijgîest, and the other the low(»t staff. But the disadvantago of having
the most important chorus thus completely disjoined, appears to outweigh the advan-
tages otherwise obtained.
The arrangement of miMtaiy scores we pass by, because no work of art, properly
speaking, has, as yet, made its appearance uix)n this cUss of compoeitions.
To read a score requires, most indispensably, besides the knowledge of its general
srrangonent, a facili^ in reading the deft in which the different parts are written,
and transposing them into the sounds they really represent : for instance — the Bb
clarionet a tone lower tlian it is written. For those who can at least read fredy in
the diffeKoit clei's (]>. 16), here Ibllow some fflcplanaUons. We also give some in-
stances in which it h ] •resumed that the transposition into the octave above or below
will present no ditficuUy
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168 THK BCORK.
Let the notei of the ^ dirionet and A horn be read if wnltOB in tfie
•oprano de^ with three ihvpt ; thui:
When, in a score, the staves of these instnimenti hare ahready one or men
haips, theee mutt be added to the above three ; or, if the part be written in a
Vej with one or two ihaipe, it mut be read at if noted in the eofinne de^ with
fiwir, orfiveihaipi; thui:
On the other hand, if the part be written in a key with flata, lo many diarpi
must be deducted from the above three, as there are fiats. Thus, should the signa-
ture contain one flat, the notes must be read as if written m a \ej with two (2 1) —
aharps only; thua:
2:
For all cases, tliis proceetling will be easy and simple, if the student remember
tlmt a sliarp raises, and a flat depresses, the pitch
tliat a natural after a sharp (U^prenscs^ and

a natural after a flat raUes, the pitch of a note, whatever may be the
chan^ which its name undergoes in eonsequence.
2. Let the iitttes ot the low horn be read \i& if written iu the teuor clef
with two flats ; thus
..U
Played, lit
3?
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THE SCOBS. 169
3. Let the high Bh horns, i?b trumpets, and Bh darionete be read in

the Bme manner ae Uie deep horn, but an oelaTe higfier. lliue,
if Um darionela be noted in a key with one sharp, they are to be
read aa if written in a key with one (2 — l) flat: if the signature
contain one or two flats, we should haie to imagnie them to be written

m a key with three (2 + 1) or fear (2 4- 2) flats.
In this respect, the proeeeding is the same as in rule 1.
4. Let the D hems be read as if written in the alto def with two sharps
thus:
174 /
So also tiie D trumpets and D darionets, but an oetava hnm than

wntten.
With the latter instruments, it appears, however, easier at once to transpose their
notes a whole tone hifîer.
5. The Kb horns and A' bonis should be rea*! as if written in the F clef;
the former with three flats, the latter with four bliarps,-—
175
but an octave higher. Cflarionets in Eh, trum{>ots in /7b and E, are

to be read in the same way, but two octayea higher, instead of one.
In reipect to these instruments, however, it appears again a more
simple procee^g to transpose the notes, respectiTely, a minor or mqor
third higher.
Of these eiêdients, one student may find this, aaethar that, or a third the direct
tnuposUifln easiest ; a little praetioe, however, will render ferther eiplanation unne-
eesBsry*
Hating thus gpven some hmts ftr fecilitathig the reading of the diflbrent parts,
we add a few otheis, wiiich may assist the atudent in fenning, ataglanoe, atolaably
eoneet idea of the whole contents of a soorsd page. The fellowing observations will
s|iply totfae peatest majority of cases
6. When two or more of thoee instruments are employed, to which the

lowest part of a composition is generally afisigned, as the double-bass,
contm-bassoon, serpent, ophideide, bass tuba, Ac thqr usually move

in unisons with each other.
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160 TBX 8C0RK.
7* In passages where the whole collective force of the otdwitTaiseiiiplojed*

and where, oonsequenUy, the mnnfper of [larts engaged preeenti greater
dlHiciilties to the reader, the first and second violins frequ*tnli<i move
in unisons octaves ; the oboes, in moit eases, with the clarionets,
the flutes in the upper octave witli the latter, and the piceiô flutes in
the upper octave with the flutes. The bassoons eitJier proceed in
uni>'<i)s with the double basses, or intonate the lower octaves of the
clarioni'ts and olH>e8 ; the hunt move with tlie trumpeti, and both are
joined by the kettle-drums ; the trombones either associate with the
hn\si> chorus, or, in simple harmonies, support thewhedeooUectivenMMi
of the wind instrumentB.
8. When vocal and mstrumental choruses are united. Hie wind-instnuneiita

generally proceed with the vocal parts ; namdy,
the fint flute, oboe, and darionet with the soprano,
the second „ „ „ „
alto,
the first bassoon „ tenor,
the contra-bassoon „ bass.

Of the string quartet, &e violino 1"** mavea with the soprano^ yiolino
2** with the alto, viola with the tenor, and violonodb and cantra>basso
with the bass.
9. Should the student, for want of practice, or any other came, be unaUe
to comprehend, at a glance, the contents of all the difierent parts, it
will be well to concentrate his attention upon the principal ones. As

such, are to be considered'', firstly, the §oh partt; next, those of the
eoco/ ehonu; next, the fiddles and dtmfJ^'bain ; and, among^ the
wind-instruments, the <ôeit (or clarionets) and boMtoom,
A knowledge of harmony, thorough-bass notation, and eompoution in genenl,
and also an acquaintance witti the style and mannerisms of the composer whose score
is to be read, will considerably lessen the difficulties of the task, and greatly enhance
the benefits that may tie derived therefrom.
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PART THE FOUETH.
ELEMENTARY FUUMS.
TBK WOUHhATlOW OP MVLODT. 163
SECTION THE FIRST.
THX SOURCES OF MELOBT.
Under the term Meltxij/ we comprehend every series of sounds arrunrjul in a

rli^thmicul form, and expressing a dtfiiiiUj musical idea or teeliiig*. Wc have
therefore to consider, in the lirst place, the succession of Bouuds, and then their rhythm.
A. Th£ Succession or Sounds.
Whence shall we derive our series of sounds for the expression of ideas f and
when can a series of sounds be said to be properly arranged ? There arc three sources
for the formation of a series of sounds. The first is
The Diatonic Scale,

ascending or deseeding, or both combined. For in this scale we see that the degrees
proceedby definite step*, and also in a certain direction fix>m a low to a higher, or
from ahigh to« lower loond.
We know (jp. 40) that there are, at least, two such diatonic scales (îz. major
and minor), and thai either of theie mt^ be formed upcm any semitone of ê octaFe.
A second soiuoe is the so-called
(jhrmnalie Scale,
cither ascending or descending, or in both directions. It is, howerer, scarcely prac-
tkdile to deriTe a mdody entirely from this scale; because its progressions, being all
semitones, are too uniform and inslgaiticant. It will be remembered also, that the
chromatic scale is not the basis of any key (see note, p. 40), or a fundamental pfin-
dple of our tonal system.
A third source for melody, as we shall discern with more certunty in subsequent
sections, wiU be found in the employment of
ItUerwUf a Ckcrd^ or of several Chords mecessivefy
thus:
It win, however, be immediately peroaved, from this example, that such a suc-
cesiion wants compactness, and has too little connexion to render it frequently, or for
any oontinuanoe, an exclusive source of melody.
* Such an idua must, like all other:*, Imve its deflnotl limits ; having a definite uiai, it must
<y n lud •
%\ Li n tli it is oxpresaed. This eoncludion of the idea or nicludy mny Kr, ,it the same
Uiue, thf ( n l <'f a jiicrr, or thr rnTnpfv=»!t!on mav br continued by new ideas or nielfKlies. The
inelodic6 introduc.'d in tho course of a compivjition form, collectively, itu ratitikna.
M 2
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THE rOt7MDATION8 OF MKLODT.
From these elements, all po^jsihle miccesBinns d('vt !"j> tht inselves ;
rarely, how-
ever, from ono nnly, hut more judicially lhr"Uirli int. rclumge of U\<>, <.<r all. So,
cvoii thi- all vr >iin]il'- t xaiiiple ig drawn from two >•( these sources. Tlif s unds of
tlie first, tuiti those ol the sk n.l har, r 'li-i.l r. si ectivfly of Uie mter\*al«5 ..fa < h' l l
hut the {»a'^!5a^«' fnmi tlu» tir>t t.. t!ic c-ctuini, aiul from the second tn thr tliird bar
(r- —A J — rj is rtVt i ti il i^y 'liatmiic progTesai' iis. Such a changi- nf nn.'l<Klic um-
terialb uiuy he employed in a much more varied and interesting manner, as in the
tbllowing phrait)
Here we find, at 1, the chromatic; at 2, the diatonic ; at 3, the hannanic element

prevuiliiig ; and similar changes oocur in the succeeding ban.
But, in this change from one haaia to anotlier, however varied, there must îpear
ome order, some rejûJating law, if the series of sounds BO £inned is to deserve the
name ofa real melody, or artistic f nn. In the above exmnple, for instance, the
series commences with a chromatic, then Mows a diatonic, and after this an har-
monic succession ; and this order is repeated and confirmed in the aeeond and third
ban. The arrangement is not, however, always so simple and intelligible aa the
preceding phrase. Here
we have an oxninii!.' -4" a iiuk h more compHcated arrangement. Atler tin- chro-
matic { \ I
and <liati>uic siict r>-;ioii (2^ there fttllow twn uUiers (J and 4). ha>e<l uj">n
chords, 1" t'opi the lilat mir , :> ) and i hroiiintio suci ' >v!..h ((\) are re))eaitd , and thus
the chtads {. rm tin- j-ri d^nnnaiit element ot'tlu' ri( > liiit, in the thin! har, the
harmonic suct r>>iitn (7 an<l K) aenin )i«\aii-, and tliu> ihe whoK' strain divides
itself into u\n sinniar lialvr-, cuch w liu h o'lnmences in a diatonic and chromatic
lorni, and t<,'rniinatt s wilh tlie harmuiac ligure.
A L:r"U|i ot tw three, or more auundj, serving as the basis of a certain successi(»i

of sounds, is called a
Thus, Nos. 1, 2. and '6, in llie above example, are moticox of succession. In these
wo series of somidis,
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THE FOnWDATIONS OF MBLODT. 105
tbe sequaioe of iwo amtigfuous mmndi n the moliTO of BuooeanoD. By the repeti«
tiaiiytfiiiipoiitaoii, uiTetsion, and combination of diffeient motiTOB, the extended aeries
of aounds is ionned ; and the stndent will at once peroave, from the above example,
that one simple motivo may serve fi>r the finrmatioa of a variety of melodic ibnns.
We may also connect two short motives into one of greater extent ; as here»
where two motivos firom the preceding example have been formed into groups of four
sounds; or here,
where the motivos 2 and 3 of No. 178 have been united, and, by their repetition, led
to a new mckdic series.

Aft^ the basiB and molivo, we have, finally, to consider its
A series of sounds may proceed «ther in an wemding or detcendki^ direction,
or, alternately, in both (as m No. 181) ; or it may move principally in an ascending
or descending direction, with contrary motions during the intmals (as in &e above
ezami^ where the descen<fing direction predominatea), or its motion may be unde-
cided, MeUbHfiff from one to the other ; as here
B. The Rhtthhical ABRANaiHXNT.
The rhythmical arrangement of a melody must also show a certain definite plan
and order, in aocoidanee with the idea which it is intended to express. After our
observatioDs on the succession of melodic series, we may, however, be brief upon this
(Hibject.
The rhythmical arrangement is based upon the duration of the sounds and the
order of the ban, and, like the melodic arrangement, consists in the unity and
ratiooai connexion of the whole. For this end, it proceeds upon the basis of one or
more
Rhi^fhin 'tral Motivos,
which, by repetition, imitation, and periodical change, aa'ording to the laws ot sym-
metry, grvw.v, ^c. and the contents and design of each special composition, are ex-
tended to greater rhytlimical forms.
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THE FOUNDATIONS OF MELODT.
In tliis iiuiimer, rliylhui t'>niii> the regulating element of every musical proHiuc-
tion, from tiic must simple melodic form to the highest um most
I lUihoratc w^rk A' art.
We shall here confine oursclvu.^ to one or two examples, iliusiiulivt of such
rhythmical niotivos. In the hist luiir ixani]iles (Nos. 178 to 1R2), tlie rhythmical
motivo consisted o( u cuutiaued succession of short notes, equui m duratioiL Here
the rnotlvo is tlic

188
m
sequence of one quaver and two semiquavers. By the contraction
or exteusion of some or all its members, a rhythmical may he rlianged iiit<< a
nii»tiv<i
variety of form;*. anJ, like tlie tonai motivos, two or more may be united in one of
greater extent ; a^ liere
184
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I
THE FUNDAMENTAL F0BM8 OP MILODT. 167
SECnON THE SECOND.

THS VUNDAMSNTAL VOBMB OF MILODT.
All. mdodkt may be reduced to one of three ftmdamental ftnn : Patta^,

Section, and Period,
1. Tbb PA8BA0K (Gcnn. OoHgi),
Every meliviically cuistnictcd series of sounds, without a decided and satis-

fudory close, is tenned a passage. Here
is a passage, as is also that in Ex. 177. Sucfaapasuige may consist of sevoml

groups of the same form, but distinctly sepan^, as in No. 178, where it consists
of groups of ftur notes; or in No. 181, where each group contains six notes ; or as
here,
in grwtpa of seven notes, distinguished from each other by the greater value of their
fint notes; or it may consitt of a mixtuie of groups differing in arrungement, as in
No. 186, and here.
in short, all the freedom of melodic forms exists m the passage.

A passage based upon either a diatonic or chromatic sucoesncn of notes, and
moving through a considerable number (rf* d^^reee (at least tfiroi^ the qieoe of an
octave), is termed a
Run.
If its ex« nt; 11 present particular technical difficulties, or be intended to dis-

play the skill and power of the performer, it is termed a
Bbavuba Passaos.
^2. Tii£ S£OTioir,
All melodies having a definite eoromenoement and conclusion may be divided

into sediofis.
By what means are sections distinguished and divided?
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16B THE FLNDAMKNTAl. FORMS OF MKLODY.
In the fint pboe, Umaihf, by ocnuludiDg wifb an cfwntial Mand of the key;
and m the nesct place, rhj^mkaBjft by doting upon the prmeâl, or upon m
oHffinaBy jnineipal, part of the bar. ThuB, it is evident that the pteoedii^ mc-
oessiom (from No. 185 to No. 187» &e.) are only paoiagei, and not teetiaoi, beoooie
Ihey have no definite tonal or rhythmical termination.
Which are the essential sounds? ^
At present, we shall limit oundm to <me only, the tankj in the subsequent
course on harmony and modulation, we shall disoovw that the other intemb of
the tonic harmony (the tbiid and fifth above the tonic) may also be oonsidcnd as
essentiai notes, suitable far the chise of a section, provided they farm constituent
parts of the tonic harmony. We shall, moreover, learn that a section may dose in
another key than that in which it commences ; in whidi case, the tonic of the new
key and the other intervals of the chord of this tonic constitute its legitimate dosing
notes. And thirdly, also, that the difiTerent notes of the dominant diord frequentiy
Ibrm the dose.
In order to return to the important dosing sound, the tonic, we here
see the section satisfiictonly completed in three bam ; and here
is <ine of fiiur bora. But dot s not the olosf uf tlie latter a}i|>car to Ix- rhythmically
uiisatislactory ? No; its last s.aiinl lallfi u[>on aii original }>rirKipal part of the bar,
and is, moreover, only a repetition, a kind of echo or repercussion of the real dose,
an octave above. Here
III! 1 I
— — PF FPr-#-
we have a section commencing with starting notes and undedded tonali^, but
terminating with a dose, satisfiictory in both respects; and here
we see a section dosing unsatis&ctocily in regard to rhythm, but suffidentiy marind

by its tonal termination. This and similar forms are not therefinre to be considered
as errors ; they may be preferable fiir the escpression of particular ideas.
Every section, as wdl as every mdody, consists of r^;uhir motives ; which may
either succeed eadi olho' without intermission, or they may fi>rm weU-defiaed
groups. Here we see
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THE FUNDAMENTAL fOBMS OF MELODY.
t aeeticn of four hm, in the second of which, the rhythmical motion is fi>r a time
suspended, and tfaeniby the section is divided into two distinct portionii, each of
'which is called a
Phrabk,
jtnd which nay again consist of seven! smaller, but also distincUj separated,
M1HBIB8.
a section, eonsistmg of two phrases (of two ban each), of which, eadi u again
divided into memben of difierent extent; the &st into tw<^ members of two
erotehets (the quaver rest included), and die second into a larger membtf of
fiHtr crotchets.
3. Tbk Pibiod.
A strain, cunsistinp of a tliesis and counter-thesis, or of several phrases and

sections closely ooinifctoii with cadi other, is termed a Period.
The perio], thereturo, iiuludes two or evon nmre smaller distinct parts, more or
les? complete in themselves ; and which, united, ibrni a cumiected strain of greater
extent. The coimexion between the first and the following section or sections,
generally consists in t)ie similarity of their contents. Hereai\er we sliall i>ccome

acquainted with other means of fonning periinis by the combijiatiou of sections.
It is, however, necessarj' that the difierent sections of which a periui consists
sliould each have some decided mark of distinction ; otherwise tho period would be
no other than a mere extended jihrase, such as that in No. ll»2. The qu^tion
therer<>re arist s : what are tlie characteristics by which the component sections of a
perio-i may be distinguished?
At jiresent we have only one of these characteristics, which, however, is of con-
sidt-raUe importance. This is the direction in whicli the sounds {irf>ceed. If the
fir»t section contain an ascending series of sounds, the following will generally move
in a deik;ending direction, and vice versa. F'rom this it apjx'ars that the most
natural form of a period is tlie connexion of thco sections. Them and AM 'Uhetu.
As here,
where the first Kmit and the last four bars proceed in opposite directiau, and are
thus distinguiahed firom each other.
'
Here, on the contrary.
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" ^
170 THS rUWDAMBNTAL FORMS OF MELODY.
Mm ^
I9«
Nil 1
^- J J — k-l —
1
as the first section descends, the second ascends.
As in the above examples, these are named thus : the fint is tenned the
TtotBU (Vordertatx),
and the seotmd, the
ANTiTHVBfs (Naeksaiz).
But how arc ihofe fonns of coaslruction to be oxjilaincd, in which a fteriod
contiiins tluec or more sections? It must be acknowK ilp. rl that li'rms of this kind
cT(^nprally want that unity of idea which characterizes tlie normal |»('ri^M^, and is so
stroiirrly di8[)Iayed in the connexion of tlie thesis and antithesis. The three ur tour
sections, however hn^ they may be, ahvays assuming the appearance oS largtr
phrases of an extended section. As here.
Section I. SeetioalL ^
196
H^d^^rtj;^--^-- ' ^=
1 ( m-
Section III.
or, proceeding from the penultimate bar, and adding another sectum.
Tlie octension of a period may be otherwise cfTocti d i/if'^rnn/Zy, by one or more

repelitiona, dqiending upnn their own close, or that of the tht sis, or also adapted to
thdr coromenoenient Accordingly, No. 194 migbt commence thus.
198
^ —^—
or its tirst section might end thus,
with a repetition of the hvt aoundi ; or the whole migfit conclude with an entiie
repetition of the
200
t
the whole of the second or counter phrase being repeated.
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THE WVSDAMEHTAL FOBMS OF M£LODY. 171
But in whatever maimar eudi adjuncts, prefixes, or inaerftoiu be introdaced, it
ii in ill eases adnsable —and liierefiire to be considered bb a gooeral nik — to pre-

terre, aa &r a certain tyvom^ry betvreen the thesis and antithesis, both
as possible,
in regard to number of ben and the length of the diflisrent sections, lliere are
the
«SMs in whieh other and more important oonsiderations prevoit a composer from
attending strictlj to this role, li^tb these explanations, however, the student will not
find it difficdt to discover the real fi>rm of construction in pieces where such has
been the ease ; and this is aU the help that can be oqpeeted from a general school of
music; as it is the exdosive promee of the Schod of Composition and the Science
of Music to enter into the details of this and other branches of the musical art.
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172 THE LAKijEH RHVTUMICAL CONSTRUCTIONS.
SECTION THE THIRD.
THE LARGER RHYTHMICAL CONSTRUCTIONS.
Wi have already obsefred (ji. 86), and again rq»eat> that it k to rhythm
music ii diiefly indebted for order, perBpieiu^, intelligibili^, and ônaequentiy fiir
its power and effect It was rhythm which enabled us to measure and reduce to
order the most extended and raried combinaticDa of sounds; which gr ii] od the
notes of diflerent values into members and parts of bars, into passages, phrases,
sections, and periods; and, by its diHerent accents, everywhere distinguishing the
most, firom the least important sounds; tiie principal, from the subordinate parts or
groups. Iliat it is assisted in this most important task by the melodie arrangement
of tiie different series of sounds, we have already noticed (p. 165), and sbatt have
fiurthtt occasion to observe in our pn^ress.
Now we are already aware, from daily experience, that there are many compo-
sitions of fitr greater length tluto evcB the most extended period, pieces consisting of
several, frequently of veiy numerous periods, sections, phrases, and passages. How
is order preswved in compoutions of sudi extentf Firstly, again, by means of
rhythm ; and secondly, in connexion wiUi rhythm, by the course of modulation and
the arrangement of the principal parts, or movements of the piece. The conaiden-
tion of these last subjects is reserved until we enter upon the explanation of artistic
forms.
For the comprehension and execution of a composition, it is in the higîest
dêe important that ite arrangoment and design be dearly understood. We may
not, therefore, confine ourselves to the previous developments, but proceed to the
forthest extent of rhythmical arrangement This may here be aoeompUshed with

the greatest advantage.
What is the immediate object of rhythm? Unity. And the next? Variety, m
combination witii unity, constituting Symmelry. Thus our rhythmical arraiê-
ment commenced with notes of equal value, and thence proceeded to notes repre-
senting every variety of value; of which, however, the rehtivc proportions (as
M$ ka^, one /murtk, one third, Ac &c) are very easily comprehended. It b^g^
with die binary order; but this, in its development, led to mnumeraUe varieties.
The bars in a musical composition occupy equal spaces of time, but they may consist
of the greatest variety of notes and rests, whidi, by means of a division of the
bar into equal parts, are agahi brought into unity.

Thus rhythm continues still with perfect unity to work out its two-fbld aim.
'
Equal members may be so combined throughout the whole of a piece as to
fffesent a
UNiFoaM Rhytbii;
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THE LAaU£tt RHYTHMICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. 173
fbit instance, of two ban each, as here,*
1 r
in a thesis of eight | bars ; or of lour ban, as here.
202
which is of rarer occurrence, of three bars, as in this popular Swiss dittyf
303
/ «^
Gang mer nit uber mia Matteli, guug mor nit geng dur mia Gras,
_ ^ _
3
gang mcr nit gt-ng /uu mim . Schutjsu - li, o • dor i priigle di ah.
It is conceivable tiiat era rhythmical groups of six, fire, or seven ban each,
are praeticabie; but, generally, the more extended are the rhythmical groups, so
much more do they and the whole piece lose deamess and animation. Now the
rhythmical groups of fiiur and six are evidently nothing more than combmationB of
the simple binary and tertiary measures. Hence, we may easily oonvert the
G measure of No. 202, into |, by a mere bisection of the ban, or some slight
alterations, as here
* These and moat of the other ezamploa are, fbr the aako of saving 8i>ace, set too hif^ and
leas full than would be necowary fbr their proper effect.
t In the aoooud volumo of tho extremely rich and charming cullcction, Die dcutscbem
VoQolrider mit ibrcn Singveiacn von L. Erk andW. Inner. Berlin bei Plahn.
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174 TUE LABOEa BHVTilMICAL C0N8TBCCTI0II8,
204
or, \\ce versa, restore this last | subject to coiiinion time, hy uniting tuu bars in
one. Ill the same way, the ^ measure oi No. 203 m\\iht \>v ( liunim\l int.- ?.
HencL- it in clt ur that we may combine, not only strictly equal rhythmical
groups, but also tliosc of a
Shnihr Rln/thm.
Thus, tor L-xamp!e, a jihriiM' dt" four hars may follow two. each of two bars, or
the contrary ; and t'r*un tliis si.uri i' may 1k' <lt riv« d an intinito variety. As illustra-
tions from existing ctrnjinsitions ^V(>uM (n^cujiy I'ki great a space, we give one,
consisting only of a tew notes, and written for the occasion
*
1
^ m ^H'
i
m.
205
iRîich preaents tiie following Thythmical oontmta

1, 1 bar;-<-'2, 2 ban;— 1, 1 bar;-'2 ban;
1, 1 bar;-*l, 1 bar.
If we unite the members cons'isting of one bar each, all Ibe phrases will be
equal,
2—2. 2—2—2—2—2 ban»»
and are as comprehensible as ban with thdr diTiiicn into parts and nwmben.
* Hero we sec again a period ooasuting uf event phnns, (;Dly Ion erenlj.aad penpictt-
omly oooBtraeted than that of No. 190.
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THE LAEGEK RHYTHMICAL CONSTBUCTIONB. l|d
Iiistana^ of similai' combinations are very numerous, and will be found by the
attentive observer in all great and richly developed compositions. Above all, the
binary form, being the most simple, generally predominates, viz. in groups of
1, 1 and 2, or 2, 2 and 4, or 4, 4 and 8 bars, &c. It is more rare to find the
tertiari/ form prevailing throughout an entire composition ; for instance, 3, 3 and 6* ;
still less, 5, 6, as we have before seen in uniform rhythms. Frequently, how-

ever, in great compositions, afler a series of rhythmical groups of two or four bars,
wc nfiet with two or more phrases, consisting of three, six, or jice bars, thus
4, 4, 4, 4, 3 ;
3 6 4, &C.
6, 6,
which appear regular, only in regard to tlie alternate ooeurrenoe of two and three, of
whielk we can eompare one with the other. Such we will teim
Symmefricu I R Injth m
T.4istly. we meet with single rhythmical phrases, csjHcially in great compopitions,
and in passages of a melancholy or ardi nt oxinossioii, which are either longer or

shorter than all those preceding or f .lldwiiig them ; as groups of Jicc amongst
others of only two or four bars. This wc term
Irrboulab Rhythm.
This term, however, expresses no oensure, but merely indicate a deviation from
the general rule. On suitable occasions —
^for instance, in moments of great îte-
ment —the irregular form of rhythm may be the only propw one.
As we haTOiUnited single bars into groups or phrases, so we may also form lai]ger
^visums by connecting two and two, or tliree and three plu*ases, kc. Thus, were
we to arrange No. 193 in | time, we should at once distinguish the following
ihythmical groups,
1, 1 — 2 bars, — 1, 1 — 2 bars;
the four groups of one bar each would easily form themselves into t\vo-bar phrases
and again, two and two of the latter united would form longer divisions of four bars
each ; so that the wjiole section would exhibit this rhythmical arrangement
In all the preceding illustrations, the difleient groups and phrases were so clearly
seperated from each other that they could be most easily distinguished. Sometimefl
Ihe termination of one and the commencement of the following phrase (w, as it is
termed, the eeesum) was marked by one or more rests, as in Nos. 209 and 205 ;
St other times, it was a longer and more strongly accentuated note on the principal
pert of the bar which marked the csesura, as in No. 204. But the termination is
not always indicated by signs so dear and decided.
* A t4 rt ; iry rhythm pmdomiiiates throughout a whole stnin of the schetso in fieethovea's

înth 8f mphuny.
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:
176 THE LARGER RIIVTHMICAL CONSTRUCTIONS.
SometiiDeB the interval between two phnsee' or lections is filled up by notn

oonneeting the one'with the other, lo that the eonira is aearoely perceptible. Of thii
we see an initanoe in the last bar of No. 204. The section iliielf doses upon the
firrt aooented part of this bar ; but a lower part imperceptibly leads into the ftDowing
section by a short interlude, the ooaunencement of which is seen in No. 202. The
connection mi^^t have been strengthened thus.
206
by the upper and lower parU, or all the parts united.
Sometimes the commencement of a [>hraBe is concealed, by taking place

or later than usual. Thus, here
t I
we see two phrases of two 'bars each, which are c(»mected by one of the parts, but
which are in all other respects distinctly separated ; the OQininflOoeinent of the
second being quite obvious, from its similarity to tfa«t of the first The same
turn appears here with Hs harmony slightly altered.
208
hi I* -
i
ar r
'
r
but the second phrase is shortened, and commences at a later moment than its
prototype, tho first phrase, leads us to expect Here, histly,
ffJJrWrrT
we have again tlie same section ; but its second phrase begins too soon by half a bar,
its » ominencing notes being prolonged and repeated. Nevertheless, the two phrases
are still quite distinct, and the primitive order of rhythm, as it appeared in No. 207,
is sufficit^ iilly niaintained to render it appreciable by the ear.
Finally : two consecutive sections or phrases may be so interwoven, that the

concluding note of one constitutes at the same time the commencement of the nest.
Of such an interwoven section we have here an instance
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THE LARQBR RBYTHHICAL CONSTRVCTIONS. 177
1
210
TIP T S 1
* 1
T \
i r \
i 1
The dote of the last bar leads to e, and would probably take place upon a dotted
enlchet But this e becomes, at the same time, the commencement of the repetition
(which here must be considered as a second section) ; and, the second time, after the
repeat, it serves both as the dose of the second, and the commencement of the
ttdrd section, of which only two bars have here been written.
There are no external indications for these extended phrases and sections, at
kait none sufficiently plain and satisfiutory. Sometimes the dose of sections or
Isiger portions of a êoe are indicated by a double bar (with or without repeats),
or by the words al fne. Sometimes, when one strain ends and the other begins
with notes having crooks (t. e. quavers, semiquavers, &c.), the close is indicated by
the disjunction of these notes, as at a,
and not as at ^îich intlications, however, do not always af>pear ; nor are they in
any case sulRcient to show the rliythniical arrangement of a whole piece.
Next to tlu' gt'ner.il laws of rhytlnn, at least so far iis tlicy liave yet heen
explain**'!. luid the elements of harmony and cnnstruction, which will slmrtly he
entereil u(»on, hut which can only lit- fully di'Vi-lopud in tlu- Sch'xil of Composition,
the attentive student must cautiously consult his own rhythmical fi;eling, and will
then, in most cases, arrive at a correct comprehension of the higher class of musical
coiupofiitions.
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178 0IUCK8 OB MELODIC IMBBLUSHXIMTS.
SECTION THE FOURTH.
QRACKH OB MELODIC EMB£LLISUM£KTS.
Ik conclusion, we hare stil) to notice tome melodic hrvM, and explain their
particular indicatioofl ;
oonfiiiiiig and
ouraelves to esaentially prBctical obearvaftiont,
passing over subtle distinctions, and a long soies of technical names with whidi it
was cuitomaiy at one time for teadiers to pcritlcx both tfaemselTes and their pupils.
1. TBI AppoooiATniu.
This tcnii is ap|Uieil to u itutc occasionally prefixed to a note of the melody, and
generally writti ii in a smnller cbnmcter.
We dktinguish two spcciesi vi ap}x»ggiatura, the long and the short,
The io*^ Appcffffiaiura

is expressed by a note of the aame, or half, the wdue of the note before wfaidi it is
placed. Thus the long appoggiatura before a crotchet is expressed ttther by a

crotchet or quaver ; before a quam, either by a quaver or semiquaTer.
In performanee, half the value of the principal note is always given to this
appoggiatura. Thus the notes at «» with their appqggialuras,
are played m at b.
A lonff apiK^£r£natura before a d»Attd note, huwtvt r, tuk» s the h- !('>!< rohtc of //^*
prim if/ai note, to whicli it leaves only tlie value of the dot Thus the tirst of these
appoîaturas
has the value of a minim; the second, that of a crotchet; the princijial notes
retaining only the value of a crotchet and quaver resjxxtiveiy.
T/te short Appoggiatura

is represented by a note of shorter duration j as a sôoiqusnrer before a crotchet, or a
demiseniiquavor before a qua^^^, kc. ;
or, without any refaenoe to the comparslive
lengtli of the appoggiatura and the principal note, by a quaver, or sraiiqua;ver, widi
a short dash through the crooks.
— * —
— i^-U
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0BACB8 OB MELODIC BMBEU.ISHMENT8. 179
graoe has no definite dnzBtkn, but is played or sung quite short, its value
being borrowed fitim tiie preceding, and not firom the Mowing note of the melody.
The appoggiatura is generally one degree ather above or below the principal
note (as at a); bat sometimet at a greater distanee (as at b).
when it is
2X6
aimust always short

-
H II
V II
1^2. The Doitblb o& Ck>MPOUin> Aipoogiatuea
is a combination of two short ôggiaturas
216^
it has consûcntly no definite value, its duration b^ng borrowed from the pre-
ceding note.
3. The Tubn
is a compound appogâtuta, consisting of the contiguous notes above and below, in
combination with the principal note. It is either written in small notes, as hoe,
217
by a peenliar sign
(2)
When llus sign is placed after the pnndpal note, as here, at a,
the turn must be played during the time of the principal note, somewhat in the
mannor jwdicaited at 6. In such a ca»e, should another than the principal note
ftDow, aa here, at a,
« i
_
219
the principal note is added to the turn before the next note is played, so that the
him consists of four notes, as at ^. But when the sign is placed over or under the
principal note, as at a, the first note of tlie turn takes the place of the prindpel,
whidi is played in combination with the others, as at 6,
220
N 2
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lUO • ORACES OR MELODIC EMBKLLISIIMKNTS.
all bdng of equal, but of undefined yalue. In the execution of the turn, the doIh
above and below the principal one must agree with the ognatuve. Thus, in the
aboire caaes (No. 218 and 220), the / muat be ahaip and not natural, beeauae the
ibnner ia indicated by the signature. Should either or both of the aubaidiaiy note*
be railed or depirened, a iharp or flat is placed below,* above, or both below and
above, the aign ; the poaition <^ the sharp or flat indicating whether the lower, the
upper, or both are to be laiied or depressed. Tlieae turns
I B
T
221
are therefore to be played as if written thus
In No. 217» we have already observed that a turn may commence with either
the upper or lower of the subfîdiary notes. In the first case the turn is called
direet; in the other, inrerfed. In England, the inverted turn is sometimea indicated
by the inverted position of the cbanwter

t
Continental composers, however, pay very little attention to this mode of dis*
tinction ;
they employ the h(wizontal character to mark both kinds of turn ; and,
therefiire, when it is not expressed by notes, it is left to the option and judgment of
the performer to introduce either a direct, or an inverted turn.

When the sign occurs above or below a chord, or notes written in the manner of
a ehoid, the sign refers in the first case to the highest, and in the aeeond to the
lowest note only* Thus, here,
a turn is to be introduced at a upon the note e only, at b upon /; the notes are
therefore played thus
224
i m
If a turn is tu l»c |«laye<l upon both the upper and lower notes, the sign must be
placed above as well as below the notes ; thus
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UUAt£8 OK MELODIC £MB£LUbUMKNTS. ini
if the turn be on a middle part, it ib best expressed by notes thus,
220 iii
—
m a sign placed between the parts
227
wuulJ be inditttuict and perplexing.
4. The Shake.
The shake (Ital. Trillo) is a quick, continued, and smooth alternation between
an appoggiatura (tk$ degne aiooe) and the principal note. This grace is indicated by
ir or tr
over or under the note, and is generally played aa at
228
The degree of rajildity with which the notes of a shake are repeult- J, is unde-
fined, and de{>cnds u})on circumstances ; the duration of the shake must, however,
be equal to that of the princijial note.
When the subsidiary note above tlie principal is to be raised or depressed, or that
Ulutc is to be taken instead, or intr<Miiictory notes are h) In; played before the coni-
mcncenient of the sliake, such cases are indicated by smaller notes placed before
the principal one, thus
In Older to finish the shake more gracefully, it generally condudes with a turn; e, y
230
A eliake upon a siiort note, and without a final turn, is called a
Cloae or CaiUrQeted ISiake,
And die very shortest, consisting only of the principal, the note above, and return to
the principal,
indicated either by notes, or one of theae characters
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182 GRACES OR IflLODIC £ltBRLUSHM£NTS.
Shake! in two parte at the same time
are called
Double SAaiet.
A series of shakes upon sooeessiTe notes
is called a
Chain of SAakea (ItaL Catena di Triile),
AH these and similar melodic Ibnoa, as already observed, are comprised under
the term of
OraceM or EmieBuAmenU ;
because'they hem no essential part of the mekMly, but are fifequently intzoduoed, by
the composer or perfinrmer, merely as arbitrary ornaments.
In order to guard beginners from an error into which they are liable to fiD, we
here expressly point out (although really self-evident) that all these embelfiafaDMnli
aflect only the rhythmical arrangement of that part in which they actually occur,
and do not change the rhythm of the other paiti. Thxa the qipoggiaturia and
tarns m this example
only art'i-ct the duratiuii ui tlie crotchets iii the upper part; aiid must not, thereftve»
be played thus
but thus:
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INTRODUCTION TO HARMONY. 183
SECTION TU£ FIFTH.
INTEODUOTIOK TO QARMONT.
We know that, in nmsical compositions, two, three, four, and more distinct series
of sounds are often combined to produce a simultaneous effect; and t}\e piece,
according to the number of parts, is termed a composition in tico^ three, four

(or more) parts (p. 3).
The highest of such parts is called the
Upper Part;
the lowest,
LowEH Part;
and all the parts between these two,
MniPLx
«
OB Innbk Pabis.
Hie parts naj be divided into lour prindpol danes ; viz.
Treble ar Soprano (the highest part),
fir, \ C"™"-*>'
Bau (the lowest part)
namee with which we have already become acquainted (p. 127)> as indicating also
the finir principal daetea of human Toioea.
When two or more eeriea of aounda are to proceed aimultaneoualy, lome or all
^ aounda of one aetiea will coincide with thoae of the othsn. Sudi sounds
meeting together must be reoondleable with eadi other ; they must agree according
to the prindples of reason and art
The agreement of umultaneous sounds in different parts, is called Habmoht
(p. 3). We have now to inquire in what manner, and under what drcumstanccs,
two or m<»re sounds may be brought into harmonious agreement
All ^harmonic combtnati<ms are baaed upon a eombinaUcn ^ thirds. The
reaiona far this and all the following harmonic propositions cannot here be entered
into ; their examination bekn|p to the idence of music and the study of composition.
The combmation of thirds consists in this:^ that to the lowest sound another is
added, situated a third higher ; again, another, a third higher than this; and, in the
same manner, a third and fourth sound may be added.

A comlwiation of thirds, consislang of three, four, or five sounds, is termed a
Chord.
The sound upon which a chord is based, or which '
carries the chord,* is called its
Root.
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1U4 INTRODUCTION TO UAEMONV.
And, reeiprocaUy, the chord is named according to ita root, as the dwid of
Ct i>, Ac. All the other sounds of a chord are counted fiom the root iqiwards.
Urns tiiat next above the root is called the
Third ;
the next (another third high^, and upon the fifth degree above the root), ^
Fifth;
the next (a third above the last and upon the seventh degree above the root), the
Skvshth;
a tiiird above the last, and upon the ninth degree above the root, is the
Ninth
of the chord.
A chord consisting of three sounds is called a

Triad.
A chord of four sounds is named, after the fburOi sound (whidi diatinguishfla it
from a triad, and is situated on the seventh degree, counting fiom the root), a
Chord ov the Seybnth;
a chord of five sounds is called, after its fifth sound, which distmguishes it from a
chord of the seventh, a
Chord of the Ninth*.
• Are them no chorda of tnote thin five wimds? Some tiieonst* b«ve anawertd in the
afflrmative, and given esamples (moatly of thdr own making), êy aay that tiicre vo
cbotds of two aoondi, lMP»->Utf «A«nCr,
236
ekorda of throe aoonda, IHmb; (tf four aounda, CAonfr of th* Sertrtlh : of five moa^ CWnir
«/ the Jfmih t whkh they Olnatrate tiiui
9J -55-
Then they proceed tu Lhuni» of six i««)ud(]h., Cfiordt of the Jiitvtnlh ;
236
g
and of aovcn aounds,
239
which they fall fhnrd* of tlu TTiirf-'mfh. More chords, they snv, arc not po?«ihlp, because the
next third, the eighth »uund« i^ no new sound, but merely the second ot^tave of ihc root.
But they must themselTea admit, that their chordi of the eleventh and thirtûth, as dis-
played by thsm, hare never been actually used in any musical oonpoaition; and, far many
reasonH, probaMy ticvcr can be u^d, unless chanpêd, by the omission of ievorsl soiiml-^, into
something quite different frnm n il li «:itini;itc rlu'ids. Tlie wliolo armnjrcinrnt and rlaasifica-
tion is nirin'OVCT an nrhifrary our, aiul is (i[.i»os( d to the true nature of" jJl hannoin , ns has
partly been proved already, and will bo ehow n tiiily in tho author's i'orthcomingwork on the
Soienoe of Mesle. If the oonatruction of ohordB were at all to eomnenoe wtdi eomMartions
of two aoonds, then the flnt, or r»thcr the only two-fbld hannony really given by nature,
would not he a combination of root and third, but of root and fifth. Iho flnt chord of the
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INTRODUCTION TO BARMONT. 185
If^ agiun, we inquin how two or more aoimdi may enter into haimonic ocmbi-
nslaoD with eodi other, we imdentand, in the first place, that tfadr oombination exists
in a ehonL
What MundB these may be, and what are their functions in the chord, must
now be more dosely considered. So &r we know, that to a root may be added a
Tkird, F^k, &c. but not what kind of third, fifth, &c. finr the names of the inter-
Yals leave undefined (p. 34) their quality or extent
After having cMindered the formation of the different chords and th^ relation
t> each other, we shall have to notice several oth^ finrms cf harmonic oombination.
All these must be treated individually, in distinct sections. It is, however, hardly
necessary to observe, that it is not the province of a general school of music to treat
a& these Ibrms in a minute and elaborate manner ; the principal fiurms md combi-
n^&His can alone bo notice*! here, and their full investigation and explanatiofi (if
audi be indeed possible) must be sought in the School of Composition*.
evenlh elso mlj oda given by nature), is not < » ^ , but

(the f ib* ttusn- 4 —
iutf the first chord of the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenlh also, are not fuundcd upon the chord
e —e —jr— ft, but upon r r— <7— — I*^ ran uIho ho proved hbt'>ri< all\ that the lirvelnpmcnt ,
of hiirmony hna proceeded upon the road pointed out by nature, a« every historical progrcsa
caa only be a natural one. In short, those and similar chords, as theorists have constructed
than, ere mero nuehtmieal fairieatioHg, methodical, but badly tnTtnled expedienta, which
stand in contradiction to the realities of musical art, and the natuial development of the tonal
system; while, instead of facilitating the study of harmony (for wlilili purpose they have
hcf-n and make it more diffieiilt. A two-fold hannuny
inventc<l), they only serve to confiise
also is The tirst real chord, and the only one of which nature shows us
an arbitrary product.
^ tjpcy tixD nuyor Mad, Ont of Ais ansa the doniiHait dioid and choid of ninth; and ^
Ihm the latter only, can arise tiie chord of the derentii, by a fiiOi sound being added. It ia
IhaieJbie that a chord of tlie > leveDtli or thirtcentli is based upon the domituMt, and not
upon the tnnie. In tlil-*i manner, the authnr. in lii.< oratorio Most (p. If!*? of the !5eon ). ha«?
been led, actually driven, into a chord of Uie eleventh, ptj haps the tiist that h:u» really l»ecn
employed ; it was the necessity of the moment that led him to it ; for who would go to the
estrame, if not absohiteky fteoed.
Thia eubfeot is num Iblly discussed in the authofâ School of ComponticB, and wiU be
ciitioilly in hie woik on the Scienoe of Muaie.
* Aa the intenrels (p. 37), eo, too, have the dhorda been divided by tiieoristB into oonao>
naaoee and dissonances, or eonwrdji and diacorda. Amongst the concords, havo been daaeed the
major nnd nuiior triad-* and their itivei-si()ti^ (we shall learn in the foUoMiang sections what
these arc); all otlier^ hare been called dise<>nls. For the reasons girea before, we are obliged
also to repudiate tliis dassificatiou, as idle and useless.
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180 TBB M08T DIPOETANT OHOBDB IN THB MAIOE AHB XIITOR MODBB.
SECTION THB SIXTH.
IH£ MOST IMPOBIAMT CHORDS IN THl MAJOR AND MINOR M0OB8.
We will now search for the most important aiid closely connected chords in the
major and minor modes, commencing with the Tritnk as the most simple, and
thence proci't'ding to the more full and variable Chonh of the Srnnt/i and Xudh.
Aa all major and all minor keys are respwlivels .ihke in their iuici âi.s and con-
struction, it is evident that tlie observations u|K)Ji one major, or one minor key will
apply to all.
1. The most Important Triads.
Which arc the most important sounds in every key ? Firstly, tlie Tonic
(p. 56), then the Dominant and Suhdominant.
If now, in any major key —C major, fur exampk —we form triads upon its tonic,
dominant and suhdominant i. e. if we take these degrees as they stand in the scale
fot roots, and add to each, two notes of the same scale^ which are situated respectively
a third and a fifUi abore them—we obtain three triads,
^ — •
w —
similar in character ; each consisting of a
Root,
Major IViini (c —e,/— -a, andy b), aod
Major Fifth.
If the same be done with the tonic, dominant, and suMominant of any miiMB'
key kic instance, V minor — three triads are a^^ liarmed ;
»
^1 8 1^ >. , -=11
but til ey differ in character. The triad upon the tonic (r eh — <I^, and that u[»on
the subdominiint (f —ab — liave each a minor third ; but liial upon the donii>
nant (// b Q — r/) has a niaj<>r third, the same a«i in the mjôr mode.
Triads having a uiajor third and majof iiillt, aie ciJled
Major Triads*;
• Li the teadung of tiio old whool, it ww

called the ptrftet triad, although naturally it k
no more perftet than say other chord, and is (as wc shall hereafter dieoover) fieqaenlilj «bi*
ployed ia an imperfb(A fiirm, by tho onuMioiL of one of ite intervalai withoat «*tiMgiti|
chflod.
g ^
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TBB MOST DtPOBXANT 0K0BII8 IN THK KAJOE AMB XINOR M0018. 187
those haviog a mtnor third and nuijur fiilh, are called
Minor Triaek,
Botti major and nunor triads are uniany oomprited under the tenn
Major triads predoniiiiato in the major mode, and in tJie minor mode the
jireviiiling tria*.!?; (upon the t>nic and subdonvinant) are minor.
Iksides tli« major and minor triads, we have to notice two others ; viz. the
Diiniinshetl Triad*,
the origin and nature of which will be explained in the next section ; and the
AMfftnemted Triad,
wfaidi comiBls of a root, third, and angmented Mb, and is derived firam the
major eumiion efaori by the chromatic alteralioik of its fifth.
The object and justification of this deration of the fifth, wiU be ibmid in the
School of Gompeaitioa and the Science of Muric
The triad upon the tonic of a major or nunor key is dia&igiushed by the name
'
Tome TriaeL
That upon the dominant is termed DonUmmt Triad.

We now perceive that ê eumtkU harmonic distinction between major and
minor mod^ consists principally in the difference betireai their tonic txiwi&, wliich
in the former are mejor, and in the latter nunor,
2. Thi Gbosd or m DowNAifT Seventh.
we add to the dominant triad of any major or minor key another sound
If
tttoated a third above the Mh t. e. the seventh above the root as found in the scale;
;
we obtain a chord of the seventh* which, on this account, is briefly termed the
Dcminant Ckordfy
m order to distinguish it fiom other chords of the seventh, winch wiU hereafter come
under our nolioe. Tbk chord contains, besides the root, a
Ma^ Third,
Jfq/br Fiftk, ud
Minor Sei>enik ;
and ia, as will be easily seen, the same m the nnnor as in the major mode.
• On account of the go-calkd false fifth,*' the old school cslled this the ftbt triti,
*H^r>nghj in its proper pAao^ it ia at correct aay othar chonL
t The full of this chonl iroold be " chord of &e seventh upon the dominant.*'
nomo
Some " principal fhot d of the scvi nth," because it is the most important of all the
call it the
fhord^ of the sevfnth. Funiit rly it wm also known by the name of l^dinfr rfiord, beeaiL-H.- it
Icadit into the tonic triad but this oxpreaîou is inaccurate ; tiritlly, iMxuuê Uieru aro uthcr
;
duifda vludi piooeed to tiie same point; and, aeoondly, beoauae tiie dominant choid doea not
Bcoaaaarity pcoeaed to the tonic harmony, but may be leaolved into other dunda. Sea
Cuther oqilanatioBa of thia attlgeot in the liidbiring aeotion.
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188 THE MOBT IMPOBTAHT CHOEDft IN THE MAJOR AND MINOR MODES.
One remarkable peculiarity of this choi\l < laims our attention. It is, that every
dominant chord can be formed only in the key to which it belongs ; i. e. from the
sounds of tluit scale only. Thus, for instance, there is no other kty In wlilih a
dominant chord can be fiiarmed, having the aame intervals as that in the key of € major
or minor. Hub is by no means the < aê with other chorda ; the triad c —e—^, for
example, may occur as a tonic triad in C môr, m a dominant triad in ^nia|or, as
the chord of the subdominant in G miyor, &c.
How can thia peculiari^ of the dominant chord be proved ?
Let us take any najfxt hey, say C môr. This key is connected in one direc^
tion with keys requiring sharps ; the nearest being the key of G nuyor, which hat
instead of /; in the opposite direction it is connected with the keys requiring
ialB, the nearest being the key of F nuyor. Now the dominant chord of C major
*being ^ — —d—/,
6 it is obvious that this chord cannot be form' -l either in the key
of G, or of F ; for in the key of G we have no / natural, and in the key of F
we have no b naUiral. Therefore, as the chord g — —d—f cannot
b occor in Ac
key of G, on account of its principal sound fy neither can it occur in any othtf
key with sharps, for all have / sharp instead of / natural and for a similar reason, ;
being impossible in the key of F on account of Uiird, b natural,

its cannot it
occur in any other key with Habj. The same proof applies equally to the minor keys.
Tills observation is of importance. As the same dominant chord ia poasible in
only one key (major or minor), it serves us aa the moat certain
Indieaium if tit Key,

The signature, as we have already seen (p. 64), offers no such certain indica-
tion ; for every signature is commMi to two keys the parallel or re]ati\ c niajur and
nunor keys. A piece without sharps or flala, tor instance, may be either m €' major,
or A minor. Neither is the last and lowest sound of a piece invariably tlic tonic
a two-part compoution in C roôr, may, for instance, close in this manner
this,, thenfinre, is not an indicatioo to be depended upon in all caaea (p. 64). But
the dominant diord affioda an unening evidence of the key. For inatance, imme-
• £aldy upon hearing the aounda 9 h d wa know that the pievailmg key is
Cmajor or minor; and flie aounda h d aa promptly prepare ua lor the

key of ^ minor or A mijat.
Hie dominant choid ahowa ua the key; but it doea not diatinguiah the mode,
bdng eommon to bolh the mijor and the minor mode. We thenAra inquire
which u the moat certain
Indication of the Modef
The tonic triad li)llowing the lioniinant chord in the close ;

tor, besides the tonic,
it also contains the third, the interval which characteristically distinguiabea the two
mixles. But even this is not free from exceptions ;
for, occasionally, oonqpodtiofis in
the minor mode are closed with a major chord. Such doses were in apedal &vour
with the old church composers.
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THE MOST IMPORTANT CHORDS IN TOE MAJOR AND MINOR H0DF.8. 189
FVom die dominaiit dund are derived lerenil other chordi of the aeventh, by
arbitrarily changing one or nuwe of tto aoimda; ttich aa the elevation of the seventh
or doprcarion of the third in thew two chorda
244
and others by similar means. We cannot here enter into the rrasons fer such
transformations, or their justification and proper treatment ; theie explanations muat
be left to the School of CompoBition» and my Treatise <» the Sdence of Music.
3. The Fbinoipal CaoBoa ov thb Ninth.

Ifwe odaige the dominant chord by the addition of a new third (the ninth
aboive the root), wo obtain a chord of the ninth, which it not, however, the same in
the vaajot as in the minor mode. In C major, fi>r instance, it contains these souids,
P—6 d ^ a.
34ff
the ninth being major. This chord is termed the

Chord of the Major Ninth.
For C minor, we find this chord of the ninth, p —— 6 d—^'- —a b.
in whidi tibe ninth is minar, and therdbre it is called the
Ckard tie Miner Nttttk,
FVom these cfaotds others are also derived, by an alteration of one or more of
their intervals ; for instance, this, fawn the chord of the môr ninth, c e y ——b </,
with a mafer, instead of a miner eeeenth.

These are the chorda most deaerving of attention, both in the major and mmor
node.
we would now ascertain what major or minor triads may be based upon any
If
otherd^ree of the scale, so as to consist of the sounds bclongeig to this scale, we
dwuld find that, in the dm^ mode—0* miôr, for example—
248
2 i
three minor triadi mi^ be formed ; vis. upon the second, third, and sixth degrees
and that, in the miner mode—for instance, ^minor—
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li)0 TilE MUt^T IMPOETANT CUOB.DS IN TiiV, MAJOK AND MINOR MODES.
a tna/or ôrdmtyhe ibnned vipaa the dxtfa dqpnee. We thui find, in Cinajcr,
Major triaob upon C, O, and
Minor triada upon E, and Z>;
oonseqttently, all the trntk ekordt of its nearaat fdeled keji, G mijor, J* major,
and its parallel keja (p. 58), A mmor, f minor, and D minor. On aaxxmt of ili
iiregulaiity, the minor mode display! these relalioDt with leas mulbrmity and com*
pletenesa.
Before donng this section, we return onee more to the dominant dioid. We
are now, partly at leaat, aware of its great importance, as being the most certain
indication of the key, die oonnectii^ cfaoni between mijor and minor, and the basis
of the two chords of the ninth. Vot all these reasons, tiie minor mode coiild not be
deprived of it, as already antiflpated (p. 41) ; neither eonld its third (the seventh
of the tonic) be a minor interval And from these reasons (than which sliD better
win ibilow), it wiO soon appear mere than fimn our explanation (p. 56) was
clearly
possible, why the root of this chord, the fifth of the tonic, bean the ptetid name of
iftwitfMfi^-^'-the ruling or predominating sound.
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ON THE EMPLOYMENT OF CHORDS. 191
ON THB mPLOTMlNT Of CHORDS.
Respecting the employment of chords?, we can here give only such explanii-
tioDB as are immediately necessary : all beyond this belongs to the study of compo-
Ktion.
Our communications are included under the following heads
1. DUPLIOAZION OF IllIBBTAI.8.
Duplication takes place when one, or more, or ail the intervals of a chord are
doubled in diH'ereiit parts. Here
— 3^
250
i
we see the choid of e fiitt in its simple form, then its root doubled in the octaTe,
then with the doubling of the root and third, tbiid and fifth, and, finally, with a
second duplication of the root The duplication of ereiy chord may take place in the
same manner.
2. OmSBION OF IMTBBVALB.
Sometimes, one or more sounds of a chord are omitted.

As a general rule, only tiiose inten'als which do not form cliar;icteristic features
ot the chord should be omitted. If, for iristance, tlie tJiWd of a common chord were
left out, we should no longer know whether the harmony was major nr minor. Were
the pfventh of a dominant chord, or the ninth nf a chord of tlie nintli, left out, the
fi'riner of these chords would be reduced to a triad, and the latter to a chord of tlic
Seventh. Tn the same way, also, may the omission of the upper sound, or ot the
ro t of a tria^l, render it donbtftil which of tlie two chords is intended; whether one
without its root^ or another without its ^fih ;
261
In the dominmit cfaocd, however, and the chorda of the ninth, the oininion of the
root fiequentlj improves the effect of the harmony. The dominant ehoid thereby
becomes a new trta<l previously alluded to (p. 187), with a minor third and fifth,
and called the dimmi$ked triad} the chord of the major ninth beeomeala new chord
«f the seventh, which haa a minor third, minor fifth, and minor seventh, but !i not
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192 ON THE KMPLOTMEHT OF CHORDS.
distinguished by a particular name ; the chord of the minor ninth becomes a chord
of thu seventliy with a minor third, minor fifth, and diminished Berenth, and k
called the
Chord ^ the Diminislied Secentli.
Here
262
we see the three new chords in comparison with their origiiials ; and let a» obeerre,
that they are no other than the latter without their roots.
3. P08JT10N8 oy Cbokds.
The original form of all chorda is that of a series of sounds forming third? one
above anotlier. This form, however, is by no means essential to a chord ; it any "f
it« sounds, with the exception of the root, be removed to a higher or lower octave, «
here, at a.
258
the alteration changes nothing but the pantioH, Thus, either the octave, the third,
or the fifth may be placed lughest, without affecting the nature of the chord.
A common chord, in which the octave of the root is the highest note, is said to
be in the
Fint PetkUm;
when the third is highest, the chord is in the
Second Potiiion ;
when the fifth is higîest, it is in the
Third Position.
Some theorists call that position in which the fifth is highest, the first; that in
which the octave of the root b highest, the eeeond; and that in which the thirJ is
highest, the third posiium. It is immaterial by which term tliey are individually
designated, so long ai tlicy are distinguishable; that which we have udoptixl as the
Jirft position geonis to claim the preference, as the moat satisfactory fonn of the
chord ; viz. that in which Uie root, the most important sound of the chord, ^ppev*
in the two principal parts, the highest and lowest.
A more important alteration in the disposition of the intervals of a chord takes
place when the root itself is removed from its place, and appears no longer as the
lowest sound of its chord. Sudi an alteration is termed an
4. Inversion of thb Chord,
and gives it a new name. Let us ejounine what inveroons are possiUe, and bow
they arc to be designated.
When the root ceases to be the lowest sound, another interval of the chord mu«t
necessarily occupy its place.
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ON THE EMPLOYMENT OF CHORDS. 11)3
In a iriad, eitfattr the third, or fifth, may thusbeoome the lomt eoiind ; ooiiie'>
qneotly, a triad has two inTmriooa:

1 2
954
How are these invorsions to be iuun».'<l V We reckon from the existing lowest
sound to the two most inijiortant sounds, and name eat-li inversitm arinrdingly.
Which are tiie two most important sounvLs of the tuinniou chord i Firstly, the
root, upon which the chord is hmed ; and, secondly, the tAird, which distinguialies
niajyr from minor.
Thus tlie first inversion of the u 'ldd is called the
C/iorii of' (fw Sixth ;
because the intcn als are reckoned from e instead of c, as tlie lowest sound. The
iBCond inversion is temie^l the
C/iitrd of the Fourth and Sizth ^
because from^ c is a fl:)urtii, and <3r e ia a sixtli.
A chord of the seventli adiiuts of three inversions, as here :
1 2 3
266
Tlic most important sounds of a chord of the seventh are, firstly, the rout : and,
secondly, the serenth ; the latter, l>ecause without it the chord wouLi no lonf?er he a
chord of the seventh. If, therefore, we count the numhcr of degrees Iruni the luwest
sound of each inversion to the root and the seventh (here, y and /), we find that the
firat inversion (b —d—f—g) must be called a
Chord of the Fifth and Shah ;
the second {d—f—^ — A), a
Chwd the Third and Fourth ;
the third (f—ff), a
Chord of the Second,
That some musicians use the terms " chord of the sixth and fifth," " chonl of the
foarth and third,** and " chord of the second, fourth, and sixth,** very superficially,
eamiot be nnrnteDigiUe to us.
Oiords of the nmth may also be mveited, but not without a tfansposition of their
amndt ; because, otherwise, grant confusion would arise betwctti then* Here
b
we have an example of the two first inversions of achord of the ninth ; at a, without
an alteration in the ^ >sitioiis cf the sounds, and, consequently, in such a oonfused
ftrm as to be altogeUier useleis; at with the arrangement improved by means of
6,
a separation of the sounds. It has been found unneoeaiary to distinguish the dif-
inent mversions of the chord of the nmth, because they are employed even more
rsrdy than the ori^nal chovds.
o
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: :
10^ on THE LMCLOYMENT OF CUOEDS.
What haa been here shown on one triad, one dund of the lerenth, and enecihoid
of the ninth, applies to eveiy triad, choid of the serentli, or dund of the niiitfa.
Every triad has its two inTeniona —a chord of the sixth and achocdof the ftmdiaiid
sixth ; eveiy chozd of the eerenfh has its three iDTmans—a dioid of the fifth and
lixUi, kc Ac.
There are two ways of distinguishing e?eiy inYerted chord
Firatly: by naming it after its lowest sound ; t, $.
the chord of the sixth upon « (e— c)»
the chord of the fourth and sixth vpvi/ (/ 6 d);
OttUcowOg : by indicating its deriTBtifln; fir instance:
the second invasion of the (môr or minor) triad upon Ac Ac
The hrtter mode of distinction is not only more drcumitantial than the lonner,
but also more instructive to the student ; fer we see thai the inTenion of a choH,
although an important and strikmg modification, does not in the least change the
mUure of the chord. The chord
fiv instance, remuns a dominant diord ; g remains its root, and îts sevoith ; and
the importance of these intervals is not lessened, whether ^. 6, </, or /be die lowest
sound of the chord. The root of the original chord may retain Its name in all inver*
sions, and it is merdy Ibr the sake of a dear distinction betweoi the diflleresit inver-
sions that we (xmnt the intervals fiom the lowest sound ; and, as in the diord of the
fifth and sixth, h d /—y, we call (the original fifth) the third, / (the original
seventh) the fiilh, and even the root the sixth if the chord the ffthamdeixth.
But the question now arises —how are we, amongpt so many Innspoeidons and
inversions, to recognise the original chord f The ori|^nal form of every diord isthat
of a series of notes situated a third one above another. Therefore, if, in any poaitifln
or inversion of a chord, there be a greater or smaller distance than a third between

any two of its sounds, we remove one of them to the higher or lower octave, untfl tiie
chord appears in its normal form, as a structure of successive thirds.
Let for example, take the Brst inversion of the chord of the ninth (No. 256,
b). Should we not at once recognise the chord from which it is derived, we sliall,
in the first pluce, hnvo to keep together the sounds b —d and f—a, for these already
form succtissive thirds ; but and g—f do not :
y is therefore the contradictory
sound. If, then, we place this g bdow, the chord assumes this form
m
and it is now easily perceived that /—a must be placed an octave lower. .Had we
not discovered that the chief contradiction rested in y, we migjht perhaps have trans-
posed /—a:
but, Uiereby immeduitoly discovering our mistake, we slioulU have tried liii: Lraiispo-
sition of It —d an octave higiier,
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ON TSK BMPLOTMBMT OF CHORDS. 195
259
and thus haye brought the five notes of the chord mto their nomud position. A little
pnctioe will lender this fiuniliar both to the eye and ear.
AH clioniU» whether in their original or inverted ibrm, may be employed in
6. GlOB£, or DI8P£Eij£D HAEMONY.
The hannony is termed dote, when all, or most of the intervab of chords ace
Btualed as nearly as possible togeliher (a)
* _ XL
260
-t—Z S-TI
Dupersed harmony is that wherein the notes axe at sxeaiter distances from each
and the middle parts do not occupy the nearest places either to the bass or
other*(6),
upper part '
The most important points however, m the employment of choirds is their
G. COHBIMATION,
or lather, the manner in which the parts of consecuttve chords proceed from one to
another. But, on this point, only such information as is absolutely essential to our
present objectb will be imparted ; the rest belongs to the study of composition.
Qeoaally, therefore, the chords employed should be

contiected.
Such a connexion eiisfes, in the first place, when suooessive chords have one or
more sounds in common. Thus we see here
the iSrst three chords connected by the sound the third and fiwirth by e; the
ibiDth and fifth by a; the fifth and sixth by d; the sixth and seventh by ^.
Another kind of connexion exists between diords which may be considered as
tonic
the first and

262
Mi
diords of the nearest or nearly rebrted keys.
second, third and fourth, and the fourth and

Here, fiir
fifth
example,
of these chords have

no eombiiainf sound, but they represent nearly related keys F and G major,
€ major and J) minor, D minor and E major, the dominant triad in A minor.
In tlie last case, the oonnexioo is more distant
Second)^, eertam successions of the parts, termed
False PrtHfressiom^
are to be avmled. When two ports proceed in octaves or fifths, as here.
O 2
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I
106 ON TUB EMPLOrMENT OF OHOED&.
the effect is, in man^ cases, either offenfiive, or unsatis&ctory. Such progressions
are termed
Conterutite Fifths and Oetmes*,
or t;i>niftiiiK's J'cJ.'H' fiftlis aii'l Dctaves. So lont; we are not acqumnted with the
circuuiatain'i'S uiiik-r whicli such conBt't utivc fifths or itrlaves are adniissiMc, >'Ur best
coiirse is, by adiierence to the rule, to avoid all such progressions, either by ciiangii^
the position
264
of the chords, or alterin|; the progremon of the paili.

Sudi octanrat wiôut intermediate sounds, are only employed to itnngthen
ft pftit,
8n.
or thoie which arise from doubliiig leroral perls, as
26G
where the object is merely to fiU up and inerease the power of the harmony, are not
included in the above rule.

A third êiMTo/ ruk is, that some <ôfds re<)U]re a
Special Resolution ;
that is, some, or all their jK)und8 must proceed in a certain direction, and to certain
intervals of the next chord!
In till «1 ominant chord, the general rule is .
that the seventh must descend one degree,

tliir l must ascend one degree,
i» root must prucin d to the tonic of the next chord,
fifth may either ascend or descend one degree

*
• Other doubtful progressions, as the BOH»IIed AicMbi or eovtrtd fifthi and oot«T«s, we tiunk
it bettor to paaa over, rather thanpor^M tin* studont witfi matter oo which no ootnplotc or
isatisfartory cxjilanation can hen fpvon. W
For the same reason, we omit tilO tttles respoctioK
the dgubhng of such |>arta as retûin; a iipccial progreasiuu (rcsoUition).
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ON TH^ EMPLOYMBMT OF CHORUS. 197
In respect to the seventli oiid tliird, this rule also applies to tiie tuciriffom^
and to the iSmtiMed triad with its uiTenions
:g= — n ^
269
P H a g»
Alio , all dKffds derived umncdiately firom the dominant chord are nabjeet to thianile.
Tke ekonb tf the ntnM are, therefbre, sulject to the hiw of the dommant chords
from which they arise. The ninth, however, which in these chords is added to the
leventb, moves with it aiid*deBceiids one degree
270
^^^^^^
Those choids of the seventh derived from the chords of the ninth, are ag^ no
<Aher than chords of the ninth without their roots, and have, consequently, the same
reiohition
271
—
vvluch albo applies to their dUfierent inversions
272
We have hitherto given mere general hints upon the employment of chords, the
completion of which pert^ns to the study of comp<mtion : still, there are two i^pli-
cations of chords which require special notice here.
7. Thi; Close (Cadence).
As in every work of art, so in every musical composition, a wdl-defined and

SBttt^Ktory conclusion is enentiaL How is tfus to be effiwted ?
1. lianiumtcaU^ ; by the two most important uiid characteristic chords of
the key; by a combinatiiin

the doHiiiinKf chord and
• the tonic trUid,
the r(H>t ol" both occupying their original positions without tiie inversion
of either.
2. MehcUcaU^ ; by the appearance ut the most important sound,

the t'luir,
in the extreme parts, ;U) the m i?t

j
iomineut and couspicuuUii , viz.
the hiykcsl uiui Iviccsf parts.
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ON TH£ XMPJÔYMINT OF CflOEDB.
3. Rl'i/thiiiintUt/ ; l,y the final chord fulling u}H)n a principal |>art ut the bar.
m
According to Uie above rules, the following two doses
273
are in every respect satisfactory, and on thm account are termed
Perfect Clo$e9,
But here, at a,
I —
we tees eadcncc me/odical/y, at b,rkifthmirally, and at e abo hannonkally, imperto.

Ilie perfect close haa itfi pro}>er place at tlie end of t complete sentence — ftr in-
stance, ft period —and is thereiore called a

FuU Clo$e,
or pcrJeH riulence.
But how is the first sectiofi of a period to close ? The whole period, or second
section, coiiclu>lr>l with a progression from the -doounaat chord to that of the
tonic. Now, as the first and second sections of ft poiod fbrm a thens and antithesis,
und are niel*xlically distinguished by the opposite progression of the melody, it follows,
naturally, that the ( of tlie first section should be the opjx»site to that of the
second ; or, that the last chord be the dominant harmony, preceded by that of the
tonic:
Instead of the tonic triad, however, the chofd upon the subdcnunant (the thiid
principal chord of the key) is sometimes introduced, and the doses are finned in
this manna':
and are termed

Ualf Clones*,
or mipeifeet eadencet (also sometimes dominant eadeneev).
* A half-close snmetimos aatuBies the fom of a perfect osdeooe. Tluis» Ibr faistsnf», In tikis
subject in the key of V major,
.cy,
277
r ' r
ON THE EMPLOYMENT OF CHORDS. 109
Hcniby we am lemindtid of the codas (p. 170), by which periods are sometimes
artendod.
A eoda bebngs to the p'-riod itielf, but enters where the latter should property
tenninate. How is the connexion between them to be maintiuned ?
y Firstly ; by clotiiiig the period in u regular iiimmer, but passing on (|uickly tironi
the closing chord
etc. , , ^ _^ I
This, however, is merely an external and not very satiafiKtoiy ftm of connexion.
Secondly ; by the full close of a period ; the above dose, for instance, being
dumged into an imperfect one» as
279
Tfiin/iy ; by a dilierent resoluUun of the dominant chord which leads to the

close; thus:
S80
and, instead of the tonic ham amy, modulating into another key, in order to begin the
coda in this new key, and then again to conilnne it with a return to the principal
key in the completion of tlie pcri<xl. Such a digression into a foreign key, instead
of tiie expected regular resolution, is ternitd an
Inlerrupted, or Deceptive CadeHce,
8. The F&elude.
For a vafiefy of reasons, it is ooeasioiialiy necessary, previous to the eommence-

msht of a miurioBl performance, to introduce it musically for instance, to awaken ;
the attention of ^ audience, to give the key to the singers, &c. kc. Such an intio.-
diwtifln is termed a
Prelude,
the dom: in the second and third bars has all the appesiSiifie of a dose in ffmajcr ; but the
fiiQ
h.ilf-i loses in the following bar, especially the oft-repeated diord, c *f

— ——
c e. prave that no
rtai full r]o*e in O major has been intended, but that it must be couaidcred merely as a more
ciuirgenc balf-cloac upon the dominant of V,
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zoo O.N Tilfc £Ml>LOYlf£Nl OF ClIOiLDS.
The most tumple and oonciie mode of pointing out the key m which a pieee to
be performed, it to itrike the tonic diord wreral timet tuooenivefy in diflferent

tiouf or invenioni.
with many (luplii utii.ns iir]K'ggius i-isceiuliiig and dt-scenJing.
A niort> dc< idid way is that of tdniiLctinp; tlie tonic tria<l with the dominant
chord, ai^ in No. 27^. In this case, oho, eucli chord way be iiilruduced in a dif-
ferent iHwition or inversion ; e.y.
-2 g ^ ^ g :g
282
I
which inipiirt.s a greater variety.
If tlie harnKJtiies oi' nearly relate*!, or even distant keys be intr<Nluceil in good
combination, the variety and interest of the prelude will be proportionately increaied.
We give a few examples
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ON THB KMPLOTMSNT Of CHORDS. 201
The ekuadaftion of the chords from foreign keys, occurring in No. 280 and these
examples, will appear in the next section. Here, only so much has been, and could
be explaiiioii jis is aVjsolutely necessaiy for those who have not yet had, or never may
have, time for the study of compodtkm. Although it is quite ineoosistait with the
dengn of tliis work topf6 complete and satis&ctoiy information on any branch of
musical oonipontton, we will, nevertheless, offer one hint to the amateur, which will
guard hiin against many mistakes. When he wishes to connect one chord with
another, let him endeanrour to retain every sound common to both chords, in tlie same
part in wViii h it appeared in the first* and to angnevery new sound to that part in
die tecon'l which can take it up nUMt conveniently; t. e. which is situated nearest to
it All the preceding and following illustratiQOS may senre as examples ; but the
student must remember that the above is by no means to<be conaidaped as a general
and invariable rule.
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MODULATION.
SECTION THE EIGHTH,
MODULATION.
Musical compontions of the lugheft dan are not genenOy eonfined to the
limiti of one fingle key ; they paw from that in whkh they begm, to otfaen» and
from these retain to the principal key, either to condude, or again to quit it
The key in whidi a composition begins, and to which it prindpally adheres, ii
called the
Prineipal Kejf,
The temporary transition from one key into another, the tonic of whidi bekogi
to the original scale, is termed a
7Vai»i»rt ModiUatian}
and, when the new key continues for a longer time,
Co)' ttniti'd Modu/atlon.
Tlif i'-'ti'Tal (•unliinatiMii, liowrM-r, of Triuisii nt Modulation, Confirmed Modula-

tion, and tlie return to the original key, is termed
Modulation*
Thus, when we say this composition goes frwn this to that key, paraes into
several keys, .changes into these and other keys, and returns to its original key, we
speak of its moduhiion. In a more extended sense, also, the entire harmonic
contents of a C'^ni[MKition constitute its modulation.
Some knowledge of modulation is advantageous to all who practise munc; were
it only that they always know the key in whidi tliey play or sin^ and are flins
^whied to rt ad tlie notes, chords, &c. with greater facility ;

and, in many cases, to
foresee with some degree of certainty the course tiS the mdody or harmony, as in the
lesdtttion <£ the seventh or ninth. Here, of course, we can only ê so mnch in-
formation on tliis subject as is essential at present ; a frill dnridalion will be Ibund

in the School of Gompositim.
A. The Laws or Modulation.

Which are the keys we should or can modulate into?
Heplymg generally to this question, we say that the prindpal key must psvdomi-
nate, occupymg the greatest portion of the piece, and terminating the whole. After
the prindpal key, those nearest in relation to it, riz.
The Kei/8 of the Dominant and SubdominatU,

and
The Parallel Keys to the Tonk, Dominant, and SMommani^
and subsequently, in a limited degree, modulation to more distant k^ may take
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— ;
MODULATION. 203
place. These are only occasionally employed, while the moduiatiouB into the tbnner
chancterize the principal portions of tin- whole composition.
In oompotttioiiB in a major key, the niuat important, ailer tlie original key, is
The Key cf the Dominant ;

and in a minor key.
The ParaUei Meôr Key.
Hie numerous exceptions to this rule and its minute exposition cannot be dis-
cussed here.
B. ThX MxANS Of MODUXATION.
By what means are modulations effected ? This question is easily answered, if

we recollect that modulation merely signifies a change of key ; /. e. a substitution of
the sounds of one key for those of another. We modulate from C môr into Eh
Toajfix, wh^ instead of c(Hitinuing to employ this series of sounds,
c—d—e—j"—^—a— — b c,
fi« subflttute
as the basis of our composition.
Now, two keys do not generally differ in all, but only in some, of their intervals
E\) major, for instance, has the sounds y, g, c, and d, in common with Cmigor,
and difibrs from it only in the sounds eh, bh, and ah. It is, therefore, umieoee-
aary, in modulating from one koy to another, that we should notice those sounds in
which they agree, but those only in which they differ ; for instance, in the above
case, the sounds <?b, ab, and ^b.
But the introduction of the sounds peculiar to the new key is still insufficient to
eAect a modulation. If, for instance, afler having played in the key of C, we
introduce the notes ^b> ^b> tuid ab> it would indeed be clear that we had passed
into another key ;
but, witliout some other indication, the new key would not be
reoogniaed; for the sounds eb, ab, and bh, occur in the keys of .^b major,
Db major, &e. as well as in that of £ b major.
We lequiie, therefore, a more certain ndication of i modulation, and this we find
in the
JDomirwU Chord;
for the dominant thurd of any key, major or minor, is to be found in no other
key. It is therefore (p. 188) the most certain indication, and consequently the
strongest demonstration, of a modulation into We have seen, for instance
a new key.
(p. 188), that the dominant chord y b—rf—^ is to be found only in C major or
minor now, if this chord were to appear in a piece written in
;
D, Bh
major, &c. it would be a sure sign that we were no longer in the original key, but
had passed into that of C môr or minor. On the contrary, were we in C major,
and the dominant diord e —^ t— occurred, we should immediataly diicover
that we had changed from the key of C into that of A major or minor. Here are
a few such modulations, by way of example.
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204 MODULATION.
C to P. C to M^. C t» Ih. 0 U K
From this -Jto that the duminant chord is the most, perfect demanatnitka of
the key, aiid comcquently
T/ie most elective Mmm of Moilulnfinn.

Thus too, we agîn find its name Dominant justified, ibr it leads and govens
modulation.
If we would pass into very distant keys, the modulation may fiequentty be
by means of intermediate oonnecting diords ; for ojonple
fiiffHitttti^^
€ to C to C to Xh»
or by the enharmonic change of cliords ; oa

dj^tr Dh to J?|^. oh «r / > to O.
Oi this power of the dominant choxd.
The Two Chords of the Ifrntk
[larUikt' ; for they contain the whole dotiiiiiant chord, and consfquenilv .Jl the indi-
cationfl of the key ; aiid, mor(K)ver, cliaracterize the itxx/f ; altlu»ugh, in a transient
modulation, the major triad is sometimes employeti in tlie resolution of the chord of
the minor ninth, lu plaie of the expected minor triad. Farther : tlie modulatory
power of Uie dominant chord is participated in, to some extent, hy the chords of tlie
seventh and diminished triad, derived from tlie chords of the ninth ;
the>e, however,
are less decisive^. Even a miôr or minor triad, or, under certaiji circumstance^, s
• Among all mndwIatiTig ohoids, none is man rne/Hn Uian tiuit of tiie m imuk fd mmttk. U
For ite pleacun of those unatsnn who hsTo not itodied otftnpositioii, but desire to intxodnM
a variety of keys in their pnlndes and cxtemponmeoas oAukns, ws will take a |^sae» st
this harmonic me diator.
The chord of the diminished Boventh has this pccalianty, that it remains a chord of the
diminished seventh, in farm and ohsrsoter, in all its invearsions, beoaoao all its iatcr>'al9 are
mfauv tiiirds. If the lowest note of say cJuwd of tiiis dass be plsoed abore the hi^kesA, it
will fbnn an angmcnivd seoood above it: fat inf>tan( e. if the note in the chord f% ^ f
he removed from its position as the lowest sound of the ohocd, and plaoed abofe we obtna
the superfluous second /—/ ^
A minor. Fjj^ minor.
But this interval is rnk wrnmi m ^ the ssaw sa the minor e ^—gt; coosoqosatly the
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MODULATION. 205
nigie •oand* may become a more or kai efiSdent means of modulation ;

upon thii
iulject, howem, complete inionnatiofi can only be imparted in the doctrine of
Gompontion. In the fbUowing example,
^^^^^^
/ 9
4 I I
inversion of the ( honl

—
9i^—^> <i—f has prodtiml a now chord (if the diminished seventh,
— — rf, leading to a totally different key. Thus wo poaaess, in every chord of thcdimi-
'f
lUlhedBeTellti^ aineeMof siodidaSii^ ForiulHioe; the abota chord
> /leadt flwt into the key of minor; Aam, ly lAMigtwg j |^ jnt" # (^t w» miA^îlirty
into C minor ; next, ])y writing cb instead of wc arc led to £\} minor; and, lastly, by sub-
stituting cither r J* an. yj* for / nn<\ ^ffj, or cb w[kd.e\f\f £jr £ and ^ we may proooed either to
1
the key of Fj^ or its enharmonic equivalent O b.
or «r
^
A modolation into tiie idatiTe mnjor of the abore minor keyi^ is eflboted If dcg wasiag
the hnrest note of eaoh inTenion of the same ohaid a semitone; thus:
E7 4
Wc pass over many other transfonnations; a more complete docidation mtsf be £»und in
the authoi'fl School of Compoaition.
• From fliis point, the did sehool has started with the theory of the so-called Z Hnf WoU, m
this name the seventh degree of the gcele haa been aoewfi iuMi designated ; for instance, in
C major, b ; in /"major, r henee the hitin name xuh.êmtfnnwm modi. iJut if I wouM prof (hmI
from the key of C tw that of F major, is it the not<' < m hii h kofi.t me to, or in any way indi-
cates the appearance of, a new key ? Sometimes tliat aound ha^ been called the leading note
in vhidi one hay diflhn from another. Aoeording to this definition, the leading note between
and ^major would be but if I would modnlate from major to B}^ majcTi it F
200 MODULATION,
we have fbnned a poBiage of hsnnoDy by the comluiialaon of lome xelatife modu-

lations. It commences in € roôr; and moduktes, at a, tfarough the ducdof the
diminished seventh to A minor ; at through the dominant chord (third invenion)
to D minor; at through the same chord to G^.môr ; from which, at it proceeds
to G minor ; &c. At i and chords of the ninth have been introdnced. Hie dow
IS wanting, and the whob is oertainly rather crowded with modulations; our oljeet
being to give as many examples as possible upon lhat subjecL
would l>c < b instead of b ^. Thus the position of tlic leading note would always be imoer*'
tain. When, however, wo tfrcntnally diaooTer, in the of haniioiiy, a fimipi note mkiiig
atndijr
its apposnncc in n chord without harmonf or modultftioo, as ^ |> in C major,

affeclSng the
without a modulation into i^, tht uaelcamaaa and iniulBciancy of Ae theoiy of leadiiig hoIm
'
will be fuUy apparant.
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4
PROGRESSION OF iUt PARTS IS CilORDS. 207
SECTION THE NINTH,
PBOQRK88ION OF THB PABT8 IN CHORDS.
"^Ve have, troin the commencement, regarded chords merely as the result of a
simultaneous combination of different parts*. The essentials are the porU, and
the mefofhf nf the parts, and to these therefore we now return.
We shall oooBider the progressum of the parts in chords, in a four-fold point of

Tiew.
1. Ihtibhal Pboobissioh or thx Parts op a Chobb.

Each or several of the parts of a chord may proceed in a variety of ways from
one interval to another. A chord in which this takes place assumes a kind of
melodic form, which is termed
Hamnonk Figuration ;
or, if it be considered more froni tlie harmonic tliuii tlie melodic point of view,
Afpeffffi4i (Germ. Breekungi dor AJttonte).
Here are a few figurations of the chord c — e
We here see employed one of those melodic elements before mentioned (p. 1 63) ;
it is obnous that every chord, and consequently every succession of ch(»ds, these
fiv example,
may be resolved thus
• AlUiuugb Nature herself, in the harmonies whioh accompany every sound, aa O—c—g—
i~£—^y creates a aeptnte dioxd aimnltaiieottsfy with OTeiy sound of a mdody. flee note
and the
181), first volnnie of tlie sathoi's Sehod of Compoaitioo, pttUiahed by Means.
It Cooks and Co.
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208 PROGRESSION OF THE PARTS IN CHORDS.
fir
or into an iniminarable Tarietj of other melodie figurn.
2. SuuLTAmous Pbooebsuon ov Choumi. m
By this we undiTstand the j)rr»grcssioii of all the parts at the same time, from
one chord to another, as in all the jirevious haniiunic examples (Nos. 250.
292, &c.). As all the parts move step for step together, so at every step we
have a totally distinct chord ; for example, in No. 200, hrst the chord c —— e then
y h — </ fy &c.
On its own lucoimt, therefore, this kind of pn>cres.sion needs no fartlier consi-
deration ; it demanded notice, however, merely as the opposite of the following
8. DlSSmULTAN£OUS PROQBESSION OF THE PARTS,
which ariies from one or more of the ptiti proceeding to the next chord, while
others still retain the sounds of the first From this progression arise the feUowing
fimns;
A. Suspensions.
We say a note is suspended, when it is oontinned from one ehord into another
which does not properiy belong, and to a proper most
ah
to it interval cf wfaieh it
finally give way*. Here
e i
» 1 f I
• We here again return to those imaginary chonL^ of the tlevonth and thirtoonth pre-
viously alluded to (j). liS4). Tliey are nothing more Uian su^jKuaiou^^ which make their
api>euruncc above one or more souud^t of the next chord. Thus vb o sec, in No. 296, a no-called
chord of the dcTentii si ^ snd two olunds of the tbirleonth at / and y. Now, as we sie
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—— ;
PR0GBX8SI0N OF THE PAKT8 IK CE0B08. 200
>tt' (at a) the suuixi ;/ t xteini t'l Mui tlie tirst chord into the triail ——'/ and only
;itt« r a lapse of time move, or nsolre, as theorists tmii it. into tlu' snuinl /', the real
iiilcrviil of the ch"nl. At h, r, anil //, we see the sounds e, />, and '/ susjiciidctl
the latter are roMhi-d ujiwards ;

they must cun>e'iui'nt.ly come from beiow, and are
therefore termed sny>i',/s.'>iiis jVo//^ lî'^'itr ; the ntn-jiN, on the contrary, heine ealkd
•'j-' fito/uH j'/oiH iiJyuoj. At e, J, aiid//, wc 6ev sus[>c'n»iuns iVi-m ahuvc* and l)elu\v
uitr*Miuced at the same time ; and a resolve themselves int the next degree i
l»elow, /> into the de gree uhuvc, and (at^^ (/proceeds in one part to the degree below,
and in auother, to tiie degree aUove.
B. ANTIOIPATED SotTNBS.
Of the Biup«)ded sounds, we obser\'ed tliat they appeared, at least in the pre-
vioui chord, as real intervals of that chord. Their appearance in a foreign chord
was ttitis, as it is termed by theorists, prejujired. Now, howcT«r, we have to notice
SOlUldi, ntit only extraneous to the chord in which they appear, but hairiiig no
preparation, and belonging to the succeeding chord. Thus, for instance, we see
here, at a.
the note c, which does not belong to the chord e —^ b, but to the following chord
of the fifth and sixth; and at ^ the sound cb, which is altogetlier foreign to the
chord d~/t—d (a is wanting, and // is a susj>ended sound), and only appears as

a constituent interval in the chord of the mnth, which follows in the third part of
Ihe bar. Such a premature appearance of a sound is callt^ arUicipcUion.
C. Pkpal Notes.
A suspended si>un l is jirutraeted merely from onf eli ird into t!io next. But if
we continue a note until one or even more extraneous chords have pasjsed.
taught in the School of Composition that suspended uoUa do not luuully occur simultaneously
with those intervaU whose pUco they fur a time occupy, we can no longer wonder why these
ietitioiu chofds Aom no third i the emptaukm appear in the place of fhe third, as, in the
•bore caaoa, the aotinda /and if. But Ais very drctunstam «< piuvrs the ignorance of those
who treat this easily explained form as a separate and real chord ;
which, they say, is ivgularly
conatructcl, only — thnt it ha^ no tluiil ! !
!
— But «iippri«r wo were to accept tho-c imaginary
chio^ in order to explain the appearance of the abfive sounds / and d , how many more
cboida wenld it xeqoin to aooount tar tiie other dttpemnon* } Or axe we to be so inoowiatettt
u to accept Bcnne raqwDauma as and others aa mere euênsions? And how often,
chords,
dumld wc require two different, and therefore perplexing, rules for one and the same corahiua-
tion of ?<iuriil> :is, in X<i. 2nfl, thi' i;Tmip-i f~n < tVHnri') p (nt nntj r—t- [/) -h[nx, <•),
which arc t pnirtuuc* n-ul chords, liometini^ m« ii' su-jn nsiiins. ha\iti:_- nuly the upiK-aniticf of
chords ; wiuic, according to the tJ ue thcorj* of »u."5i»cusioa'», one law iuid rule upplies to ail caacs
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210 PEOGBESSIQN OF THE PARTS IN CHUB1>8.
and a chord at length a{ipears, of which thai sound is apun a real interval, we csU
such a sound a pedal mte.
A {>ccial note acta as a bond of union to the series of chords niaed above it
For this reason, it u employed when we desire* after an extensive modnlatign, In
return to the principal key with the utmost deciiion and energy. In sudi cases* we
retain the dominant in the bam, and introduce above it a more or less eitended
series of chords* with some of which the pedal note is in harmony, while to otfaen
it is foreign. Such a combination of harmonies, of which we see here an ffyamplf,
is termed an
Uboan Point (Iêdak),
or Pedal Paeeage. The pedal note y is an interval of ê first chord, 6- -d; but
it is extraneous to the following chords, o-h; jf—«*ând <! "
/ H is again a
component part of the chords g h d f y e—e—^, and ^—6— <£, but mi of
/ti —0— e, &e. The u[)per parts of an organ imni are, however, usually mora
richly and melodically developed than in the above iUuftration.
An organ point is sometimes also constructed \i\wn the final note of the bass; in
this case, the tonk i$ emtained while the upper parts move above it in the most
varied harmonic and melodic combinations. In grave and massive oomposiluu,
even the b^pnning is sometimes made more impressive (as it were, to {Hrepaie ftr
the important character of the whole) by this grandest and most powerful of aD
harmonic oombinations. A most sublime instance of such a commencement is that
of the PaseioM Mude, by Seb. Bach. Finally, instead of the bass, the upper or
one of the inner parts, or an upper part and the bass, are sooietimea sustained
together as pedal notes. The \ui of these ibrms usually occurs at the dose, the
others more frequently in the middle of a composition.
4. iNTBEMtDIATB PBOOB186l01f BKTWIIN CbOB3>8.

In^lîng from one interval of a choid to the next, the intermediate sound may
be introduced. Here
* Or is it pcrbspe a oomponemt of # forming together with Huaa dwirinMit

fhofd eg < ft It it were, it mwA nwlve into /| (or /) ^ but as hen it does not) we
eanmit connder it u the aeventh of that chord.
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PBOOBnnoif OP ths pasts in coobds. 211
J J J.
300
we have a sini]>lc example of such progression of a port. The upper part, at the
places nijirkt '! lorms an interval nf the successive chords ;

but, on its way from
ono ( liortl to imother, it passes through sounds {b) not belcmging to either. These
latter are termed
or nates of transition. The sound at c might likewise he termed a j

ii <'n;» note ;
or we might consider it as belonging to the chord below, which would be thereby

eonrerted from a chord of the fmrth and sixth into a chord of the tliird, fourth,
and dxth. But the sound e (al d) a decidedly extraneous, although it appears
•imultaneously with the chord, and fi>r a time impends one of its intervals ; viz.
a. Such sounds are called
CAoi^ Notes (WeckmltuOen),
Not merely a single or diatoiuc sound, but also two and more, even chromatic
sounds, may be employed as passing notes ; as here,
at u, the sounds e and f ^\ at h, the sounds c% d, d% and e: and thu5> from

passing notes and harmonic intervals all kinds of ruiii» aiid melodic ligures may be
formed ; lor exauiple :
Ând as there is not always time for tlie introduction of every intermaifiate
sound ; instead of passing through the complete diatonic or dmmatic series, we

merety touch upon sounds nearest to the intervals of the successive chords; these
are tennad
AuxUiarif bounds,
er auBfiary aoondi by ikipi ; ai in the folbiring example,
303
which, in combination with the harmonic sounds, impart more vtvadty and variety
to the melody, while the harmony retains its original firmness and perspicui^.
Pasnng notes, however, occur not only in the upper part, as m the above ex<
amples, but also m the lower, or one of the middle parts; for instance:
P2
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211
f f
bIsu in two or several parts at the same time* ; thus
•or
Simultaneous passing notes in different parts frequently assume the form of

chords as, hi the third bar of the above example, tlie cliords
/—a— ^ ^- t»
/—6—d.
;
a—c—y, —a 8 e cU, Such chords are euuuuoiily termed
Chords of TruttJiifioit.
Before closing this section, we otFer a few words in explanation of a peculiar

progression of the parts, often occurring in modulatory chords, or through the intro-
duction of chromatic passing notes.

When the same degree of the scale (iCC irs
. in two ?ucces>tve ch nds. but in
diflerent parts, bein<; raised or lowered in the one, while remaining unaltered in
the other, the two parts are raid to produce a
JPoAe Rehtitm (nU confra fa).

Hie contradictioii in the ptogreaaton of two such porta caiiaet, m many caaea, a
diaagreeable effect, and muBt be conaidered as a 6be progreiaioii of the hamoiky.
Here, for instance.
4- 4
aoc My— 0*-
r I
at a, we find, upon r, the major fjlluwed by the minor triad; but the minor
tljird, e\), appears in another part than that in which the major third, e, previously
appeared; one of the parts sings e — c, while the other sings c — t'h; and tlms one
appears to be in the key of C major, the other in C minor. Such a contradictory pro-
grf s>inn of the ]>arts is <lisagreeal'le even to lui untutored ear. At b, we the
same case, merely with thi>; difference, that the oittradirtcnry sounds are separated
by passing notes. The horsluiess of the &Jjie relutioit is thereby lessened, but not
entirely rerri'ivrd.
Such ul'jrctinnal>le progressions of the parts are usually a consequence of neglect-

ing the rule given (p. LMM) ; viz. to let each |)art proceed to tlie nearest sound of
the fiiUowing chord. Had this rule been observed in the above cases, the fidie
relation would have been avoided.
• In the ahin'e fxplanatinns on passing notes, the ohfM>n'ntions made in the foot-note of
p. 205, rc«pecung tiio uucertumty ul ihc so-colltid Uadtng twU aa indicatiun of mudulation,
art eonfimed. We see, in tho poiwiges Nos. 801—406^ aisiiy foreign soimds makiiig their
appearance^ either as pawing or aazOiaiy soles, without elleetuig or mdwating nodaUtiniis
into other krjs.
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PROQBESSION OF TUB PARTS IN CHOBJIS. 213
Tluit tliert' are cases in wiiich such a progression of the parts is less offensive to
the ear, or is a fake relation only in appearance, may be seen from these examples
308
Jil'til'I'tiltli.
From the pre<'< linit cursory illustrations, the immeasurable extent of the
hannonic material and all in connexion with it must be evident ; as also the
impracticability, in a preparatory course of inslruclion, such as the Unlrersal Sr/iml
of MuMc profcsises, of imparting a thorough knowledge of tliis aubject. Tliis can

only be derived from t!i(* X'-^ -
'
'>/ VouipQ^lt 'ion, of whicli it is the essential object.
Here, only so murli . "uld he cuk red up)n as will enable the student to distinguish
and form a t- l. rally ( orr. rt, though merely general, idea of the diiiiênt harmonic
combinations to be met with in musical compositions.
It is hoped, however, that even this introductory information will imjiart means
for a clearer insight into the contents and construction, while facilitating the correct
reading, comprfhension, and execution of musical works. To insure fruition to our
instructions, lu'weN or, a two-fold practice is necessary.
In the first place, the student should play all the major and minor scales, then
every chord in it^ difTeront jKjsitions and inversions, correctly resolving all those
which require it; and learn also, by frequent practice, to recognize by the ear alone
any chord, struck either V»y liiniself or another. An rxrrpisc partiritbrly to be
recommended. a« mn'Jt useful f>r the rtiltivati'm of the ear, is to ttin^ u\ suiTos-oiAn
the diiTerent intervals of each chord, and tho resolutions of the dominant chord
thus:
309
as well as the chords of the ninth and their •]• rivations. Only that which we can
ourselves reproduce, so far as physical capuhility admits, can we be said to know
I)erfectly ; and the student who is miable to reoogniw and sing a cliord or any
musical figure by ear» if suited to his vdee, does not know it, or, at leasts but very
imperfiectly. *
The exords^ which should be unceasinLrly repeated, is the minute

frrotnt
examination of every cnmp'^»?ition coming under the student's notice, by asking

lumself frxim point to point, and replying to these questions: first of all«
W/xif kpif and mode

ve indicated by the signature and close ?
What r/toiufs, and
Whai nwduiations
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214 PROGRESSION OF THE PARTS IN CHORDS.
oocur in the piece? Next, the examinatioii of eadi port lepsrately ; how is tiiik—
the next —the thixd lound, Ac. to be explained? Is it a note of
the hanmmy, or a passing note?
In the same manner the rhythmical construction of the piece should be
examined —what order^ what measure, what rhythmical values, &c. —what passages,
sections, periods, &e. — ^where do they commence? where end, Ac.? The men
careiuUy and oimsci^tiously all this is done, the more pet&ct will be die studeafs
perfermanoe, and especiaUy in
Readily from Score.
For it is impossible even for the quii kf^st and nictst y>ra< tiscd eye actuaiiy f" rraj
a fx}} sroz-r nf s'niht, s«t as to see every [art uiid evtry single sound in eadi j>art.
Bui he wliM Is at lidinL- in tlie chords, and the combinations and pruirrLssituis of
their parts, will frt-quently comprehend the uhulc hannony from ck icw notes ; and
from one or two part«, tlie contents of all the rest ; and tliua master the scckre at a
gingle glance.
On tlie other hand, it ij» also an absolute impossibility to Îve effect tu the
contents of a full score upon a single instrument, note for note : luid wt re it possible,
Bucli interpretation would by no moans i.o alway.s the Itest. ^-nunds and jmri^,
which ui an urcht-stra an<l in the hiuiils uf dillerunt pert'.rmcrs are ijuito distinct
and perspitjuous, \vi>uld on a single instrument mingle tugtthur in tlie greatest
confusion, la playmg from score, therefore, that which is essential must be distin-
guished from that which is secondary, bringing the former prominently forward,
while giving less importance tD» or even sacrificing, the latter. This cannot be dune
without a clear underatanding of the internal construction of musical compositions.
Let every student, therefore, examine how fir his sense of, and love for, the
musical art urge him forward The more powerfully he

in the study of its theory.
feels the desire to obtain a well-grounded knowledge of this, the more justly may he
consider the love of his art noUa and worthy of cultivation and the more he ;
endeavours to satisfy that desire, the more profit and enjoyEwnt will he derive fimn
the exercise of his talent.
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TIIK F1(SUKE1> BASS. 215
SECTION THE TENTH.
THK F1GU&£1> BASS.
In order to facilitate the }>en eption of the harmony to Hiv bcore-reaJor, uiid lur-
nish the coinjtoser with an expeditious ihikK' of writing his ideas, a kind of musical
short-hand ha-s heeii iiitrixlueed, consisting ehietiy ill the employment ot" tigures, which
are aiimble, to some extent, of indicating; the harmonic contents and modulations of a
c^mpMbilion. The iigur«^ are phiced above or below the bass, which is then termed a
Figured Boss.
The Imm, with ita figures and other aigns, is termed
Xlie perftnnaiMie of a piece bo written is called
Thiirough-hasit Piaf/in(/,
and is. for many reasons, a desirable study, .since many eom|)osition«, such as recita-
tives (also c horales in many ancient e-jUections), have principally a thorough-bass

lignature, without u full written haiutony.
We will now communicate what is most essential upon this subject.
The first consideration in the employment of tigures is: K^tat are these tigures
intended to indicate ?
If it be merely a si-rteit of hitercah, a.s iitaves, thirds, or sixths, we write over
tlie lowest |>art, already explained (p. 2 4). mu' <>f these indications:
air ttm. alia tiza. or alia &a.

as at a; or merely an 8, 3, or 6, with a small oblique dash over each of the sue-
ceedmg notes, as at ^ .>
which are then played thus
When a Buij^ncte is to continuewhile the lower part proceeds, oristoheconstantiy

repealed, the interval between this sound and the first sound of the lower part is
hy a figure firom which is extended one long or several short lines.
Thus the plvaae at a is to be pkyed as at 6:

« or »
ill
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216 THE riULllED HAiJS.
When 8 single note or a passage is to be UDaooompamed ; in the first ease, a

cipher b placed over the note in the second, the indication
;
s. ttutfn mIo.
Thus \X\Q phrase at a is to be played as at 6
a h
31 :i
0 4 t. s.
When a ek»d is to be indicated by figuies, we must distinguish betweoi trii
and all other chords.

Hie triad, as the most simple and most prevailing chord, is not generally indi>
caled by figures, biit is presumed to be the proper accompaniment to eveiy basi note
not otherwise marked.
All other chords are indicated by figures representing the intervals fimn whidi
they derive their names. Thus

6 signifies a chord of the sixth to the bass note above or below which the
figure is marked
^ or ^ signifies tlie chord of the fourth and sixUi
7 signifies a chord of the seventh
^ or ^, a chord of the fifth and rizth;
n 4
or ^, a diord of the third and fourth
2, a (lionl of tlic second;

9, a chord of the ninth.
Snmetimec), for particular reasons, common chords are also figured. In such
cases, tliey are indicated by
g 8 n
3, ^, 6, or 6, ^'c.
In other chords, also, those intervals whidi aii- not usually indicate d inavniiuin?
special figuring ; uj* in Uie chords of the third and iourth, and tlie diord of the second
tlius:
3 6 0
4, or 4, and 4, fte.
6 3 2
All these figures indicate the degrees aecording to their agreement viih tke
nature ef the key. Thus, if the following figures occurred in the key of major.
314
3 8 6 4
4 4
die intervals of the choid of the third and fimrth iipon «, would be a—a, e, d, f%i
those of the chord of the fourth and sixth, a d, ft. If, on the contrary, one or
• Digitized by Google
TQE FIGURED BA88. 217
more MNindB of a ehonl are to be noted or depressed, thii is indicated in the Mowing
iDttuier
1. When the third is to be thin altered, iiiatead of the figure, it is sufficient
to insert the sign ;
% or tj.
2, If any other interral la to be altored, it is indicated botii by the figure
and the requisite sign ; the latter being placed befiHre the former ; thus
b«, Cs, N-
Whi-n there is a p').^si]»ility of a mistake, tlie third is also sometimes indicated
Loth by a fi;^nire and a sign.
Instead ol'the sliarp, dashes are sometimes dniwii tuiross the figures ; thus
% Ji 4b 3, 6, f.
Double tharpa and double flats are written before figures in the same manner aa
before notes.
When any interval of a chord, not ordinarily indicated by a figure, is to be altered,
we must insert the requisite figure, and then place the sharp before it.
As an illustration of all the above rules, we here giro the figured bass of the
chorda employed in No. 290
a 6 e
by comparing which with the M

harmcnieB there written, any doubtfid point wOl
be cleared up. At a, we have been obliged to indicate the fourth in the chord of the
second by a special figure, because this interval required to be raised. Thia was also
the case at b. For the same reason, we have also marked, at e and d, the fifth in
the diord of the seventh, and, at e, the seventh in the chord of the nintli, which
elherwise vrould not have required mdication by special figures.
From this, we see that by means of figures and accidentals eveiy interval may
be indicated with great predaion : the figures, however, do not indicate their relative
positiona. Sometimes this is attempted to be expressed by the arrangement of the
figures. Thus, if these figures,
3
e
had been placed under the first note of No. 290 (which, being a triad, would onli>
narily require no figures at aD), we should have had reason to infer that the arrange*
ment of the figures prescribed the positions of the intervals. For the same purpose,
a 10 is sometimes vmtten instead of a 3, althougha figure indicates only the interval
generally, and not the octave in which it is to be taken.
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218 TUE FIUUEED BASA.
When a dmd k to oontmiM above a mmng Urn, the figurei ate not repealed*
but we merely draw ai many horiaontdlinei m fhere are mlenrals,and eiftend them
througji the poewge. Hius thie figured baie
316
8
8
6
is to be accompaaitxl thiu
But if the same sj^'cies uf churj is to be repeated on successive degree!*, this is
indicated as that o(" single intervals (p. 21oj, by ubliiûe dashes under e£u:h bass uote.
This hgured bass, tlierei'ure.
318
BEE
i
5
3
is to be played ai here
819
Wlien two or more groups of figures occur under a single bass note, the chords
thue indicated are to be played suooeaaiTely to this note. These ^gures, for instance,
320
8
5
-
6 b7
- 6 be
3 Q4
^1
-
8 4 5 6
indicate that 0 is to be accompanied by a triad, a chord of the fourth and sixth, and
the chord of the dominant to the key of F, The next sound also has three difiEerent
chords for its accompaniment.

But here the c[ue8tion ariaee: what portion of the bar does each of these aeeom-
panying chords occupy?
Firsts the principal part and the previous pxineipal part of the bar (Sat instance,
in common time, the first and third crotchets) must each havi- tlu Ir liarmony ; then,
if there are more chords, every part of the bar reoeWei cue. The above
therefore pbyed thus
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TH£ FiaUB£D AA88. 219
931
Wlioii niort' groups of figures are attacheil to a bass note than tliere are parts in
the bar, tla* memlM'rs of the bars also receive separate harmonies. In tliis case, tlie
members of the subordinate parts of the biu* take precedence of the i>rinci[ial one, in
order that the weitrht of the latter may not be lessened by a repeated cluiuge of har-
monic. According to this rule, the chords uidicated by tliese tigures
322
1
'»
6b7 6 6 6 6 6 6 b7 6 6 6 5 6 b7 6 6
3 4 ft 4 S 3 4 8 4 « 4 8 4 S 4 5 4 3
would be most properly distributed in this manner
Susju iLfiat/ft are hkewise indicated l>y figures, showing bodl the iiiterv'ai aiid re-
solution. This figured buss, lijr instance,
324
5 - - 8 5 9 10
4 3- 6 5 3 7 8
3
these bannoiuflt
f m w
I r
It friU be obserrad that, berides the figure indicating the suspended interval, so
many other intervals of the chord are marked as will prevent a mistake. As the
ninth, in the chord upon the last note of the bass, is a suspended note, which must
Rsohre into the tenth above, we have prefened to Indicate the latter interval by a 10,
iwteadofad.
Whole series of harmonies over a continued bass, as, for instance, in a pedal pas-
sage, are also similarly indicated, each chord reeehring its proper figures. Thus the
bass of No. 209 would be figured as here
a26
8 2 9 7 6 5 2 6 - 2 6 2 - 4 3-
i
6 4 3 4 3 -43 4 - 6 - -
3 6 « «a7 6 6 8
t
6 ^ 7
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£20 THS riQURED liASB.
We perodve that the tyitem of 6gured beuee is not caleukted to nipplant ^

ordinary muocal notation ; that there ii much which it cannot indicate ; for ezampk
ihe number tfparU ; and much which it can only imperfectly indicate ; the rhyth'
nUcal divuion, for initanoe ; and that the more dreumitantially the figuring ii
arrangedp ao much the more difficult and perplexing does it hecome to the reader. It
muat, however, he recollected that thorough-bass notation is not intended to supenede

the fiill score ; its first object is merely to enable the composer to write his ideas with
rapidily, until he shall have time to eaqiress them in notes ; and nest, to facilitatift
the reading firom score, until the student shall have attained sufikient skin and ex-
perience to comprehend at one view the contents of the different staves : and, Isstly,
to ferm a guide to the harmonies of such compositions, which the andent composers,
especially, thought it unnecessary to write in full. For these objects, it is hoped that
the above explanations will be sufficient, although they do not enter into all the prac-
taoes which have been at different times, and in different countries, adopted by
thorough-bass writers.
In ancient works-ôr instance, Sob. Baeh*s Recitatives — ^we sometimes find a basi
without any figures^âi» fniits, as it termed,—which is, nevertheless,
is intended
to bo harmonically accompanied. In such casea, we must endeavour to fii^.l tli-
right harmonies firom the motivos of the vocal f)urt, and the manner in which the
cum[K>ser is known generally to conduct his harmonies. We do not, however, fl el
call* 1 upon to enter into the detaila of this uncertun and ahnost useless art of de-
ciphering harmonic enigmas.
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PART THE FIFTH.
ARTISTIC rOHMS.
;
:
OBNISAL OOirSIDBBATIOIV 01* AUTISTIC FOBlfS. 223
SBCnON THE FIRST.
OBirBBAL OONSmXBATION 07 ABTUTIO FOBXB.
We have now become acqu^nted wth the tundaniental fibrins in whicli music
prefients itself. The rûlts of all our previous observations may be summed up thus
1. A musical compontioD may consist either of a sinê series, or iii several
simultaneous series of sounds. The ^nrmfir is tenned munc in one
part ; the latter, m several parts.

B. Every piece of music may be intended either far one or sevend organs
of music. In relation to this, we have already learned the distinction
between pure vocal accompanied vocal tnttrumenial
mutk, &c.
3. Every musical idea may be eacpressed in three ^Bffisient forms ; as a
pattoffe, mtian, or period,
Cdnfimng ourselves to tiie last point of diflference, we obsme that a period, or
even a seefMm, may in itself contain a more or less complete expresnon of an idea
^paeeage, on the contrary , having no definite termination, can never ftrm a whole in
ilsdf, or constitute an independent artistic form ; as it can have no ngnification,
ankss connected vrith sections or periods.
From this we may all mumcal works are by no means confined to

conclude that
the Umils of a single period, a single section but mostly consist of a oombi-
still less ;
nation of various periods, sections, and passages. This must be obvious to every one
who has listened to the performance of a grand composition, such as a symphony, &c
Tins preliminary survey enables us already to form an idea of the nature and
distinctions of those artistic forms in which the various species of musical compositions
make their appearance. They depend upon
1. The number and treatment of the parts.
2. Hie manner in which the di£forent sections (or periods) are introduced
and employed.
5. The manner in which th^ are connected vrifh each other, in order to
form a whole.
4. The organs of music for which a piece is composed. And, lastiy,
6. Hie purpose for which it is intended, either by itnl^ or ui connexion
with some other art ; whether for public wrnhip, the oelebtation of
national events, Ac. Ac.
To every practical musician, at least, a general knowledge of artistic forms is
desirable ; not only because this knowledge is a part ot' the general education of every
musician, but also because it yields many practical and tiuhiitantial advantages. For
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*
224 0BNEBAL CONBIDIRimON OF ABTIBTIO VORMS.
he who has ina it' liiiusrlf fbnvilinr with the tliHi ront Ibrms of art, will find p-oattr
fajnlity aiid certainty in tiie intcq»retation of the ideas aiid drf-i.m of acomposi r in all
his works, an l in rv«'rv portion <^»f each work: lie will perceive more easily whai tin
coni|K><5<>r intended tu exjiress. and l!n ri t''rc kinAv hotter hotc to express it in Ins | er-
ibnnuni This is tlie rcatiou why the Uuiversal School of Muik enters into ao
explanation of tliese torni8.
A thorough devtlupment of tlii.< snhjcc t is, linwrvt r, still less practicable here,
than c»t those in the previnns so timis ; and this for the f allowing reasons:
Although the iiiinil'tr of t ss.-ntiidly different forms of comj}' sition is not very êat,
yet each may assunn- s<» manyditlerent u»|)ects, arising from the intruduct ion nt unes-
sential and changing features, tliat it sonietimeR re<)uires a ke^^n and exi»orierK\(i eve
to discover an agreement uf plan and (('iistruttiMn in conip'^sitiMns wIulIi, to tht- su-
j>erficial ohserver, tt]>]K'ar to belong t<> t<»tal!y dirt'ereat s|)ecii's. Moreover, it is the
privilege of every Uberal art enntinnally to attempt new (iirms, which can svara^ly
ever Iks any other than iiti.r> ,l jni nt^, purtakinj; of tlie characteristics of two or nK>re
existing:; om-s. The ditrK ulty of cKossifyin'^ snch works under any of the established
tionns, is ohvioufc and inherent to the idea in which they oritrinaied.
It is impossible fur a general school of music to enter into a minute examination

of all the varieties and unessential differences which may shuvv theuiiclves in each of
the fimdaniental lonns of conipubiliou, nut only because the necessary examples wi uld
require fw tô nuu li spat e, but also because their explanation would involve diikus-
sions un melody, harmony, treatment of Uic parts, iVc. which tlie general student
would not be able, and cuuld not be expected, to understand. I his, therefore, wc iiiUil
again leave to the study of com^mition, conliumg ourselves, as on all former otxâsions,
to snch peneral explaiiatiuus as will sullice fur the wants of those fl»r whom the present
work is intended. Even the examples will be given but sparinjily. because a complete
illustration would be altogether out of the question. It", liowever. th.- hints here given
be followed with constant and careful observation, the btudcnt will swii hiid liiimelf
tolerably Ikniihar with the diifereiit mu&ical toinw.
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DISTINCT FOKMS AUISING FROM TU£ T&EAXJiJiNT OJi' XUi:^ I'AUTS. 225
SECTION THE SECOND.

DISIOIOT rO&MS ABIBDfG TBOM THB TBXAXMUIT OF THE PARTS.
EyiBT miuical compontioii may, as we are aware, be in eiw or teveral jtartt.
Under the latter denominatian an eoDîrdiendedantu^^ one part; and,

eonsequently, m this daas are included compositions in two porta.
There are two modes of treatment in compositions for several parts.
In the first place, any sing^ part may be treated as the prime^Ml, and the others
senre merely as a support or aocanpaniment to it
Compositions of this kind are termed
In homofîonic compositions, therefore, we have to make a distinction between the

Pr 'uirijHiI Part,
which expresses the leading idea, and should be constructed aoooidiDg to the artistic
laws ef melody, and the
Accessory Parts,
which express no independent idea, but are only employed to support and strengthoi
the principal part /This short phrase
Andante.
15^
44^
is an example of homophoniccompositioiL The upper part contains iimdodic phrase,
which, so &r as itgoes, may be considered satisfiMtory. The lour lower series of
sounds are obvious^ intended merely to support die principal part with their har-
mony and unifbrm rhythm. Neither of these, taken sin^y, could constitute a melody,
nor in any degree daim to rank with the principal part
In general, the leading melody of a composition is anigned to the tapper part, as
being particalariy suitable, both on account of itspooitkn» and the more &i&Ue and
penetrating nature of the hi^êr sounds. But it may also be assigned to any of the
other paits ; ftr instance, the bass
-1-
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22<5 DISTINCT FOBMS A&ISINU FROM TUK TB£ATMENT OF THE PARTS.
or the tenor, ai in No. 95, and here
or the alto, as in No. 115. Or it may qppear auoceariTely in the diflerent parti.
Thus the phrase. No. d27> may first he introduced, as before, in the upper part, and
afterwards in the bass or tenor, as in Nob. 328 and 329, the u^>er part joining in
the accompaniment Or, lastly, the melody may be taken up by anoUier part beftn
its conclusion in the part which previously introduced it ; as here,
where the tenor lca<ls. an<l Im followed by the soprano.

On examining the last four illustrations, we observe that the accompanying parti
may also sometinies assume an interesting form; that each (as in No. 329) may
pursue its course almost independently of the others, and s im times (as in the upper
part in No. 329) distinguish itself from the rest hy its peculiarity or vivacity. Yet,
in all tliese cases, no doubt can arise as to which is really the ])rincipal part It may,
however, he otherwise. An accessory part may sometimes d* v( lop itself in so inde-
pendent and significant a manner, that it becomes douhtful whether it can be any
longer considered as a suborduiate part, or ought rather to be considered as a second
priiici] lal part This leads us back to our chief point of distinction whence we started.
A section or an entire composition may,
Secondly, be so constructed that, instead of having only one principal part, each
part may express an independent idea, and possess, in itself, all the essential quali-
ties of an artistic melody. Sudi a comp tsition is termed
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DISTUiOT rOJLMS ABISIMQ f&OM TU£ Ta£AX>l£NI OM IU£ PAETS. 2:27
and it is to harmonic combinations of this character that the term part -musk may
be applied in the strictest sense of the word.
The fi>llowing fragment
3S1
is an example of such polyphonic hannony. It is so constructed fliat neither of tfae

two parts is salasfitctury mthoitt the other, nor can be regarded as the principal
melody. Each urns at mdodk perfection, while supporting the other, and each has
an equal share in the entire effect If the above limited example should appear
insufficient to display the difference between the two styles of writing, let the student
compare the —
a good iUgue ^for instance, one of Seb. Bach*s with
diflerent parts of —
the aocompanimaitB of a dance or march, and the distinction will be at once evklent.
V This difference, however, is not so absolute and decided as to be always free from
donbt» whether a part is merdy a subordinate one more richly developed (as the
upper part in No. 829), or a real, independent, Olr, as it is sometimes termed, 4}d/f]ô
part of a polyphonic harmony. Nor is it essential dut a composition cantinue
throughout either in the homophonic or polyphonic form. In many compoutions,
polyphonic alternate with homophonic passages, or only some of the parts are obU-
gato, the others fenning mere accompaniments.
Ihe composition of polyphonic music (sometimes, also, compootion in sereral
parts, whether polyphonic or homophonic) is turned
QmnterpmnL
Several kinds of counterpoint are to be distinguished ; viz. simple, double, triple,
quadruple, multiple, and reversed.

Sin^ Counterpoint
merely teaches how to invent two or more r«o/ parts, such as we have before seen in
polyphoiic oompoiition.
IMMi? Counterpoint
is the art of constructing two mdodies so that they may eacdiange places, the upper
part becoming the lower, and the lower part the upper. This exchange of places is
called
Ineermon,
Here
382
^^^^ m
we see a two-part plii;i.se, which, at n ;;laiKc, \vc rocoirnise as polyjihonic*. But it
• The ujiiHT jijirt dl' the ;il>uvr r \;iiinjli' i> tlir rMiuim iict'iur nt of a Ciomian choral melody
( Vom Mtmttul hwh da komm ich her), aatl tkc'tt-roix' only tiie lower had to be invented- It is
especislfy tiiis pwt to • given melody which

•eoond iavertible is somctimeB distiosindied by
the tena wwilîyjwr sad its iaveation w^r^fmOeL
,
Q 2
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228 DISTINCT FORMS ARISINQ FROM THE TREATMENT OP THE PARTS.
is 80 constructed that the upper may be placed under the lower part, or vice versa
333 vir
—m F-
m
•
m—
1
1
F
i 1
'
-t—
From this we perceive the peculiar power of double counterpoint. It imparts to
a composition the capability of assuming a new and significant form, merely by the
inversion of its parts, witliout any internal alteration.
When the two parts of such a contrapuntal comjwsition are inverted, the one may
be }>laced either eiglit, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, or fourteen degrees above
or below the other. We distinguish accordingly seten sijecies of double counter-
point ; viz.
double counterpoint in the octave,

. . ninth,
tenth,
. . . . eleventh,
*
. . twelfth,
. , thirteenth (decima tertia),
fourteenth (decima quarta).
Of these, the first is the easiest, and, at the same time, the most uscfid* ; it is
that in which the preceding example (No. 332) has been composed.
Triple, Qtiadrupley and Multiple Couuterjmint.
These counterpoints, as may be inferred from their name, consist of combinations
of tliree, four, or more parts, mutually capable of an exchange of place.
The following short example of triple counterpoint will suffice for the purpose of
illustration
3
334
1^
• The otlier species of double counterpoint (perhaps with the exception of those in the tenth
and twclflh) arc tied to so many conditions and arithmetical calculations, that they may bo
decnied absolutely useless. To those in the tenth and twelfth, a facilitating method may be
opplied, not, however, without an infringement of artistic freedom, M'hich is the first condition
in all works of art. Sec the Author's School of Composition, vol. ii.
DISnNOT WOnUB ABISINO VBOU TDB TBIATMXNT OV THB PABT8. 220
—1
— p i
H-^
V. f—
=
1
r
The three parts in the phrase a admit of inversion in five different ways, as indi-
cated at A, r, d, and /, and although m ither of these inversioDB hai been worked
out, yet the indications will give an idea of the varie^ of charactor and expresuon a
plinse thus treated will assume. In quadruple counterpoint, eadi part may îpear
in /te!<*n/^-;/btfr diiferent places ; and in quintuple counteqioint, a phrase may assume,
by the mere inTenion of the paitg, no len than we hundred and twnty different
ftnna* In
Reversed Counterjmnf,
or counterpoint in contrary motion, the parte not only exchange places, hut proceed
ina eontraiy direction, eaeh aaoending progression of the part being made to descend,
and Tice versa.
The above short explanations will, at kaet, give the student a general idea of the
nature of these artificial forms of compoeition. Tlie moie minute investigation of
these forms, and especially the examination of their comparatiTe practical utility,
must be reserved for the School of Compoeition. We will, however, make tlie addi-
tional remark : that it is by no means necessary for all the parts of a composition to
be invertible. On the contrary, two or three only may have been composed accord-
ing to the rules of strict counterpoint, while the others serve merely as accompani-
ments. In such cases, the species of counterpoint to whicii the j)iece is said to belong,
depends upon the number of those yiarts only which admit of inversion ; so that, for
instance, a piece written in four parts may contun only a double or triple counter-
point.
We can now form some idea of the great varii-ty of funns in which a musical idea
may be expressed. We may represent it in the form of a phrase in one or several
pEirts ; in tlie latter case, it may be either honiophonic or polyphonie ;
again, if jioly-
phonic, it may be coni]»osed according to tlie rules of any of the difierent species of
single or double counterpoint.

Tlius all kinds of composition are either essentially homophonic or jwdyphonic, or
partially one or the other. In the lollowing sections, tiiis tlistiiiction will be retained.
We shall treat, first, of those fîrnis which are, exclusively or principally, polyphonic ;
we shall allervvards proceed to the homophonic forms. The practical application of
these forms to the ditVerent organs of music can only be considered atier their abstract
theoretical nature has been ejiplained.
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230 THB TOLTPHONTC FOBMfl.
SECTION THE THIRD.
THB POIiTPHONIO F0B1I8.
Of theie, we fasro especially to dietiiigaiih three principal kindi ; Fufura-

tlon, Fugue, and Canon ; and the most important applications of each.
1. FiaURATION.
Figuration, in the most general sense of the woitl, is the acoompanhnent cf a

given melody (for instance, a chorale) by one or more parts, melodically deTeloped.
The meloiy chosen for this purpose is then called the plain 9ong, or
Cautm Firmut* (or unchangeable melody).
The additional parts are called

Figurative ParU,
and the harmony
FiffurcUiff Ilarmontf.
What is the differeiu'e hetwi't-n a tijûrative and a iiicrt'ly lioninjihonic accom-
paniiiuMit? It is this: that, in a fipirative lianiiuny. each jârt t-xjirossi'S an inde-

pendent idea and niekKiic development, which is not the case in liomophoiiic
accompaniment Here
-J -1-4
335
rrt
p — • ^
we see the comniencenient of the chc»rale already emnloved in No. .332 ; at n in
com[)res.sed, and at h in dispersed harmony. Ncitiier of the accompanying ]

arts
expresses a special idea, or claims particular attention ; wliirli is at once j^»erceived
from the ahsem e of any rhythmical peculiarity. They are all introduced merely for
the sn|i}Hirt of the |»rincipid melody by their harmony. Would we even impart,
here and there, more character and animation — lor instance.
* Ital. Cemto ArnM.
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TH£ FOLYPUONiC FORMS. 2Sl
still vre should clearly see tlmt each is only a suLorJinate part of ilu- n-Z/o/c, inteiulcd
as an acc<>ni]>aninit'iit to the niel<Kly. If, on the contrary, we examiiH' tlie u£Com-
paiiiiueiit^ tu tlic sanie caiitus tirmus iu No. or the tbUowing example,
we observe that, altliough they, too, serve as acconipaninicnts to the jirinciiial me](jdy,
yet cat h exjiresses an iilca distinct from tlie eaiitus lirmus, and strives to develop
iteelf as an indoju-ndcnt incl<Mly.
Such figurations may assume innumerable forms. Now the canto termo may
aj»j)car in the upper jiart, again in the lowt-r, then in one of the middle [larts.
At one time passing alternately IVhih (.ne part td another, it may have but one part
(as in No, S'.iî), at others, two, three, or more, to accompany it. When there are
several figurative parts, they either proceed independently of each other, or mutually
sustain a short motivo, either sinmltaneously or alternately (as at a, No. 337). Or,
again, seek to imitate a longer phrase, such as this, at If
In some cases, the figurative parts begin and conclude with every phrase of the
canto fermo, as in psalm tunes ; in others, they form introductions, intermediate and
concluding strains, or, as they are technically called,
I'reludes, Interludes, and Codat,
Finally, we meet with figuratioiu in which the canto fermo itadf has undergone
a alight alteration, either by a change m its rhythm, or the introduction of additional
232 THE POLYPHONIC FORMS.
notes, to render the melody more florid antl animated. Thus Seb. Bach*, in a
figuration of tlie Chorale, " MW nur dm lifftcn Gott Itisft tralten"
ha.s converteil the cantus fimius into this figuration :
t a h c b a •4
0-m •
It
/ 1
340 I
A second fijrm of figuration has been much employed by ancient composen,

especially Handel and Seb. Bach. Hie bass projioses a tlieme of moderate length
(four, six, or eight bars), in the first place, alone ; this it continues to rej»eat, while
tile up]H.'r ])arts join in a figurative accompaniment, gradually increasing in animation
and power. Tlie variety and richness of the accomjwuiiment, which is polyphonic
thn»ughout, forms a most interesting contrast to the continually repeated principal
subject in the bass, and thus attracts our interest and feelings in various wavs. As
a specimen, we give the following commencement of such a figuration over a bass
1
341
^^^^ t.r
A
=5— =J-^^*^
It c
The short subject. A, is repeated at B ; and here the three upper parts begin to
develojt their song. At C, the subject commences a tliird time, and the melodies of
the upjier part bit ome more flowing and interesting. A most ingenious application
• See the " SfUrtiotu from Scb. Itarh't CotHpontion*;' published l)y Challier, at Borlia,
which are intended a* an introduction to Uie works of that great master, and may he obtained
from Messrs. Coeks and Co.
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THE POLYPHONIC F0BM8. 23d
of this fomi is to be found in Handel's Alexanders Feast, in the chorus, *

Awake
hini from his sliinibor.'"
Sudi a couluiuui (^tenacious) repetition of the ha&A itt called
Basso ostinatoj
and this name characterises the whole form, which, eqiedally in the Faasecagli of
Seb. Bach, appears most richly developed.

In conclusion, wc have still to notice a kind of figuration without either a canto
r*»rmo, AT any i»ther jneJominant suhject. The different [>arts carry out their song,
or motivo, indeptiuloiitly of each other, tlirough a serios of chords or modulations,

and e1o?e in the same manner. They are all so equally developed, that neither can
lay cl^m to the title of a principal part, although one, geiienilly the upper part, may
for a short time — fur instance, towards the close — assume a more decided melodic
form than the others. We frequently meet with this form in presides, or introduc-
tioDi to grand compositions, aod in etudes or exercises for the pianoforte and orgpn.
2. The I«\jaus.
A fugue if a eompontioii in two w more parts, in idiidi a pluaie, eaflad the
Sufy'ect, or Theme,
appears first in one part, and is then successively responded to by the other parts,
thus ftirwiing the text of the whole piece.
During the repetition of the suhject in another jiart, that in which it first appeared
continues its song, which, being tlius opposed to the subject, is termed the
Counter 8ul/ject.
After the second part, a third, fourth, and every part enf^êd in the fugue, suc-
cessively takes up the subject ; the others take tlie counter subject, and form, col-
lectively, in opposition to the subject, the
Counter llamiony.
Were the subject, however, repeated in each succeeding part upon the same
degree, the effect would be extremely monotonous. It ia therefore changed in various
vays, and most generally so, that when the first part has proposed the subject in the
scale of the tonk, the following part repeats it in the scale of the dominant. This is
teraied the
Amwer.
The answer is generally an exact imitation of the subject; peculiar circum-
stances, however, may render some slight alterations necessary, provided the subject
it not thereby so essentially changed that we may fail to recognize it.
We will, in the first place, examine a short fugal subject, designed for the greatest
poiuble simpUcity and brevity, rather than scientific effect
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I
23i TBE POLYPHONIC F0BM6.
Here we see, at a, the guhject of the fugue (it is tlie (•oinmeneeiiient ut the same
chorale often previously ein|»luye<l) enter, at first quite alone, in the ulto ; the soprano
then takes it up in tlie fonii of an anstcer, slightly altere<i (ft), but yet eiisily recog-
nized aa a repetition of the subjeet upon a difl'erent degree (in the key of the domi-
nant). While the soprano proceeds with the answer, tlie alto continues its song,
which thus becomes the
Counter Sufject.
We might now expeet the subject to appear in the third bar in some other part
Instead of this, however, the re))etition of the subject is delayed by tlie insertion of
adiort phiwe, which 6Us up the fourth bar and leads the harmony back to C major,
in which key the subject is next to appear. Such » phrase, neither containing sub-
ject, answer, nor OMmter subject, but introduoed merely to render a fugue more in-
teresting, and to prevent the monotony necessarily arising from a eontmual and
uninterrupted repetition of the subject, is called an
Interlude.
In the fourth and fiflh bars, the bass and tenor take up the subject and its
answer ; and in the sixth l>ar, another interlude makes its ap])earance.
Here we might end our fugue by returning to C major and making a close. But
we may also, and this is usually the case, continue the fugue by re[>euting the subject
in any of the parts immediately after the interlude, which would again call forth an
answer in some other part
Hie manner in which the subject of a fugue is carried through the different ^larts,
is called the
This exposition is empkte when all the parts have taken their share in it, as in
No. 842 ; when the subject (or answer) has not appeared in all the
it is incomplete
parts it is redundant whra the subject has appeared more than onee in one or
;
several parts. Thus we see that a fugue may consist <^ one or more apositioDS;
and we are now able to appreciate more My
the advantage arising from Uie intro-
duction of interludes, which serve to keep the different expositions of the subject
distinct from each other, and thus contribute both to the perspicuity and variety of
the whole fugue.
By what means shall we distuiguish the subject of a fugue? We see its com-
mencement in the first |iart ; but where does it end ? where is its point of sepaiaiioa
from the counter subject? This we find, Jirstit/, by examining, aeoording to the
fiindamratal laws of melodic construction, where the phrase fivndng the subject has
its satisfiutory close ; Meeondty, by comparing, in the two parts containing them, the
subject with the answer; and so fiur as the one imitates the progressions of the other,
leaving slight alterations unnotieed, does the subject generally extend.
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THl POLYPHONIC FORMS. 236
VVe have now to mention aome peculiar transtbrmations of the subject of Uie
liigue.
Tt is sometimes ri'|itateil by another part in notca of double tlicir former duration

as ininiiiia, instead of crotchets. This is termed
Augmeniation.
Sometimes, an tfw emknatf, it is answered in notes of only half the original value.
This is called
Hie subject is sometimes so answered, that all ite progressions, note for note, are
rsvened, every ascending interval beooming a descending one, and vice vera&. This
form of imitation is called
Reeerwm (Moto contrario).
We give an example of each form. Here
a43
f i r f r 'fiff î
we see the subject of our fugue (Xa. :Vt2) in twn jmrts of (litVereiit duration. Tlie
first part may be considered as an augmentation of the subject, or tlie second as its
diminution. Here
344
\
- 'UJ ^ H
1 i u
we see the same subject in three different kinds of note. The repetition, at b, con-
tains an augmentation, and that at c a diminution.
,
r i J J
946
at a and the snljeet which retains its original progression in tiie lower part is
reversed in the upper ; aft c, it Is both reversed and diminished. It is obvious that
these forms are capable of making a much greater impression when introduced in a
real work of art, than in the above fimited examples, designed merely with a view
to brevity and amplici^.
When the subject appears in one part before it has come to its dose in another,
the exposition is termed an imitation by
Approxtmaiien (Stretta).
Nos. 343, 344, and 345 (b and e} are examples of the stretta.
236 THE POLYPHONIC FOftMS.
or the landi of iugu«, we ihall paitieulariie cnly the moifc imparlaDt

Aooording to the numb^ of ports engaged, a ftigne is said to be m
tvo, three, four, or more parts.
In addition to the parts constitutiijf^ tlie fuguo, thert* are sometimes others,
scn in^ a.s mere accompaniments to tlie fiigul part*. When tliesr accompanying |wts
serve only to supjwrt tJie esstntial fligiir- j«arts. ns, for instance, such instrumental
nreompaniments of vocal fugues as înijily jinKftd in unisons or iK.-tavo5 with the

diir» ri'nt voio^'«, the chanirter of the fugue is not tlierthy changed ; but should t!ie
accompaisiinrnt ajssumo an indcpfinlfnt fîrni, having \\m own characteristic melodies,
phrases, ligiirations^ kc. 6ui. the fugue is Uien termed an
Aeeon^Mnied Fuguit»
An eiample of this ftrin is the commenoeiiieDt of the FuguOp '*
Qwhm oAn
Ahrciha^^ in Moatart'o Bequiem
346
where the wind instruments and yoices cany out the eipontion of the fiûe^ while
the string quartett pursues a totally independent course.
Sometimes only one figurattye and florid upper part is added to the merely auz«
iliaiy eooompaniment of a fugue. Such a part is then called, by way of disthiction,
tAe caunterpoini of the fugue ; i. e. the part especially opposed to the fugue iteel£
When the bass part is made to sustnn such a counta* subject^ it is termed a
ContinwdBtui fBosso eontinuo),
and this term i? particularly employed wiicn the l>ass moves in a unilV'rm manner,
such as a series of quaver?? or crut'-lu-ts. Among others, the Ktfrie of Sch. Bachs
Alass in O, and the (Jmii, of his iiigli IMjlss, are accompanied liy tins kind of basso
continii ) ; whiU- a ligurativc u))per part frequently occurs in the masses compoted by
J. Haydn, Hummel, and others.
d. DouBLi, Tbiplb, and Qitaa&upli FirOUB8.
Instead of a single subject, we sometimes find two, tliree, or even more diffaent
themes eombined and worked out in the same fugue. Here
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TED POLYPHONIC P0B1C8. 237
1
^^— ^T7^
we hsre the oommencemeat, at leatt, of a double fugue. The tenor itarts with the
fint lubject (a) ; the baia immediately after (b) oommenoet the second subject
At e, the fint theme is antwered by the alto, and at (/the toprano answers the
seoQod. If the exposition is must be answered by
to be complete, the fint subject
the fatfi and aoprano, the second by the tenor and aho ; so that eadi subject makea
its appeanmoe in all the parts. That from e and/ the two lower parts form a
counter subject^ is endent (p. 233). And this illustrates, without fiuther explanation,
fiigues of three subjects, termed
Triple Fugues,
and others still more complicated; the different subjects are of course to be proposed
and awwered in the same manner as in a double fugue. There is but rarely,
however, either oocasion or demand for the oombinatian of more than three distinct
subjects.
With the exception of the difference arising from the greater number of subjects,
double and triple fugues are constructed in the same manner as the simple fugue.
There must be, at least, one regular exposition of each subject, althou^ it is not.
necessary that both or all tlu-ee should be introduced simultaneously.
Double fugues, for instance, sometimes commence with the proposition of one of
the subjects only ; this is fully developed in a separate exposition, and then the
second subject is separately introduced and treated similarly. After these two
separate expositions, the two subjects are united, and the third exposition commences,
which may be considered as the real beginning of the double fugue. In this
manner is the " Cmititriir mnnit huptixma,'' in Sd). Bat h's hii/Ji tua.t.t (B minor),
C'Tistruclcd. Or tlic tirst subject is [»r<>j)osed in one of the part'^ and answered in
another ; then the former takes up tlie second subject as a counter-sul»ject : and
thus the first theme and its counter-subject make the tour tlirougli all the jârts in
succession. Seb, Bach's fugue in G minor is an example of this turm. ( Forf //-
eu//il Preluiles and Fiopies.) i?o also, in trijile fugues, the three subjects are not gene-
rally introduced together ; but, m order that each theme may be more easily
distinguished, the fugue is sometimes oooimenced with one only ; and aller itfl pro-
238 THB POLTraOlflC F0BM8.
poBition, the otiicr two are Introduced ; an arrangement adopted in tlie auth<B'*t lat
psalm : or two subjects are introdiu^ together, end thm the thiid Iblkwi ; as in
the " Kyrie* of Seb. Bach's mass in G me^.
So far respecting fugues of two and more subjects. It has already !K>en men-
tioned that, in oontradistiiiction to these, a fugue with only one nibject ii termed a
Simple Fupu€.
By way of explanation, we add ftrther, that a yeiy ehort fiigue is termed a.
Fti^helta ;
a composition written in imitation oitly of Uie fugue style, is called a

Free Fuffue,
in oontradistinctioQ to the
Strict Ftiffuc^
in which all the rules of fugue writing have been strictly dbtorred.
Lastly; when a short fugue ur imitation of a fugue occur; in. and forms a por*
tion of, a grand eompositian, such as a sonata, symphony* Ae. it is tanned a
Fuffoio,
This may suflice for tiie general comprehension of this most important and
interesting form of composition. Of its manifi»ld connexions with oflier forms, we
can here mention only the two most important ; vis.
A CharaJk witA Fttpa! Arcompammentg ;
or, th(> accoinpaniiiu-iit nf ;i choral im l.>,ly l»y a fugue, as w*c have already seen a
similar nieludy accompanied by mere iiguraliun ; and
A Fuffutive Chorale ;
f. tf. a Algal treatment of an entire chorale, in which the phiMes, one after the
other, either in combination or alone, iîpcar as subjects of so many different

expositions.
Both these forms are moet richly developed in Seb. Bach's Kirchenmu9iken
und OrflcUtUcken ; the latter, especially, is applied and marked out in a truly
wonderful manner, in his Kirchen-muftik : " Kin fette Bury i«t un»er 6itt$,** and
in a contrapuntal treatment of the cboraloii " Aus tkfer NnHk •ekreS iek iir^r m
4. Tu£ Canon.
Althou|^ all the parts in the fugue take up the sulject suooessivcly, they do not
entirely confine themselTes to it, but assume a more or less independent eouxsa in
the different counter subjects and interludes. Indeed, even the subject itself does
not always remain unaltered.
In a eawm the case is different Here, also, one part commences first, and
others follow in succession ; but, instead of merely taking up a short subject pro-
posed by the first, each part imitates the preceding one, note for note, from the
begimiing to the end. According to the number of parts, this is termed a
Canon, in ttco, three, four, or more parts.
• &»e Appendiz JEL
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TBI POLTPHONIO VORHS. 289
When the melody of the fint part is iniitat<>d by the other or others, in the
same octave, and upon the same degree of the scale, the canon b termed a
Canon in the Unkon ;
when the iuiiUilion takes place in the «xtavc above or below, it is termed a
Canon in the Oeiaee;
and, aeoording to the interval in which the firrt part is imitated, we may form, upon
either of the intervals, from the weeond to the smwnM, a
Canon in the second, tJtird, Ac. dee.
or, fimdiy, in a canon of many parts, the successive entries of the subject may take
place in various intervals ; this is termed a
Mixed Canon.
All canons of this kind are termed
Proper Canons,
if composed according to the laws of double or triple counterpoint, antl tiieir
(litlt rent parts are capable of inversion. When tliis is not the case, tiie canon is
called
Canonical Jmiiaiion,
or mere imitation.
By way of iUustratioQ, vra give a few commencements of canons; the fifftfaer
devdqpinent of which may be eaiUy conceived.
S48
At A, by obsernng
^^F^f T IT trf T
the two fint parts, we see a canon in the unison ; the third
part enters with an imitation in the octave. At jB, we have a two-part canon m the
fturtfa below; if we invert the parts, it becomes a canon in the fifth above.
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240 THS POLTPHOiriO P0BH8.
At 'C (Ex. 348), appears tlie oommenceinent nt a mixed canon, one of the parts
imitating in the fourth below, and another in the ninth below. By placing the
second part uppermost (a), or by making the first part the loweit and the third die
highest, as here at (6),
S60
1 n
I
r
we obtnn canonic imitationa in the fifth above and ninth bdow, or in die fiffli and
aeventh above. Other inTernona are left to the atudent's reseanfa.
When B canon has been competed in strict aeoordanoe with the ndea of this
form, ao that one part ia an accurate imitation of the olher, it la called a

Sitriek Cmnm t
but when the imitation is not exact, it is termed a
Free Cawm**
Aeooiding to the original plan of conalruclion, there can be no rimultaneoiv

doaeof the dilferent parte ; but one must terminate 8fl»r the other in the came order
at at thdr commencement Aa, however, it generally cooilati with the design cf a
muaioal compooition that ahouU dooe in a definite and eno^getie manna, it ii
it
euitoaiary either to end the canon bj atopping the progrearion of all the parte at a
certain point» or by adding a short coda which leada to a general doae, in which no
fiffther imitation takea place. Thua, at the end of the canon, in No. 848, a doie
may l»t' uddod ; but then the imitation of the first j»art by the 8tHv»nd would only
be carried us tiir ius a, while tlie third could imitate it (nil) a t i a h.
As the different parts of a canon havo ah the same Kid ily, although upon
difll-rciit degret's of tlie scale, one |
ai t alone is sometimes written witli a super-
scription, stating Uic number of pia is; and tht- intervals ui which ihey are to follow.
• One kiud of dcvintion must iifii s«arily tnkn pl;ui' in all sjxcit s of canon-;, cxeoptui^
those iu uniduu ur otUtw. Am uU iimtatiuiib aiuctt be maile iu the siuuu key, it is obvious that
nwjor intamls must fteqiieittiy be chutgod into minor, snd minor intomds into msjor.
Thns, an No. 348) 0^ the oommenoemant of tho flxat psrt shows a snooessioa of these three
inttrvils: flnt) two eenutones, and then a whole tone but in the imitatiiig second part, the;
two !iomitono» were changed into whoic tonott, and, in the third part, the first semitone into t
whole tooe, and the whole (one into a aeiuitouc.
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I
THE POLTPHOmO FOBMB. 241
The points at which each succeeding part is to enter is then marked with a
sign (O over the notes. Thus the canon, in No. 348, might have been noted in
i}m manner :
Cmoii 3 in 1 in the/oiirtA and mnth bdow.

? 4 &c.
i52 t
In fimncr tunes, sdiclafltic oontrapuntiBtB frequently amused tiiemselTeB by

wiiting eanons in this manner, bat without indicating the number of parts, or the
intervab and entries of the iniitationa, somelanes with the addition of amlnguouB
de6, Ac. &c and under the name of
Em^matieal OanonSt
propc«ing them as problems to be solved by the ingenuity of those amongst their
learned oontemporaries, who, like themselves, had nothing better to do.

In conclusion, let us menUon a peculiar kind of canon, viz. the
Cirrnlar Canon.
This name is given to a canon, the first part of which modulates into aiid closes
m a key (generally that of the dominant) differing from that in which it com-
menced ; so that, for instance, it ends in the key of G, after having commenced in
the key of C. Now, as this lias to be imitated in every 8UCcei.Mling part, it follows
that each imitiition upon a different degree of the scale must lea*! into a new key.
For instance, if the first jtart, commencing in the key of 6', ends in the key of (r,
the second part, conunencing in the key of G, will close in that of D : and the
third again in the key of .1, kc. Thus a canon of this kind, if not arbitrarily
broken off, will run through all the different major or minor keys. Here
A
163
«a see the commencement of such a canon. The iiiBt part starts in C mujor, and
modnlales into G major ; the second commences in G major (imitation m the fifth),
aad modnlalei into D miyor ; the third part commences again in the last keyi *nd
modulates into A na^, Heanwiute, the fint part has perfinrmed the whole of its
mdody, and would now have to oommenoe again in the next bar, as a new part,
in the key of A major, and thence proceed to miyar, and so on. E

Ibis ibrm of composition has been employed with adnuraUe beauty and e0eet
in the ChriMU tfmon of Seb. Bach*8 mass in A mijor.
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242 UOMOPHONK AND MIXKD FOBM&
SECTION THE FOURTH.
HOHOPHONB AND MDUED FORMS.
Thk fint dais of these ibniiB w genersUy quite dkttnct fiom polyphooic oompo-
sition ; we ndîA, therefore, in the fifst pbce connder the pure homophonic fbnn.
But as it would ^gage our afttentioa veiy brieBy on its own account, and nuiy be
united with polyphonic composition, we will treat it in oonnexicn with the mixol
forms.
Here the Mowing classes present Ihemsdves.
1. The Am Cor Song Form).

Under tins title are COmiMreh^d«d all compositions having only one pnnei/>al
mbjert, which appears either as a compu te section, or as a })eriod (with a tliesis
and antitlus: K r as a period, consisting of two strains mutually connected ; or of
a first, second, and third strain, the latter being generally a re]>etition of the first.
Even two, or indeed three, such forms may be united in the composition of an Mr;
but then they appear without any closer connexion or mutual relat'u^n, merely ai
twice two, or twice three strains; the two intermediate strains being termed a
Trio;
and the succeeding strains are called a second trio, which is considered as a men
supplementary composition. Such trios are, for the salce of variety, generally set
in a difi^vnt key or mode ; and then, if in the minor mode of the same degree,
are termed
Minore ;
when in the major mode of the same degree,
Magffiore.
After tli(.s»', tin- principal subject is rejKJated in the original ki-y (luui then, if
the Trio Were* in the minor, the term Mof/awri is agaiji employed, and vice* versa),
and thus, a supcrfu ial unity, at Uast, is uUuinpted.

According to this lurni, all Airs, Songs, Dances, Marches, many Studit-?, Intro-
ductions, &c. are written. In c nnt-xion witli tJie preceding forms, tliere is one
requiring special attention* ; viz.
Variation ,
or, more strictly sjiealdng, an
Air tcith \ ariutioits.
To this furm belong also those aucieuL dtuKcii w IjilIi -r l lind in tiio works of Gliick,
Hukdd, Baeh» and others; the CtoTOtte, PassocagHo, Couraatc, Ssnbande^ Bouiria^ GigiMi
Maaetta^ Faasapaed, Ae. ; aa alao the Spaaiah Fandanfo.
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HOMOPHONE AN1> MIXED FO&M8. 243
A vanatiQii is merely the traiulbnnaftioii of a melody by means of melodic,

haimooic, oontrapimtal, and rhytlumc changes. The subject ehosen is termed the
it is usually Beraral times varied in distmct Ibims, and the Tariations, cdlectivdy
with the. theme, constitute the piece ; which concludes, either with a return to the
theme, with a m<tte extended and richly devdoped Tariation, or with a coda. Ooca-
aionaily, the different yariations ate combined by an intermediate passage j but in
general each has its own close, and the connexion of the whole rests only upon the
unity of the theme, or the preruling humour or ftncy of the composer.
Variations upon a'theme do not consist merely in the peculiarity of the pn^rres-
skmôf the parts, Ac; they also assume special forms ; viz. of a March or Dance,
Fugue, Rondo (of which, hereafter), and others. To every student it will prove a
valuable exercise to examine strictly a number of variations, and, as far as possible,
aioertatn how, and from whidi source, each single variation of the theme has been
produced.
^
I. Tui: Rondo Form.
The peculiarity of this form consists in its having one principal subject, ^th
whidi it proceeds, in connexion with others, and to which it finally returns. Such
a prihdpal subject may consist of a stn^fe period, or it may contain two 9train». In •
the latter case, the whole or part of the first strain is generally repeated after the
second; so that the subject may be considered as containing three strains. Five
dtstinet forms of the rondo may be enumerated.
The Jtrtt is so constructed, that, after the principal subject, follows a passage of
some length, or a long succession of short phrases, whidi generally pass throu^
several keys, but lead, finally, into the original key, when the whole condudes,
ather with the jwindpal a eoda derived from it, or the passage
subject, or probably
previously inlzoduced. We may meet with a case in which this finm, scantily
'
devdoped, assumes great similarity to an extended treatment of the air or song

form* Mostly, however, the prindpal subject of the rondo is, by its greater import-
ance and dedded dose, su£Bdently distinguished from the first stram dT an air or
song, to prevent the one being mistaken fi>r the other.
The second rondo form has, beddes the prindpal subject,
a eeeond theme or
epiaodet either an undivided period, or consisting of ficv or three strains, in the
key
of the tubdoimnani, dominant, the parallel iey, in the minor mode (Minore) of the
original key, or ^
the principal subject be minor) in the mafor mode (Maîore).
The distinction between this and the air or vaag form vrith a trio, consists, however,
in the second theme or episode appearing not as an independent and detached part,
but in connexion with tiie first From the first subject a passage or series of phrases
leads t6 the second ; and again from this a passage or chain of phrases leads bade to
tiie first, vrith which, or a coda derived from the subject, the episode, or the passi^,
the whole concludes.
The third rondo form has, beudes tlie prindpal subject, ttco epkoiks ; the one in
the mode of the principal sin jit, usually in tlie key of the suidomimnt ; the other
generally in the parallel key. From the prindpal key, a passage (or series of phrases)
R2
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244 nOUOPUUNE AND MIXED FORMS.
iisuaQy kadt to the 6nt qnaode, thence retumhig to the pfindpal nibleet, wludi ii
repeated, and fubeequeiidj proceeding in a similar manner to the aeoond episode,
from which, returning to the principal subject, the whc4e condudes either with that or
a coda.
The ybwrfA rondb form includes the principal subject and the fni epitode in one
mutually dependent mass. After the first episode, it returns (as in the preceding
inmis) to the principal subject, and thence proceeds to the second episode. After thb,
however, the fixrt subject is repeated, not merdy by itself, but in connexion with the
first episode. This, which appeared in the first place in the key of the dominaM (or, if
the rondo be in the minor, in the parallel key), now enters with the principal subject
in the original key. In this ibrm, the first episode is but lightly sustained, on aocoont
of ita merely following in the tvain of the principal sulject ; the second ejMode, how-
oyer, requires a more impressive and sldlfiil derelopment, as a counterpoise to the
united effect of the two first subjects.
The ffUt rondo form has this distinguishing feature, that the prindpal sultjcct
not repealed after tiie first episode, aa m the two preceding fixms ; instead of thisv a
new and, in general, richly developed
Fiwd Sutyett
is*intr(xluced, to serve iis the doso tlie connettetl inai<s of tlie ]iriiici{iul ?ul>itTt an l
first t pl>(Hio. By tliis arrangi?miiit the whole is diviiled inti> three weU-Jetiiinl
iiias^ : the priiirii'iil sulijert, with tlie iirst epi^^'Mle m\>\ final suhjtxt. —thf second
€pi8<Kl«», —and again, the jiriiuinai subject, with the first ej isinie and tiiuU guhji-et.
The ahovf exj»lanati'>ns will be miflicient to enahte the student, by the aid ut at-
tentive ohser^'ation, to rccugiii»c these Inrms in a ennipHsilion ; many slijrht

althi-tijjh
deviations o< Lur (especially in tlie raoduiation, rcpetiticm of the subjecta, icj which
cannot here be treated more fully*.
3. The Sonata Form.
We are aware that certain instrumental compositions, consisting of various distmct

parts or movements ibr one or more instruments, are called «Softato«;~to these we
shall hereafter refer. Under the above term, however, we do not signify those com-
positions, but a distinct formula, for which we know no other name.
The sonata fitrm is distinguished firom the higher, and especially the fftk rondo
form, in the exclusion of the second Episode ; consequently, it contains in the fifst
strain only the principal subject, episode, and final sulject; and in the aeoond, their
repetition in the ori^nal key. Undw these limitaUons, tiie composition is distinguished
as the
Sonatina Formt
in which, also, the individual strains of a composition are of a simple character.
Moreover, in the sonatina form, as in that of the s]x>cial sonata, instead of a siil >ieet in
the form of an air or jKjriiHl (or simple phrase), which may serve as the subjed or
episo<le in the rondo form, figurative plut»es, fiigal developments, two, and even more
distinct subjects (or periods) as so many themes, which merely, through the unity of
• 800 Apprndix C.
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BOUOPHONB AND MIXED P0RH8.
Uiu key (sonietiiiKs not even that, but merely a relation to tlie key), are < ollrctively
sustained as the pruicipal subject or episode : th^ may be conveniently classed ujidcr
the nauicii of
Pruicipal and Su/j(/niir)aie Subjects.
The soiuUa form agrees herein with the sonatina form, that it ulsu cuusists uj'two
distinct masses, hut is distintûishci by having between both, anothor mass lonniug a
bet juJ part, which agaui, us in Liie tiitii rondo tbrin, holds a middle place between the
others.
The first strain begins either inniit-diatcly with the jiriiieijial subject, ui uii iutiv*-
ductory passage indicating it, and then inuncdialeiy iullows (in major keys, in the
dominant — in minor, in the parallel key) the episode ; or a passage is fonned fmm the
principal subject, which leads, in a major key, to the dominant keif — in the minor, to
the parallel key. With this the first strain immediately "closes, or, perhaps, instead of,
or atler tliis, a repetition cf the first str^. Thus the first strain has displayed tlie
two subjects ; the fint in the original key, and the second in the nearest related key ;
and here it depends upon the dedsicMi of the composer wbethw the fint stnun is, or is
not to be repeated.
The $econd ttram unites immediately with the first, or starts afiresh. It begins
with aleaduog passage, or an indication of the principal subject, or an entirely new and
dMit incidental subjeet Hence it leads to 1^ epiiodB or principal subject, tlien,by
means of a aeoond pasi>age, to the other aubject not yet repeated, or without fiurther
extendm, to the dominant of the original key. In this strain, ihe subjects themselves
appear in new, generaUy rdotive keys ; the passages indude theae and more distant
keys; tlia whole second part abowaa more varied and richly developed moduhlionthan
otfa^ the fint or the tiiijd. Without being repeated, and in moat caaea without a
decided doae, it ia immediately followed by the ikWd part. This part intioduees the
principal aubject once more, it then repeats the episode (either immediately, or pre-
ceded by a coonectmg paasage) in the principal key, as also the Mowing passage and
final subjeet This terminates the whole movement, unless a special coda Q haîs >. i
based upon motivos firom the principal aubject) be added, to give greater effect to
the ckise.
The terminatioii of the first part is indicated either by the repeat or double bar.
Ihe seoond and third parts are not generally separated, but are written as eonatituting
ene strain. Sometimea both are repeated, in which caae a special coda is added to
dose the whole movement
Deviations fiom the ordinary phm of eonstruction, especially aa regarda the selee-
tion and aueoesuon of the keys, are of fiiequoit oocurrenee ; but we must resme the
notue of these for the School of Composition*.
The above are the moat important artistic forms; all others occurring m the dif-
facnt kinds of instrumental anil vocal composition, are either baaed upon, or derived
from timn'f.
* See Appendix I>.
t A poculiar mixtiure ot thu ruuiiu and âguatu funus la udvurtcd to iu liic Appt-uduL D.
.246 TU£ i^PiuClAL FOEMS OF INHTECMENTAL MUSIC
SECTION THE FIFTH.
THE SPECIAL FORMS OF ZNSTRITIIXKTAL MUSIC
Instrfmental coni|v»sltion8 differ, firstly, according to the instruments ftr
wliich they lure intended. Thus we have compositioRB for a sin^^ instrument, «
solos f«)r the organ, juunutorto, violin, Sic. ; for two or more single instruments, as
duetts, trioiJ, quartftts, quiiit*lts, si-stotts, se|)tetts, octetts, &c. and formasBe* of in-
Btnunents (orchestra) already cxplaiiK-<i (p. 123),
Begides this di-^tindior!. all ( ompositicaw for one or more instruments assume cer-
tain artistic forms, ol which, with the exception of those already described, we will
now point out the most important*.

«
1. The Sonata.
Tlie SoiiaUi Is ;i composition f»r n^"\" instrument Cs^niotinirs ; loc* »in pan ud \>y viie
or two oUiers), consisting usually ol" three or four distinct pieces, which are termed
Tiic //r.*< ttiuCi-tii' iii , sometimes prectMh-^l I v an ii/trn lnnimi, is generally vvriika
in the sonata funn, aiid lL\es the principal key ot tiie whole cornpositiou. It is gene-
rally a (jujck nioveineiit (allegro, »tc.).
Tlie xm>«</ mom/ieiif is slower and sliorter ((ulnj 'oi. Vr, m uatunes
t/n ff'>,&.c.); it has j,vnerally the form of the sltort*«r rund i, althn \ iatt:^! sonata, or
theme with variation?;. This movement is in a ilitierent key, which may le the
dominant. subdoTninant. rdativc major or minor, kc.
Tlu: wlu'le cwiiclaUes with a f/i!ni //jonmrfif, sometimes s|HHially disthiguishcd by
tlie ii-rm fimh'. Tliis, again, is petieruUy aiianged in the sonata form, or one • Mli-
greater rondo f)rms ; or somt times as a fugue, or theme with variations. It is in
the prin. ij iil key fsumetinhs in the luajor, when the key of Uie tirst movement is
miiJur) and ils movement is lively {t'lliyro, jtrrxtn, &c.).
In sonatas of u higher elites, we meet \\\\\'. an inlennediatc movement before or
alter the second movement, which is lenu d the

Minuet, or Scltrrzo,
and has the form either of a song with four or six strains (/. r. with a trio and repe-
tition of the first piu-t), or a simple rondo. Sometimes there is alau itnothcr move-
ment, af in BeeUioven's wcU-known Stptuor, Op. 25, a Minuet and Scherzo ;

An-
• We omit thr nuitr, a form wliich still t xi^!" in the works of Bach and Uundc! ; nrrl the
mure uiuUcra dtrtt inmnto (diverusi>cmcat), Lotii of which coii.'»i>t mt rely of a eeriec oi tiitforcot
moTencnts, coQucfted according to the five choiec of the a iut(H>£i'r . al^ the po^tomri, in wkidi
original and bf^rroved sulijcetii arc arbitnirily^ combined.
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THE SPfiCIAL FO&MS OF INtrr&UMENTAI« MUSIC 247
dante andrasaBl&aoB, Sometimes/ on the contrary, a sonata has only two move-
ments, as Beethoven's Op. Ill, or only on adiô, miniietj and finale, and similar
Tsrietiea.
The sonata fimsi is also predominant in all duetts, trios, ûartctts, and other com-
pomtiofiB for several sdo instruments ; but it is then, or ought to be, more rieh and
polyphonic, On account of the increased power and variety of resources oSSexed by the
combination of several instrumentft.
A sonata of scientific construction and considerable extent, generally contiuning
not less than ibur instruments, is termed a
(rrand Sonata.
A shorter composition of this kind, with only two, or, at most, tlirco movements,
the contents and tonnul developments of which are of a lighter and less hnporuuiL
character, is designated by llic naine uf

Sonatina.
To this form belongs obo the
Ndttumo,
a sonata ftr different initniments, of a soft and pleasing character, such as we reoog-
nise in serenades and othor kinds of evening music.
2. TlOS OVXBTUBB*,
sometimes called si»/onia by the Italians, is an orchestral composition consi<;tinr^ of

one movement, sometimes \vith an introduction, and a short episode in the middle of
the movement. Its form is that of the sonata, or sonatina ; sometimes that of the
fugue, rmrely of the rondo, or theme with variations. It is usually mtended to open
(hence its name) or prepare for the commencement of an important artistic perfonn-
anoe, as a play, an opera, an oratoiio, or a concert, &c &c
3. Th£ Symphony
k a composition hi the sonata form, intended Inr an orchestra; but, on account of the
great resources of the orchestra, the symphony ii* generally of greater lengtli than the
^r linar , . aiata, usually eontaininij an introduction, allegro, andante, scherzo, and
hi,d,L, .ill its movements Itoing likowise more fully and richly developed, and the
Tai ioua subjects introduced and worked out in broader niasiscs, and with morestiiking
effect.
For tliis reason, t; >

leanier is advised to commence his study of the sonata lurm
with the exainhiuti'*i. < l symphonies (ur overtures), for which the numerous piano-
forte arrangements give sutiicient liicility, should he be unable to avail himself of tlie
icore. In these, the characteristic features of the sonata form appear more distinctly
than in the sonata itself, in which the subjects, their amplifications and continuations,
are fiûcntly so closely interwoven, that their distinction becomes a matter of difli-
culty to the inexperienced eye. The same is also tlie case with most of J, Haydn's
.symphonies.
* Overtures before the Becond or subaequent acta of a dzama an termed mtrâetM : Beet-
boven's ovettura and tntr'acUt to^jfmontf and bia overtnie to an justly peeminent
(brielattf
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248 TU£ Sl>£GiAL FOaMS Of INBTKUMENTAL MUtUC.
4. Tbb Concerto.
This name, in modem times, is applied to compoatioDft in leTcral partii m wludi
either oae
. PrincijHil Imtmnient,
or aennl
Coneeriante In&trumeHU,
take the lead, and aie intended to display the and poiren of the perfinner or
skill
peHbrmen, while the rest of the ocehestra, 4faoug|i a more im-

ooeanonaUy assuming
portant diancker, generally sustain 8 subordinate aooompaniment The usual ferm
of these compositions is likewise that of the sonata ; the sdierzo, howcrrer, is geneiafly
omitted. .There are some lAinor pomts in which the oonoerto diSen from the real
sonata; bnt these can only be explained in the School of Oomposition.

A short concerto is called a conoeiimo.
6 Thb Fahtasia.
Tliifi name is aj'i'Hcl tn i nmjKjaitions for one or several solo iMstrumcnts (either witli or
without an accoun»iUumc'nt), or even f *r a w liolo orolRstra, in which various lorms are

combined.* The number, choice, and arrrangi nieiit uf suhjtets, modulations, &c. are
left entirely t«> tlie hvr will and oftoii a!i|iarfntly unre.s trail letl tluiey •»!" tlit- composer.
A fantiusia may (rninience, llir exam])!* , wilh an adagio intrtHiuetion in the form of
an air, tiien jTocec-ii tu an allegro, aflcrwards ;u>sinne the form of a rondo, fugue,
Tariation, kf. xiwA finally dose with a rej.>etitiun <jf the first movement, or a s)'eeial
finale. The modulatjon li> alto<:rtlK'r free; nor its a fmal return to the oripiuil key
absolutely necessary ;
every thing, in short, depends u}H>n tlie idea and iiwpiraticai of
the compo»er, and, consequently, no general rule is possible.
6. The Cap&iccio, Toccata, and Etuds (tStudt/)
are the last instrumental ftrms whidi we have to notice. They are pieces anangsd
sometimes in the unconstrained manner of a ftntasia, and intoaded either to develop
a peculiar (often whimsical) idea, to affi»rd opportunities ibr a brilliant perftnnanoe,
or lor the practice of a special musical figure or oombinalion.
• ThuB Beethoven hue « ritlen ft fioitsds (Op. 80) ftr piflDofiwto and orchettts, widi tiie
sdditioD of Toool mcAo% and chorus.
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THE SPECIAL FO&MS OF VOOAI. MUSIC 249
SECTION THE SIXTH.
THE SPECIAL FOIUIS OF VOCAL MUBIC.
VooAii mtiaic prannta itie1f» fintly, in two ibnns : viz.
Pure Vocal Music (voices uiiaccouipaiiicdj,

and
Aeeampanied
by one or a few inftnimenti, or by an' orcheftn. It is fiurtfaer distinguiilied as
Sob Sinffing^
wben it eonsiite dlto of a single part to be executed by a single voioe, or of tereral
paiti, each of which is also intended ftr one performer only ; or as
Ckonu Singing,
in which each part is suslamed by Beveral Toices.
FiMuig by those fimns which an lo well known as not to require expkmalion

(e. ^.the song, ballad, ftc), we notice the following:
1. Thb BxoiTATnrx.
A recitative is a vocal composition for one, or sometimes for wwnX voices, which
has neither the form of a decided and strictly constructed melody, nor a definite rhyth-
mical arrangement; but accommodates both its tonal suooessiQa and rhytlmi to the
difclamatory accents of langua^: in short, a recitîtiv*- h n speech or declamation in

which definite degrees of sound are distinguished. For this reason, also, recitatives
are not iêrt'ormed in any strict species of time, althou^ they are generally noted in
cwnmon time, in order to facilitate tlie reading.
For a short time, in the middle or towards the end, a recitative may awnimft the
more decided Ibrm of a melody or song, when it is termed an
Arioto,
and performed in strict time.
When a recitative is accompanied by a few simple chords only, it is called

rmtatiro srecp, or jiarlaiite (declaimed recitative) ; but when the accompaniment is
of am ire iiiip>rtaiil eliaraeter, it is termed accompaffnata, gtrumentato, or oblipaio.
Lastly ; when part of a recitative is to be perfonned iu strict time, this is indicated

by the words rec. a tempo,
2. The A&ia.
The Aria» or air, is an accompanied melody Ibr a solo vmoe, intended to expreas
a certun state of mind, a aeriea of aetiaationa, or a peculiar aituation of the singer.
It is uaually compoaed in the leaaer rondo or aonata fbim, with the second part
ibortcoed «r omitted.
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260 Till SP£C1AL FO&Ha OF VOCAL MUSIC.
In grand arias, different fbnm are ometimeB combined ;

they frequently coin-
menoe with an introduction in the ferm of a song, asmiming afterwaida the (arm tilt a
rondo, and then, instead of repeating Die |»rinci|)al subject, dose «dtfa the ei^KisttioD
of a new subject in the sonata ibrm.

When a redtatiTe and aria are so connected as to form one whole, they oonstttats
what is termed a
Sctna, or Scene*
On the other hand, a short and less significant wr, in which feelings uf a lighter or
softer character are intended to be expressed, is termed an
Arietta,
or a
Caeatina.
In the form of an aria are composed almost all duetts, teruttof, qne peeme
(Germ. BaUaden), set to music throughout, as well as the eantaia /dt a em^le wke,
which latter u only a scene carried through a sKies of different utuations or aeoaa*
tkns.
3. Thi Chorus
fiigue, &e. in some cases
assumes a variety of forms, as that of a song, rondo, sonata,
aiqpearing in one of them a combination of semaL
only, in others showing It is
fifcquently interspersed with solos (or one or serend sin^ Toioes, dther ado and
chorus proceedmg together (chorus with solo), or the so^ aBSuming a more inde-
pendent and important character (aria with chorus), when the chorus stsdf merely
serves as a contrasting background. All these modifications are easily understood.
One fi>rm, howevor, requires a spedsl ^planation ; viz. that of the
Moteito (Moti't).
Tills a|ijicllatiiiu is givt-ii to two s]nH-ii-s oi' c-iniH/sitiuu. It sipiifu ?, firstly, a
Rafml cantata, consbtinc^ nf several inir"H/n rf,;/ nuivununts (><>]<>, trie, cliuriis. fupu',
^.). Sot 'indly, it is apjirK-d to a (li'Tal cnijutsitii-n. alsi> poni rally i f a saiml «.lia-
ra^'ter, in which, al\cr an introduction in the- ti'nn ot a song or ligurutiuu, two, tliree,
ibur, or nioro Input' snhio( ts arc sonictinics intriKluctH.1, ^vith their successive exposi-
tions, and the wliole tcrniinatt-s cithtr with the ex|»osition of Uic last sutji;<.t, a rtpetition
of thv introduction, era special linal subject. The diiVcrence Itetw* en this form an<l that
of the fuûe wth two i>r more subjects, does not consist in the intrudui t-try and lajul
movement they may occur in a fugue also, and he omitted in a motet), but in
(li>r
this — ^that the subjects of the motetto are introduani and exposed one after the other,
and never ap[>ear simultaneously, as in tlie double or triple fugue. A peculiar spe-
cies of the moteito is tlie fugucd chorale, mentioned at p. 238.
4. The Cantata*
is a greater kind of vocal composition, consutmg of a connected series of recitatives,
aiis, choruses, Ac. in which difierent sensations, situations, and events are depcted.
* The name Sjfmphony'mntata has bccu given by some of the modem comp(McrB g.
MendainaliA Birtholdy end F^cisn Darid) to oompoaitioiit in which the instarumental put ii
more than uaually developed, and aaaiunea, as it were, equal importance with the vecal pail
Thia daviatian from the oiatonaiy, and, let ns add, the most natuial, aimgsount, was inlio-
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t
' THB SPBOIAL VORMB OF YOCAL MUSIC. 261
5^metinu's in a lyric, sometimes in a dramatic style, but not intended for a real dra-
matic pertbnnanoe.
6. Thb Finalb
ii u compv^sitioii intended to form the clusc of an act in an opera. Tt consists of
various vtxal and instrumental movements or strains, sometimes in tiie foin^ nt" solos,
sonirtimes as ehonises. All tliese are introduced, connected, and carried out ^vith
tilt' same freedom a-s in a t'antt^sia; and it is therefore impossible to give specific rules
lur tlic construction of this form of comjiositi'm.
Finally, we will mention, as a form of purely practical importance, the
Solfrpqia*,
t. a mdody without words, intended for the exerdse of the voice.
mere caprice. Mendelswlm, hotrerer, proHaasedly imitated

tibeeombinstioM of flnbcttn and duiniMS in Beetiumran'a Nimth Sf/ng^ton^f without any in-
ternal necessity, or depth of artistic conoeptiGm, each as indooed and jnitified hit great pvede-
oessor's deviation from the usual form.
• The word is derived from tlio ??yllfihlo<? t^f, fn. Sec. wh'u-h wore formerly employe*! as the
names of the different sounds (p. 10), and which are «till u<ri\ in vocal exercises, with a view
to improve the pronunciation simultaneoualy with the cultivation of the voice.
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252 HV81C IN COMMEZIOH WITH OTBXB PBOPUOnOllS.
MCSIO IN CONNKXIOV WITH OTHER FBODUCTIONS.
If the student hw made himflelf wdl aoquamted with the cfaarocteriitie ftafcuRt
of the difil^reiit muncal fonni of art, he will not find it difficult to oomprehend the
TBrious ways in which miuic may unite itaelf with other {nroducttoni, and the ftnni
it then employs. We can only j^ve a brief explanation of the moat important cf
these combbationa.
Husae unites ttselil firstly, with pubKe wankyf. Here it iqppeais in the fam of
Tocai music in the ekoraUt psalm^tuue and fymn, and different parte of the liturgy
(mostly as redtatiTe, as the chant, &c.), and in the £«m of instrumental music in
the diffooit organ perftrmanoes, as prdudes, voluntaries, &c
Of the more extended forms of sacred compositions are the
A nthem*y
which coQsiBts geiit^raliy of a chorus, vviUi ur without soioe ; and the
Sacred Cuntata,
which condsta of seferal chorus and solo movements. In the Roman Catholic Chuich,
music fiurms a promineiit part in the
Matt,
the S^gmem (mass 6r the dead), OradiuUt, and dher of its rituals. The
Oratorit/f
is also generally classed amongst sacred music ; and tliis classification is right, firstly,
inasmuch as the oratorio was originallif intended for, and ]>erfonned as, a part of the
church service, or as an arUstic stimulus to devotion ; mid, secondly, became iti
poetical portion (the text) was for a long time eselutiee^, and is still ênenlfy, of a
leligioua diaracter, being mtended to ejq^ress a series of religious feelings, or nariate
and illustrate events in the histoiy of rdijôn iriudi are, ftr the graatest part, taken
firom the Scriptures. The differmt subjects were introduced m a fi»rm partly epk
(the naitation being delivered in recitative) and partly diamatie, in redtalhres, ansa,
* In tlio origiual, hytnne —a term which the Gummiitt up|>Iy to a epecieti uf u>m|KMiitiuu coz*
nepoodiiig with the Eii|;1tth tmthm,~^1%$ Hmmlttor.
t The crown of thtrt-al church>oratorio is Scb. Bach'sPamofi MutiCf which waa, at tlie
tiiae of its oompoution, pcrftmned dnxhig tlie eeiviee^ the oongrrgation joialng in the dionleik
Thk kind of omtorio origsDated in the old custom, on hi|[^ Ibctivele (#. Good nide>y),«f
having the gospelB of the day repeated bj different persons in a recitative and ecmi -dramatic
stylo {i.e. without r« al !U'tk)n). Thf> other kind nf oritorin aro»o from the saercd dramatic por-
fomumuca unconnected with the church, in which God, Christ, and certain scriptural charactcis
irare penonified, and thoae dovotiooal exeroiaet or entertainmenta which took place in the «r«*
U fium fontoiy) of the eonventi.
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MUSIC IN CONNEXION ^VITH OTHER PRODUCTIONS. 253
choruses, Ae. mtsxtpened with a ptirdy Ijric riyle in the different shrs* Ac. But the
original contents and form of tiie oratorio, if not altogether luuniitsble to our times,
can, at least, be no longer considered as binding ; sinoe, fiir more tiian a century, the
oiatorio has ceased to fi»m a part of the church service, and the interrsl is nearly as
kmg since its subjects were exdusively taken from Scripture histoiy. It could, more-
over, no longer remain unpereeiTed that a real epos —an historicsl nairalionp—is
neither suitable to the nature and capabilities of music, nor amiable of artistic treat-
ment ; and that the mixture of epic and dramatic elementi-ênts and persons
being sometimes spckea of as long past, and sometimes represented as occurring or
acting and qieaking in the present^HMmld only be accepted as satis&ctoiy, when art
was in its inftncy, or, at least, some of its highest ideas were still undeveloped*.
Upon the awakening of this clearer perception, the oratorio necessarily assumed anew
character, gradually emancipating itself from the forms and limitations of the churchy
and thus sfiproadiing nearer to the purely dramatic finm, without, of course, being
intended for scenic representstion.
Music unites itself to the dnma with scenic representation in a much greater
variety of ways. In this dass appears
1. Th£ Ballet,
which, we are avrare, consists of dancing combined with pantomime. Ihe music, of
which the greater part is ezdusivdy instrumental, has to accompany and support the
action, for which purpose it employs a number of diiierent forms, as frntasias, Rnales,
&C. besides the real dance forms. All these are chosen and connected with eadi
otiier, not according to a fixed rule, but the judgment or caprice of the composer.
Successive series of such forms are ^nuped into scene$ or complete a^«, wh(>§e unify
and oomiNdon depends upon the modulation, a judicious repeUti<m of previous pas-
sages or strains, and the prevailuig idea of the action and music.
2. The Melodrame.
Here instrumental music appears in the form of an accompaniment to, or occa-
sional interruption of, the declamation and action which it is intended to illustrate.
• Frnm thf mannpr iti whirh we harp onrsplvps, it is apparctit that we do ttot
eTprf)'««(Hl
intend to detract from the merit of those masters who wrote during those tiiut-s. rrrcminont
amongst all thcMO men stands Hatukly whose creations, now so full of majesty and power, and
gftia sofiiU of tendeniew and fervent love, wiU lemain an ererlaatiiigmoDiuaent of tiiegreat-
naai of Oerman art. Bat so far as regnrds the (</«a of the oratorio, and the toon, dependait oa
that idea, even he was as little able to raise himself ahovo lua timaa aa he waa Ilk fho open,
whirh Ohteh first dclirered from its Italian trammn!?'.
But same degree that it would be unjust to measure tlic merits of the old masters by
in the
the standard of modem times, vould it be nnfiur to judge modem composers by aaoieat models,
ai haa been done bjr eome who hsve objeeted to the autiun'a oratorio, Jfta^ Tweaiue not written
in the chureh style. It neither was nor could be intended for the church its plan nn<l on- : (
itruction wa? that of a dranui, thf first instance of a purely dramatic form being applie d to the
oratfirio. That a ac<'nic rrjin sfiitition, however, could not ho thotiphtof, wasoMHouf? from the
fact that the oratorio had to deal with gubjn.t.i ;uul piirsoiis {t. g. tlio voice of Gtxl) which iio
beyond the aphere of any other than a purely spiritual, poetic, or musical lepceaentation. The
Mme neeeaaaty ofa dramatic, hot not aoenie repreaentation, haa called into eyiatanee Ooetiuâ
Aart, and Byron'a 0mm.
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254 mnc in connxzion with othir PBODVcraom.
and to make more generally effective and impressive. In a melodrame, music is
altogether subordinate to the declamation and action ; it has to paint in soft and
slight touches, and only occasionally to assume a more decided character. Hence it
moves, during the notion, mostly in light passages and series of harmonies, intro-
ducing only now and then a short phrase or pcrifxi, and still more rarely, where the
action expressly demands it, a definite artistic Sorm, w a dance or maich.
Cloeely allied to the melodrame, is
3. Tos D&AUA WITH Mcrsio,
io which miinc i^pean in a variety of fonng, and for many different purposes.
The most common cose is f r tlic ]

'>i t to intnxluoe occasional musical poionn-
ances, as marches, songs, iestiTal and convivial music ;
pastoral, militaiy, or sacred
choruses, kc. as tlu v occur in real life. When tliese musical perfimnanoes are less
incidental in their character, but form part of the plan of the drama» espedaliy when
It is the intention of the ]>oet to introduce popular airs, or vocal pieces composed io a
popular atyle, the drama is called a
* of whicfa the German Itiedertpiel is an imitation. In both, the musie is to be per-

Ibnned as we hear it, or may at least ima^ne we hear it, in eveiy-day life*
IVom this point, music rises to the rank of a real artistic dement of the drama in
4. Tub OrnaA;
wherein, as we know, the language of music, the som;, supjiês the j-lace of sj^' kcu
deehunation or conversatiuu ;
just as, in the higher drama, the [irosc lujiguage of
ordiniu^ Ufe becomes poetry ; and, in tlie pantomime, gesture or mut*i atiiun is
substituted for speech.

The opera is cither set to music throughout, or intermixed with dialogue. In
either case, we dibtinguish the following species
1. The Grand Opera,
of a grave cliaracter and mostly aet to munc diroughout;
2. The Rtnnantie Ojm-a,
m which grave and serene, ine!ancb'>ly and jivyfûs incidents are intermixed, as \v.
the romantic drama of Germany and Kugluud, and which is generally interwovtii
with dialogue
3. The Operetta,
or little opera, whose contents are of a light and lively charader
4. The Comic Opera
(oferahffa) ; and divers other mixed species.
• Ballad Opera ?— Jr.
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MUSIC IN CONNEXION WITH OTHER PRODUCTIONS. 255
In the opera, «U ftrms of vocal iiiiMie» rodtatiTei, aixa, duett, oonoerted pieoee,
choniMs, &c. and many fymm of instrumental mune» are employed. Their choiee
and combmati<»i depend altogether upon the will and intention of the poet and
composer.
An mtermediate fi>rm between the opera and epoken drama, u the
/Drama with C/toruseSf
in whidk the dialogue suetained by the principal characterB ie interrupted by chonuea

of a lyrie character; an arrangement which seems opposed to the genius of the
mnriod and dramatic art, as it makes the piindpal and aeting persons speak in the
language of ordinary life, while it raises the language of the subordinate cha-
nKters (the chorus) into the higher region of song.
Hie &rther explanation of all these forms must be reserved for the School of
Oamposition and the Scienoe of Music ; here the contents and construction of each
could only be indicated in general outlines.
In eondusion, let us obsenre, that, In the doctrine of art, all musical ibrms are
generally divided into the following classes
1. TAe voecU/ormtf as
1. Church music, «
2. Dramatie mwan,
3. Chamber music, and
4. Popular and pational music.
It is also customary to dass the oratorio amongst the different species of chuich
music (p. 252), although it is no longer applied to divine worship, and is performed
as frequently in concert rooms Q£ not more so) as in churches. The diorale
abo must be considered as belonging to this dass, althou^ it is, in the very sense of
the word, a popular song. The vocal chamber music comprises all tboee fiirms
whidi cannot be dassed amongst any of the others, and whidi are diiefly intended
to be perftnned in small social or domestk drdes.
S. I%e mUrumenial forma are divided into
1. Concert music
2. Chamber music.
n. Military or martial music.
To the first class belong symphonies, overtures, and special concert pieces to ;
the second—boUni, duetts, quartetts, and other compositions, intended for select drdeo
or private company.
Lastly, let ns observe, that, according to the difference of character supposed to
eiift hitwecTi ecclesiastic, operatic, and chamber music, three difierent styles of
compoaition, via. the
Eeetetiastk, Operaticy and Chamber Sfyle,
have bmi distinguished. AnoUier distinction has ^frequently been mode between a
Free, and a Strki l^yle,
ot which the latter has hvvn represented as partitularly suitaltle, or nocessary for
church music, and said to consist in this, that ail rules of art should be strictly
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258 MUaiO IN COWmZION with OTBIB PR01>17CnONB.
obBerrod by the eompoter, ill fbmiB most caiieliiUy conrtniGted, and potyphooie
fyma (mamffit whkfa tbe iiigU6» in preference to aU othen) more fiequendjr
employed than tbe hmnophoiuc.
On entering more eaneetly and deeply into the nature and puxpoee of the nit»
aE these and eiinilar distinetionB appear, lioweTor, to be in tome degree partial and
erroneous, as well aaJdle and practically uadeia.
In the first place, as regaida the difference between a free and Mnet ttyle of
writing, it appears evident that a rule of art is. or is not, based upon sound princi-
ples ; and that, in the fini case* it oi^^t to be obsen ed strictly ; in the other, not ai
all. If, for instance, it be true, that sequences of fiflhs and octaves produce 8Qine->
times (p. TOn), or, as former theorists hastily concluded, under all circometaneea* •
disagreeable effect ;
fartlier, that certain chords (p. 106) must generally or always
proceed in a sj ecial nianiu r*) ; that suspensiona frequently or always require to be
prepared and resolved, in order to produce an agreeable eifect: then, common
sense would dictate the avoidanoe of such evil consequence in all cases ; unless it
should be maintained that, in music not intended for the church, both the co mposef
and audience are indifferent to the effect produced ;
or, which would be still more
absur>l. that a combination which produces a disagreeable eflfect in one place, might
be tolerable in another ; lo thait» for example, these oonsecutiTe fifths and octaves, or
this progression of chords
would be decidedly offen((ivc in a church, but might, nevertheless, produce a êas-

ing effect when employed in an opera i>r a chamber piece.
From tliis it ap[>ears tliat those dogmatic distinctions of the old school cannot
be accepted as just or binding ;
for, when the matter is thoroughly examined, we
find that they are based merely upon external considerations ; /. e. ujwn tlie ques-
tion, whether certain combinations .found well or not. But lie who has entered
more deeply into the geniujj and purpose of the musical art. knows from his own
experience what lia.s been [iroved a thousand times l)4)th hy proR s'^î-tTial nmsicians
and intelligent amateurs : that it is not the chief purjiose of tliis art to amuse the
ear with pleasing successions mid combinati' iTi'^ of sounds, but to convey to tlie hearer
the sensations and ideas that arise luid gradually develop themselv^ in the mind
of the composer. In tiiis higher point of view, we no longer inquire whether this or
tliat combination or progressirm is pleasant or disagreeable to the ear, but what
intenial emotiou it reveals and depicts. This brin^ us to the second point of the
question.
If the distinction between the ecclesiastic, ojieratic, and chamber styles, is not to
be altogether futile ; *. e. if it is only to express tliat some niusicid compositions are
distinguished by tbe name uf ecclejiiastie, operatic, or chamber music ; it must

imply that, in one class of musical compositions, ideas and sensations have to be
* Tho authf>r Kaa entered into a critical eiamiaatioii of thete and other niks of art in hit
School of Composititm.
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HUaO Iir OONNSZION WITH OTHKR PBODUCnONB. 257
expressed, which never enter into tlie sphere of another; and that, consequently,
(vrtaifi f<Tin8 and t xpre.«;<;ion8 are pro|M:r and requisite in one class, but unsuitable
aii'i ut^jectiiiuablt; in any other.
This is in some nieasun- true. It were ns unreasonable to introduce a dance

tune in a nutss, as a fugue in a ball rouui. But is such a trivial observation worth
a special declaration, or important enough to st-rve m tlie basis of a liigh-sounding
diitinction between diOlrent styleji of composition? And, nir-rmvcr. can this dis?-
tinctiuii l»e strictly carried out? May not ndifîous tt'dinj^s, <>r even ritual idead,
find place in an oj»era, or instrumental conijinsitinn ? Or dncs religious emotion
never assume a joyous, or sorrowful character Y — never gmw into iui ardent
passion? Have we not examples of this, both in tlie Old and New Testament,
even in tlie discourses of Christ himself ? Anil have nut Bach and Handel, and all
genuine masters, felt this, and siiown it in their works ? And, if we enter intu the
teehnical matter, have not fugues, figurations, chorales, &c. been employed a
hundred times, and considered as indispenâlJe in secular music, or homophonic
funns in sacred compositions? Have not even marches and dances found a place
in the orat< tries of Handel, us well as modern composers (e. //. Fred. Scluicider),
without being considered improper? And, lastly, have any of tiie old or new
masters, —have Seb. Bach, Handel, Ilayiln, M-t/.art, Beethoven, observed other
rules of harmony, of the conduct of the parts, &c. &c. in their sacred, than in
their secular compositions? They every where spoke " out of the abundance of
the heart," without reserve or prudery ; for Jthis, no pedantic clarifications of style
were required, or rather, the true artist found it impossible to maintain them.
It is quite in a different sense that the idea of
Style
hm a leal agnifieaaoe. Everj artist has bis own particular way of contemplating
«Etanal and intenial djects; from tins arises a mode of expression and representa-
tian which is aim peculiar to lumidf, which is obvious in all his works, and may be
coosalered as the stamp of his individuality. This is his Ujfle, in the proper sense
of the word. Thus we may also observe a similarity between the mode of expres-
nn ad<^ted by oomposen of the same school, country, or time, which we may
tenn tAeir tttjk; as we speak, for instance, of the style of Palestrina, of the Dutch
Sdiool, the Italian opeia composers, &c.
AH these matters, however, can only be My considered in the Sdenoe of Husie.
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PA£T THE SIXTH.
ARTISTIC PERFORMANCE.
•
QJEKERAL OBtiKEVAnONfi. 261
SECTION THE FIRST.
OBHXftAL OB8SBVATI0N8 ON TBB PXBVOBXANCl OT MV810AL OOMPOSITIONS.
Thb subjects treBted in the preoeding pages praeent points of knowledge gene-
nDy neoenary or useful to ail in any way occupied with music.
Fnm this poiiit, two biandieB of musical practice, independent of the purely
scientific, and the occupation of teaching, are distingutihable. The one is the path
of the eongioter, which leads to the inTontton and production of musical woihs ; the
other is that of the exeeuHte artitt, or amatem', whose object is to perform eadsting
woijEB of art.
In the peifirmanoe of an existing composition, there iîpear primarily only two
fwsfnfial requisites ;
namdy, that there should, m the first ph»e,be a perfect under-
standing of the nota)tion in which the composition is written, and all in connexicn
with it, including the verbal text in Tocal jueoes. Seeondfy, a sufiicient mechanical
skiD for the execution of what has been written. Both these requisites are indeed
nidispensable; upon the first, sufiicient mftimation has been given in the preoedmg
parts of this work; the seoond must be acquired in a special course of butrudkn,
and by continued practice.
But we shall soon discover that a third requisite is equally indispensable. It is
nid, even of ordmaiy language and writing, that tke letter kiOeih, but the epirit
gketh iê.** Obviously, because it is impossible in letters to embody the spirit.
This applies to our musical notation also^ in the same degree as to any other mode
of writing which might be mvented; fir it is ascrihohle to the nature of the subject,
rather than to any impexfection in the system of representation by means of visible
ligBt.
We have signs fir all the sounds of our tonal system, that is to say, fir all those
degpses of sound which we have reoogniaed as essential, and distinguished by names.
We know, however (p, 34), that it is possible to distinguish much more mmute
gradations of pitch than those specified in musied notation; that, fir histanee, nme
distinct gradations (called emmaa) are perceptible^ and have been considered as
muflcal ratios, within the lunits of a tone. All these gradations are not regularly
employed m music, yet we shall shortly see that they may not only be occasionally
introduced, hut that their employment under certam circumstances, both admis-
is,
sible and efiecthre. We shall find that it is sometimes proper to intonate a sound
m a higher pitch than that In which it is regulariy employed ; we shall farther
observe that the dosest kind of ieô between two sounds is that of gliding from
one sound to the other throuf^ intermediate gradations which in our tonal system
are neither distinguished by names or characters.*
• Every one has prob.-ihly heard them often enoogfa, fhoogh in sdiasgraaeble mmier,
dnriag tlw tuning of a pianofisrte, when a ttiuig u drawn up, or daoksned.
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262 Q£M£IIAL OBBERVATIONS ON TfiLE
Again, it multalnady have been dliMrvedfb the dD^^ Op* 66),

that the dufBtion of liniê ioundi is not an afaeolute meaaitre of thne, but depende
merdy on their rebitacn to each other ; and that the naual indieationi of merement
by the nipeiacription (fUl^ro, adagio, dtc^* are only ngne definitiona. / It is true,
tihe metronooie eiqiplieB a means of measuring die duration of sounds by absolnte
periods and divisions of tune; but the unpossibilify of strictly adhering to sudi a
measurement^ in the perfijrmsnoe of grand oompositions, or indeed in any, under
all ciicumstanoes, will be easily perceived. Moreover, the nieer distbdions and
gradations of time, as aee^trando, rUardandt, &e. admit of ne definite meaanxe-
ment whatever.
Neither is our notation capable of mdicating the ezaet degree of ftzce with
which a sound, or a series of sounds, is to be played or sung. We know that ftrtt
means louder tfian pkm, but not how loud the firmer, or kow much softer the
latter. M theae yadations of feroe can only be indicated in geoeral terms; wd
were we to attempt the indication of the more minute dtstancticns, we should be
obliged to crowd our notation with so many signs and letters, that, in the end, the
eye would become ino^mble of trscmg them. Of this we have had alreadty an
instance in No. 128. Moreover, we shall soon
same signs (/, p, Ae.) learn that the
indicate, in various passages, and under various circumstances, more or less force.
Nor has any written language a sufficient number of letters to indicate the
different gradations of spoken sounds ; for example, the intermediate sounds between
a and o,iah and /> ; in short, we poteivc that no representation of sounds, either
in language or music, is capable of entering into or expresring the nicer ahadingp of

speech or thouijht.
But it is in these most minute gradations, these ihades which impcrecptib^
blend together, that the gentle, gradual, and yet so powerful r'^p and failof .emoticnn
reveal die inmost soul ; and he who does not experioioe this, and convey it to his
audience in his muucal performance, cannot hcqpe to arouse hii auditors or himself
to the just appreciation of a work of art.
But we have as yet only spoken of the elements of a woric of art, not of its
general idea and purpose. Every work of art has its own individual character, and
is int^ded to express a series of special ideas, sensations, and emotions* It is the
discovery of tliese ideas and feelings, or rather their re-inrodi^tion in our own mind,
which causes us to take a more or less lively interest in a composition which we hear
performeil ; an.l yet, a composer has scarcely any means whereby to express in definite
terms or signs what he intended to say, what ideas or feelings he desired to describe,
'i I give sotno general indications of the purpose and design of his oonpositifln is all
he is able to do.
Wluit composers have attempted to do in this respect amounts to this. They

have, firstly, endeavoured to indicate the prevaihnj,' character of their compositions or
prtrti(*n8 of thorn l»y certain technical terms, mostly derived firom the Italian lan-
guage* We give here a list of those most hreûentiy employed.
* To this must l>o a<l'I<Mi, thiit tho indicntinm of time and moTenMDt, MSBipktjed at difionnt
timca ttiici hy didbrcQt composers, do not ojcactly coinoidi*.
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VIErOUIANOS OF HUilOAL COMPOfflXIOm.
Can aibandono, with self-abandonment

Aeeareaeco^', flatterin^y, inainuaftin^y.
Adirata, angrily.
AfMe, affably, fnendly.
Affettuoso, with patlios.
Con affizhmc, with affliction.
Com offUitOy with lightaeM and agility.
Agitato, with agitation.

Con alkgrexaOf animatedly.
Amabile (con aniaiUiia), amiably.
AmarawUe, lovingly, prettily.
Con amarezza, with bitterness.

Amoroso (amorecole), affecti(m8^1y, teoderly.
AnôsciametUe, anxioualy, wiUi anxiety.
Animato (con anima, animoso), with animation.
AjfjmmmcUOt paaaiMiately, with intensity of feelii^.
AppencUo, troubled, loribwfiiliy.
ArdUOf with ardour.

Audace, with boldness,
BrWante, brilliantly.
Brioao (eon brio), with spirit

BruscametUe, abruptly, with impetuosi^.
CcUando, diminishing (in tone or quickness).
Calmato (eon calmo), with tranquillity and rqpoee.
Cantalfile, in a singing style, with soilness.
Capriccioso, in a fanciful, capricious style.
Commodo (eommodamcntr), (juietly, with composure.
Compiacevole, pleasingly, attractively.
DeliccUamentc (con drUcatezza) delicaldy, with ddicacy.
,
Drfrrminnio, with determination.

Dicoto (ditotamente), devoutly.
Dolce (con dnkezza, dolcissi/no), softly, very softly.
Dole/iic ( doloroso, co/i diiolo ), sorrowfully.
Elfijaiitf- , elegantly, fjracefully.
Con eli'tazidiir, in an elevated style.
Enerifico, energetically.
Eroico, heroically.
Espressiro (con expreniom^ c. ettpr.), with expressioiu
Faxtom, poinjiougly.
Feritce, fiercely.
Fiero (con firrezza), with vehemoice, proudly.

Flel/ik, mourn fully.
Fresco, frcscanwute, with sprightUness.
Funebre, funeral (ius marcia furn'firr, funerivl march)..
Fuoco.ô (con ftioro), with fire and animation.

Furioso (con rabbiaj, with vehemence, furiously.
2G4 OINSBAL OBSlBYAIlOini W THX
Generow, generously, nobly.
(rKWMO, joyously, playfully.
GViMando, ^lissicafo, flowin^y, in a gliding mamier.
Gratidioso, in a grand style.

Grave, gravely, solemnly.
Grazioso (con r/razia), g^wefuUy.
Impetuoso, impetuously.
Innoce)>t>'. innocently.
Irremhiiu, irresolutely.
jMijmmom, in a dolefiil stvlf-
LuiiH'ulono ( lamentabiic ) , in a jihiintive nuumer.

Jjniiijwntt' (Lamnifh)^ witli langnnr.
Le(/(fiero (con leggierezza), with lightnoM.

Lnpidtre, sadly.
Lnsintiaiulo, soothingly, persuasively.
'^âeatoso, majestically, with grandeur.

Malinconieo, in a melancholy manner.
Mancandi), decrca.sing in loudness.
Mareulo, well marked; Uh mn renin, /nqrca/i.t.'iimo, very strongly m^ked.

Al/rt rnnrcia, in the style '»f a niurcli, lime and rhythm well marked.
MarteUuia, hammered, lurcibly marked.
Marzialfi, in a martial style.
Mi\<t(i, niourniully, gloomily.
Minacridnilo, in a threatening miinner.

Moremio (siiinrzandii), dying away ;
gradually Midsiding.
Moruiormvlo, witli a mnnmiring sound.
Con liwlOf wilii "jUKkiU'is, stirringly.
Nobile {con nodilUaj, with nobleness.

Con mservanza, with scrupulous cxaclaeau.
Parlitiido, ill a speiUcing manner.
Palefico, pathetically.
Pem/iu , u itli weight, impressively.
Piacecole, placuln, in u pleasing style.
Potnposo, pompously.
Rapido, rapidly.
Rdigum, devoutly.
Risoluto, resolutely.
RiteeÛato, witli much animation.
SekerzandOf in a sportive manner.
ScioltOt with freedom.
SenyaHeet with simplicity, artlessness.

Oen tentimento (eon molto tentimento), with feeling, witli nmcli feeling.
Swanioto (eon manio), furiously, madly.
Smmando, dying away, gradually diminishing in tone.
Soofiet inimuaiingly, pertuaaively.
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P£IiFOaMANC£ OF MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS. 266
^piritfm (con gpiriio), with spirit

StratcifuOo, dn^ng.
Slnpitoio, in a boiiterouf msmar.
Tauro (con ieneresaa), tmoMj, with tendeniMi.
Tempettoio, in a tampestuous manner.
TranquiUa (tranguiUamente), wXh tranquillity, composedly.
Vdoee, with iqiidit^.
VigforotOt Tigonmdy.
moseird;, with livetincH.
&eondfy; wmt cmfmm hare eodeawnindto indicale the tndrridual <*iiMf*^

flf a coupontien bj its title. Of this dan are frequently thoae under the title or
lupeEMsrîlion
Poitorale, an idyl, or rural compoBitioa.

Smote mebn^îqtie, a sonata ezêssing mdandioly.
SmUe pathktque, a pathetic sonata*
As also the titki Eekj^, Mareke /uK^re, Mardke trm^tiak, and
msny others, hidiealiiig the special cfaanMHcr of the composition.
TkMfy^ some composers have stated the definite idea in which certam of their
wmpositjans oriâted, or from which they derived their special ngnificance and
diaraeter; as M^t*^ m his immortal overture to the C^rôHom (whicfa he called
Câot) ; Beethoven, in his wonderfiiDy heautifiil sonata, '*

Lm oeBem, Faiteiiee et
h Hbamr and many other compositions.
But here agsin it win easily be perceived that all these artistic tenns and other
expressitma csn only give voy genend and mdefinite indications; that the forms
which an idea or sensation assumes, and the gradalions through vriiich one merges
iats another, — în short, that a state of mind and its gradual changes, cannot be My
described in a few words, and frequently does not allow of any verbal description.
'
Fmrtihiy ; we must mention a peculiar mode of indicating whether the genend
contents of a eompoeitioQ be a sublime and grave, or of a less devated and
hg^ter character. This consists in the selection a compoaer makes amongst those
ipedes of measure which, though distinguished by difiB^t names, are still based
upon the same division of time.
All measures of two, three, or four parts respectivdy, are essentially K^^ ; the
prindpal and subordinate parts of the bar, the strong and lighter accents being tiie
me; as we see here in three quadripartite species
• 1 1 ^ 1 I
Q f f f f I
* r r r f
whether the different bar parts consist of mifauns,
crotchets, or quavers. Hie
subdivisions of the parts of the bar are also the same.
Nor has the dcgiee of
inovenMnt any mfluence over tiie rdatiTo duration of tiie sounds ; and, consequentiy,
Qie mimms in an allege m \ time, and the crofediets in an adagio or andante
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266 OSNSEAL 0B8IEV4.XI0NS ON TH£
in |, the crotchets in a presto in } time, and the quayers in m allegretto in |
tini^, may have exactly the same duration.

r Nevertheless, a distinction has frequently been based up<m these merely eztonil
differences of notation. Composers have generally agreed that the employiiiail «f
a species of Ume, in which the parts of the bar conait of MNm^ of % long (rela-
tive) duration —namely, semibrevea, nuiiiina, &e.>wilimild uiffiMte, campantivdy,

that the piece is of a graver or grander character than another writlai in a spedei
of time in whidi the parti of the meaanre are repreMUted In^nolea genenl^
aprening toundi of ahorter duration, as croldiala or qusren. Âeeordiog to tfaii
usage, movements of a grave and highly dignified diaracter are written in |, |,
I time; others of aligjhtar and more fleeting fiharaiiffr in \, |, or | time*; and

dien the special degree of moroment is indicated. Thus the indkalion of the speciei
of time may also afford some due to the general character of the oompoaitifln. It
must, howeveTp be obserred, that, apart from the indefinite nature of this oiterkn,
many instances are to be Ibnnd, espedaUy in the oomposilions of the older maitcn»
where this usage has been departed from ;
thus, Seb. Badi has written many sokorn
strains in | time, while some, more light and insignificant, are composed in | or
even I timef. Here then we must again admowiedge the inadequacy of notstkn
asa means of indicating the diaracter and dgmficalion of a of art ; aeilfaer
was it poanble that a perfect agreement eould be brought about on this point, ai
many extraneous oonsidefations may detemune a composer in the cfaaioe cf the
spedes of time whidi he adopts.

We have then arrived at this conviction: that, besides the neeessaiy medumied
sldU (which here a perfect bnowledge and
no longer comes under consideration),
attentive observation of all comprised under the term nnmied neiaiim are indeed
indispensable fer the proper perfermanoe of musical compoaitions but that, beddn ;
this, something more is also required, which no system of signs and charafrten is
capable of fully expressmg; vis. a susceptibility fer, and a perception dt, the
meaning and tendency of the cempontion to be perfttmed, both in its totality ami
its single features. The latter may be more or less distinctly marked, and tfadr
character and purpose indicated; still, as they are based upon the idea and purpose
* It nay appear strange to the non-composer, and yet it is andoabtedly true (as oveiy con>
poser mnithsve expoienoed), that tiie very spedes of notes iHiidi ire egBfloy when wiiting
our UeM nay have an influence upon the character of our composition. The ebamolen wUcb
represent sounds of lonprr iluration (minim and srmibrevc), rotjuin' Vnith more sparr and mow
tinii' in writing, nnr fl > lioy join so easily as smaller kinds of notes, and thus the operatiau of
writing it«elf is si kind of inducement to dcvtlop our ideas in a broader and ioaa light and
fleeting fom. Fognss and efen dierdee in | or | tiaie ere apt to grow under our lunds
nioie pondemis and etatdy thanif notsdin|or|tinie;aiidaltiMa{^tiiemindnddMririll
nor ran become the davo of the pen^ still this is the very reason nhy «e employ ohanfllMi
that will ikvonr the eieetttion of our
t The ignorance of this dnmmitanoe has nused many grievoua mistakes in the porfbm-
(
anrc of the work.'* of those who \*Tote before Baeh. An uninformed pcrsnn, seoina;
ma,st<:'r3
that th(> rompositions of riUestrina, Orlando Lasso, Gabrieli, So#quin tie l*res, and otliers, are
generally noted in semibrcvcs or minims, is apt to conclude that they are to be performed in
dow time. But the aoeieBls only employed a larger spcciee of nolee (p. 68) than we do;
in genaial, their minima are to be sung Of ^yed as if tiiey.won onbliets.
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P£BFORMANC£ OF JdUSICAL COMPOSITIONS. 267
of the wfade, tiiey cannot be oorrectly nndentood, unlefls we also proceed in our
enunination from the fundamental idea of the entire work*
To comprehend a work of art in allitsparta as a development of a fundamental
nIm, and to represent it aoooidinf||lj, is the olgeel of a really
A/iu-'iir Pf^fnrmance,
Up to this highest point of perfection there are different degrees. He who

contents himself with the reproduction of a musical oompositiQD exactly as it is
written, without being susceptible of its spiritual inoaTiincr and purpose, perfomu
mechanically. His highest mm is to render in a detinite manner all that is d^-
nitely expressed ; viz. to strike always the right notes, to observe everywhsie the
correct division of time, to attend scrupulously to the forte, piano, legato, staccato,
kc. &c. as written, after the manner in which he is accustomed, or is accidentally led,
to express it. That which may be termed positively good and praiseworthy in this
mode of represratation constitutes a
To Yarn who not only perfbnns eonectty what is written, but also enters into and
endeavouia to show the oanstradion of the composition, so fiir as it is comprehensible
to the understanding, may be ascribed an
Intelligent Performance.
«
Such a one iirst applies his knowledge to the rh}*thmic construction of the piece.
He knows tliat periods, sections, phrases, passages, &c. constitute the smaller divi-
sions of tlie whole composition, and endeavours to indicate both the connexion
between the contents of each grouj» and the points of di\nsion, by inlaying legato, or
otherwise, and employing the diilerent means of contrast (forte and piano, accent,
c^c.) to render them obvious. Ho also knows, from the species of time in wliich the
jiicce is written, and its general rhythmical arrangement, what degree of stress
(accent) siiould be laid uf»on each sound, and he will endeavour to mark these
gradations o( wxent witliout destroying the connexion and smooth ti<>w of the whole.
In thu perlonnance of part-composition, esi>ecially polyphonic, he will aim at tiie
i^rlect development of each part, and distinguish it, as far as possible, irom the
otiiers, by a characteristic mode of rejjrestntation, such as playing the one Jorte,
the other piano ; tlie one h-ijatu, tlio otlier stuccuJu, &c.
A correct and intelligent |»erformancc may be acquired by reasoning and instruc-

tion, iinvsmuch as it is purely a /naffer nf unde/sta/idni^.
He who has received from nature an innate perception of symmetry in sound,
•
motion, tone, kc. and cultivated this sense, will soon fetl, oven without entering
into the scientific contents of a work of art, in what consists the sensuiU chanu of
ite several jKjrtions. lie will try to elicit from his instrument, or produce witli his
voice, the most pleasing tones ; he will vary the different gradations forte and
piano in Uie most jileasing manner, will introduce here and there an interesting
accent, increat»e the beauty and elVectiveness of the melody l)y a judicious alternation
between tegato and sfaccato ; but every where avoid harsh or sudden cuntrasts: in
short, he will employ every means tending to delight the senses, and render his
performance irresistibly attractive.
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268 UENEEAL Oii,8£BVATiON8 ON THE
Sodi A mode of rgpioiontBtion we wiU tenn a
Qrace/ul Performance^
and widi that it maj ahvmyi be eombmed with an mteUigeDtperfennanee. The beat
means Ibr iti acqiuraoMmt ii die attentive liitening to the perfimnanee of othen ex-
edling in thii yenm. Suitable material may be fiHmd in the tw^y ooquettiiig
atrahiB of a Rounni (executed by weD-trained aingen), in the tnwnuating flatteriea of

eur moden piaoiilB, and, in a higher aenae, m many of J. Hsydn*g and Beetborenla
worka* in whidi» honrew, the external gracefulness is only a manifestation of more
aignificant internal ideaa. Especially initnictiTe it the }>ei-iormance of gpod vicînista,
who are able to draw from their delicate and tradable instrument more varieties of
expreasioo, more cmtraBts, and nicer gradations, than any other instrumental per-
former.
When, in the execution . an indescribable aensation springi from the contents of
the music, we m^ anign to it the praise of a
Feelint/ Performance.
Of the perception and activity of our feeling we are unable to give an ao»Hmt to
ourselves, even where it is combined with intellijrence. It Uvea and moves only in
the moment, from moment to moment, perhaps in every single moment, but not in
all collectively. It may attraet an«l excite us in each successive moment but ulti- ;
mately it nevertheless remains uiu ertain. whether, in this series of momentary sen-
sations, the full and real idea of a work of art hiis hven imparted to us; whether we
have experienced w liat the artist intended ; in short, whether we hare really re-
ceived the impression of a work of art, or merely a series of imj>res.'îons produced
a work of art, while performing it, or liearinj^; it performed. This, in itself mwtt valu-
able, and to an artist or lovt r of art altcêther indi8))ensable faculty, lives and moves
in every man's breast just as it is, and as it eomes to him. Tt cannot he tiiught or
improved, but only fostered and heighten»'<l ; indeed, it natnrally slums the inter-
ference of reason or elear jHjrception, because, tixit, it feels disturbi d iiy it, and again,
has no security that tiiis iuterruptioa of its activity and enjoyment will be oompen-
sati'd in any other way.
When all these faculties and acquirements are left to themselvi-s, thev may en-
able us to reeeive iinuo/, hut iupt ail, and poas'ihlt] >i„{ Ihc d^sit/tted im/m'ssions of a
work of art ; for a work of art contains more ; there is sornetliinj^ in it which cannot he
describiid or expressed. I ; les its ijnipeful external lurm, itluus a spiritual meiuiini;.
over and above tlje uiiconsciou.- 1 ling of tht- signification of its individual features ; we
nmst have a j>erccj'ti..ii of the nhn in which it oripnatt-J, and which alone imparts
tiie true meaning tu the whole work and all its individual [»urts. The rej'n«]uetion
of a work ot art, based upon tius perception, is what we have termed a real cwtUtic
performance.
Such a performance is altogether impossible without
ArtuiHc Trmmnfft
in whatever form it may be efTeete<l. Only very few jvirticularly gifted individuals
are endowed witii such a pure, ceruun, and ucuvc leeling, combined with such inde-
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PERFORMANCE OF MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS. 2G9
|Miid«nt» tluHigh oAm uncooacioiii, TCasomng*, as to chooee, perkapt, always the.

palh, and to be etferywhcfeiecure agaiiirt fiJUngmtoeiroa. Tbisisthehigheifc
perfeetkn of geniut. But for our choin and dia|ieb, lor our achoola andfeBtavala, we
raqoiie tfaounnda and thouiandi of muiidans finr one artnt laiMd by geniua. And
thoe are many other thooaandi who with to take a part in and enjoy muaic, without
making it their profeerien, and who have aliU less reaaon to hope fat that high^t gift
of nature. For this reaMm, no one should be advised to idy entirely on his own
feding^--moBt men require to be pirepaied and artisticdUy t^
Such artistic education may be obtained intwo di£ferent ways : oneof theie ways
is a direety and, if we may uie the expression, self-devoting, oceupatioB with music.
Such occupation is altogether indispensable to eveiy person who amis at profiiBHifticrjr m
munc. To kemr imicA omd good mune well pedbrmed, and to pk^ or sti^ nmek,
and with a jui£cious sdteetion of the compontions—Uiese are the fint means of awaken-
ing, animating, and puri^^ our feeling and taste. They ultimately lead to that in-
ttinetive peieeptton which enables us, with toleiable certainty, to find what is right
and proper even in the execution of works of art, which we have not previously heard
peifiirmed by accomphshed artists. But our feding, this most obscure activi^ of the
soul, develops itself, as already observed, veiy slowly and with great uneeitainlj ; ibr
this reason, our own eonsctouaness always presses us to seek for a higher certamty.
As good munc and good performances may be most beneficial to us, so may bod music
and bad performances mislead and corrupt our taste and judgment And however
anxious we may be to select only the good firom amongst the music oflfored to us, stUl
tfaeve is reason to apprehend that our obscure and unguided foding may csuse us to
make a wrong selection, mistaking the bad for the good.
Our consciousness therefore impels us to sed( for a safer criterion beyond the
sphere of mere feeling. At this we can only arrive by the second road, the aim and
end of whidi is to acquire a dear perception both of the red spiritud contents of art
in generd, and of the contents and purpose of every specid work of art in particular.
Here, instruction and explanation may again come to our dd and fiirther our designs,
whilst our feeling is dtogether left to itself and to its own experience. The red
object of the doctrine of perfoimanoe is, therefore, to lead to a percepti<Hi of the
spiritud contents of art in general, nnd each specid work of art in particular.
If this perception is to bring fruit, it must be both true and vivid. To accept
every explanation or deiiniti<Ni of this or that teacher or book as true, to adopt
and strictly apply them to eveiy work of art — this would be a wrong and useless kind
of study. A strict adherence to the Uteral meamvp nf such explanations would

lead to the greatest mannerisms and restraints ; for the nature of musical forms u
such as cannot be expressed in one word. The word, therefore, must only be con-
sidered as an indkaiion of those evanescent a^rid forms and to him wha neither
;
feeb, nor has experienced, in his own soul, that which a doctrine attt^mpts to describe,
every explanation and precept must remdn dead and unfruitful. We must espe-
cially warn the student against those trifling, pseudo-poetic transcriptions, in which
Mthetic poets and poeticd aethetidans indulge» and in which they at once diamias,
* See the Author's Biographiod Notioe of Mouurt, ia the Unictrtal Lexicon <2«r Ibnkumt.
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S70 OnnRAL OBSIBYATIOHB.
, as fully explained, a wliofe ipecies of musical (aam, a leqr, an instrument, fte. with
a single word or phrase. Expressioos Uke tbcie : " The danoml it the iurtnunait
of love ; a stringed and wind instrumeiit together form a musical marfiage ; two-
four time is particukify adapted to expressions of affection sudi, and other sayingi^
civen should thej now and then contain a grain of truth, mut appmt to all who are
earnest in the pursuit of musical art at a mind -enervating play upon words. He
who yields himself to it is nnmuig after a shadow, while the rich reality vMUshci
before him.
But neither will we allow oursetfee to be led astray by tlie cold and dead abetrae-
tioos of those who assert that there is no conceivable spirituality whatever in mune,
because the ipiritual oontenta of art cannot be proved by logical reaaoaii^ or suffi-
ciently exprMsed in words ; and, fartlier, because those who have spoken and written
upon it have so often erred and contradicted Uionsdves*. In this direction, also, we
will not allow ourselves to be allured from our path ; we will endeavour, by reason
and reflection, to penetrate more deeply into the nature and genius of art, its forms,
and works, and thereby continually advance towards certainty and clearness of per-
ception. In this we may be aided by the counsels of others who have made ohser-
vulions lief ire us ; but they must only be taken as general indications of truths,
which we must not accept, unless corroborated by our own perception.

For this roiison, the t'ollowing hints are exclusively a^ldressed to the feeUngs and
ohsenatit'ns ofevery individual, and claim to be true only so far as tliey are am-
iirmed by them. The scientific and thorough examination of the nature of art, an«i
its forms, does not come within the sphere of a merely |>reparator)' scho^jl of music,
but must be reserveii f>r the srir/irf of )iiusir ; while a retrospection of the genius of
the different periods of art, its branches, and artists, nmst be left tn the hixtary of art.
These studies should not b<;tth be entered upon !>i f t*^ the learner ha.s heard, played,
and sung liimself deeply into his art, in order that iran.smitteti conceptions may M"t
exclude or mi!5direct his own obserrations, and an emjity fonnvila take place of living
perception. So likewise the whole doctrine of perionnance, and that contiune<i in the
following pages, nrf not intended for the hemnner. It will pnne lui empty sound ;
nay,
it wiil confuse and mislead every one who is not already familiar with the extoraal
form» of art, or who has not already often and vividly experienced that in each, a
deeper meaning Ues concealed.
* Sec tho Autlior's essay, Utbrn- Mal$rn in d»r Thnktm H ,
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THS 8I0N1FIGATI0N OF THl lUllPAJfBllfAL ffOBMS OF KUBIO. 271
SECTION THE SECOND.
THB 8I0NITICATI0N OF THE FUNDAXEMTAL FOBMB OF KUBIO.
We have learned to consider ih.jihni, sou/ul, and tone as tiic fuiviamental iurms
of muBic. All tlicse tlio artist employs for certain spiritual and, in his case, artistic
[lurposes. This he could not do, unless tliese fundamental forms were ass'^ciated with
tt rtain ideas and sensations in his own mind. Moreover, if they had not a certain
dtthiite meaning, they could not produce upon otlicr persons a certiun definite effect
the artist \v« »uM then operate upon the mind and feelinj»8 of others, witliout knowing
in what maimer ; he might feel and proclaim one —perhaps —
ihliig joy while lus
hearers would experience or imagine the expression of different emotions — as grief or
rage. But such would l>e no art, it would be u mere unintelligible, ii not altogether
senseless, playing witli sounds.
Our own consciousness and daily experience tell us something better. We are
aware of certain sensations and feelings taking possession of us when listening to
mufflc, and we know that they are not the consequence of some other cause ; «?. ^. of
the mood we happen to be in for^ in this case, one and the same piece of music
—
;
would at different times make different impressions upon us ^would excite us to joy
one day, and cause a feeling of sorrow another. We also soon perceive Uiat this
eflect of music ia not of spwely individual character, but that all men, so fiur as they
are simDaily eonstituted, are also anularly affected by the same piece of music
That would indeed be a bad march which did not stir and excite emy hearer; and
(hat a bad dirge which would cause some to weep and others to dance It ia only 1
ittch pieces as ha?e no definite diander (and thereare plenty of them) whudi com-
mtiincate no definite sensation.
The only tlung that may be doublfiil t8» k&w fat the position, chaiader, and
meaning of musical fimns may, with certainty, be presumed to extend. But tins
question w« put aside, at we purpose to give only an introduction to, and some ge-
aenl hinU upon, the subject, a mmute explanation being reserved ftr the " Sdenoe
€f Music.**
Now if ttiere be a more or kas definite meaning in a piece of musie, it must lie
pertly in the component parts of the piece, and partly in the way in which tiiose
ports have been connected. Both cireunutanceft have to be taken into coniidenition.
Here Mow a few general indications respecting the first point.
A. Thi Rbtthk.
In rhythm, two thin|^ are distinguished ; viz. movement and accent*
1. The Movement.
It would be superfluous to exphun the meaning of the difierent kinds and grada-
tions, as quick, slow, equal, unequal, Ac. of movement; every one haa become
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«
272 THS fltONmCATTOH OP TBI FUffDAlOMTAL VOBIIS OW MOaC.
acquainted with it, not <mly in mmic, but alao in language, action, gesture, &c. For
this reason, we think it unnecessary to say anything relative to the different species
of time ;
they ar.' intended to indicate the more or less excited state of mind wiuch a
piece of nuisic {ircsupposes to exist, or is intended to create*.
In order to arrive at a ck-ar fierception of the sigiiiticatiDii of the ditVfrent kinds of
movement, it i<? neeessary to liistincîish, fir»tlv the mort'iunit in iUelf ; i. e. the
LTcater or lesser degree o(" quicknt ss witli whit li a series of soujkU passes away
8ecuadly the tnotemeni which starts J'rom a Jixed point ; e. g.
S£6 ^
5^
which serves, as it were, as a hold for the sounds flying from it; and, diiidly the
movement wÛek it dkeeted to a peed pomt; e. g.
356
F
which, as it were, attracts and absorbs the fleeting sounds that precede it. The sig-
nification of these forms of movement depends M|«"n the force with which a fixed
point s«p|Kirt8 or attracts a flight of sounds, up(»n tin power which we exert over f"r
in the movement, and upon the steadiness or firmness of purpuec with which we
either nress for%vartl directly to tlie intentled point, or approach it by slow and iwter-
ni| t. i es. Hicrefore we observe that, e.y. in a fleeting series of souiuift not
directed U> or proceeding from a fixed point,
nmther of the sm|ê sounds is of greater importance than Ihe rest ; hat that the
hurrying through all, oonslitutes tiie ehsneter or nwaning of the passage, <n', at
leasts of its rhythmiesl Ibrm. Again, we obserre, in the ftOowing rapid fli^t^ di-
rected to a ootiun point,
* As there is no dofinite incaituro for the differu&t aSt^tions of the mmd, which depend not
only upon Uuir object, but aku u|k}q the indiTiditilitj and temper xi the penon affseled, sad
nuaJ other iamleulsble eireumstanoee, it is evident why our indteetioiis of the diAnas de-
ITMS of nuneiDcnt (<dlegro^ emianir, do not and cannot scire as absolute guides and also ;
why the !»penfioatit)n hy means of the mftrmmne (p. 84) cannot be considflnd as daoam^
but merely a more accurate iodioatioa of the intended degree of movement.
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TUJS BXUNIFICATION OF THE FUNDAMENTAL FORMS OF MV61Q. 27ii
«
the power of this sound of destiiiation, which draws towards and mto itself such a
number of sounds in rapid and uninterrupted suocessuin ; while the same series of
sounds, with intermitted rA^m,
369
expresses inits movement what the term itself is intended to indicate.
Here the two modes of performance, etaeealo and o» of wluch we have abeady
had oocauon to speak, in the section on rhythm (pp. 76 and 77)» have once more
to be mentioned. There we considered only their effect upon the ringle sounds,
which, in leâlo, are sustained longer than if phyed or sung stoeeolo. Here we find
the AôAi to be a softer and more flowing manner of representing a connected series
of sounds, while the statcato is a lighter, more detached, and therefore more piequant
mude of representation. We sometimes even combine the two modes of ezjHression,
indicating this combination by their joint signs ; e, p.
Here every soiuid is to cuatinuc until Uic next commences ; but at the same time
each is to receive a special accent, almost in the manner indicated here
so that the (Hti'erent soundii, although connected in timet are still separated from each
other by the accentuation.
2. The Accent
\a& two modes of expression, but only one object. The sounds which we accent, we
distinguish as more important thau tiie rest, This we ran do. either by making it
continue a longer time, or by hu'ing up lU it a partieuhir emphasis, producing it with
greater force of Ume. By merely dwelling upnii them a l<>njj;» r time, the sounds f <i,
and r, in No. 350, are distinguished from the rest, even witiiout receiving a .stn»iiger
emphasis. This m^lc of distinguishing special souiuls may he combined with em-
phatic accentuation, by me;ins of which tlie sounds are marked still more distinctly
(as indicated hy fz, in No. 32B). By merely altcrij»g the einplmtic aei-eiit. «{iiile a
different character may be imparted to one and the same series of soun.is ; as we may
perceive by acccutiug tiie scries of sounds in No. 357 according to these indications,
above and below the staff
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27^ TUE JilONlFlCATION iit THB FUNDAMENTAL FORMS OF MUSIC.
We now coni|irehend the difference between the different vpedet ef time. Tlie
less the number of accented notes, the greater w the flow and smoothness of a spedet
of time. Tlierefore a series of sounds arranged in tripartite measure (triple time)
has a lighter and more flowing movement than if arranged in bipartite meaaurea
(common or | time) ; and compound measures, in a lifter character
general, are of
than simple ones. Fw thie reason, it is by no means a matter of indifference
whether a strain be arranged in or V time. In the flnt case (Aj,
368 (
wv liavf ft'ur *iccented notes, wliilc in the second we hiiw unly two (B), :ui J in tlie
third only "H' ^C) : the last nvwie of representation in tiierefore tlie most tlowing of
the tliriv. the ik6i the most emphatic.
We know, however, that t/roupiup of the sounds wiihin each i-ar iinj uxts a
more definite character to every species of rhythm ; and it is clear that, hy means of
rhythmical sulxliviaions, a passage written in a sjêcies of time originally of a lightar
character may be made to assume a heavy appearance ; and» vice versa, one written
in a heavier species of time may be made flow ing and light. Thus, this phiase in
«4 *
1
has evidently more flow and lightness than this in time :
to which the internal arrangement of the rhythm, and the emphatic accentuation,
impart a character of violent excitement.
liWther explanations on this subject do not appear to be required.
3. Greaier Rk^kmveal Memhen.

We have aheady seen 87) how the sinê bars of a composition unite them-
(p.
selves into greater rhythmical members, and we also know that these members may
be either all alike or of different extent.
What meaning is expressed in these ferms ?
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TBX nONinOAnOR Of THB FinrDAMlNlAL W09MB or MUSIC. 275
The same which i^; oonveyed in the dififerent species of measures, but less detiiiite,
and caj»aljle of greater iiK^lilication.

Every rh>^hmical niciiiKer <tr phrase is a whole in itseU", and, as sucli, constitutes
one of the suceessive jierio.ls i.t' tlie whoK- piece. The shorter tiiese j>eri<Kls, the hghter
is the nioveuient of the wliule. and the more eiisy tlie transition from tlie one to tlie
other. This we observe in tlie following phrase.
366
4 1
which consists entirely of members of one bar eac h.

Wliea those periods are more extended, tliey impart a character of greater calm-
mm and fidiien to the wlmie compodtion. The following phrase, which b an imHa*
tUD of the precedmg one, but hat been ananged in groups of two ban each.
167
shows this at once.

Here we must a^âin notice the marked difference between all bipartite and tri-
partite fttnns of rhythm.

The two-bar rhythms, hke their number amongst arithmetical divisors, are the
sim[»le.st, lightest, and must ti wing. The four-bar rliythms u{>i>ear broader and more
dignitieJ, hut they are still clear and intelligible, because we still feel in them the
presence of bijiartite rhythm. Trifiartite groups, on the contrary, a[>pear at once less
tranquil or more excited ; their character is so decidely dilTerent from the preceding
ones, that Beethoven has considered it necessary to direct special attention to it In

the «est«n» of hii Ninfii Symphony, four-bar rhytluns are at fkat predominating
i
they change afterwards into thiee-bar ifaytfams.
T 2
27i> THB SiaNIPICATlON OF THB 7VNDAMBKTAL P0BII8 OP MV&tC.
wkicli Bct'UuAfU iuiiu»ui)cct> in the supemrii'timi. " IHfinn a tre /mitutf" ( rliytliiu
of three Iwats ; i e. bars). FiiuUly, iivc-bax rliytluns hecome bruud aiid heavy, if
not iira{^ging ; uu J tliia iip|)lie9 in a greater degrocc to rhytlims of seven or more bars.
Again, a succession of equal or proportionate sections imparts to the whole comf
position more synuiit-try, calnmess, and perspicuity ; on irregular change of long and
short aecdont ewMea disquietude, uiuteadineas, and, uhimatety, oonluflion, whidi it a
fiuilt in some cases, but may in others be 8 happy expression of an exdted or un-
settled state of mind. With respect to tlus, eveiy thing depends upon the manner
in which the unequal sections succeed each other, and upon the rhythmical construe**
tion of the different sections. So m uiy different combinations are possible, that any
^tempt to enumcnrate or arrange thm systonatjcally would prove a misconception of
the real purpose of instruction. Lei every one practise and accustom himsdf to ex*
amine the rhythmical arrangement of all compositiona coming under his notice, and
tu feel and comprehend its influence upon the endre work*.
B. Thb QuALinr, Pbourbssion, and Ck>iiBiMATioN OF Sounds.
In t!t* iitiulity, prni:rfs<»ion, and of>nibination of sounds, a ditêrence of meaning

and (•li;iii'.( ti r may u1m> < ;isily dlî m juished. We have here, however. t!"» consider
a malu r nt gn at, r likely than the mure jmlpaLlc ilifilrences of rhyliunical i rms ;
and, C! ii-.'ûcutly, th.* extent to wliich it may be pursued duetly depends on the will
and power of the iinjiKrer.
Sounds arc ^ciiciully more iutmsi' and j

ii rring in pr<tportion to their height, ujid
are less intense and penetrating in the iiivi im' order : iartlier, an ascending series of
sounds expresses increasing intensity of Iccling or emotion, ajid a descending series
the op|H>site. But on this subject various peculiar relations ct»me into play, of which
we cannot here take all into consideration : the circumstance, for example, tliat at a
.certain point tlie pitch is too high, and the sounds lose too much of their fulness and
body of tone to actexcituigly ; and tfien, on the other hand, that they often ifisplay
the finest and most charming (piality of tone, whi(^, to a reflecting mind, affords a
confirmation of the preceiling general charactmsties of die sounds.
Of greater importance (or special consideration is
1. Tke Tonal Sturennon,

Successions by $kips (over intennediate degrees) are active and vehement ; thoae
h 'f^V^ ^ o'*'^''^ ci^xsL For this reason alone, the tHafottie %ealB wouid
* In most osaofl, it is presumed that s pcraoa poneiMid of s toleiablj nuncal esr will aot
flad it difflcult to difltingujsh the rhythiniMl divisions. For more doubtful esses, it has been
proposed to indicsto the ecpsntioD of the rhythmical sections, mcmbcfB, by a slight oblique
Thb m nil nf iiiilication Inw ii«t, Imwovor, come into l" ncml tw, r«tr drn'S il apiK^<ir ncco«-
Miy. Our niu>ic<il nutation isi alrtNuly suliiL-iuotly luaiicd wilii siîs auU chamctcra of every
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TBI SIGNIFICATION OF TH£ FUNDAMENTAL FOBUS OF MUSIC. 277
be more calm and melodious than any kind of progrenion by skips ; still m'>Fe on
aoooont of its conlatniiig (especially the mapr scale) the nearest related and essential
sounds tn a most cciiTenient and symmetrical series. The ehromaHe Kale moves in
tilt shorter, and equal steps, by semitones thrw^îoat : but, for this very reason, its
pragressaon appears trifling and timid, espedaDy as it contdns, besides the diatonic,
the fiwei^ chromatic sounds, which in no key are found in connenon with them.
Retummg once more from the scales to the successions by skips, we meet, firvt,
nith those suoceasions dented from chords. Every series of sounds fonned from the
intervals of a chord presents itsdf as a unity, as something naturally connected. Ihe
ear ftets the transition from mo sound to the other, as both easy and pleasing, and
thus we see in such a series the oombinatimi of two originally separate elements, wide
Steps to distant ?^n\u\da (otherwise tppKretidy unconnected), and the internal hannonic
combination. This circumstance enables us to impart to such suecessions of sounds,

other a lightiy fleeting, softly undulating, or an undecided, erratic, or fimtastic cha-
racter:
or a bold, romantic flight
aocordu^ to the variation of riiythm, Ac.
2. 77/c lutcrvak.
We have s«> far considert 'l the profjressions of sound merely with regard to dis-
tance. W*^ su'i'.i, h«iwever, hcc iiif aware that each has its own distinctive diaracter,
independent ot the \mxv difVeronce in <]uantity. Some, at least, of the obser\'ation8

we are about to make ow this sulijeLt, will )iavc Utn aiitioijiatcd and (X)niinned by
the innate [perception of every attentive and zealous vulaiy uf music.
In order to proceed with greater security, we commence our exaniiiiations with
the nmjur scale, because it consists entirely ot niujur intervals ; and we first distiiiîuish
the scale of one octave from that of the next above, knowing that the higher oetave
contains a repetition of the same series of sounds, only in a higher or more acute
sphere ; first, the oetaveof the tinii<^ then the nintli, wluch b the same as the second,
raised an octave, Ac.
Hence it is at once dear why aU intervals exeeediptjf the distance of an oetave

iîpear atnuned, and, when compared with the same steps within the octave, over-
itnuned. The ninth is a progression to the second, but in a higher region, while the
octave itself is the highly stramed repetition of the tonic. Herein consists the power
and energy of a sudden skip to the octave, the forcible eacuberanoe and even exag-
gerated efifeot of the ninth and t^th, while tiie continued increase of distance eventually
renders the relation imperceptible, and the interval appears to M asunder into two
uncongenial sounds.
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27B TBE tjlUNIFlCATION OF THE FUNDAMENTAL FO&Mtf 07 MUSIC.
Within the octsve, the fifik ii the mterral expienbg indednflB and impqnie;
the fswrth, a step fiill of finnneH and prednon (wherefore kettte-droms are gfoeraUy
tuned in feurthB) ; the »ee<md, a odm, moderate progretiion ; the tlwrdy an intarrai
of decision : the wth^ softly binding ; the seeeitlA, full of longing. To thb may be
added, that, in all minor imertah^ the character of the oarresponding niôr intervals
appears subdued and softened ; in the diminidttd inlemds, it appears wedcened and
depressed ; in the m^pnented intervals, impessionately hdîtened, or often ezag-
gerated even to distortion. Let the student, in order to put this to the test, compare
the major and minor thirds and sevenths, the miyor, minor, and augmented fifths, the
major and augmented fourths, the nunor, major, and that strikmg augmented seocud
in the minor scale (p. 41).
Here also may be mentioned that remarkable deviation firom the rules of our
whole tonal system, to which allusion has already been made, p. 261 : viz. laiaing
the pitch of a sound in moments of excitement, and lowering when the feelblp are it
depresse<i ; as also that strongest and mmi impasiioned mode of connexion, the
gliding from one sound to anotlier. These are extreme forms, which must be em-
ployed with the utmost caution ; their psychologic character is so obvious as to require
no explanation.
Every deep-felt composition will aftbrd abundant demonstrations of the truths
contained in these fugitive liints. But it is necessary to pimrd against one iui>. -in-
co) ition. The character, tor instance, of the diilerent intervals will by no means uni-
formly express itself.
We liave already olwerved (p. 272) that it may mA l>o the intention of a com-
parer to distingîish a single sound ur reU\Li«in uf sounils fruni iinvngst the r<^t; but
that tJie individuality of a sound nuiy altogether disappear, and the suund heeume an
undistinguishable part of a greater series, llenee it is cunceivaMe that intervals, like
all other means of exjiression, are often employe<i liy the composer w itlmut a definite
purpose, or even in contradiction to Uieir real charaeter ;
just hi tlie saiue way tliat
other artists, as pomters, poet«, &c may occasionally misapply their means. It does
not always follow that the entire wwk should prove a foilure en aocoont of sncfa a
mistake ; sometimes the artist finds means to conceal, or, mhb subsequent proceed-
mgs, rectify the error. Who would judge of the nature of this or that interval in all
eases, or attach general importance to an erroneous or unmeaning applicatifln of it?
The real signification of intervals need only be regarded when êy have been em-
ployed ivith a view to that object In such cases, they may give us a due to the
proper underrtanding and perfoimanoe of the conipontion ; when they have been
purposely but ezroneously empkyed, the peroqytioa of the deviation and its eaooe>
quenoes may lead us to discover the proper use of those intervals, but not to a vig^
understanding or performance of the vnirii in which they appear.
d. The Chrdt,
Hiese assist us in arriving at a true perception of the charaoter of tonal relationa.
Proceeding firom the oombbation of tonic and JifiA* (which may be considered as
an incomplete triad), vre find that the character of the latter interval, as indicated
• Wiiy ? liccaimr, in the n:iliii;il duvelopnicnt of floundjt, ihi lifth app< ais ininu 'liatoly
and Lla octave.
itftcr tliti ruut The larthcr oxamiuatiuu of tlm qucÛuii inual be rtwrêi] for tlic
"ScienoeorMiMie."
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THE SIQUmCATlON 0¥ THE FUNDAMEîTAL FOliMS OF MUSIC. 27i>
bore, appean mott strikingly when both are sounded simultaneously, either upon
two horns, two darionets, or by two voices, or even upon the (nano (especially if, on
aeeount of the smsll vibrating power of tins instrumait» the fifth is doubled in ttie
oeCave).
When the tkM is jmned to the fifth, the purest, dearest^ and most satis-
ftdoiy harnumy, the mqpr triad— ^ first of all chords — plessantly strikes our ear.
If we depress the third, we hear the gloomy mwor triads ifwe depress the fifth
abo, the stunted tfyninUked triad makes its appearance. The dmracter of these
chords reveals itself still more perc^tibly when several are repeated in tucoession.
The major triad
coiiH'« f;>rth sounding clear and ftill of enerir) ; it may become serene and tender, or
equally brilliant and powerful The minor thad
becomes gloomy and dull, or even wild and desolate, firom its continued repetitkm,
and dius rondos long sucoessions quite inadmissible. Hie ^minished triad
cRrps along most timidly aiid paiiiiuliy. But if we return to the major triad, and
rajjf its Htlh, the shrill ato/vienfed triad pierces our tar. A isuccession of such triads
has uyvcr (at least, up U> the present time) been ventured upon, nor do we know any
motive for its employment. It might perhaps occur in this harsh and vicious form,
which we should be by no means ready to defend, but which, if once admitted, cer-
tainly answers the character of the chord as above indicated.
To the major triad of the dominant is added the minor seventh, and the
bright triad becomes a dominant ek&rd—tk tender harmony, earnestly calling for a
resolution. We add Uie major ninth, and the diord of the miyor ninth rkes towering
over the dominant chord ; the soft longing has assumed the character of violent desire ;
we substitute the minor for the major ninth, and there appears a chord which seems
to sufier and weep for its temerity in going beyond the seventh and stepping over the
boundaries of the octave. In both diords of the ninth, the character of the dominant
chord is still prevailing ; in the diord of the major nmth, the demand of the dominant
has increased to an unutterable intensity of desire ; in that of the minor ninth it has
beeome a teaiiiil, timid yearning.
But we have already gone beyond our purpose, which was merely to g^ve some
indieations of the innate characters of sounds. It is certainly difiicult to stop here at
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280 TUK SIGNIFICATION OF THE FUNDAMEMAL. tURMS OF MUSIC.
the rigît moment; Ibr, tlie contanphtbn of tbeee

being once enticed to enter into
deeply eignifieant ftrme of nature^ we
diBwn dewier and dmflit inenrtibly
are alwaye
into the royateriout region. Here, however, we muit reaiat our incBnalion, aa dua ia
not even the place (ullj to exphun and develop any of the ftfmtg now touched upon,
becaute, to him who enters this sphere for the first time neitlu r •xtraneona proofr
n ra complete development could l>e of essential service. We desir. toawakan
i iy
and atimulute the student*! perception and feeling ; that alone which he observes and
ftda oonfinned in his own mind can be advantageoua to him, and ia worthy cf hia
acceptance.
We may now eoaily comprehend the cbaneter of
4. The two Modet.
The major mode proce^ from the ionic throughout, in tirm, dear, and decided
miyor intervals,
877
and in the symmetrical succession of whole tones and semitones*. The mintr mode,
if vre IbUow the order of the scale, first leads us to a gloomy third and sixth.
378
and then to that sharj* uugmented gcr-ni 1 ifr.-in tht: sixth i< the seventli degrtf) by
wliich th«? diatonic oni'-r if »lti>wther disturbed. Thus tht- mni tr mode is not only
•! itriiiiilly iinTo ijl'i Tuy tUuii ihc major, but this glo-'in muy, under certain circuia-
stauccs, iUjsuiiK' :i riiaracter of piunful vvildness. Still, a* we are frequently induced

to soften the harsh ik-ks of that augmented second by a chromatic alteration of the
sixth and seventh, the charai ttr of this mode is threeby often much modiHed, mni,
although more varie<l, it becomes at the same time less definite.
After the two modes, leaving out of consideraion tlie church modes, whi^ are
treated in the School of Composition, we have to notice
6. The Ketft,
and first the major keys.

Amongst tliose, the normal scale of C major appears as the serene and central
point of rest. It is, on the one side, connected willi the keys with sharps, of a light
character ;
and, on tlie other, with the tlat keys, of a more shadetl cliaracter. Both
species of keys contiime to proj^ress in opposite directions from the common centre,
until they arrive at that renuirkable p ni\t where the extreme keys meet enhamioni-
cally together. But this is too deep a subject to tind a proper place in a merely
introductory work.
• The major scale would osnuiiie n still more !«yninirtrirnl fnrni, wen' it erected upon its pre-
sent seventh
pvovtt
i e.g.
of gnat tmportaiice.
Me—d—e-f—g—
b-
I
i I 1
a (bna wbivli, in the "S«ieaoe of Mosk^" will
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tBM aomnoATiOH or thb wHDAiaNTAL roBMB or mrsic. 281
Cone !m ion.
Here we are tberen)rc compelkd to stop. We might have made many highly
intarMting and important observations on the cbanwler and internal relations of the
cKfferent keys, on the character of the various organs of music (instruments and
voices), ardculate sounds, &c. &c. ; but a mere commencement of these inquiries
would lead beyond the limits of this \vi>rk, while it would be still more ditftcult
to break oft conveniently in tliese, than in the preceding enquiries. He whose mind
has been opened by the few hints we have given, will already have felt that the
same spirit revealing itself to him in some of the fundami-ntal forms, penetrates the
wholt' urtnmism of art. His own perception ;uid ftn-ling will lead him t<» tsirtijer
discoveries, or at least prepare liim for a deeper research. But to him who is not
yet susceptible of this internal spirit of art, or whose natural Kuseeptibility has been
blunted or misdirected by over hasty eonclusions, or preconceived opinions, &c all
ferther elucidations would only be an hicrciis»'<l burthen.

Only une wish and advice we are anxious to add ; viz. the abstinence from fri-
vou.sly transposing musical compositions from one key into another, wliicii is unfurtu-
natcly so prevalent. Circumstances may occasionally render sucli a transposition
necessary ;
but, without so imperative a demapd, it should never be resorted to. If
we are not ouxaelves oonvinced of the internal peculiarity of the different keys, we
ought at l«ast to entertam to mticii feeling of reapeet fer the author ofa worl^ aa to
suppose that he had good reaaons fer dioosing a oertain key in preference to any ctiiw
indeed, we ought to respect hia eholee, were it fer no other leaaon than that it ut hia
choice. He who doea not fed 8 due respect fer an artiit and hia worita, cannot poBieaa
true love fer hia art, or looea it, and togHher with it, aa a just pwudunent, all the
pleaauxe derifaUe from it
282 TBI nOMinCATlOlf or the DIFPXBKRT ABTISnO Y0B1I8.
SECTION THE THIRD.
THB 6IGNIVICATI0N OF THS DIFFBBKNT ARTlSttO VOBMfl.
The si|Tinfication of arfijtfir torins is generally more easy and perceptible; for
herewe have in't to fwlve the creations of nature, hut tlie indepen'ieiit work of tlie
human mind, wliich ilisplays iu» pur]" is.- with sullK-ient accuracy by the forma it em-
ploye. All that is necessary, in order to arrive at a ri<,'ht unilerstanding of these
fonm, is to exaniiiu- th<Mn attontivi-ly, I'-'th sejiarately \uu\ in connexion.
Thus it is cK-ar tiuit nm'- pn rt ri,iiti»>,<'it 'iim must, in general. I'c the most simple
an<l coHiprt^'hensiMt^-. hut also thf most meagre iurm ^f constructiun. In all //";//'>/'/
comtr act torn, we liaU une series of somids, the principal part, predominatuig ovtr the
others, which constitute tlie subordinate, or accompanyinsf parts, whetlier they are
combined in one collective mass (as in No. 327), or accompany the pruici^tul part
like 80 many obedient servants, in octaves, thirds, sixths, &c. or occasionally (as in
920) endeavour, at least ht aafaort tpaee of time, to assume a more independent

form.
In jwfyphome eon^fxttiiioH, the ideal develop themaelvca more richly. Hem
each part anna al the attainment of independenee ; at one time» eaeh hai iti own
individual contentB, and fonns a contrast to the other* ; at anoUier, they ^vide tiiem>
idvea mto two or mere distinct and opposite masses ; sometimes one, although gene-
rally Imtibr a short time, or towards tiie end, actually gains the aaesndaney over the
others, and assumes the character of a princ^ part Here, then, we ham to aea
tiiat justice is done to each part; tfaat where a part is intended to predominate, its
oonftents be of adequate importance ; that it be subdued whoe others are intended

to be more prominent ; and that it be conducted in a distinct manner, where all are
to appear of equal importance. All modes and means of eaqoeanon, as legato, stne-
cato, accentuation, (Riding, forte, piano, &c must be called to aid in the development
of polyphonic composition.
Proceeding to the different forms of construction, we find that patsaên are forms
of a more sprightly, tectioru of a more decided, character ; the period requires to be
well arranged and rounded off ; the coda nmst represent itself as a suiq[>lementary,
hut, nevertheless, an integral part of the whde.
>i It is easy to perceive that the different ur or song forms, and the teuer rmubt,
constitute a connected whole. When an ur consists of distinct movements, as jtHn'
cipal part and trio, or one of the more extended forms of rondo divides itself into a
principal and one or two subordinate subjects ; these distinct portions must also, in
the performance, be well distinguished as separate motivos of the whole ; each mmi
be treated in accordance witii its individual character — it must appear from amtuigst
the rest as conveying an idea of its own, and yet nut so as to destroy the connexion
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THE giONIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENT ARTISTIC FORMS. 283
and flow cf tlie wholft Onthereci]n«ice€ftliefint8tniii--i. e. thepi^

jec( — it nquiKB Butas Uiectoaeterof theworkhas
the same treatment as at first
ID the meanwhile been nune fiilly devdoped, and a conesponding ehange has also
taken place in tiie minds of the performer and audience, the peribrmanoe is also likely
to assume a somewhat different eflect» showing an increase or decrease of ibrce, quick-
ness, or intensity of feeling, kc, &c The intermediate passages will form at one time
a softer, at another a more brilliant, transition firom one to tiie other of the prindpal
motiYos.
These are the lighter and more volatile fonna ; for they eithei confine themselves
to the representation of one principal id^ or, if containing several, present them in a
loosely oonneeted manner. The structure of the wnaia form is more firm and fuU
of meaning. Here we have to distinguish tico principal subêett, each consisting
probably of several periods. In the iirst part, these subjects are contrasted in simple
suocedsion ; in the second, they mingle together, contending, as it were, with each
other Uirough diiferent keys, and occasionally even undergoing a slight alteration of
form, until, in the third part, they finally unite. In connexion with them, appear
codas, amplifications, intrcKiuetions, mfNhilatory yuissaiôB, dc. ; and all these, while
rendered distinctly promiiitnt. must still l)o characterised as connected links of the
wholo cnmposition. The pertlirmer who knows not how to divide the members and
strains throiiji^hout siuh a work, to retognisc and represent each in its individuality,
and, nevertheless, still ci nnect the whole, to render the returning subject o]»vious by a
similar execution, but yet with a different shading as a contrast to its former effect
according to existing circumstances —how can such a perlbrmer faithfully express the
ideas of a composer ?
In all these Ibnns of constnietion, tlie distuict separation of different portions of
tiie composition facilitates the interpretation. Much is gained, if we only keep the
larger niasst-s well coiuiected, and exeeute tiiem correctly. In tlie fttpue, however,
and tlie hii];her tiirms o/i figuration, even tliis aid is wanting. It is true these compo-
sitions arc also divided into separate parts ; but the separation of tliese parts is not
generally so clearly and easily perceived aa in the preceding f<Hrm8. They flow on,
ss it were, in large waves, whose exiatenoe we can perceive without being able to tdl
where each commences or ends, because the cne flows into the other; and both
must be distinctly represented m the performsnee.
Fmoeeding, finally, to the compound fiinns —^m. the sonata, symphony, «!^. Ac.
we find that the principal movementi are generally separated by pereeptible and eon-
•tderable intervals ^ time. But there exists, nevertheless, an internal relation be-
tween themall ; an internal unity of idea and fedmg should cnmeet and show them
to be component parts of the whole work ; and this connexion should appear in the
peribrmancealso. And thus ultimately it will not be doubted that, in greater wcrits,
as operas or oratorios, eadi party must have conceived and proceeded with the work
sone of umijfz if the poet and composer haive been really successfid, a work of art
hai been produced in whidi the idea ud its representation are fidly identified.
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2B4 THE COMPREHENSION AND PERFOEMANCB
SECTION THE FOURTH.
THB 0OMPIUIBIN8IOH AND PKBPOBJIAIICX OF SPECIAL COMPOSITIONS.
All the preceding observati'-ns hiivo merely of /^wrr^/ u]»j'liriiti..n. Their

oliji.'tt vviu; to point nut the ord'niary signitieation ot" tlie variouB Ibrma eniploycd in
music Hut we arrive finally at the question, how, in certain R]HTial compositions,
we shduM interpret and perform all that the«e means and tl*riiis iiulicate, what in
esich juirtic ular eaie was the intention ot the composer, and how it is to be eflectiveiy
realized by tlie jiertnriner?
We have alreatiy Tuiuid that fnr these objetU our system ot" notation is insul-
hcient ; tliut language and other means «»t indication, technical tL-rms, cliaracteristic
8U})erscriptions, &c. have been called to aid. These modes of m ii ati.m we must
endeavuur tu learn and comply with ;
although previously cunv inced that tlie h-ord
usually employed merely conveys a general hint, and that hundreds of such words
would iail to indicate with certainty and accuracy, how eTen a single pkra$e should
be performed.
The UnivBml Sdiod of Music may explain and assist in the aoquiiement ef
an acquaintance with all that is expressed in musical notation, or by the usual
artistic terms and signs ; it may also lead to a pereeption of the deeper sense of the
dilbrent elements and forms of art; but no nune.
More may be acquired by viva wee instruction, should Uie student have the
good fortune to receiTe instruction firam a teacher susceptible and taking a li^y
intoest in revealing, the spiritual dements of his art But> in every case, success
must for the greater part depend upon the capaeitf, seal, and well-directed eflnrta of
die learner. For aU kiundedge and sample avail nothing, ronain dead and bsrren,
where there already exists no real livdy susc^faility and reproductiveness —the
power of interpreting a living oonception vritfa animation. Instruction can only
awaken, foster, and guide this power ; but it cannot dthcr create it or supply its
place. From this convictioo proceed the foUowing concluding remarks; they are
the result of long and extensive experience in private and public teaching, and may
be welcome to many.
If we wish to obtain a clear and vivid impression cf the contents and ideas of m
certain piece of music, it is, above all thingi«, necessary to watch for the proper time*
when nothing from without is likely to distract or îminifh our attention, and when
we feel the mind prepared for the reception of any impression. At such a moment
only, the student should take a new work in hand ; but then he sli.uild enter, nay,
plunge into it with all his whole being, fdlowinji; up the principal p«<ints with undi-
minbhed and undivided energy, however many sulKtrdinate s]>ecialitiess may escape
his notice this first time. For a work d* art is a whole, a living creaticni which
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OF S2ECIAL COMPOSITIONS. 286
mint be seized by the heart, and in \\& entirety — for specialities neither constitute,
nor ghre a true idea ef a work of art He who is capable of forming an idea of
the contents of a composition without the aid of an instrument, may acquiunt lum- •
lelf with its genersl dianwtor and most prominfflit features by a rapid inspection ;
but,immediately after this, he shodd enter on the first performance of the piece,
when he must proceed without hesitation, yielding himself to the spirit of the
moment ; and eadsting only for the oompositiQn of which he desires to obtain a right
conception, without regard to occasional fiuilts and omissions ; adhering throughout
to the time in whidi he started, and, in a piece consisting of seTeial detached more*
ments, through all in uninterrupted succession.
Whatever may have been missed in detail, one point has been aocomptished,
which could scarcdy have been readied by any other course : an unprûdioed and
keefy eoneeptUm of the whole, undisturbed by the influence of any teduiical diffi-
culties, Ac. In Tocsi compositiQiis, it has appeared to us advissble not even to resd
the words previously to this first perfbnnance. For as every text may be treated in
many different ways, and as, moreover, full justice is sddom done to a text, a
previous rending may essily lead to a preconoeived idea» or even to a sense differing
firom that in which the composer has treated it.
Only now, after the piece has been thus once or twice performed, and a general
idea obtained of its chameter and contents, the time has arrived for a more minute
examination. In this examinntirii, the knowledge of the different forms is a valu-
able aid, as it enables us easily to difscover the construction of the whole, the prin-
cipal divisions, the different subjects, and their repetitions, alterations, connexions,
&c. &c. We now oxaniine dt%'i8ion after division, section after section ; wc consider
soparatcly the princi[ial and accessory sulêcts, and endeavour to penetrate more
deejily into the spirit of each.
^Vh^•Il a suliject appears several times ami undergoei* successive alterations (as
in the s^ iuita tiinii ). we compare all its jaulifications, and try to ascertain how and
why the progress of tiie fundamental idea leads to tlie mmijfication of the Imiiii in
which it first aj>peared. For it is only when wl' scl- what arist s from a sulijoct or
theme thai we arc al)le to treat it properly, that we know ln>w to roprL'sont it the
first time, how, 8iibse4ueiuly, lu impaxt more vigour or mildness, and how to modify
it at this or that p«tint.
\ Having now con.sidcrcd tlie principal suhjects and tJiL-ir connexion, \vc return to
the examination of the whole. Every composition contains one, or perhaps several,
prnrUs of culmination, serving as the lum, and at the same time supporting the con-
sistency of the whole perfonnanee. Everything groups itsdf around these points,
oideavouring, alher in a continuous flow, w by successive steps, to rise up to them,
and Ihen sgun subside, either to the end, or in order again to rise. Thus there
occurs in every musical composition one, or more, great waves, alternately flow-
mg and ebbing ; if there are seversl, one anun^ fhem will rise sUH higher than
the rest, were it only because it is the last He who does not perceive, end is net
sUe to follow these undulations, who cannot rsise himself to the proper heq^ and
sgun at the r^ht moment descend, may succeed in many, or evw in all the
sii^ points ; but the reward of the whole, the real and comidete ef&et of the entire
composilion will be lost to him. It is therefore necessary agsin to direct our atten-
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286 THE COMPEEllSNSION AND PE&FOBMANCK
tim to ihb entire compontioii ai m imdinded whole; but tUs time we do it with
the ftding of jprcetcr aecurity, derived from our previous enwinotinn of the lepa-
rate parts and their connexion.
Now that we are sure of having ftrroed a genevaUy eonect idea of eU the
essentials of the piece as a whole» we may proceed to the emmtMtfton and pmetiee
^ tht detaib. This is the time to inveotigpKte the whole ifaythmical and tonal
construction, to practise those passages whidi present mechanical diif^culties, until
they are perfectiy mastered; in vocal compositions, to study the text, b*»th by
itsdf and in connexion vnth the music Here tlit- great importance of being
intimately acquainted with the precise signification of tiie different elt'inonta and
forms of art will My reveal itself; for it is this knowledge iilone which enables
us to discover the special means the composer intended to be employed in the
representation of his ideas ;
upon which interval, upon which rhythmic or melodic
motivo, kc. he has placed essential reliance, what points or passages should be
brought out more prominently, and which kept in the l ack ground. This last and
most scrupulous examination will fully prove to us whether our first conception of
the character and contents of the work was (i correct one or not. In compositions
for several sinp rs or inslruiucntal perf<>nners, tiiis examination will not, of course,
becoaliiud solely touur own part, hut will also extend U.> all the rest. How w-.add it
be possiMe t^r a singer to execute liis jiart properly and eftectively, if he had not
consideriNl h,.vv he will be accompanied, which instruments are to support, and which
to oppose Jiini ?
Thus, at length, we ii iî fienetmted to the most minute dcUuia, we have not,
however, studied theui a-s aeUulii, but in connexion with and upon the of llie
general idea of the whole*.
* Although it doe* not fUH witfim the provinoe of this vodc to enter mom doeiily inlo the
detafltof the study and porfunuonco of special comp<mitioiu, atUl the autibor is luwilling to
dismiss this subject without ndflinsr a few hints which long expcrienro has proved to be useful.
First : the perforuicr should avoid all excess in the employment of the diiSkt-nt means of
expnwtoB, and not intnduee in every piece tiie extrane deignos of lutte tad piano, or all
the model sad expedients of exeeutioii. NoUiing tends ao miu^ to make a perfbmaaoe
monotonous and void of tratii as diis eiror, which originates citlicr in a predilection for thi<
or that style of execution, or somctimo* oven in the vain fh-sire to exhibit the performer's
command over all the means of musical expreitsion. A pretty aoug or rondo, a dcHcAtc sona-
tina, or • doep-folt adagio, can, under no circumstana-s, require, nor bear without injury, the
massive foroe of a gnmd eoena, kd impMstoaate sonata or symphmiy, 4ko. So a deeidf eon>
ceired, perhaps oven polyphonic movemeet, in which we desiie to distingoiiih ami trace the
projrress of each single pait, must al?o nprpssarily wtiptain pivat loea, if performed in too ^ttick
a time, although this time may be quite suitable for bi Uiiaul bravura pieces.
A thoughtful performer will also take into account the quality of his iustrumcnt or voice,
aadllwdseof theioomi&whtdi he perfbnBBoroooduots. Ho will auBage his Artes aed

pisaos ia snsh a manner that the resources of hia instnaicnt or voice shall always suffice ; if
these orgims are woalj, he will hf gpaiing with his means, in order to provide fur thoM point*
whore an incre ase of jowcr aud energy may bf n quin^d ; when conducting in a hirp room,
he will take Uio time tdower, in order that the feouiiiltt uuiy ttpreaJ without concision, ^c. kc.
Smuilif : it ahotild be lemambered that dm aame^ or vmy dmilar, imuUs sie aometiSMS
attAuaablc by quite bmbds^ snd that, therefore, one means c£ exproaaioin may often he
sohotitated for, or atMogllMn, snodisr. Thna^ whan the ?aioe or iurtnimsiit is not snSeieBtly
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OV SPECIAL COMFOBITIONS. 287
It b true, tiilt ooune u not lo ihort and eaiy as muiiy an eager performer or
linger migjht tfaink desirable. But it is to be obsturved, in tfw first place, that per-
feetioQ and certamty of suficsss can hardly be aeqiiind at less cost; and that, aeoondly,
the eourae faeoomes unttpectedly mwe euy and pleasant, and the end is approached
aoomv than mif^t have been hoped fer at the outset PVnr he who has studied only
a few compositions so earnestly and thoroughly as here indicated, will find, in the
examination of the next> his susceptibility and perceptive powers so much increasM
sod stren^henedy that» while his labour is diminished, his success and pleasure are
considerably increased.
The student who determines OH pursuing this course, is advised not to change
suddenly from one species of composition, or one composer, to another, but to take
tune and try to become familiar with the one belore he proceeds to the other. If he
bare just been occupied with a fitgue or sonata, let him take a ftw more fiigues or
sonatas, in order that he may become fully acquainted with the essential features of
these forms and the most proper mode of treating tliem. But he should then com-
pare different compositions of the same species, with a yiew to trace the idea and
chcu^teristic features distinguishing the one from the otiier, and requiring a modifi-
cation in the performance, in order that may avoid the mannerism of playing, or
he
singing, all pieces classed under the same name without the requisite variation of
sl^lo.
^\'hen the student has been occupied with, and felt interested in the work of a
a rtain cA-mpoapr. it is also partii ularlydesiral'le (;us it will l>ctl\u hidination of every
enlhusiiL-itic l(*vcr of iniHif) to proceed at once to dther works of tiie mtne
author, in order to obtain a }>erfect insiglit into liis style and manner, and the way
in which his works n'<juire to be treated. Every single artist, iUI the artists of a
[lartieular nation or time, are distinguiiihed l>y certain })i-culiarities in music, as well
as ill i.ther arts and pursuits of life ; this, every person who has studied iiiblury and
mankind w ill take for frmnted, vvithout being apprised of it ; but even the super-
ficial lover of music nia\ be convinced of it, ly merely comparing two arti&tii of
diflerent nations, us liosisuu and iÎuzurt, or Auber and Gluck. The niure deeply
povofiil, an aoodenitioD of noreiMBt may impart additwiuJ ftiros to s wliolo stzain, or m

ittpereeiitilile ritardando gin* inensiMd fbrce to a rin|^ note or pasMge; thui also^ In nnging,
a clear or energetic dfllivery may make good, or conceal, many defects of the organ.
Third'ir . it should be M'ell considered that the acf;cb ian(!o and ritardando must never ho
resorted to so frequently, or employed so extensively, aa to destroy tlie feeling of the original
time, except when it is intiiuded to prepare the hearer for a chaugo of movemeat; that, in
tinse chsiigM of movauMiit also, a §^m*trM relatioiL between tike time wbidbi ie dunged
tot anotber and the new dcurreo of moTeDMOt (ao that the one is half, twice, four tmutf Ac aa
slow or quick as Uu- otlicr) will al\vnv!i pro<lurc n more plea.«ini» efTect, cxcipt wliero a paitt*
ctilurly patiMioaate chiiractvr of the cuntentA overrulrs tLt- Tiim' coiuidtfruliou uf Kymmetry.
Fourthly : let it bo particiUarly remembered that the iudiuationa of forte, piano, and other
i^na of expreaaion employed by tbe compoaer, baye not ererywbera the aame OMaateg; that,
for instance, an / or
^
occmringm a movement of a generally cabn and iîilxlu* d charactery
dOe« not indicate the same degree of force or iii|)liasis us in w mnvcmcnt of a l)-<id ainl nmro
i
generally energetic character, but ahould be iatcrpretod according to the prevailing idea uf the
movement or pieee.
The idea of tiie whole work ahodld bo our aole guide and rule in the itttotfcetatioa and
iaiminmutatian of each aingla part.
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288 TBS C0MP&EUEN8I0N AMD PKArOaMA.NC£, ETC.
we search into these relsluiiui of timet and iiatigm]Hiei» md iDto tiw privBle fife
and character of an artist, the more eiear and deep win be our inng^t into the
spirit of hit works. For, althoagit many of our odleagues and brother actiita wiU
not admit its truth, it still rmiains undeniable that a right and perfect undoT"
standing of art is impossible, without a knowledge of the history of art and artists.
All such fine fîraaes as —that art is of a univenal nature, tiiat it bdn^ to no
time, that it remains always and eyery wliere the same, and only requires a sus-
ceptible mind, &e. —
are mere common-plaoe expressions, which contain a partide
of truth amidst a heap of error and untruth, and are circulated most industriously
by those perwns whose own horiaon is generally most confined. To sueh penoos,
while they ding to thdr dierished idea—that ait knows of no time or locality—4he
art of most times, of all the post ages, and of the present, all that is not consonant
with their own subjective ideas, ranains a sealed book ; m their eyes, the whole art
is oHioentiBted in, or confined to, the works of me or two masters, which, fer this
ery reiuson, they are equally unable to comprehend. All others are tiien pro-
nounced &lse, vainly aspirin^:, or antiquated artists. But how can an artist be
either modem or antiquated, when art has nothing to do with time ? This is to
them a disagrccaMe question.
We have felt it our .luf y tr. |>oint out the importance of being well informed in
history ; but it cannot be demanded of a merely preparative School of Music to
supply this infi^rmation', which l)elong8 to the sp<»cinl province of the history of
music; not of a iiu re collection of liicts and dates, but a histciy. entering int»> the
spirit of the different I'tritids of art and artists. But here we must agiiin rt peat
the observation we UKule when s]»eaking uf U»e dillercnt I'li-nienUi of art ; vi/.. that
the nrord of history is a mere empty snnnd. and tiiat every thought of andher
person must remain to us a useloss a( i[uisitii>n, so long as it is nncorroborated by
cur own jMTtrjitinii anî i-xjifricnc^ — ^so long as we ourselves have not perceived and
deeply tell what it i» the object of doctrine imd history to tetich.
• Many notices n>latu)g U> the history of the musical art arc contntntHi in the author's
" Ktuut dii Qestmtf€»" in his essay, " Veber MaUrd in der Tonkunttf" and m the )uugraphic&i
SftidM of tiie *• Utnnrml LtxUtm 4tr T^kmutr also in KagvU's **l09lmm •» Mmk,** ind
imilir works.
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COLLKCTIVE rEAFOAMANGK. 28U
SECTION THE FIFTH.
OOLLICTIVX PIBFOBM ANOX.
Tarn nmuhaneoui perfirmnnre of musical OMnpontupsby lereral individuals re->
qUDies a special cooaideiatiofi. Such perfoimanoetare of two different kinds ; either one
performer mcrdy accompamea anotfaar' — lor example, the pianoforte accompanist of
a singer — or several take an equally important part in the representation of the -
composition, as in a quartet, chorus, or nnit»xl orchestral ensemble.

llie accoin}>aniTnpnt of a solo perlornier requires peculiar abilities, as well as much
attention, anil wo trccjuently meet with clever, or even ex( elkiit, solo performers who
are nevertheless had accompanists. An accomjânist imi.st not only p<»si5.es8 all the
kn'^wK-dfê and technical proficiency necessary i'or the ri<:ht understanding: and proper
rej.n s.-ntation dfihe work to Ite ]ierliinned, l*ut a!>f > suthcient gelf-denial to accom-
in.Hlatti himseil ti) the |irinci| ial ptrtunner or t^nijêr, whuê ideas he must he able and
ready to seize, to coiu eal liis weak points and faults, to bring out his perfections, and
even to anticipate his intentions. And all this skill, all the sacrifices demanded, will
only uitrit thiuiks, when rendered unobservable to the hearer To him, no contra-
diction, not even the slightest disagreement between the |X'rformers, nor fault uiusl le
perceptible ; tlie jouit peribnnance must present itself U> him as the inspiration of one
mind.
And yet, on the <êr hand, tlie accompaniment mmi not descend to ttie level of
a mere paiaiye and lif^teaa subeerviency ; neHiii^ tosds mwe to render the work
tiresome, , and to embanrasa the principal perfiMrmer, especially if a unger. Eveiy
singer (and also every solo player) requires the enorgetic co-operation of Uie aocom-
paniat; not resistance or contradiction, but support and emulation. To the natural
undulations of the vocal part eapedaUy, is the enogetic and vrefl-accented seizure of
the aoGompanuDoait at the ri^t time, and always in suborduuition to the prindpal
part, most refireshing and inspiriting ; a timid and inanimate accompaniment
while
gradually weakens the confidence and power ttf even the best nngm. That such a
manly, confidenoe-iCreating, weU-timed and judidous co-operation must be particu-
larly encouraging, and therefore welcome to female singers (even the most excellent),
eveiy one will easily conceive. The above observations reJato only to the duties of
the accompanist during the perfbrmanoe; it will scaicely be necessary to add that a
perfect agreement between the two perftrmers, a mutual understanding, and previous
joint practice, are necessary conditions of success.
The office of the accompanist in v nl r unpositl ns in many parts is altogether

different. In this case, he has, genoaUy, also to conduct the performance, to indicate
the time, muembU, expression, &c This leads us to the second point under con-
nderation.
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: : —
290 *
COUJEOnVB raBVOBHAllCl.
Every performance by a number of oo-oporating individuals, in oriicr to be suc-

oesslul and BBtiB&ct>ry, requires previous collective rehearmls, and, if the number of
perfonncrs be ooikiiderable (as in a full orchestra with chorus), a tonduetcr or
director.
With the conductor rests the selection of the compositions, and also their pcriect
j>erfonnance. llie distribution of tlie parts, the placing of the jtersonale, the time,
mode of exjiression, every thing depends ujton his final decision. He must therefore
possess a perfect knowledge of all these matters, he must have considered and { ri pared
evi ry thing, and, lastly, he must he the man to carry mit his plans and amirip ni> nt8.
He who is lu ither fully ;u i[u;iiiitra complt te understandinf^ ufthc work to l-c
pLT}">rined, nor carried in his mind a r\viir jxn i ptiviii of the manner in whicii it is ti>
be executed ; he who is unable by luiJ uutioii tu communicate his ideas and

intentions to those w ho arc to follow directions ; who is nut ([uick in detecting:, ">r
even anticipating ami j

ruvontincj, or correcting their faults ; he \vli<» liiUj nut that nerve
uiid power of will, and that tjuitkness of eye — one uiight ahnust say umiiipresence
which can keep a iiLunbcr uf perlunacrs steadily together ;
finally, he who is not also
armed with unUmited authority to enforce Ids commands—mich a One may be uieri-
tortous as a musician, but he cannot daim the honour of beiiig w effiaent conductor.
Hie merely meehanicat operadoa of beating time is totm acquired. Bipailile
is indicated by an up and down down beat maiidng

(I) time beat ; the tiie principily
andtheupbettttheteoondaiy*, partofthemeaeuie. Thuai
Two If
I
In siwj'fr tripk thit>% the principal part is indicated by a down beat, the secondary
parts by successive up beats in a slanting direction ; thus
Three!
Two!
Onel
In runimdu (quudi iiKirtitc) timr, the first tnttchet is marked Ity a di>wn heat, the
becoiul erot<:het by a motion towards the K ll, tlie tlmd by a motion tuwuxds die right
imid, and tliu fourth by a sluiiting up beat
* Italian and French muaiciaaa frequently iudicato the accented part of the bar by on up
snd tiie vnaooeiited one 1>7 a down beat; tii^do so in order to make the Anner ijgii
Ibettp
mare visible but tu m, this mode of beating time seans opposed to the ftelmg as wdl at ttie
;
nature of the subject.
t Each (lash indicates a beat (hca>, half a lor), the direction of the motion beiag ftom the
thifinm* |o the thickoT end of the dash>
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COLLECTIVE P£RF0KMA2«C£. 291
Four!
Two! ThKti!
One!
Double triple (|} tiim- is iiidicutoJ by the same motion of the hand or buton, only
that two ountol during both the
porta of the bar arc first and third beats ; thus:
One! Two!—Three!— Four! Five:—-Six!
Wlien the moYenurit ii» very quick, nuly the principal divisions ut' tiie iiu-asure
are iiidieated ; y. in quick | time, only the hrat and lliird cr'ttelietii (the one liv an
up beat, tile otlier l>y a duwii beat) ; in quick | or j, only the tirst crotchet or (juaver
(down ) ! aiid tlie third crotchet or quaver (up !) ; Urns
Thieel
One! Two!
In quidc f tune, only the fint and fourth quaven ; in | tune, the fint, fourth and
wreath quavers (as if it were \ time, with the parts of the bar divided into tripleU).
Sometimes, however, it may be neoeesaiy to indicate not only the parts, but also the
members of the measure. This may be done by repeated, shifft, jerking, down beats
ftir tnstanoe, in slow
| time, somewhat in this manner
Sue!
One! Two!
or in many ottier ways, wluch it is unneoeisaiy to describe, beeause the mode of beating
time adopted by a conductor, if not expressly agreed upon, may easily be discovered
during the rehearsal or perfimnanoe*
Now, as regards the performen, th^ should not only be ready and willing, but
abo aUerto carry out the intentions of the conductor. Tito readiness and willingness
to which we here allude, must, however, by no means become a merely servile or
cold submissiveness, and still less an indifferent, or compulsory obedience. It

cmristi, on the contrary, in an active and cheoiiil concurrence in the ideas of the
conductor, whetlier coinciding, or not, with those of the ])erfonnr-r, an J a constant at-
tention to, and careful obser>'ance of, his hints and directioos. The latter requires
gnaler proBdency and skill than solo singing or playing ; we must have mastered
U 2
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292 COLLSCTIVE PEEFOHMANCK.
aod beoome quite certain vS our pert belbi« we can attempt its peifivnuviee, and, afctbe
same time, have an ê and ear for every sign and hint of the conductor. In tbia
the perfect training of a singer or player for ooUectiTe peifeimance is displayed.
To what extent this ta^k is also fiiffilitated and rendered more giati^ring by a
deei>er insight into the genius of art in general, and espedaDy of the piece to be per-
fimned, requires no demonstiafcion. Here we must, however, dose our observati(»]»
on a subject which n<>t only denuinds special study urxl ]ireparation, but ultimatd^
dq)ends upon the dt « ision of the conductor. For the Univerîal School of Music can
only prepare ibr and facilitate, or correct, the study of the different branches of ma-
flical art ; the rest must be left to special works*, or private instruction.
* i)r. OossntT's E'isay, Ihrirj'-nf mtd Ripienitt" pohUshed by Grooai, in Karlarahc, i*a
dcvcr aud mo0t instructivu work on Uiu aubjoct.
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9
PLAYIMU FROM SCORE. 21)3
APPENDIX TO PART THE SIXTH.
PLATIVO FBOM 8C0ES.
Thk observBtions on collective performaiK^ lead us back to a subject which

must be of iniportiuico to every student aiming at the higher degrees of proficiency,
and to every professional musician especially ; the art of plaving from score.
All that was essential to l>e said retipectiiiir its value, and its general eninprehension,
will be found in the tenth section of the third part. How much knowledge of
harmony, of acquaintance with find fluency in the fingering, }»erception of the forms
of art, but more especially a proficiency in real coinp^'îtion, must facilitate the
interpretation of scores, will ]>e aj'jiarent from all jtreceding observations. The last
means of attaining an easy and cerUiin nenetration into the contents of a score, are
practice, aiLLh(Niical!y conducted, and an acijuaintance with the mode of WTiting, or
tAe sf ijle of the composer to whose work our study is applied.
The comprehension of a score being presupposed, we add a few general hints
on score -playing. It is su natural that we should <le8ire to render audible to
ourselves and others what we have read witlx interest, and so many occasions pre-
sent themsdves, even to a musician or amateur not officially engaged as conductor

or diieelar, in which it is agreeable to be able to accompany or lead a musical per-
ftnaame firom the teore^ that the Mowing Unta, if not equally interesting to
will, it is hoped, meet with attention from the zealous and perseTering. It is
premimed that the instrument employed is tiie pianoforte, this bmg the only cue
perfectly suited to the purpose, and everywhere most conveniently at hand.
Beaidfis the above-mentioned requirements for score-playing, one stiB remains to
be noticed ; viz.a suflBdent, that is to say, a eotmderabk praetieal tkUl in jâno'

fonU plt^fii^ êneralfy. We do not mean an extraordinary proficiency in bravura
petformanee (attfaough tlua likewise may greatly assist), but rather the art of con-
ductmg two or more umultaneous parts distinctly and in a eharaetmstic manner,
and of escecuting efiectively every kind <^ passage, skip, run, sucoesnon of iuH
diords, with both hands, and in every style of playing witii perfect focility
very firequently-—«bnoBt every momentr—the seore-pUiyer will be required to render

passages and oomtnnations upon the piano, which, not being ori^nally intended
for this instrument, appear strange and impracticable, and oAcn compel him to
deviate firom the regular mode of fingering. It is therefore necessary that, inde-
pendently of the regular training of the school, he should possess the skill to invent
at any monMnt such a new mode of fingering and style of performance as circum-
stances noay require, in order to extricate himsdf dexterously firom difficult or
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294 PLATING FROM SCORE.
inconvenient positions (to whieh 8 Bcore-phyer often, quite imexpeet«fiy» finds

himself le<l). aiid even to invent, imtanter, anew meani of expremoo, whcfe the
inten'le*i eflfect of a passage or strain could not be produced by ordinary means.
Extempore [)erfomiance is a very useful preparatory practice for score- playing.
It will, howeTOTy be }>erceive<l, from the above observations, that the regular s^^
of perfwmance, as taught by the school, may be more or less endangered by much
score- }i1aying; for this ronton, we advise every student not to commence this prac-
tice until he has acquired sufficient stability and habitude in the general style of
pianof>rte-playing.
So far resjiecting the primary conditions.
All other observations on this subject arc connected with the question: trAo/ is
the nhn nrid porjmf^ f>f jyh» '>no frmv frnre ?
I If w 11 1 ( Icarly answers this qiirsti'in, ami applies that answer to each special
case, iiii'ls ihortin tlio true guidance to liis jirofital'l*.- <x*cupatii»n.
ScMre-playing shi>iiM n jiresent to tlie e;ir, its ci,»nipletely and correctly its j-">>sil'K*,
the contents of a sn ri . i iiher upon the piano alone, or in connexion with th'«se
parts the vocal parts) performed by "thers. In the latter ca^c, the accom-
panist luuj niily to execute that pjrtioji ol tiie wore which is not already contained
in the }>arts of the co-operating performers.
From this, it niiglit be8up]X»ed that the only requirement would bo to play thoee
notes of the score which are not contained in Uie jiart* lor the other performers. Thia,
however, is not the case for— ;
Firstfy: the notes of a aeora when played upon the piano do not produce the
same eflTect as when peribrmcd by an orchestra. What power la displayed by a
single chord of combined stringed insfrumentsl wbatlbhwH in a bvid of wind
instruments
VC. e CB.
And how little of the original effect would l>e cnveyed by the same coniliinali"ii of
sounds uj'on the piano 1 All nicims ot power, by a <luplicatiun of llie parts, and by
cmpl'^viri)^ a l-'wer and more sonorous ropi<m of sound, nmst be- callod into actinn ;
the pju:l6 f'T the wind instruments » sj>r( ially, being tranR|>08ed aiiuctavi- lower, where
the vibrating i»ower of tho piano is gn ati-r. while the wind instruments are strongest
In the hicher sounds ;

even consecutive tiftli.s (alth'-U}:li it is impossible larc to give
a general rule) might be adntilted, in order to intitate Uie effect of tlie horns*.
* The propriety of thesr consecutive octavt^s and fifth* (p. 3M), cwiDot be eoluiteed here,
but onlj in the '* School of Composition" luid the Science of Miide.**
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PLATIMO FBOX 8C0EI. 296
Sfcondhf : it is often quito impnu ticaMe to rondcr everj' note of a score upon
Ibe piano; or to do so without creating cimfusion. Even the alx»ve hannony for
wind instramenta (Ex. 379) cannot be perfectly rendere<l by two hands upon the
piano ; ttffl ten is it possible to represent all the figurated parts of a score. But, as
previously observed, were it even possible to give m eomplete a representation of the
contents of a icore, it would frequently lead only to oonfunon in the progreenon of
the parts. The oominenoeinent of Moiart*8 impassioned symphony in O minor
may serve at a moat simple illustration.
It cannot he at all eompletely played; the eontra-basso (the lower octave of

the bass) most be omilted; m the fldid bar the bass must be ahered, and
interminglbg of flie hands in so rîid a movement would be extremely difficult, if
not impossible. But, supposing all mechanical difficulties overcome, s^ it would

not rquresent the design of the score ; the melody and accompaniment would finrm
a eonfiiaed mass, and the light and soft course of the violms be restrained and
flbocured by the lower octave. The partof the second violin, at least, ought there-
fire to be omitted, in order to preserve the idea of the originaL When the parts
snstiOmorenumerous, or differ more, even greater sscrifioes will be required. The
shwe paissge, for instance, recurs in the course of the componUon ; but here, the
tui hautboys phiy and sustain the sounds d and b above the mdody of the third
bar; beautilfal as is their elbet in the oidiestra, fhey must be rdinquished, in
oidsr to avoid injuring the eflect of the melody.
If, then, it be necessary to omit some part of the contents of a score, the question
arises : which ? First, that only which cither cannot be executed upon the piano,
or, if played, would not produce the intended effect Next, those parts are to be
omited whkfa are least important Thus we have alroaily given up the mere
filling-up accompaniment of the hautboys in favour of the principal melody ; and, in
No, 3fll , the second violin in favour of the first. The same motivo occurs a third
time, but is then introduced hy an intermediate passage for flute, hautboy, and
bassoon ; so tiuit the violins make their entry, with the melody, between the two
masses of wind instruments. Here the latter must by no means be left out, not
even &: the sake of the principal melody. We should play thus
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29G PLATING PBOM BCOU.
382
omitting only tlic last note (/}{) of the flute and hautboy, in ord«r to hdgjltoi tin
9ff«A of the tixth in the pfindpiii melody; for it u the derign of the eompoeer that
the melody diould be Burroanded and partially coooealed by die harmoDy of the
wind initrumenta.
It ie not, however, always neceesaiy entirely to onut all that it imi«aeticaible or
un&Torable, at appearing in the toore. Sometimes It is sufficient to transpose
one of the parts an octave higher or lower. But on this point no general rule can
be given. It is neeeasaiy, in each special case, to consider whether such a transpo-
sition really fiilfils its purpose of facilitating the execution, by imparting greater
penpicuity to the performance, whether it leads to &ul(i in the harmony, or to
un&Torabie positions, or interferes with the design of the compositioii. The per-
former must abo take care to return at the proper momrat, and irapercîttbly, to
that order in which the parts are arranged in the ori^naL
Tkirdfy: many passages and combinations for Other instruments either cannot,
or at least, can only with great difficulty, be executed upon the pianoforte, and either
cease to be effective, m assume a totally different character. Oi' tliis the icnor iîart
in No. 381 affords an example ; a more striking illustration is afiforded by those

repetitions of the same sound
AUegro.
which ate practicable t^Mxi bow instruments in every degree of rapidi^ md

power ; while they are either altogether impracticable or extremely (Ufficult, efie-
dally when doubled in the third, sixth, or octave, upon the pianoforte ; and never
aoquire the lightness and pkuto of the original instrumenis. Here then it bec«mes
necessary to invent new and more conTenicnt forms, in order to attain, upor the
piano, the same, or a sunilar effect to that produced by other instruments phying
according to the score.
Many other conditions present themselves in a(x»mpanying from score In
most cases, the persons to l>e accompanied are singers (especially chorus siigers),
and the occonijiani.st (ifheiiites at the Kame time as conductor, leader, or asdstant,
indicating; thi- time, and su|»[>orting tiie voices where necessary.
Here it is no longer n qiiired, nor is it frequently adnsablc, to aim at a com-
plete representation of the contents of the score upon Uie piano oione.
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PIATINa FBOM 8C0BB. 297
When the nngen can be depended upon, and are sufiidenUy ntuneraua, thdr
parte may be afanoet entirely left to tfaemielTee, and the aooompanist U thus enabled
to g^Te a richer and more êetiTe representation of the ether parte. In doing ao, it
is, in the firrt phm, neceaiary to provide a lufficiently powerfiil bast fir the iupport
of the Toifiea; fir this reason, the aooompaniat must often contract the haimony and
saerifice aome of the inner parte, in ord«r to lesre his left hand free fir the exdu-
Ofe perfinnanoe of tiie baas ; whidi, eqiecially in powerful or grave movements, it
may be necessary to double in octaves. Thus also the ri{^t hand must fiequentiy
devote itaelf exclusively to the execution of some charaebsristic passage in the upper
part, when it is partioularfy desirable that this part should be brought out dearly
and prominently, etther by imparting to it a greater degree of force, or doubling it
in octaves. Sometimes, those of the secondary parte, which one or the other hand
m^t reach, must be omitted, with a view to leave more space for the principal
part ; indeed, cases may arise in whidi the whole accompaniment must be reduced
to two energetically conducted parte, or even one, and where this is the onk/ waif to
effect the design of the composer.
Should unsteadiness or error be olwervable in one or all of the vocal parts, it
will be the first duty of the accompanist to support and keep them together. As
this is scarcely attainable, while sustaining a richly developed accompaniment, he
will do well by coiifinmg himself to striking (*nly tlie chords (commonly termed
thorough bass), or, perha]»s, playing with particular stress that part wliich shows
signs of weakness. All this, howLVt r, should only l»e done in case of necessity ; and
it demands presence of mind and tact in the iicconifianist to return as quickly and
dexterously iis possible from such compulsory deviations to a more characteristic
and score-like mode of accompaniment

So far by way of introduction to one of the most interesting task^ l Uie practical
musician. I>jng-contiiiued and systematically progressing prat Uce, reflection, and

the superintendence of a teacher who is himself skilled and experienced in score-
plaviug, iiie here also the surest mc.uis of success. As regard.! tluj course of exer-
cises, the easiest (vvitli the distinction tliat we begin with those in few j»arts) are
generally the scores of the Italian church composers, next those of Handel and
Gluck, and Haydn's and MoKart's quartets and symphonies. Next in order are
Moaart*8 operas, Haydn's oraftorios, and, lastly, without reference to the works of
many other masters, Beethoven's and Seb. Bach*s orchestral compositions. It will
be understood that this is only a general suggestion, and that many of BoefliovenV
or Bach*s scores may be more easily trsnsfirred to the piano, than others of Handel,
Haydn, or the Italian composers. Haydn especially is rich in peculiar combi-
nations, fiequentiy mvolving the player in problems difficult to solve, and yet most
mleresting.
LaaUjf : it may be asked, whether jiididous and carefiil pkmiforte arrangemmo*

nigbt not serve to aocomplish the object of phiying fiom score vnth,;rmler eerfamfC^,
uxi better f
Hie first* moet undouUedfy; fir the adqrter of a pianofirte arnmgemeiit has a
fivorable Ofîortunity df considtting everything, and dioosing the most practicable
modes of transcription The latter, eerteoMfy net.
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298 PLATIMO WBXm tOOBB.
For pMPolbrte adaptationt are generally made for sale* ;

th^ $n there&re so
amnged as to be within the reach cf many kit-advanced playan, and contain by
no means all thai a skilful perionnar can prodoea from the Mora. And, even were
this not the caw, s pianoforte arrangement necessarily contuna only one i^reaeBtai-
lion of the eoon. Now it is plain that even the most complete repreientation
upon the piano can only give an incomplete idea of the rich contents of a score. A
performer, therefore, who has entered more deeply into his score, will not always
play the same jtiussaijc in the same manner; he will bring out more prominently,
now this part, and now anntticr ;
rosortini; to various temporary exj>cdi**nt>;. in
order to complete or imjirove his representation ; and tlius, at least, |â<iua]iy
convey to his hearers a more perlect idea of the contents of the score than is pos-
sible in the best arrangement.

Nor should it be left out of consideration, how much yileasure of a higlier kind
the initiated mii?ici;m derives from the perusal of a score. It unll generally be
found tliat sudi a one prefers playing from score, and plays better and with greater
ease than from a pianoforte arrangement
• /\n eminent exemption, is F. l-i-^zt's pinrmfirtr adaptation of Broth"Von's Symphony in
C minor, which renders tho gruud orch(i«tral work wiUi fulness, power, aud diguitv, and wiih a
dsep, we may say nAiicd, pcreeptiim of the ttttnre tad ei^bilitils of l3b» pianalorta. Tlie
Psatonl Bjmiphony, which he has treated in the mum oumiier, could oot be ttans&ned with
equal Buccesii in tliis (;otnpo>if ir>n, t!i>- on hrstral
; cfToctH arc as unattunsbU) xcpan the pssao, a
they are indispoiuabLo to tho realization ot the oomposeft ideas.
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PART THE SEVENTH.
CULTIVATION OF MUSIC
AND
MUSICAL INSTRUCTION.
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A QLANCE AT TU£ PHKSENT bTAT£ OV MUSIC. 901
•^SECTlOiN THE FIRST.
A OLAMOl AT TBB WWKMT STAXB OV 11V8I0.
In a work offering itself to the atudent as a companion on his fint entrance into
the field of miuical art, to the mare advanced musician, the teacher or ooDductor» ai
a remembrancer and counscUor on matters that may have escaped the memory, or
appeared doubtftii, can anything be more to the pmpose than the inquiry " What —
is Die real object and proper method of musical cultivation ?" And where could a
man, who lives for and is actively engaged in this cultivation, find a more suitable
occasion fur llie expression of his Ideas and wishes, than in a work introductory to,
and connecttHl with, the School of Compontion, and the successive treatises on the
Scienr»:> of Music?
We tlierefore add, by way of suppU'mont to tiie '
Universal School of Music,'*
a series of observations and consideraLiuns on (//e ohjert and mdftod of musical
inetr >></.^t'fi, iHjfh for the people in oefwral and the art Lit in particular.
Sucii observations, in order to be true and useful, must be founded upon a clear
{>erception of the real nature and purpose of musical art, and an unprejudiced and
Ccuuiid examination of its present state of cultivation, especi^ly in our own fether-
luiiiL It is true, and ever)' one must at uncc acknowledge, that neither he nor itny
one else can hope to remain altogetlier impartial, or arrive at the truth in all matters
connected with an examination of this kind. Each individual commands only a
OMnparatiyely Hmited range of view; and yet every one takiiig a-CTely and active
intenai in a mattar, moat have ftit hoir neeenaiy it is to In^piire ht lumfelf and
fiem bii own individual point of viev; and hsm inadequate and uncertain a aob-
ttalitte ftr adf-inquiry is the inftnnatioa derived fimn othen. Every incGvidual ia
also bound to admit thai he himself ia more or less under the influence of the
îiit of hia time; that bis ideas, whether differing firam, or agreeing the ideas
of dsooe around lum, are yet in some my affected by them, and that the fatal
deemon on this, as on every other matter, must be left to the future, to those who
ftUovr us. Still it is our da^ to make the mquixy, aithoiigjli our judgment may
hereafter, in the eyea cf othen, observing fiom a more distant point cf riev, beeooM
a teatimony either^, or agpinst oursdves.
Ihe first glance we take at the present state of musical art, rereala to Ui a
pietaue of musical activity so great and univenal as may scarcely have eiisted at
any previous period; excepting, perhaps, during those lovely days once shinmg
upon Italy and Spain. Then, indeed, the stream of holy song gushed from the
open doors of every church, flowed down from every pilgrim-crested eminence;
inm every balcony the clang of festive trumpets enlivened the banquets of nobles
and princes, and» in the stillness of the balmy night, the trembling eh(ffds of man-
dolines and citherns mingled with the voices of tender siDgers, So our own countiy
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A OLAHOI AT TBI PRI8IHT flTAIS OP MUUO.
also resounded, in the days of Luther, with hii songs of holy war&re. Powerfully
ezcttiiig» inspixingy and confirming, they swelled from the church choir, and through
the open doors spfead over the crowded market-place ;
they tilled the busy street
with shouts of religious entfaiinasm, and pen^rated to the private Smukj drde, the
lonely chamber ot the pious Christian.
That which, in those countries and those days, arose spontaneously as the
inborn medium of « xpressif>ii of a people more easily excited, and inhabitiTig a
country rich in nature's sweetest charms, or the natural vuioe nf liuly ze;il, has
come down t<> u< : not, it is true, as something foreign t<> mir nature — for it had
been lyiriL' li inuant in tlie deeply itoetio mind of our Gen:i;m nation long V»efore it
was awakened — but still as sonietliing acquired, in Hie ivrui vj>i a gill presented to US
f(ff our enjoyment, and aa an urnanient of our existence.
Thus are our public gurden^^, our social circles, and our tijstivals, every where
filled with streams of harmony ; bimds of music, consisting of numerous instni-
ments, i'nv number of which is ever increasing, |iarade before our military hosts, or
make the ball-roum tremble with the " phrensy of delight."* Where is tlie Uiwn,
however suidl, which doed not attempt to get up, at least, a series of winter con-
certs? How many tirtuim, how many quartet-societies, how many concerts of
every kind and description, divert the music-loving multitudes of our larger dttes I
At what time were liiero leen ilmflit evorywb^ w many opem perfunuanoet
almoil tiie whole year nundf MHial time or country can ihow anything equal to
our muaical ftitivali and minkd aodetieef Or» lastly, in what age, beftre the
preiant* baa muiie been lo univemlly recognized aa an imUapeDiable hiaiidi of

education, both in word and in dead, and with ludi taerifioei of time and money?
For this diffiiaion of miitte» the lively intcfeit univeFBaUy taken in its cultavaftico,
in every iphera of life, acooids proportionate meana. However gnat the ooit of
inilruetion, inatramenta, printed muaie, Ac. every finily in the middle aa well aa
the higher fanka of aodety endesvouia to obtain them. Thare ia no iriiare a lack «f
teacfaeia; aniging ia pmetiaed in every achool; aaminariea, univanilieB, and apecial
muaie adioob, continuB Ihe inatiuctian and lead it to a higher point; everywhere
academiea dP *in ff^ inalrunientai and general muneal eocietieap eatabfidied ftr the
ffl
purpose of ooQeedve praetioe or parftrmance^ are fimnd inereaaing. Hunicqial au-

tiioritiea and governments bestow attention upon, and provide means for, the per-
ftrmanoe of works of art in chapels and in choirs, ot fyt the muaical instruction of
the pe(^; our publishers and musicaellers diffuse the works of all naliana and aU
timea to an extent and in a form unpreeedentedly cheap and convenient ; even the
aeqinaition of good instrumento has been considerably Adlitated by the progress of
the mechanical arts.
Wonderfiil power of the art of sound ! To open all hearts ! engaging the interest
and drawing contributions even from those who, f>r want of instruction, or firom a
nn^tirf.lly defective organization, arr denied a participation in its pleasures ; who
willmgly make sacrifice's frsr those belonging to tiiem, and tlien step aside, content
with the feeling of having afiorded to others a pleasure which they themselves
cannot enjoy
* Listen to our wslUwa witii tRMnbooe^ or the vohiptiKrastf *"fi*i"g, iitMîUtitij danoe
oMupiMitioDs of afltxaiissi
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A OLAMOB AT THE FEURT STATE OV VmnO. 803
Whence has mam thii ptnrart and how 4em it reward our lore and aacrifioesf
It has this power, and is all-powerful over mankind, because it seizes upon avaiy
fibre, sensually and spiritually, upon the whole body and soul, sensations and ideas.
Hie rudest nature thnUa under the effect of its poweHUl stnuns, and is soothed by
ita iwectnesg. Its sensual effect is in itself irresistibly enchanting ; for the merely
hearer feels that this trembling of the nerves penetrates to the inmost depth
of the soul, that this corporeal delight is purified and sanctified by its hidden con-
nexion with the origin of our existence. But he who has experienced in his own
person how music calls forth, and leads at |'!easurc, the most tender, powerful,
and secret teehngs of tlie soul, imjiarting brightness to its mysterious twilight,
awakening it t<> a dreamy consciousness ; he to whom the deepest percejitioiis and
ideas present themselves as spirits diverting him from, aud niising him above, the
fluctuating play of feyliiiga and emotions ; who is, in short, aware that our exist-
ence would be imperfect, did not the world of sound supply the deficienc y : such a
one knows that the most intellectual pleasure of the senses derived from hearing
music is merely au iittraction to its spiritual lountuin, from which are drawn purity
of feeling, elevation of mind, the contemplation of u new and boundless world of
idea*, and a new sphere of existence.
The one is the ail- penetrating, universally prevailing power of sounds ; and the
ether, the promise of this art—a mere devoted atui hHeûi exietenee, whidi we^
knowing or anticipating, confide in, and to whidi so many of us and oun bn
devoted.
But its naftuvSt like man's own, is two&ld; partaking both of the sensual
(maieriaij ; and the menial (epiritual). It has power to raise us firom a rude and
banren state of being, to a higher, mose susceptible, and spiritual existence; to soften
and refine our feeUngs, to awaken in us ideas of pure and perfect humanity; toexalt
*
as above the human sphere to the confines of the Divine, and, in this mentid elevation,
fill ear hearts with love and holy zeal fiv eveiything that is gsod and noble. But
this self-same power of mdody and harmony may also bury the yet unrevealed
indweUing qnrit in the aUurmg waves of excited sensualitjr, obliterating from the
Mol eveiy noble leeling,and every virtuous power, and gradually leading it to thai
tfaott^tleaDiess, that want of principle and desire for sensual pleasure which dissolves
or stifles every noble disposition, and in whose train are found those strange twins,
Kitiety and insatiability, and that terrible ccmdition of the mind, utter indifference.
How then does this dangerous but dear art reward our love and our sacrifices ?
In art itaelf ail is pure, noble, and good. It is the fault of our weakness, if to
us its gifts become poison ; if we linger inactively upon the threshold of its sane-
Uiary, or allow its c all to die away unheeded, and, instead of joining the company
of the initiated in its sacred halls, lose ourselves in the courts destined for the
ofbl of the sacrifices.
Maiiy things have conspired* to imbitter tlie j)iire enjoyment and interrupt the
pure aTid honest cultivation of the art <;f music in the present times. The waves of
mighty events are penetrating into, luid acting upon, every form of social and spiri-
tual lite, while the nations are still without a uniting and guiding principle of
• See the Postsonpt to this Section, p. 307.
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304 OUlNCB at TEB PBBSBNT BTATB O? MUSIC.
mental eleratioii*. Stupendoui eventi and recollections have called forth, on the
€00 hand, Teliement desires, and a preralence of violent and suddenly chaogii^
impressiona; on the other hand, its opposites —inamtko,aiid a deep longing fiv peace
•Dd quietness. In both directions, the material, as a means of violent exciteineiit»
or of soothing the mind into a pleasurable repose, has acquired undue preponder-
ance over the spiritual clement uf art, and we see repeated a spectacle often wit-
nessed before : tliat, in such moments when the tension of" the German mind and
character, in tlie tiulsscs of the pe^^plc and those who speak to their hearts, sutlers
rela>^tii»n, foreign intiuences, especially the frivolity and ready loquacity of tlie
French, aii'l the enervated sensuality of the Italians, uTest the sceptre trum nati%'e
talent. In respect t(i tnusie, it is in the ojiera especially tlmt foreien mediocrity at
such times gains it& easiest victories, mi'i carries evcr\^hing Lelort* it in iU> rapid
march. For. how many ditVerent means are not resorteil to, in these pKxiuctions,
tu tiike tlie hearer by surprise and eoufuund his judgment, so tliat their wortlilc&s-
iiess remains concealed beneath Uie novelty of their effects! And h'lw caii the
evil influence thus bn.ui;ht tu bear upon the highest and most commanding point,
iaii lo alTect, in a simiJiU maimer, every other sphere and branch uf art ?
Are we coui^>elled, on the one hand, to censure the raind-debasing material•^lli of
the foreign opera, whose t^dency in our days is the more irresistible, because we
are itill accuitoiiied» indeed ftroed, on account of the more highly developd {lolitical
and publie life of our weetem neighbours, to look to thdr eountiy aa to llie balance-
whed of the great European dock ; ao, on the other hand, we ackumrledge thai wAiek
i»pontioefy good in those operas, and whidi has been too much neglected bj our
writers and oompoaers for the theatres ; viz. dramatic, or at least scenie, animation,
and the progression from mere individual conditions to public and more uniTersally
inteliiipble and interesting relations of life. Only when this potitwe element shall
'
haTe been more generally perceived and îpreciated by our poets and musicians,
amongst all the poverty, lowiiess, and errors of the ferelgn opero-^then, and not till
then, will German art, in all other respects so much more pure and true, be able to
triumph over its rivals m the theatre, as certainly and signally aa it has done every-
where else.
Till then the foreigner will reign, will be a &vorite, attract the multitude, and
in kit way satisfy it A flattering tickling, a strained excitement of Uie senses,
external splendour, coupled with internal fioverty, superficial desire to jilease, instead
of character and depth, a general inclination for that which is low, the d^radatioa
of the most significant conditions and ibrms to mere means of e£fect—theae are the
inseparable consequences of this dominion. Music, having become a mere p—rim^^
is dragged about everywhere, it pursues us into our gardens and dining rooms,
psevents all spiritual interchange, and, conscious of being only intended to fill up
the emptiness of a listless sxit ty. blunts at the same time the ears of the audience
and its own powere. This want of character and meaning nmy be observed in
every bnuich art, and the general iudifiRurenoe is increasing. In proportion aa
* The reader will rc( nl]i < 1 that this WIS written at the eomineaoeBieiit of the Iste
rtrug|$lei on the continent. Tb.
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A GLANCE AT THE PEESKNT STATE OF MUSIC. 305
mir modem oompoierv stray from Ihe true nature and genius of art in general, and
the diflferent arttttie ionns in particular, treating the means aa the chief object,
without regard to deiiffn, to does that penrersion vhich is the death isf art become
mofe palpable. In proof ofwe find that those seductire fereign operas, eyen
this,
Umu^ the authority of th^ origin may dazzle and mislead us Germans, only gain
llieir success through the aid of celebrated singers who are specially gifled for their
eoqnetttsh or forced effects, and by the employment of every possible adjunctive

resource of attraction. The oppoute &ult of negligence in the adaptation of the
means to the end, has often, and not without reason, been urged as a reproach
against us; perhaps our bitter ttcperience is intended to teach us better.
Proceeding from this point, another not reiy animating aspect of the present
condition of music opens to our view.
We have much miMie, but tsen^ little real enjoyment nf it. We make it a means
of diversion and entertainment, when it might serve to collect our ideas and elevate
our minds. Thus our fashionable operas for a moment render their admirers giddy
with delii^t, but to dismiss them unsatisfied, and to be shortly r>ro[ottt-n by them
80 in our concerts, whose highest pinnacle of success is that most barren of aU
emotions, astonishment at the skill of a virtuoso ; so in our public performances and
musical festivals, which merely serve to furnish a pleasing accompaniment to the con-
versation of the audience; so in our sncial circles, where unmeaning exercises, or
badly executed novelties of the day, f irm tlie staple articles of musictU entertain-
ment, mid which, instead of real pleasure, ]i r educe more mental distress, eavy, and
OUiui, than people are inclined to confess even to themselves.
"With pleasurable feelings do we quickly withdraw the eye from this cheerless
side of the picture; tlie more so, us it is not our object to form a cf iidusive judgment,
but only to arouse tlie earnest attt ntion of those vvlio take u lively iiitt rcst in the cause
of musical art and the educati-m uf the people. It would also e\nnco great ignorance
of the sjiirit of uur times, did we not, by the 'side of degeneration and weakness,
also perceive and iioiior the most cheering 1 jiromising efforts in the right direc-
tion; the faiUiful a<lhcrence shuwu to Llie wurbi of the older masters, from Beet-
hoven, back even to Gluck and Sebastian Bach ; the rare, though perhaps tempo-
rary, mcrease of technical mdustry of executants, the assiduous efforts of so many

tudents to acquire adentific profidemy and general infimnation, both of whkb are
indispensable to the artist, and were certauily by no means so earnestly aimed at in
times past as they are at present The only drawback to this cheering aspect is the
fiict, that many, whose zealous efibrli must be acknowledged with praise, still api>ear
to be unconscious of the real nature and i

ur|>ose of aU artistic activity ; this uncon-
adoumest must be awakened into a dear perception before those labours can bear
tiie right fruit As it is, we have the strange anomaly of great depth of thought
associated with shallowness; of fidse and real art held in equal estimation, the good
and the bad accepted vrithout distinction under the flattering name of Tersatility,
and discriminatiott denounced as formality.
Dius, m the tiaoes and germs of the good, as well as the bad, great and wide-
^read activity is everywhere disfdayed ; an activity promising mudi, if directed to
the ri^t end, but wMch still remains untuded by that 4x>nccntrating and guicUng
consdousness, that quickening sj^t, which imparts to art the highest of its powers
X
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300 A GLANCE AT TUi. i'liESENT STATE OF MUSIC.
ThuB many noUe-nuiided and deeply thinking men hsvepvefiguiedto theiniwihw,

in this vrhirliiod of confused efTorts and oonflicting powen, the deitiuctiQik of an art whicb,
in their opinion, has already reached the culminating point of its glory in Badi, or
Gluck, or Mozart» or Beethoven. We, on the contrary, adhere firmly to the con-
vi< tion that art is a neoeseity of human nature, and therefore, like it, imjterishable ;
and tliat, for the same reason also, in a linjê nation, muik can only periah together
with that nation itself; though it may. in common with it, ex]>erience repeêd
momenta of dejection or retrogression. The hiitoiy of muaic, attentively examiirad,
gives ample proof of this ; and a worthy conception of what our nation oiiciht to be,
and wluit may he expected, and will be giuned for musical art by its re-elevation, it
calculated, even in times uf uihlenfaMe retrorrradfitinn, to inspire with hope emy
heart beating for something higher than that which is perishable.
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POST8CEIPT. 307
rOSTSCRIPT.
1850.
Ths view of the condition of musicai art in Germany laid down in the pre*
ceding pages, a{êd to the state of things previously to the year 1B48 ; it applies
^11 ; thexe is not one iub|^ point on which the author couU cmicieQtiouily âogo
his opini(m.
But the general condition of the nation has since undergone mighty chanfês ; in
the interval between the publicatioA of the third edition of this work (1H40) and
the present time, have occuxred the revolutions of 1848, with all their Tarious
consequences.
It were, however, a puerile misconception to regard tljose efforts and <»untor
efi'ort^ as en<le<l, or eveu to imagine that they will have no farther influence over
any sphere of spiritual activity. It is not a mere strupgle lor advantages, or sjie<,Mal
rights ; for a little more, or a little less, of political liberty. All these ore uiily tlie
ap}'r<i.xiniatiiig eau.ses, aiid the special points ut coimexion. The original cause is
esjK'cially tt» be f^nmd in tlie morn/ mihnm of ih*' nations of Eurcpfi : the salvation
aii<l exaltation of morality, which eannut exiit without hberty, justice and order ; or
its destruction? this is tlie momentuus qui^stion. And the great battle will be fought,
not merely with sjiiritual, but with every kind of weapons, the whole of Europe
will be enêd in it, and will come out of the contest either completely healed and
renovated, or utterly ndned. But who can Ibiretell the number of years over whieh
its duratidi will extend?
Such iron Umes of struggling may easily interrupt, or even prove destructive to,
the spread and euttivation of the arts*. Of such intoruptions, which even assumed
the appearance of an ntter wreck of all culture, the hirtory of the woild has fiir^
nished more than one instance; but the deeper searching eye of a succeeding age
has always been able to discover that tAe dûnd ^fvtem culture had moRMd ^
iU^ a»d become cbiolete, that Us eztmOion was tke i$»eU»peneaile emtUtion tf
renemed and aetwity. He who does not, vrith narrow-minded egotism, confine
hia views and desirea to the short span of his own life^ cannot deplore, but will
rather rejdee, at such a dissolution. Should it M
upon our moot beloved art, we
ezcittm, with the genume teacher the eoratsu^ Iwnci,^
"Lit TUli DJiAD BUEY TItEIB DEAD."
• The aullior has laiddown his opioioa more fully in his address to the musicians of
Germany Der &uf unaerer Zeit an die Mutiker"), published in the Berl. a%. mas. Zatuag
of 1848.
X 2
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POSTSCiUPT.
But whafcever may be our individiial opimcn and expectatioo, one eonvkiion
muit hare forced itaelf upon the rnindi of all: the nationi and oar German naliai
alio are called, and hare been awakened to a more earnest, a bigber, and a move
preanng task. Thia is no kmger a time for dallying, toot usetess squandering of
talent, time, and money. He who aims at proficiency tn art, or desires to lead
others to it, must be actuated by redoubled earoestaiess, and the firm oonviction
that no longer a trifling, sensual, {netistic, or sentimental smattering of art —no

lof^Ker a pedantic school wisdom, or coquetting vanity, but oidy the lig^t of truth,
of honest seal, is worthy of a nation arrived at maturity ; that all men, yoatha
ripening into manhood, and maidens worthy of them, will turn thdr backs upon an
art devoid of these attributes.
In recent times, much that is vicious has corrupted our art. A new era infiises
new Uood. But it is the sacred duty of the te acher to anticipate and prqiare means
and ways for the coming time; so that he too, though he sink into an eaily gram,
may "^'^m™
«*The wutubm u mm!**
TttS mVH OBJSCT AND TOE PAOPER MEANS, ETC.
SECTION THE SECOND.
THE TRUE OBJECT AND THE PKOPEE MEANii OF MUSICAL CULTURE.
What,then, ib the real and legitimale oljeet of all muncal cultura?

Bnfoymeni of in pkamre§ — Îhis we pronouiioe to lie the fini oljeet of the
itad]^ and cultiTatiQii of miiiic. A joyleai oociipation with muuo—ôid how fie^
quently do we witness this—how oommon is the remark that, the joy with which
the learner commeneed the study has gradually given way to indifference, or even
dislike !
—a joyl^ oocttpation ii pemidoUB to artistic culture, and more injurious to
the learner than noQ-oocupatioa, as it not only mbs liim of the time tliat might he
devoted U> other useful or pleaamg punuits, but alao destroys hia Buaoeptibility for the
diarms of musical art.

But this enjoyment should be really artistic, m>i merely extraneous, still lesi
anti -artistic. And here it is our duty, especially to warn against that prurient
van->y which delights in disjilaying ditiiculties overcome, and technical dexterities
acquired solely with a view to astonish others. Nothing i.s Tnore foreign to genuine
art, which was given to us to raise u.s I'roin the narrow .sphere of persontil exist-
ence and personal feeling, to t!ip region of universal 'y>y, love, and entliusiasni
nothing is more inimical and i]l tractive to all true love for, and enjoyment of, the
nmsical art, than tliis poisonous jnildew which spreads itself over the jiractice as
Well as the produLUuiis of tiiat art ;
nothing is surer U> drag the mind from the
purifying atmosphere of artistic activity down into a close and paiuiuily ojipressive
region of envy, jealou.sy, imd scltishncss, than such an ill-concealcKi desire to shmv ;
notiiiiig, finally, reveals more cfearly to tlic intelligent observer the wide gulf tliat
separates vanity firom the true [>crception of art, than this mistaking of an external
means for the legitimate purpose. And yet, how common are such vain deaiiea and
effixta in oar ooncert-rooma'and private circles! How addom ia it the real inten-
tion of our virtuoaiand amateura to delight their heatera; how mnch more anzioua
are they to create astonishment amongst the lesa-pcactised or nnartistio crowds, by
newly inyented sleights of hand, the lêrdemama «f a Dohler, Henselt, Thalberg,
cr whatever may be the name of the latest tweliê-finger composer! And how often
do we find teadien enoocnaging such doings, in order to gain new pupils by apphnae
cbtamed in this manner ! The and merely sensual enjoy-
lowest, most unoooscioitt,
ment of munc, the most superfioal delight in a tripping dance tone ia more artistic,
noUe, and frnitfiil than thia wide-apread abomination ; a chaste and leeling perftnn-
anoe of the roost inaignifiGant baUad, or the lightest walu, is, to a man of real
musical knowledge, a better proof of the alnUties both of pupil and master, than
those prematurely ftroed, and after all ezceedin|^y cheap, artifices of vanity.
For the mere sensual delight in art alao awakens an tounediate spiritual inte-
rert; and it is this epiriiuai nUtrett m art which we consider aa the highest aim of
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310 THE TBCK OBJECT AND TBX
aU artiitic culture. Letiis<mIybeearefidnottodMet]ieimiidaiklheart in ca{^^

lid penrerted eflTortSftendiDg to suppress or disturb our feelmgs and tiie inwwd woridng
of our spirit* and the immediate sensual impresnwis from a woric of ait wiE infuae
new life through the nerves, s more elevated pleasure tfarou^ the mind^-a life and
pleasure such as pure artistic enjoyment can alone impart ; the certainly that thcae
around us participate in our feelhig^ will thaw the ri^ crust of egotism, and iish
mutual pleasure win insure the sympathy and love of our associated friends. The
heart opens itself gladly to a new sensation, a new emotion, such as a work «f art
excites ; it recdves the new in^pressions more readily and fimdly, because they are
fri«' from the dross and asperities personality; it is a communion of soul \nth
soul, full -of mutual eympathy, and yet free from any material, or otherwise dis-
turbing, adjunct. And thus, the atrial creations of the compose pass their significant
exists T ' Ucfore, and dwell with us — now in joy, now m sonvw—just as ooncdved
by the urtist, but always innocent nul iincorrupted ; in union with our personal
existence is one of ever-varying ideality, and we experience within oorselves its
immeasurable riclnu «g, when compared with the narrow sphere of otir nuiti rial
life. Conditinns and persons long extinct — tliose channing images conjurtd ujt tV in
IKIlas and the PTiperstitirms of the East, bv Glftek — the pntriarchal siii,plioify
and j^Tuiideur oC that |t.'<iple. fptni whose nipht \v:l>-' to ariRe the H^lit of tlie wrM,
pirtrayt'd in ITn/t/' I's mnjcstir <?ATif«! —the liirinns eniitfTitions nf the Pharii*etfs ajid
their jMll'nvers. in upposiliun t" the serene holiness of the New C(>venant, in Barb's
inipcnishuLle tstrains — all thi« is hrtitscjht home to us, and th»' far distant past ht-ci ints
an imaginary present e>;l>ti lu e. All that can cbarni the hninan lirart in irmiK t iice,
joy, tendcniess, or childlike ca[>rict ; all that hr* athh*s, huniing love, exulting
delight, or graceful play of affection ai»d humour ean present to our excited feeUngs
Uie mysttrious k* arching of the mind into its own innate existence, into the hidden
depths of the nature of all beings — all that was given to u lluydn, a Mezart. i-r n
Beethoven—to reveal the whole unbounded range of Hie spiritual and ideal world,
which no word can describe and no mortal eye bdiold— ^ is open to us, it is
bestowed on ui as our own.

To live in and /cr cur art, to open our whole mind and heart to its iftfluener,
in short, to cultivate it in the proper manner^this is the condition m which its
invaluable gifts are offered to us. But it is an imditpentahle ctmditimu
It is not the possession of great artists and great works of art which secures to a
nation, or even to its more gUied individuals, a successful cultivation and the fidl
enjoyment of an art Were this the ease, no nation would stand more securdy
upon the pinnade of musical cultivation than Germany, whose composers have
been, at least fer a centuiy, the exponents of the richest and most exalted ideas
ever emboctied in sounds. And yet we have had to ocperience, in one sing^ century,
three diflforent periods of dedine, immediateJy succeeding the days of the higîest
which music was successively raised by Bach and Handel—OlOdc,
elevation to
Haydn, and Mozart—end, lastly, Beethoven. Indeed, were we disposed to accede

to the loudest and most numerous assertions of the day, it would afanost i^ypear tfwt
all liad perished, excepting the memory of the past, that nowhere can a trace be
f tin ! of that spirit which pervades and which created the masterpieces of former
days.
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PROPER OF MUSICAL CULTURE. 311
Mere hesring, or an entire dependaiioe upon the ear, ib stiS h»9 deserving of
oonfidenee ai a means of eultivation, notwithstanding that it must ftnn the basis of,
and become our guide through, the whole eouise of musieal education. For we hear
both bad and good muAc, aikl we discover, not only that the feeble and impure pro*
duoea ita efiect (often more ra|Hd and exiennye), as well as the pure and elerated
but also, that in this drcumstance we are compelled to recognize a pioof of the power
of muaieal sounds, which, under its most imperfect development, still ezerdaes so
great a away over the human mind and feelings, even when unsupported by the
influence of auxiliaries, prejudice or fesfaion. Indeed, it is undeniable that this
sensual power of music oflen imparts an effect to the perfbrmanoe of works of little
intnnaic merit which surprises eyen the experienced musician, especially when the
po^rmance is of a massive character, and is uded by considerable, perhaps over-
eatimated, talent. It is the power of masses and the real or assumed talent of the
principal performers, but not the work itself, which produces such effects. This
shows us, on the one hand, how weak is that defence of an artistic production of
dubious character which is grounded upon its success ; on the other, how hastily
tiiofie judge and act, who fancy that excclloTico is alone sufficient to ensure victory.
Yes, it Mi-iil prevail in the end ! It will be transmitted from one generation to
another, and the edifice of jui will attain as glorious a jieriection as has been
prouuBed to mankind. It is, however, a diftcrent qncstion, whether this certain
assurance will justify us in overlooking and neglecting this artistic and moral eleva-
tion of tlie jiresent generation, when it is in our power to [iromote it. Tlie history
of the world counts by centuries arid wide intervals, like Uiose l»€tween tlie stars in
the finuament. ^parating from eadi otlier the epochs of human progress; but the
sliort span of hum^m life could not dispense with a single ray of the beniticent
lustre of those stars.
liastly : the merely al)stract, /. r. technical, mechanical, or exflnsively scientific
cultivation of music, is npialhi h/mpa/jfc of leading us to that spring which is tiie
fountain head of art. It is an ol>servation which we have unfortunately but too

frequent occasion to make, that such a false, abstract cultivation leaves the mind
void and barren, and year after year causes noble germs of life and artistic joy to
wither and die. We have but too frequently ot casion to notice that the most super-
ficial ideas of tlie nature and purpose of art, the greatest indifference as to its real
advancement, and the widest aberrations from its true and legitimate course, are to
be found amongst those disciples of technical and abstrart sdence, amof^ our
mrtwofi and those ÎRbttanti who follow in their wake, amon^ our professors of
thorough-bass and sMthetical writen on musie.
A proper artiBtic education, like genuine art itself, does not aim at mere media-
nical proficiency, which constitutes the merit of an artisan^HOor does it lay great
?Blne upon mere external contemplation, whidi leada away firom the limg fountain
of art to dead abstraction; but u directed towarda the soul and essence of the thing.
Ihe task which it proposes to itself is to unpart to every individual, or at least to as
many individuals in a nation as posuUe, a proper idea of the real nature and object
of art, and to ripen this perception into active life.
Hue task divides itsdf into two distinct operaticns. The first is to discover in
tius student tiie germs of artistic susceptibility and talent, to awaken and animate
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312 THE TRUE OKJci'i ANU THE
tbem, to wumt olwtadet tending to obstruct their growth* and to trani and
Ibster them, m that they may become living poweni The aecond is to take, from the
hjgheet artistic point of view, a surrey of all that art is intended to efiSset, or in
capable of effecting, and has already achiered. All this, or as much as eadi indi-
vidual is ciq>able of receiving, is now to be imparted to the student. It is not the
hand («r ear only wiiich it purposes to teach and train ; but it zum it : t.netrating
through the medium of ih6 senses to the soul, and, by exciting his feelings, awaken
his artislic tonsciousness. This dune, the waves of souHil v.v.\y nr>\\ flow through
the air : that which has been internally percdved, which has become the property of
the thinking mind, will remain a secure acquisition, a safe foundation for fiutfaer
(^rations.
Sucli is the Uifk ul' a proper artistic education, sketched in fu;;itive outlines : tlie
training of the natural abilities, of feeling and understanding, to the highest attain-
able point of perfection. This is the only means and indisftonsable condition of a
really [mre and complete enjoyment of al! the b!e>singri which iirl oaii bestow; this
is aim, more or less, the clearly percei veil aim of all tlu'se who devote their lives and
energies wln.lly or partially to artistic jmrsuitf? — this is especially, whether it be or
be not at knowlt'dged, the undeniable and indispensable duty of every teacher.
Would it l>e an empty dream to wish for our nation, endowed as it is with so
mueh musieal talent, a general and n-ally iKitinnnl musical e<iuiation, in this higheet
and only true sense of the word? Are not Imth the wantg and claims of our nation
clearly indicated by its innate mental depth and fertiUty, to which the names of
iiuiidreds upon hundreds possessed of distinguished talents, and the successful
attempts at the very highest tasks in every walk of art, bear such undeniable testi-
mony ? Is our national song — richer, grander, ajid mure deeply felt tlian that of any
Other people —never again to resume its important and legitimate place in our public
festivals ? Is our Protestant church for ever to remain deprived of her own proper and
befitting music, whidi centuries have prepared and perfected ftr her? Is the Gktholie
dturdi, in which music constitutes such an important ekment of worship^ to eipa-
rienoe in our own country the same continued degradation of the sacred song as in
Italy, where strains from R(issmi*s, Bellini*s, and Auber*s <êras desecrate the
holiest moments of devotion; or in Spain, where all church music has ceased, save
the dianting of the priest? We do not apprehaid such a result; and evoy one
who looics into the future with the same confidence as we, will find in it a stimuhia
to unremitting exertion. For an industrious and energetic nation like ours, some*
thmg better and higher is in store, than the mere sensual delif^ts whidi tender
Nature bestows on her chQdren of the south, to wile avray their sweet hours of
leisure.
The word and labour of a single individual can, howevw, effect but little in such
a matter the ma^s of accidental and mtentbnal obstructions is too great to be
;
overcome by the efforts of one man, r>r a small number of men. But govonment
may accompUsh the task, provided it have not only the r^^ht will, but also succeed
in finding the right men to carry out its designs — not mere artisam^ who live by
and teach art as a frn/le ; but men who have made tlie spirit of art, as well as ite
forms, the understanding of its genius, as well as the mastery of its teffhnirai diffi-
culties, the task of their lives.
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PROPEE HIANB OF MUSICAL CULTURS. 31S
LMtly, and irrapeelively of eveiyttiiiig that bat been laid, we have to acknow-
ledge that this oonditioii and cuMbie of art amongpt a natioii k altogeffaer depeodent
upon ita political and moral condition; a aieimutance whk^ aocoanta in particular,
ftr tiie direetko art bas taken amongiil ui duiiog the laet twenty or tbirtjr yean.
Ibe wliold history of art» however, tertifiee that in this leapeet alao^ the destiny of
a nation is controlled by supreme intdligHioe and goodness, and not exposed to the
whims of a blind fate. Let every one, therefore, cheerfully do his best, and trust
that ultimately a blessing wiU.Burely attend his honest efifarti.
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314 NATURAL QUALIFICATION. iUL AKTiSTIC CALLING.
SECTION THE THIRD.
NATURAL QT7ALIFICATI0V. THX ABTIOTIC CALUNO.
AttSNDAUT upon the great importance attached to a musical educatioD, and the
hy no means inoonNderabLe demands it make«* upon the time and energy ef the
student, is tlie pressing question what success the individual student may reason-
:
ably ho{>e to attain in his artistic pursuits? No education or study can lead to a
satisfactory result, unless the student Jê possessed i-f the necessary* natural qualifi-
cations for tht' science or art he would arquire ; it i*. tlierefnrc, possible that manv
an individual, irnluced by the general exaiujiles around him to < nter uprin the study
of mu-'ir, may involve himself in a iseries of sacrifices and lalx.urs. which, fur tlie
want of (1h^ )in . ssary natural qualitications, must n-main uiirrwarded. Or one not-
all-'ijrtlier dcvni,! (,f tlir<t- (lualiiieations may K»- allured by the charms f>f the art
to makr its rultivatinii tin- exclusive. <^r rhii f . hjt'Ct of his hfe ; and aftonvard-*.
when t<«i late, disruvi i that his natural t rid'twnit nts are insufficient tu carry him
successfully through hi.s artistic career, althon^h tlu-y might have extmdnl <o far as
to afford him pleasure ;uid satisfaction ;u* an amuleur. The danger of ttjnimitting a
serious mistake, perhaps of misspending a whole life, is most threatening; t'. those
very indinduals gified by nature with more than ordinary talent But tiie quesUwa
which we have started is of such importance, even to those who devote only a por-
tion of tfieir time and labour to artistic punuita, that it demands serious ootisidera-
tion, especially in a woilc which professes to treat musical study from an educational
point oif view; although it is scarcely to be hoped that we shaU be able to do lull
justice to it in the limited space to which we are here confined.
It may be taken (or a general 6ct, that an mm—with very rare eioeptiona—
are naturaUif qualijied to kam munt ; and moat persons even to a mudi higlier
degree than they themsetves, or others, are inclined to bdiere. For notiiii^ is move
common than to see this natural qualification underrated both by ourselves and
others, neglected through careleisneas or indolence, or led astray and even destroyed
by an improper treatment llioee rare receptions to whidi we have alluded, gene*
rally manifest themsdves by a perfect indi£ference even to the sensual charms ot
music, if not by actual and palpable antipathy. But even in theae eases, Itime amd
rkytkmkai motion may, possibly, not only excite attention in, but make a pkau^
iminression upon, an individual deprived of all other musical qualifications.
A question mudi more diffn ult to answer is: how fiir the nattind capability of
an mdividual may be developed, what may be expected firovn, and how much of a
inan*8 life and destiny may be safely entrusted to it ?
Experience in hundreds of individual cases, and a consideration of the general
nature of the subject, justify us in asserting that
NATURAL QITAUFICATION. THE ASTIOTIO OALLINQ. 316
*• The extent of a persons artistic qualificatiom is commensurate with the

delight he takes in the matter, and desertet to be cultivated to fm- at
thai delight eonîmief wMbat^^
We say * delight* in the matter, i. 0. in art itadf ; mil the many aooompanying
idearana and desires wfaieh may be associated with tiie prsctioe of art ; consequently
not that running after fashion which makes us wish to learn music because others
do so, nor the vain desire to gain the reputation of particular refinement, or to
astonish others with our mastery over special tedbnical difficulties. All such second-
Iry inducements and desires generally vanish before, or immediately after, the
elgect sought fiir has heea attained; they seldom bring even the expected reward^
and in no case gemune artisUc pleasure. It is owing to this that so many students
ârticuhuly ladies) give up the practiee of munc soon after the regular course of
instrudion has ceased, or when they enter into business, office, or married life ; and
it is for the same reason that even many professumal mundans so soon lose all
interest and iêasure in the art they prate, and cv«r after continue to bear the
burtiien of an uncongenial calHng with sighs, or an inert resigDation.
But that the aptness of an indhndual is commensurate with the pleiisure he
takes in a stu ly, is a fact, of which evti-y one Who has frequent opportunities for
observation will soon be convIix tNl, an<l which must be evident even without the
testimony of experience. For it would indeed appear aimless and contrary to the
wue decrees of Providence Uiat such an inborn desire should exist, without the
power to gratify it Now to every one who derives pleasure from the play of sounds,
such a desire is given ; tlie mere hearing does not long satisfy him, but creates an
immediate anxiety to join in their production. This may bo observed in the youngest
'hildren. who mostly sing, of coufe in their way, before they are able to speak ; and
this is attributable to the peculiar nature nf musical sounds. The dnly point in
whicli any one cndowofl with a ta.st*- f ir music can possibly err, is the ]iartieiilar
branch or orL'nn '•fnuisir eh'ên for cultivation. Thus a particular delight m vocul
nmsic may be an iaducvmeut to adupt this branch i f art, although with deficient, or
possibly injured, V04*al organs ; or an instrunuiit may be taken up without the
strength <<r bodily r. institution necessary for suceessfal practice. But. even in these
cases, Nature will ultiinalcly assert her right, if tlie student's ze.il 1m i
ariu-.^t and
genuine, and not the effect of caprice or delusion; the er<;aii v,li,ca wixs deficient
will gradually improve, or the deficiency may be cumpen»ated by the development

of otlier jKAvers. Such reuses, however, always require earnest consideration, and it
is of the utmost importance to consult the opinion of a competent judge.
If, however, contrary to our expectation, the quatification ibr and even delight
in musie, so often concealing themselves, appear to be wanting; if the progress and
pecsevenuiee of the student often remain far behind the antidpaticos created by his
delight at the commencement and during the first trials of his mental capacity; we
leoogniaEe in tfiis common oecunenoe-'^sf1^, the consequeme of our /aUe ^9tem
tmtsieal tnHruetionf or rather education, which is in many cases radically opposed
to nature ; and, eeeondfy, the oonfiiaed idea generally entertained of the real attri-
butes of nmtieal gualêoHaiL lUs term comprises various natural powers, which
mqr cocist either sinj^y or combined, and whidi require to be discovered and ftwtered
long befiire the actual commencement of musical instruction. We must endeavour
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316 NATURAL QUALIFICATION. THE ARTISTIC CALLING.
to ttrive at a clearer imdentanding of thew points ; ai vpon them depends the

questioD» whether we do right and are justified in devoting oursekes to the prectioe
of music, and how fiir we may expect to be suoceisfid in the study and pradioe of
this art
Every person taking an interest in music must receive from it some kind of
impression, whether it be of a merely sensual nature, or aisume the character of m
genuine îiitual gratification. The most external of all impressions isdk/A pro-
the
duced by nuuBsive combinations of sounds, or by the potuliarly charming t^îes of
particular instruments ; for instance, the clang of a military band, the silvery notes
of a let of small bells, Ac. kc. Tliis kind of impression is altogether material in its
nature, and affords no proof of a r< n1 intellectual pleasure, and consequent spiritaal
capability. It is in one of its highest regions also, that musical sound first impreiBes
and satisfies the mind, and that the intellectual participation in it diqilays a pecu-
liarly important artistic qualification.
Next to lliis, it may be thf* rnofhn, the rhythm, and especially the measure,
which attract our attention and fnj,'age our interest. A deep sense may exist in
the rhythm ;
the arrangement and grouping of the bar may l>e *level<»jieil in endless
ani beautiful variety, and assume innumerable signifieatiuns. In this, however,
tlie {'rinriiial clement is always the distinction and detenninatinn of the suoi ejisive
moments of time; and espeeially the }»erce|ition of. and attention to, jir>'jivTtion.
Rhythm, and the arrangement of meiusurcs in ])arti( ular, is based upon the sym-
metric principle that a sound should be either of otpial duration, or form an ali'iuot
part of another, the one being twice, three times, four times, &c. longer or shorter
tluui the other. The jiraetieal ojieration is facilitated by the arrangement of all tl.e
successive intervals of time in larger groups (bars) uf equal duration, every subdivi-
sion of time being reducible to the most simple form of division ; viz. that by two,
or three (binary or tertiary oilers of rhythm). It thus becomes a mere operation
of the understanding, a measurement and calculation ; the distinction between the
principal and secondary parts of the bar, by means of acoentualioii, is likewise an
operation of the understanding efieeted hy purely mechanical means. We may
^refiire safely assert that the neceswry rhythmical qualification, or Ume, as musi-
cians call it, is to be fimnd in evoy one posseised of understanding. If we now
consider how tu even oidinaiy intellects may advance in mental caleulalkn, if we
oboerva with what facility and certainty a number of raw recruita accustom them-
selves to an even stqp, and the rustic thresher to the beating of time in tripartite
and quadripartite order, it can no longer, with any show of reason, be disputed
that eveiy man endowed with common sense is abo poaeswd of sufficient capacity
fir time and rhythm, and that it only proves the neêct of a natural devdojiineDt,
if the latter be ibund wan&g where the finrmer is knom to esist Of course, diia
dqpadty, like every other, exists in difliBrent dc|prees ; but here it suflkes to remove
the prejudice, and silence the assertion, so fi-equently heard, that Uiere aia persona
devoid of all susceptibility to time and rhytlim.
A hiêr qualification, and one altogether distinct from those previously alluded
to, is the pogsession of an ear for musical goundt, or the capaliility of distinguish-
ing sounds of different pitch, and of fonnmg a more or less definite and lasting
conception of their relations.
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NATURAL QUAUFICATION. THE ABTISTIC CALLING. 317
Tonal quantitieB, sdentificsUy comideredi are composed and nieeaiized by the

Dumber of vibntiom which the toimdiiig body peHbrms in a given time ; and it
has evep^been attempted to define music (from a phyiioo^mathemolxcal point of

view*) aa a secret arithmetic of the inind, which is unconscious of its o\m ailcu-
lating opeiationa. To us, however, the immediate perception of tonal differences
îpeara to rest upon a natural pt^chological sympathy between the nerves of the
bearer and the vibrations of the sounding btnly. Do not these vibrations cause even
inanimate, but equally attuned bodies to sound ? Do tliey not even call forth dif-
ferent, but related f sympathetic) sounds, or harmonics, as they are termed? do we
not perceive, in trained or imitating birds, as well as in the youngest children, when
they begin to sing or whistle what they hear sung ur wliistled by others, that they
remember and reproduce sounds and series of sounds merely by hearing them, and
without requiring to be made conscious of their i»}iysical relations?
Therefore we would assert that, to a certain < \t nt, a " musical rdr' likewise is
given to most, if not to all men, jirovide*! they jMissess tlie faculty of lieiu-ing. This
capacity includes, however, by far more numerous gradations and mo^JiHcations,
both in respect to natural susceptibility and the extent to which it may be cieveloped
by i)r<»pt'r assistance. Tlie autiior has never met witli a single individual incapable
of dLstinguLshing between high and low sounds in general, when the difference of
pitch waa considerable ; but he has fuimd instances of persons who, until they liad
received proper instruction, were unable to distinguish with certainty whole tones
from semitones, a third from a fourth, or a fourth from a fiflh. The more minute
gradations, such as a comma or wbal b tmned a quarter-tone, escape the percep-
taon of many othorwise gifted musicians, especially pianoforte players ; while, on tiie
other hand, the moat acute diadnction of small tonal di£ferencea ia oHen found in
persona who possess but tittle musical talent* but whose ear has been tutored to
accurate obserraition by numerous experiments, as is the case with many unmuiical
aoouatidanB and pianoforte toners.
It 18 a very common mistake to suppose that such acutences of ear ia a sign of
conaideraUe murical talent Certainlyp when the peroeption of tonal diflfereneee ia
very defidenty or entirdy wanting, th^ is reason to oondude that the inclination of
the aoul ia not directed towards music; but more than one inatanoe ought be adduced
to prove that veiy eonaiderable musical susceptibility may be found in individuals
whooe perceptive powen, as regards the distinction of tonal diflerenoes, are vny
limited or undevslopedf. On the other hand, great acuteness of ear ia by no meana
* It is Leibnitz wYin given this definition of music.
t Tliifl appears to bo the caao with the in:.ss of tho French nation, who sing incredibly nmoll
and incrrdibly out nf tiuie—often without any trace of a fixed |)it< li This imperfoct develop-
ment of miiaiail Lupucity seemfl to bu in some mcaauro cunuccteU with iho whole tendency of the
lift of UuB people, whibh is dinseted mam to extansls i it hM nuodbatcd itielf in the fiwt, thet,
in eidte of the rwj genend educatioa in, and the gnat nuoqttilMlityof the F^«nch lor, miuio,
AO few reoUy great composers owed their birth to France and that all real stepe in adT>uu»
;
which music has at difierent times nuidc in that tauntry, have invariably originated with
foreiguent (Lully, GUick, Spoutini, &c.). \Va Ucrmans, however, cannot but remember, with
grttittide^ Hktt it wso amongst this people our own Gliick «u flnt appieeiated, and waa aUe to
Fwfaot hinaelf ; aa the readiness of Framoe to acknowledge fbretgn merit haa been testified, in
an eqnaUy nobk niaaner, b7 her esUnwtioa of Haydn and Beethoven.
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318 NATITSAi QUAUVICAnON. THR ABTDTIO OAIUNO.
a pri)of. 11- ir even a necessan' condition, of niUAical tnkiit ; still less are certain abstract
fl'Ut.s of tonal distinction to 1>»-, ;l> often happ^nb, au considfri-d. Thus, for example,
wc trtiiiUL'Utly meet vvitli persons who are ubk- to remember and sound at will the
absolute pitch of an instTunient or band they are in the habit of hearing —a by no
lUL-ans u.s. li ss tuluiit ^<i' iiii(.-<n;if memor//, but which has no connexion wliutL-ver with
higher qualifications ; it may rather bo an indication of tlie want of musical imagina-
tion, unless resulting from long practice in an orchestra. On the other hand, we
often find highly talented singers and Tiolinists deviate from the abstract puri^ of the
tonal xdations, not from any defect cf ear, but in the equreenon of aa unumd uAm^
aity cf feelmg, which leads them to return from the artafidal temperament of our tonal
yotem to the original purity of the intervab, or to an impanonate execM m the

c^vation or depreaiion of the sounds (p. 27b).
If we add to these fimdamental qualificatmia a mmnory tat muaieal stnuna, a
oertun livelinesa of the mind and quidmesa of perception, a certam deg^ of boUneei,
and the neoessanr mechanical fitness of the limbs and organs of speech lor the repra-
sentalaon (peErfiinnanoe) of musical oompoditioiii, we have the aum and aubstanee of
idiat is generally comprehended in the term murical qualifications. We must not.
however, neglect to notice the higher qualifications also. Ihese are : susoeptibili^
of soul and mind fat the spiritual sense of die diiKicnt comtHnatkna of oounda and
finrms of art ; and thai intellectual ability in depicting ideaa and acnaations in fife^likia
Ibrms which constitutes the gifl and power of a musical composer.
So we have beat enabled to form a d^nite idea of natural fitness fiv muaie.
fiur
It is, we have seen, a compound qualification, and may therefore be more or less
as
complete it u rarely altogether denied to any one, but may be innate, and develc^ped
;
in the moat manifiild gradations and modifications. Add just because it is, like eveiy
<êr human power, capable of being incalculably, developed and strengthened, we
can in no case, least of all at *)t before the commencement of its cultivation, predict
how far it will extend, or to what results it will lead iu individual cases. We revert
to our first maxim
**
Let every one advance or be led so fiv aa a sifieere and umeeariedjdeatMre
in the pursuit ofiers an inducement**
He, therefore, who has susceptibility for, and a lively j^K-asure in. music, may
confidently devote to it as much of his tinii' and ctipacity as his general occupations
and otli. r circumstances permit ; his wart! will continue so lonjj as ho continues to
work with ploasure. Mnv. then, every one only obtain such iiistruction as will not
needlessly i inbtitt. r and di stroy his pleasure, before the d*'v» lopment of his powers
lias reached liis natural limits ; and let every one remember iiiat the immediate and
most important obj.rt of all artistic occupation is no other Umi to heighten our sus-
eejitibihty and enhance the pleasure it affords, thereby rendering it a means of
enriching and ennobling mau is existence. Tlicn no excited imagination w ilt draw
him into the dangerous path of the artistic profession ;
nor a tiilse ambition, wliich is
altogether foreign to the spirit of genuine ai i. under him disaatished with the success
of his efforts, when he sees otliers attain more brilliant results.
But whoever supposes that he feels witliin liim this call, and its ever accompany-
ing power, to dedicate his whole life to art, should seriously examine whetbcs' it vt not
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NATURAL QUAUFICATION. TH£ ARTISTIC CALLINQ. 919
HMfely an imaguiary one, dduding him by nManB of ft fimtartielofTe of art*, which doet
not meemure ito own fulness or strength or throng a selfish desire ; to enjoy the ap-
pareotly happy, unrestrained, and lightly flowii^ course of arlisdc life ; or even by a
fiUae ambition, kindled I v the brilliant suooeM ofotfaen. These a1]iuring entioonents
are, in tnott aues, followed by bitter repentance, when too late. It is true that some
few instances ore not wanting wherein a decided firmness of will and great perseverance
have led to considerable suceess, even from such insufficient inducements ; but hardly
erer will thes^- 1* ai l to the reward of internal sattsfiution ; and succe» itself often in-
Tolres the extinction of genuine artistic spirit, and is purchased at the expense oftrue
pleasure in art, and of health.
But most carefully should //p examine himself who believes that he is called to
enter upon the career of a oi/ij^/scr f )r his destination is not only the hif^hest, but also
,•
the most exacting and doubtful, and no other person can give him decided advice. No
one shon/J di'r«/i' himself to this career of life, unless he i.i f(irre<l tu tin sn — forced
by an irrc^sistible impulse of heart and mind ; no one who can chwse anotlier ciUling,
whose heart sujj'ers hiiu to remain in anotlier profes.'iion, who is not ready and willing,
if necessan,', to sacrifice, for ever, all the advantages and [Measures of life, in order to obey
llie inward voicf ;
nor one who cannot look with a firm luid devoted eye to the possi-
bility of sacrificing his lifo icithout qaininî the i/r.îreil s//cce!nt ; for no iianest effort is
aUiH/tther unsuccessful. Generally, if iiui always, such a talaiit^ nuuiifesLs itself hi the
days of early childhood, in extempore playiiig and attempts at compusiliou. He who
waits to be taught, who begins to compose only when his instruction in composition
has commenced —his case is already doubtful, though by no means hopeless. It

should likewise be coottdered that an inclination or capability which has manifested
itaeilf at> and been fostered and nourished ainoe, an early time of life, has also had a
greater space of time to unlbld itself before the commencement of the actual instructicii
and culture <^ tile school; that it is therefore ahready more developed and strengthened,
and j^ves to the student the inestimable ad?Bntage of active experience, of ideas al-
ready ripened into life, and that confidence which is equally firee from fbar and doubt,
as fimn a vain over-estimation of his powers. But even this advantage is not indis-
pensable to success. Genuine love and perseveianoe are able to cany off the prize,
even if the resolution be formed at a bite, though not too kte, period of life.
He, however, who has made the career of a composer the object of his life, ought»
from the banning, to bear in mind tiiat it cannot be the ^hnve eeeupaiion of his
mind ; fer this simple reason—that no man is able continually to compose. Poetiy in
sounds, as well as in words or colours, is the effusion of only the highest moments of
life, of which the whole work of portraying our ideas and designs occupies but a small
portion : even to the most fertile talent, n<> In tter fate is awarded, and no other would
be endurable. Still more remote from tlie mind of the disciple should he the vain
and desecrating hope of gaining a Uciny by composing. The greatest artists —Bach,
Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven —have not been able to do so. Formerly, it may have
* Wo Oftll that love featastic whioh over-estiiiuilM itaelf, M-hich fiiaciw itMlf too intense
nnr! t<H3 powcrfii! it may appear in extraordinnry Tnr>m«'nt?' of *1( vition nr ovcr-cxcitSUient),
instead of examining, cfttncstly and honcelly, whuthur, and hoH' fm, it will endure.
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320 NATUBAL QUAUFIOATIOR. THE AETISTIC CALUMQ.
been poenl>le» with icfsid tD Nme few eompoeen fbr tike Itafiu opera, wbo entered
entiidj into the prevailing taste of the day end the caprice of the principal rimgen ;
hat even to them, probably only in the latter yeaiv of their liree. A aeoondary branch
of musical oeeiqpation, whether singing or playing, conducting or teadiing, hat alwsyi
been the necessary, and, in spite of many hindrances and burthens, a salutary, com-
panion of composition. £aeh of thcae ooeu^tiuns has its advantages, and also its
disadvantages, for the composer ; to one or more, however, he must be reconciled, and
seek to prepare himself for. This oi^t also to be well eouidered in detenmniiig
the future career of life.
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j>XVSU>PMENT OF THX NATUEAL QUALIFJOATIONS. 82 J
SECTION THE FOURTH.
DITII.OPMBNT OF THE NATITBAL QUALIFICATI0H8.
It has been made evideiit tiiaft moA mm an }sj natun qualified fir miuie^
but that tl^ qualifieation cnmprdieiidt diren pawen and capabUittea, wiiidi may be
fiund in manifold eombinatioiia and modificaliona. Hie germs of these, as of all other
poweia and capabilities, bemg impknted in us fiom our birth, begin to be strength-
ened and de?eloped ftom the moments of life by imprenions received fiom
earliest
die world around us ; so that, at the time when the real course of instruction com-
mencest the natural quaUficatioQS have, to a certain extent, been already developed
and trained in the preparatory school of ordinary life.
In this respect, however, the development of the mtMtoo/capabilities, particuhvly

of the sense fer tonal diflerences and combinations, is len fivorably drcumstaneed
than that of any other natural power, espedaiU^ in northern crimes ; fir the most
pressing want<; and demands of life make ihdr first appeal to the other Bptritual
sense — the sight, and then to the undenAanding. The child necessarily learns to
make observation, to notice the differences, and compare the diaracteristic marks of
olgects around him, with the eye, sooner than with the ear. The organs of speech,
so soon as they begin to act, are seized upon by the reasonii^'mind as its own speciBL
instrument of expression ; and the ear is almost exclusively occupied in the acquisition
and distinction of articulate sounds —words ; of course, only in their signification as
parts of speech, as signs of ideas, and not in their musical sense, which is less easily
perceive*!, a?id of wliidi most men remain fjr a lung time unconscious. As regards
the German in pai'ticular, he iias much less inducement to cultivate the purely mu-
sical element in lanjiûage than his more loquacious southern and western neighbours
although this element is nuicli more powerful, and innneasurably more dcLp aiid pure
in his language than even in the Italian, of wliich tlie only superiority coni4i»ts in its
greater clearness of souud and the preconceived notion that it is more musi(^ than
the German.
For this reason, the subsequent neglect, or even Buppression, of a capacity for
music is the more to be deplored ; and such neglect, or su}i)ireesinn, with it* most
pernicious effects, may frequently be traced to spet ial musieul uistruction. We hear,
too oflen, parents and teachers complain of a want of musical talent in their diiidren
or pupils, as if the blame of this deficiency were by no means attributable to them-
selves. The truth of our assertion, that most human beings are possessed of a greater
amount of musical talent than is generally supposed, can only reveal itself in its fidl
feree when all the obstructions, neglects, and eirois in onfinary instruction shall have
been removed.
T
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322 I>EVi:LOl'MENT OF TEE NATURAL yFALIPICATIONS.
Tfll iRrBBYAL raSOIDDfO IltSlEUOTtOir.
In music, as in eveiy othcor bnuich of edocatioa, practicai instroctioD shodd he

preceded and aided by a careful preparation at home ; and here, espeeiany, it is tbe
mother who is called upon to ibster and strengthen tbe awakening j^nms of musical
susceptibitity, and become tbe benefactress of her child. It is impossible to cakulnfte
how the mind and muncal feeling (tf the diild may be stimulated tiy alluring and
characteristic sounds, if impressed upon them during theearliest yean of life, witfaont
compulsion, and without an apparent design: the dear soond of a small befl ; the
nmultsiMOUs intonation of two ot three sounds (c—^; J ^ ^ upon bdlls, glasses,
CT the pianoforte ; the contrast between high and low chords, struck with a dodded
and well-marked rhythm^ — for example, thU,
tf f '
Cj
-
f f -r
I
^ r
I
which appears most natural to cliildrcn at a later period ; the listening to a distant
peal <^ thimder, the rustling and whistling of the evening breeze through the foliage,
the murmuring of the br(Mik, the moaning of the struggling storm, or the {âintive
Strains of the nightingale. Who can anticipate what deep and lasting impressiona
such moments may creato in the young mind thirsting for information, until, per-
haps, at a later ]>eriod of life, they become beautiful impulses of tlie soul, fimning the
Ihiine which animatna a work of art. But how much that is disturbing, deafening,
and injuriuus, cou.s|iii\s against these fructifying m'wcnts of chiMhCfOd, especially in
our larger citifs ! How iiects-<5ary is guidance and a.ssistonce, wliere Uie child cannot
bt? IctV with safety to luiture ulune ! And wliile tlie 80ul-Tn«?piring moments are so
ran-, liow harshly d<K.'s llie noi.-ic of our crowded streets grate iij>on the tender ear!
How ot\en do we purposely expose nur children to the dealeiiing clang of ournnlilary
bands, the rumbling drum and îu ill life ; so that.loncj before consciousness is awakened,
the ear ha-s hecume uccuatomed to liarsii and violent impressions, its more tender
fibrcii having lost their tension and s^^nsibility.
Still, every mother who hii» a percei'tion of the delight alTorded by music, or its
softening aiid purifying iniluence over the heart, should seriously consider tlxe griiat
importance of the first trtuning of musical feeling. Her simple song, in which the
duld may join, is the most natural and oflen the most elfective medium of instruc-
tion. A maicb round the room, handîn-hand wiUi his &ther, to the most simple
melody, or the mere rhythm of a drum, may give greater delijj^t to a boy, and do
more in awakening liis feeling for ^me and rb^m, than six months* regular instruc-
tion. And should Fortune's smiles pwmit tiie magic sight of an open to flash upon
his early days, such n scene of wonder and delight may emit a lay of sunshine thafc
will illumme andanimata his fiitura life. To this end, we should wish the dear, old»
and yet oTer-youthM '*
JK^ /fttto** to be the first qiem presented to the ey»
and ear of the child ; for in this '*€hild and iiiiiy pli^** Moiart has immortaliaed
to every age the innoeent and blissfiil days of early youth: genial dnldren imitate in
play, and with the sweetest sslf-abandonment, all the wondecful deeds and, te them
ineomprdieQsible, passions of maturity, until thdr own perlbrmance carries them to
reality, even to the dreaded dagger ; but all this with sudi mnocent purity, such
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J^BVXLOPMKNT OV THI NAIUaAL QUAUKOAlilONS.- 923
chiM-like unconsciousness, tliat we receive no ill impressions, when the star-irradiated
Queen warbJes like a lark in tlie midst of iul iiL-r surruws, and gracefully soars into
the highest region of melodious sounds. But the empty pageantry and unmeaning
vioboce of our anti(ûe-modem operas should rem^ unknown to the young mind
tad iliU mope cvefiilly ihould it be guarded against tboie opens of the Auber-
pilie* ^Sum, m which motie ii dragged down to the triyialities and nothingness of
esomioii tile ; as also against all ligl^ fiishionaUe nuudc, which a child cannot com*
prebend ; tnd, hmtly, agunst all exeeu in every land of music The first opera
eoepeilbrmanoe upon the fijll organ in an empty diurch; at rare intervab, a military
hand; and stall more iaiely« a concert these are imporlant moments in the life of
a duld» and should occur but vety seldom*
On the other hand» however, we would ask permission ibr all cfaihiren to phy
oeeasicoally upon the piano in their own way, to search for pleaimgcfaordB, and eren
to soamUe o««r the bay-board, so kog as there is no danger of mjuring the instru- }
ment This land of playing is generally ftrbiddea by parents, particulBrly after the
'
commeneement of musioil instruction ; the child is told to occupy itself more usefully
by practising finger exBicises or other lessens. But wliat is to become of its own
musical feeling, its own still undeveloped poetry of sound, if you deprive it of its only,
and, at this time of life, altogether indispensable, auxiliary means of development?

Parents are tdd, and hear with pleasure, that Moaart found out chords upon the piano
when he was under three years of age ; and yet they restrun their own children
from so doing, or interrupt and qioiL their often ftrrsnt musical aspirations with the j
critical impatience of mature age.
So far respecting the nurture and development of musical capacity previously to,
and during the commencement 0^ instruction. The detail must be left to the counsel
and guidance of the teacher*
Th£ Couaas or InaxnuoxioK.
How oflen — ^we cannot help re])eating it — how often do we heju- teachers complain
of want of musical talent in tlieir pupils, and how raiely do we find them earnestly
endeavouriug to awaken and strengthen tiiat talent ! How little effort is made to
hoover a means by which the deficiency complained of might be remedied I Is it,
indeed, the sole olject of musical inatructicn to imtiate the student in the performance
of a number of pieoes, or to impart to him a certain amount of abstract knowledgo
or technical skill? If so, the object may indeed be attained by the exerdse of the
understanding or bodily powers alone, and the soul may remam quiescent: but such
a course of piaettoe and study will leave heart and mind equally barren, luid for ever
devoid of the life that dwdls m genuine art He who wishes to giun more from the
study and practice of music than mere abstract, and therefore ahÎow and worthless,
results, must necessaoly go back to the origjn^ soun^ of all art, deriving every thing
from mnate artktie /ee^*
This considexatioa leads us at onoe to a maxim, which, indeed, appears to be so
s^-evident that one might hesitate to giro expresuon to it, did we not see it so fre-
A piny iipoa the woida Auber and mAtrgt (a taTrm).—Tlu

T 2
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:
Qti IiEVELOi'MKNT OK THE NATURAL gU AU> ICATI0N8.
quently diare|êd. Ifo eoa^Mnition oughi to be hid bân the fujnl iMek hi»
mind cannot fulfy eomprdietuL Deeply coneeifed, intrieeftely ootutnacied, or even
merely extensive worki of art, if they are to be learned and v^roduoed, not only in
a mechanical manner, but with feeling and understanding, require a conrideiable
maturity and development of the mind. It would be thou^t ri^ticulous, were we to
put Dmite, or Shakapeare, or even the eimple but Imig-Bpun tales of Arioito, into the
bunds of children; and yet many do not hesitate to make them practise Bach's
fugues, Beethoven's most profound effusions, or at least some long concertos ; car to
attempt grand opera seema with beginners, who might derive real pleasure for th^-
sclves and otbers from the performance of simple airs. Unfortunately, a total failure
of such atttinjits is scarcely possible, if the student have only a spark of intelligence
and sufficient mechanical indtist'ry ; and from this partial success, l>oth parents and
pupiU imbibe the fahe idea that a rial and important step in advance luis bei'n ac-
complished, vrhiie, in âet, a new and successt'ui efifort has been made to mislead and
suppress natural genius.
DfiVBLOPMiNT or RHTTHMICAL FEBLDia.
Here it ia also tliat curnplainti^ are nu^^t Irequently made of tlie |iupil's deficiency
in I'nue and rh'ifhin, although he hai« been really trained to these inijK-rleetions. A
feehng l^r time and rhythm, \\v repeat the assertion, is innate with all pDSsesse^l uf
connnon uinlerstaiidinj^ ; but, like all <ithcr natural powers, 1,1 ulivays in Uic same
degree, and never in so jierfect a condition as to enable iJie learner at once to com-
prehend and reproduce the manifold and oflcn intricate rhythmical combiiiationa
oeeurring in musical compositions. Exanune one of Moaarts, Haydn's, or Beet^
hoven*s easieit sonatas ; or any of Spontini*!, Weber*a, or Roasiiii*s vocd oompontiou
what a diversity of rhythmical formt ! how many different ways of arranging the
ports of the bar! how many divisions and subdivisions into quaveis, semiquaven,
triplets, dotted, tied, and syncopated notes ! how many different kinds of phrases and
sections! how many minute gradations of accent! Every one who has ttie leastidoft
of this (fiversity of rhydunical forms, will at once acknowledge that the uncultivated
natural fedmg'is quite inadequate to such tasks.
And yet this is the vny point respecting which the nugorily of our dementazy
teachers least oonoem themselves. If they teach at all, aoocvding to a defiiute plan,
they decide upon the succession of the pieces ftr pradice almost eidusiv<dy on
ground of their mechanical difficulty. The more complicated forms of rhythm remaiii
unexplained and uncomprdiended ; it is considered sufficient, if, by dint of inoeasaQt
counting, beating with the hands, stamping wi^ the feet, and other unseemly gesti-
culations, the pupil be brought to keep the time ; t. e. to observe an external uni-
formity of movement. This is by no means the way to animate and develop the
sense of time, and the nicer rhythmical feeling. < >r to give the learner an inu|^t into
the real nature of riiythm in general. Therefore the counting, beating, and stamping
commence anew with every new piece, until, at last, a meekanical habit of uniform
mity takes the place of a lirrf;/ feeling for symmetry and its expression. It is, un-
fortunately, but too true that the majority of those who practise music, either as
professors or amateurs, have only retained a feeling for mechanical uniformity — tur
the dead, cold '

dotcn-iteat' of rhythmical motion.
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]}£V£LOPM£NT OF XH£ NATURAL QUALliriCATIOIfS. 325
And yet noChing is easier to an intdligent teacher, especially at the commence-

ment cf the oonne of instroctioa, tiian the taik of devdoping and strengthening this
phaae of miuieal capacity. It only rcquives a methodical sdedioii of the exerdsea
and other pieces, aconding to commencing with the most
their rhytlmucal diffieulty,
nmple Anns of rhythmical arrangement, and gradually proceeding to the more com*
plicated ones. Maiehes ibr boys, dances far girls, duets 6r two perfbcmers on the
pianoforte, or ftr the pianolbrte and anothv accompanying instrument ; firom the
commencement, a strict and decided mode of aoeentuation ; Tmffryhjwg around the
room ; if neoesaaiy, the beating of time by the pupil to the playing of the teacher, or
another pupil; above all, a careftd explaination and analysis of the diflerent rhyth-
mical groupings and subdinsioiia: these, and many other expedients, which it is
impossible to enumeiale, and which most rea^y suggest themsehres in the course
of instructioa, are the most eflecttve means ftr the cultivation of rhythmical
feeling*.
Culuvatiom of the Musical Ear.
The cultivation ot tlie ear, especially in learning tlie pianoforte, laixnirs under
still grater disadvantages. Most elementary teachers conceive that all has l»(pen
accomplished when the pupil plays correctly the notes placeii before him ; whether
he has received a vivid iiii]>rcssiun of what he plays, whether his mental perception
and consciou.>u«_.-<s be actually awakened — are questions not entered into. And even
where the teacher's intentions are really gouvi, nrrt-at nusiukes are ttt\cn made in the
adoption of the means. Without dweUing upon the importance, in this case also, of
* It is only against exccaa in counting, against incessant and deafening hwt coimting, and
the disagreenlilo habit of beating time with the foot, that wo fed roniprllrd to raw onr voice;
for it would be impossible, at the bîooiug especially, to di^nsc with counting uUogether.
When it is iadiipausUe, tihe niwibei* ihoiitd be prapoimeed with ashoit and sUaip utterance
this lomm and ilMdie* the rhytlmiieal fteting, while drawling pronunoiation eausM indeeuum
and uncertainty ; impatient loudness stuns the car nf tin Icanior, and the beating of time with
the fix)t dHturbs his firm possition. A slinrt, halt-lou.l " Ono !" " T-vrn!" put in by the teacher
at the proper moment ; a gentle, but decided tap with the linger upon the Ud of the piano or
tli« arm of the pupil, will do more to impart animation and order to rhythmioal feeling Hua all
the noise naaxf tMwhart maniftwt their seaL In
mdestnivagBnt gMtusukdems by which m
essei of intxioate rhythm, with compHL;ilr<l fûbdivi-Mons, the teacher or pupil may count
**Onf —
attd—TiCo! -and.
'
.," inntead of merely " One!" " Two T
. . tin v«njuni tion in- . (
dicating the unaccented member of the bar part. If themovement change into triple time, the
word '*
and" must be dropped, and the bar parta indicated merely by " One ! Tvco ! Three /"
It will alio graatly asdst tiie leanw if the teaeher play the dificolt passagea wUh him in a
higher octave, or ^nly strike the principal parts of the
< ];ar, or, in slow movenuilta, the menibeni
of each part. Wliun the jiujiil ha.-* acnuiifil a cerlain degree of steadiness and certainty, ho
should be a( ('u.<tomt.Hi Lo distoatimir' i'.>untiii;;. wln re the rhythm is simple, and in reLinnmeiico
just before entering upon a more diiiicult passage ; iu short, to dispense a^ utueli aud us »oon OA
poaaiUe with all extennl eida.
Hael/cl's metronome (see p. 88) may be recommended aa an aid to steadiness in the per-
formance of the pupil the metronome .should not, however, be placed upon the piano, as an
;
eworgetie but irreûhir pvrforiinuice may di.sturh tlie n guhii ity of it« vibrations, in the same
Way that the unequal beats of two watches resting uyun the isonic hhell' or tabic ore apt Ui as-
•hniUte.
326 DKVELOPMENT 0¥ THE NATURAL AUriCATI0N8.
adiîtingliie wteetkaofpieectfor inMliM to the nrteDeetail etfadtyofflM pi^

we shall fiitt and tnott eficctnal meant ftr twatouxig
proceed at once to point out the
the ear to a peroeptioii of tonal rdalMmi meani ivbich, throng a nuaooncmd
;
notion of a toUd inHrueiim, hare nol only boen neêetod, but adaafly ooo-
demned*
The fink of theae meana ia at once to loom the pupn free to ducover and infeiift
by the independent actiTi^ of hii own ear. Inalniotion in piaitcftrte playing gene-
rally eonunenoea ivith a aeriea of flngor exercisci, repeated in all or most of the keys.
We adviae that these exerdaea be not played from notes, but that they should be
learned by inulataon firom the teacher, and impressed on the memory. Only when
tiie exercises become so numerous that it may be feared the learner will forget the
one while learning another, they may be written ; but only in the key of C major,
or (when exercises in minor keyi are neeeasary) A minor. The exercises thus i-nur-
tised and written in cme leey, most be repeated in all other keys, with no oUitr help
than the ear. The scales especially, and afterwards \hr chouh, should he practised
in this manner, the pupil learning to form tlicin \i]>i>n every semitone of the octave,
the teaciier giving him no other assistance than a timely caution wlien in danger of
going wTong. \^ên a certain deiêe î" faciHty has been attained in all these t xer-
cises, and not till then, tlie pupil may l)e taught to nan\e and represent the ^^-unds.
scales, and chords in notes. It will prove ini>st u«iefuland inijirovint: (or tlie pupil, at
the same time, to fi/h/ the dillereiit scalcB and the puccessive intervals of the chords.
A second means of enlivening tlu- j>ercepti(tn of tonal differences, is to all'>w the
ptipil iu fUvi niid g 'nni fratn iiwnt'>ry. To thuse exi>erienced in tuition and education,
the fear of playing fmm memory entertmned by the majority of parent.s aiul traehers
must appear sLruJige ; for in every other branch of mental culture it is eungidert>l kI
the utmost importance tu exercise and slreugtlicn the memory. The only reason
ndduciblc agmnst it, is, that the pupil may acquire the habit of playing every thing
j
without attention to the notes ; and that this hiibit may prevent him from em bci^g
i
able to play a |neee ooireetly at sight. There are, however, abundant mena of
guarding against audi a result When the teadier baa reason to ftar tiiat the pupfl
is beginning to truft too tnueh to hia memoiy, he may place beftro him at once, or
in quick auoccanon, ao many piecea ftr practioe aa to render it impoiaible 6r him to
leam them by memory. He ahouM aloo at an early atage be accuatomed to play a
part in o(HnpoaitionB ftr two or more performen, which cannot be eaaily committed to
memory, because neither part ia in itoelf complete ; and, lastly, the teacher abould
not overlook the least deviation firom the muaie aa it ia written or printed, but make
the pupil refer to the notes the moment be detects the sU^teat error or deviatko.
In extreme cases, he may even resort to the expedient, during evciy leason, of nuAiag
Boroe slight alterations in the music the pupil is pracHaing, so as to compel him alwaya
to look at the notes agpin. In short, there is never a kck of meana ftr an intelligent
and attentive teacher to prevent the abuse of a natural gill, the posscssicm of which
is, indeed, of incalculable value to every {>erson who practises niuaie, and partienlariy
to a composer. Freedom, power, and intensity of feeling in the execution of a musi-
eal composition, no less than the direction of a musical performance, are utterly im-
possible, so hmg as the performer or conductor is chuned to the notes ; and as for
composition, or extempore playing, that any great results can be obtained without the
help of a good memory, is inconceivable.
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i>£V£LOPMBNT OF THE NATUBAL QUAUFiCATIOMS. d27
Flaying and singing finm meinoiy alTCngllic^ tonal <fif-

firaiMs and combiiuitkiin* but alia imparts the power of fiNrming a oorreet and vivid
idea of the inteinal eoimexion of entire atiaini and eeries of itnune, and thus enables
tiw learner better to comprehend the contents of a musical oompoiitiaL Ibiscompie-
hcndan of a woric of ait, in its entirety and its principal divisioiiB, bang a necessary
and indispensdile oonditiQn of a tnitfaliil peribrmanoe, we ofiSara lew words respeeting
a means which wiU not only greatly fteUitate it»but will otherwise prove most usefid.
by kespmg the student's attention alive, and aocustonung him to promptness of dect-
lion in all cases of emergency. These means are : /rtqueM playhiff and thînfi al
eÂl / especially in duets or pieces with aocompaniments, and at once in, or as near
as posnUe to, the time intended by the composer. The teacher must previously
explain to the pupil that his prineipal aim should be to play through the entire piece j
without interruption, stopping, or sbckening the movement ; that he is not permitted '
to reccmrider or repent a passage when he has made a mistake, but that the eye is
always to hasten forward, the fingers or voi<» foUomng its movements. Tliis alone is
refjiiired of tho pupil; but it must be exacted with strictness, and, especially when the
teacher plays with his pupil, he must pursue his own course without cessation. On
the other hmid, lus an encouragement to the pupil, ha should he apprized that, under
such eircunislaiRos, he is not liold accountable frtr any mistake or omission he may
make during the porfonnaiu e. The first trials ol this kind often turn out most egre-
^
gious, and, to thodo who il<> not eonsidt-r how many thtVerent powers are combined in
sucli j)erl"onnances, ridiculous Ikilurcs ; hut the beiiotit-i re>uUin{^ troni this exercise
siKJii heconie evident, and the pupil is sure to make rapid progress when the teacher
has made a good Leginninp.
It is to be understood tiiut, besides tliese exercises, other com]>ositions must be
most caii inlly studieii. and considered as the jirincipal objects of instruction. Pieces i
of an easier grade should be selected I'ur playing at sight, aJid, aller being used two I
or three times for that pur|)ose, should be carefully studied and practised. By this
means, the evils which might otherwise possibly arise from sight playing, sudi as
hurrying, want of ooneetness, &c. will be oounteracted.
Finally, the most fruitful means &r spiritnaliBii^ and elevating the feeling for
music in all lis aspects : Me Mtudent*9 own inventUm^ whether in wri^ or ptwfing,
should never be supprened, but enoouragad in every poenble way. How often is die
young pupil reproved for indulging in the int^restrng search for chords and aiis upon
the mstrument How often, as we have said before, is he told that such attempts
are psionaiy, and that mechanical finger-exerdsss are fiur more profitable 1 How
often are his first essays inwritmg oondedtned with a sneer of contempt, and held up
toderisioo, as a proof of his utter want of musical talent, mordertonuke him abstam
fiom all such useless dreams and attempti \ Such interference and reproaches are
oppressive to the more highly gifted ; to the progress of children less endowed by
Nature, they frequently prove absolutely destructive. No one should be allured to
enter upon the career of a composer ; for there is no guarantee of success, excepting to
bim whois a^kd t*) it by an irresistible internal voice. But it would be ûally
wrong to obstruct the highest and most fiructifying form of activity in which musical
talent manifests and devek^ps itsel£ fVom our chiklhood we have all been instructed
328 D£VELOPMSNI OF THK NATURAL QUAUVHULnOIIS.
and OMidMd in literary compodtioii, and evm in the ait of inakiiig WMi: hai tliia
been done with the Ti0fr<if making Hi either autbcm or poets ? Bjrnomeaaa. It
wm beeauee there is no more poireiful means of devdoping the mind, and cstsUiah-
ing a command over its spedai organ of expression—language, than the piadiee of
woridng out and uniting our own ideas. Of how much greater importance must this
means lie in musical education, lor wbieh ordinaiy life does not aflM the hnmansa
preparat(H7 pracdoe of constant thinking and speakiitg firom our eariicst diiUhood
which assists literaiy composition.
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THS OBJECTS AND ti£AHONABLS OOMMENCSMENT. 320
*^SECnON THE FIFTH.
TBX OBJICTB AND BBASONABLK OOmnNOimNT OF MVBICAL UTSTBUOnON.
What is to be ievned! and whi )i \s the proper season for each fanadb of
inatruetioix? Thete questions, of decided importance, either in the most general or
the most essential points, should be eunx^stly c naidered by parents and teachert,
when commence the musical educatioa of any cne confided to their care.
about to
These questions are of equal importance to erery one who devotes himself to the
study or practice of music. That we may at Ica^t touch upon the most important
points, we sliall enumerate the different branches of musical occupation. Fin^
however, a most pernicious and widely extended prejudice has to he (v.iTiViatecJ.
To the question, what should be the course of instruction in music ':'

it is cus-
tomary, especially with majiy teach^Ts. to nuike a distinction between those who
devote liieniselvrs t,, inusic i\s a profession, and those who cultivate it merely as a
source of pleaûi .', n[ a branch of general oiucation ; b«'twetjn the future professor
and the mere amateur. The former, according to this (iictum, should btj thoronijhlif,
the latter superjxcialfi/, or less solidly, instructed. This i?? one of the most erruncaus
and pernicious distinctions that could be nuiJc m any kiuJ of discipline. Only the
most solid instruction possible lia^* a probability of success ;
indeed, what \& more,
soUd and sound instruction is at the same time the easiest and most expeditious.
In Older to be ccmvinc^ of this, it is only necossary that we should form a correct
idea of what ia inqified fay wSaA milnidMn ; and not ndalake fiir that apurioiiB
pedanliy which weariea tiw atudent with uieleai taika and ibnnalitiee, juat aa inju-
rioua and impnfitdile to the intending profeiaoraa to the amai^ Solid inilfuctioa
ii that which ia dueeted to aU really caaential pointa, which proceeda methodically
and nlionally» oonatantly deducing new fonna and doctrinea from others, ao that
each preceding one prepares fer and ftolitafies the comprehenaico of the next
Between the instniotioa of the amateur and the professional artist there exists but
one distinctioD : the fbnner is at liberty to discontinue his onward progress at aa
.earlier period than the latter; because, in the first place; his poweis are claimed by
another and, to him, a more important olgect; consequently he is prevented, even
during the time of his study, from doTOting aU his power and energy to musie,
while the future artist treats it as the chief object of his life, and proceeds as fiv as
talent and cireumstanoes permit After this digrearicn, we return to the original
question.
Of what should tho cmrê of instruction eonsbt, and which ia the (ooper time to
engage in each liranch of study?
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330 THE OBJECTS AND 8EAB0NABLE GOMMENCEIUUIT
SlNQINQ.
We have said, on afimner ooearioo, that* were it ponUe^ vterjoob ciiould kani
munc we now add,
;
^ po9mSbk, every me tkauld bam i» ett^. Sbîig ii
the iiuule muMc of humaii natuze; the Toioe ia ha own natozal mfltzmnait-^
indeed, ii ia moiei it is the fympathedc living oigpn of the Mid. All the emotioni
of the mind, all our feelings and afleetiona are at onee embodied and piodaioied bj
the Toioe ; and thin, indeed^ are ipeeeh and aoog our eailieit poetry, as may he
observed in the young^ children ; and the nioit constant companions of our feelings,
until we arrive at tottering old age. And when a suitable mdody unites itself with
the sentiment the word, and this the word of a true poet, to does the moit
intimate connexion of mind and feeling, the identity of both, apj)ear in all its power,
exercising over singer and hearer that wonderful inflnenee which nations in their
infancy attributed, not quite tmreasonably, to magic power, and which we have
experienced, althimgh in a leas £nncibl^ and perhi^ &t this vecy leaaon more
benefieial, manner.
Song is the exchislvo treasure of the individual ; but it is at the same time the
most unliniiteii and firmest bund of musical companionship, from the p'pular auiigs
and LiK't'S of the S(M;ial circle, to the re-miinns of well-trained choirs, devoting
tlienisflves to the peHbruiance of the grandest works of art. Public wursliip and
devotion become more f5olfmn and intense; our festivals and holidays Ui^sumc a
more pure and imiucently joyou.s char/icter, society becomes mure animated aiid
agreeable; our whole existence is t-xidtid, imd gains in happiness, in prop^-rtiîn to
the increase in the number of indiviihmls who delight in singing, aud sing them-
selves. And nothing makes an individual feel so soon at hoiuL d.ud amongst lus
friends, in public or private asBemblies, as when he can unite itis own voice witli the
general song.
To the muaidan^-and particulariy to the compooer ainging is ahnoat an India-
penaable aooompiiiliment» Ibr which no sufaititiite oan be feund whidi will enable
him to penetrate with equal depth into the nature and meaning of the very fineit
and moat hidden featurea of the art of aound. No inatnunent can aiqvply the pkce
of that aoi^ which our own soul draws from our own breast ; there are no maana
by which we can enter ao My into the meaning of a tonal relation^ or feel ao
deeply the beau^ and truthfiiheaa of a melody, imd make H lelt by otfaara, aa by
amgmg.
We aay, tbeieifiire, tfiat every hwer of muaie, and eêcially every ptofeaaional
muaidaa who haa the leaat particle of a voiee^ ouglit to amg. The proper aeaaon
Ibr the practiee of tuiging precede that of any other land of muaie. It ahenld
eommcfice in early childhood ; between the third and fifth yeara of H not
sooner ; but not in the form of regular instruction. The song of the mother inviting
the child to imitate the roundelay of children dancing in a ring : thia ia the first
natural Binging-school, teaching without notes and rules, and, as it were, attuning
and setting in %'ibrati<m the chords of the soul. Actual inatruction should only com-
mence in the second period of childhood, between the seventh and fourteenth yean
of age. At this time, however, it may be begun without fear of daqger, unkos
sickness, or great weakness of organ, randera a peatponement adviaabk
or MUSICAL iNsxRuonoN. aai
We will add, in conclusion, that by fer the greatest number of individuals liave I
sufficient voice to sing, and to study singing sueoesifuUy. Even considerable vocal ^
capabilities are muchoKHDeoonKnumtim is gOMially imagined ; there is not a want of

kmal qualiScation, so modi as m learcity of those wbo hm suffidsiik patienoe and
abililj to dkeoifer, ftsler, and derdofp the germs hnplsnted bj nature. And even
Ikonf^ aU are not so highly finrared by nature and cnmslaiMSS as
to enable them
to aeeomplish gfesfc proficiency in smging, must be an enoouragemcnt to

still xt
knofvr that roat

g sometimes the most toochng and most mtonsely delightfid eêto
•^HBiagr be altiEynsd even by an indifRsrent Toice» if the weak organ be assisted by '>
feeling, artistic cuhivatioD, and mtellêiMe. Who would not consider tumself richly |
repaid in findmg that his exertioDS have enabled hnn to nng a sunple ballad suffi-
ciently wen to touch the hesrta of his hearsfs; or to take an active part in the
peiftnnance of a chorusl Ram much feither it msy be advisable to proceed in

the eidtivatifiii of tiie voice and the la(^ study of vocal art, must be decided
aecoiiiiiig to each individual case. Of a composer, conductor, cr finisfamg teacher,
we have a right to demand that he should be perfectly acquainted witih the whole
dieoiy and practice of vocal art, althm^ he may not be required to have undergone
a practical discipline so long and severe as that of the prcfessional smger; and
although organic deficiencies may make it altogether impossible fat him ever to
attain any brilKant practical results. A composer, espeeii^y, who has not regularly
studied, and, as much as pofsiMe, practised ranging, will hardly write well for
Toice«, or acquire the finer niceties of musical declamation ; in fact, he wiU never be
able to infuse Ufe and spirit (which are qualities very distinct from mere correct-
ness) into the parts of bis harmonics.
. PlANOFOETE PlATINQ.
Next to singing, pianoforte playing obtains and deserves the greatest fevor
amongst those who practise music. The pianoforte is (with the exception of the
\
organ, which is too difficult of access) the only instrument upon which melody and
\
harmony, the simultaneous progression of difVercnt series of sounds, can be repre* '
sented with great tulness of tone and an almost unlimited power of execution ; it is,
at the same time, most suital»le ti>r the accompaniment of vocal music and for conduct- j
ing a pertorniance. All these advantages have caused more nia.sterpieces to be ^
written, from the time of Sebastian Bach to that of Beethoven, for tliis instrument
alone, than for all otlier instruments together. Almost all songs have either been )
set to a pianoforte accompaniment or arranged for it; most compositions f'r tlie
organ nuiy be perti>nned upon this instrument, and every quartet or orchestral
C'«mj><isitii>n which finds tlie lea-^t favor with the pul»lic i.s at once arranged for, and
made accessible to, the pianuiorte player. Thus no l»ranch of musical practice holds
out the promise of so rich a mine of pleasure and histruction iis pianoforte play- I
'
ing ; and it must be granted that an extensive acquaintance witli musical litera-
ture, and a deeper insight into the worid of art, are scarcely imaginable — if at
aU possible — without, at least, some practical skill i^pon that most useful ul uii
instruments.
To a compose, this instrument is almost indispensable, partly for reasons men-
tioned above, and also because no other is so suitable fer extempore playing and the
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332 THS OBJECTS AHD SBAflOMABLE COMIUNCIMBHT
exftirtiimtion of put compontiont. It is equallj important to die oonduetor and

inging maiter. Indeed, even ita imperfectiofis offer special advantages, both to Uie
Btodent in general and the compooer in partictiJar. The pianoibrte is greatly inferior
^to almost all boxv and wind imtrumente in respect to intennty and power of tone,
the cqMlnlity of imtaining a sound with undiminished force, or even swelling it ; oi
|clo6ely connecting two or more flicoeBsive sounds* or blending them in the way •»
easily effected upon bow instruments by means of gliding. Its notes do not give
full satisfaction to the ear ; its melodies, compared to those of the above-named
instruments, are coiri|>aratively cnlourless ; .betwe**n a pianoforte piece and an
orchestral movomeiit. there exists the same ditl'erence as between a mt-re sketch
and a painting. But for these very reasons, the pianoforte contributes more to the
creative fancy, both of the hearer and performer ; frr it requires the aid of thia
faculty to suj«j>ly its deficiency, to impart C'>lourii)<: tuul imaginary fulness to
that whirh it nu-rely indicates^ and (l<.lin«.atis in a i-piritual niannt-r. And thus it
a\vaken« nnd stimulates our conceptiMii, and tlinaii^li this medium penetrates to our
lit-arts, while other instruments aet innneUjately and more ;
\\iTt'ully upon our
senses, and throutjh them upon the mind, whicli they may move more turcibly and
irrt'sistibly, but cannot awaken to an equally Itiljlizinti spiritual activity. This is,
jM?rh4i[>,-., the principal reason why the pianoforte has become the first instrument of
mental cultivation, especially to com))OScrs ;
any other instrument being apt to
overpower him who devotes himself to it, and to draw him into its peculiarities, so
that he only composes fiir tiiis one instrument, or, in writing for oth^ musical
organs*, treats them as he is accustomed to do his own instrnmeiit* and thcieby
inevitably Ms into error and mannerism.
For the first commencement, the pianelbite has, *be«des, the advantage that its
sounds (we presume the instrument to be in tune) are pure, and that the aiiange^
ment of its keys greatly ftcilitates the comprehension of our tonal system.
But these very advantsges impart a certsin dangerous quality to die instni-
ment; a quality which, if not counteracted, may prevent the student from deriving
any resl benefit from his musical education. And it is painful to observe that
very little is dona in our time to lessen this danger; that many tcacfaen actually
speculate upon that peculiar quality of the pianoArte, availing thcmsdves of it as an
espedal aid, and thus making it the basis of an utterly fidse education and method
of teaching, the apparent success of which is apt lo deceive the uninitiated, and
make the honest efforts of thcê who tiy to impart a really solid artistic education
appear in a &lse and prejudicial light
The dangerous quality of the pianoforte here alluded to. consists in this : that ita
sounds being all fixed, and i\s It were " ready made," music may be produced upon
it without the exercise of wliat we have termed the sense for sound ; and even a
considerable mechanical skiU in its treatment may be acquired, without the posses-
sion of an ear or taste for music. How frequently do we meet with skilful piano-
forte ]>lay» rs whose sense for sound is so uncultivated, that they are unable to sing a
series of sounds correctly and in tune; who have nf> definite idea of what they are
ploying, nor oui, indeed, be said distincUy to hear it! How many a bravura
• S«e p. 121.
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OF MUSICAL IN8TBUCTI0N.
peffinmer nofjoA be named, to whom die contents and artiitie Import of the moit
Bunple musical compofition remain a sealed book; who, fiv this leason, executes the
grandest and the most trinal works, it may be with vain afifeetatton, but without
his soul b^g in the perfiwmanoe, and without real pleasure to himself; and there-
lore, also, witboat leading his heareri to the feeling of any interest or real artislie
participation in the work he executes ; the only eflect of his petftnnanoe being the
vacant admiratifln of his technical skill! And how widely spread has this permsioQ
of art into a dead mechanism become in the musical world ! No one, who has
fiwquent opportunities of watclung those who teach and practise music, can coaetal
from lumtelf that Ly far the greater miyori^ of young pianists are misled in this
manner, especially in our larger towns, where vanity and fashion rule the day *,
snd that a number of teachers are either themaelTes ignorant of the real nature
and right method of a genuine artistic education, or lack the courage to ofier an
earnest resistance to the tide of fashion, the inciting examples of those around or
above them, or the temptation of pecuniary advantages.
Now, although a correct system is mt to be expected from every teacher, nor
the choice of a good master for every student to be hoped for, there still remains
one point of security upon which dependance may be jilaced, and from which we
may iiope to derive an efficient safeguard against the extension of tlie evil. JyCt a
strict regard Ite paid to the pieces cbtjsen fur tlie pupil's practice. Should they not
]>e such as to insure progress, a go<Mj selection must be ^riously re<|uired by those
who iiavc charge of the pupil's education; or, if this liail, a teacher more iiuthful to
his art should be engêd without delay. .
It has been previously sUited that an extremely rich literature appertains to the
|
pianoforte, consisting. l>oth of Vorks originally comjiosed f i , uiui ut" others, adapted \
to it. Now what ciu« \>L iuoiv naUuiiLl and obvious thuu that the jirincipal aim of
instruction on the pianoforte is to open this treasury of artistic productions to the
student? For tliis purpose, a certain d^ree of technical skill must be iurquired by
the practice of finger exerdses snd other studies. But all this is evidently only a
means towards an end ; and, although nothing should be neglected in this resîect,
still it is pOBsible that the object desired may be as well attained by a short, as by
a long course, that the neoeisary exercises may be confined to certain eisential
requiremento, or extoided to proroiacuous and uneasrattal oljects, and thus, fir
want of method, be multiplied ad it^SnUum, It is impossible not to peroMYO that,
at the present time, this confusion is immeasurably extended, and that we are
consequently overwhelmed by a perfSwt deluge of kudei ' or ' studies* fir the piano-
fiffte. Every emment teachor, eveiy distinguished virtuoso, eonuders it indis-
pensable to funush adosen or two of such itud», in which this or that ' finger-trick*
(FitêribimtMiiek) must be learned most perfictly. And as the inventMn of a
motivo (Fûr), and a moderate acquaintance with the ofdinaiy routine of musical
oompoeition, are, in fiKt, the only requisites for wTiting a well-sounding etude ; as
even the smallest tr;u;e of artistic inspiration is considered a great thing in compo-
sitions of this kind, winch » ailer all, are intended only for studies, and nothing
more; and as the IpptiHt execution of the author, or his celebrity as a teacher, are
pretty sure of pjuetinngasale for a collection of such studies; it is inoonoovable
where all thb writing and buying of etudet will end. But it is equally unintel-
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884 THB OBJim AMD tmAMOHAKM comnmomvT
l^ble how the pupil w to find time for woridng through only the best and most
esteemed of these ttadki, or when i» will aima at the pnctioe of tfaoM ted worin
of art for which they are intended as preparations.
The above observations offer, even to those uninstnicted in music, a oompaative
test, wherebv to distinp^tiish between good and erroneous instruction.
Skbastian Bach an.l Handkl, JosKPn Haydn. Mozart, md Beet-
hoven, are tlie composers to whom we are in-lel'tf^d for the greatest numb«»r and
gran<l»^t works tor tlie j>ianoi'ort<' ; and ijf these, liwch and Beethoven stand pre-
eminent, as havinp. the one at a Jonner, the other in our own tiiae, achieved the
greatest things in tiiis Held of musical ai-t. It is only ajter these, that the names
of Dussek, Carl Maria von Weber, Hummel, Mendelssohn, Cho})in. and many
others, caji he mentioned ; l)Ut we abstain from giving a more extensive list, espe-
cially of liviiiL^ composers, as it is foreign to the tendency of this work to jironounce
judgment upon, and far less the wndemnation of, individuals. The superior claims
of the first-named five composers can, liowever, admit of no doubt amongst persons
well acquainted w ith music ; indeed, were we even disposed to assign to others an
equal rsjik, the highly important value of these would be in no dêe dimiiwhed.
We do not, therefore, feel called upon (o tnstitate a oooipariHiii of luk, wUcii, aa
relating to mafcfeen of ideality, could be, in any case, only cawWtimiaBy admHtrf.
AAar flieie xeamk^ we may down aa a criterioQ anl tnî^wnwMa
safely lay it
flwrfitiwi of a proper ooune of ttMn five maleni*

initnictioii, that die mttkt of
eonilHute the pcineipal and piedominant aubjeda of ilndj. What numher of
finger eseraaeB, etodieB, and other means of instraetion mt^ be leqiiiied in efaiy
individiial ciie, ne gneial rule can decide^ and tUa rniat tiitnfiva be left to the
• In reference to 8cb. Bach, however, wo earnestly caution toachcTs not to introdacp to

their younger pupib the ' Forty-tight Prelud*^ and Fugue^ at too early a stage ; and that they
should ndtthcr persnsds thenselves nor dieir pupils diat sU tin writiDgs of Ihti gitsft aini
(soMO of wludt WHS Ibt a tiwpowtty otjact) ne of squsl hmM r aass i l . Bsch's iiessnd modes
of o iptosiien diftr m aiany respects from those fiuniliar to modem musiciaiis *, forthiareuaa^
his works are not all <M]u»lly calcidatcd to promote the student's regard for, and acquaintance
with, them. By not paying attention to this circumstance, and especially by commeaciiig the
lUudy of Bach's woks with the shore ooUeetion, more lovers of meiie have Imsii rôlsed from,
than attracted to, hin. And wifli all the Mf^ respect we enterlam ibr him, we shall not ewn
hsatato to deccribe Mme of his oonpodttons (many of his IsbOSS psitjeolarly) as antiquated
and unsuitcd to tlio pr«»cnt day. An intelli^nt tefti luT, however, will find no lack of mate-
rial. The '
6ix H-eludtB pour U* Commett^nM,' the Jnventiotu,' and FamUuuu' (especially ia
'
the Eoglish and other * SuiM), and many othws of his IVwAMto, Sar^tandn^ Oigmtf &c &c
oAtr e rieh ieloetian of the most ohanniBg eompositiaas, which will never nsfiomo antuniatsd*
sod which, being in form and oontenta more similar to modem productions, will giadosDy
prcpan" tlx; Ii-anu-r for the stndy i\nA onj lynient of his other works. For such a pttrpose, the
new '
Campkt* JSdittm' of Bach' a \t orkii, publiahod by Metars. E. Cocks and Co. of Loudon,
deserves our highest recommendation. By way of a first introduction to the q>irit and p^jcu-
liori^le of these woihs, as slso e pnUniasry school of polyphonio porfboBaiico^ a * 8«btti$n
frtm SttatHan Bach"$ Otmpotitiant for the Pianoforte,' êfiuwd by the Authors Xsny on the
proper execution of those ami <;imnar worin, hos jest besapttUishedhy the abovesQtai]iik^
proprietors of Uic Conijileto Edition.
The same renmikii apply aLio to Iitind«ra Pianutortti Com{>o«ttionis, which, boW^^, are
IsMaufflsroes saddaveniflcd inchsiBoter than those of Bsdi.
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MUSICAL INSTBtrCTION. 386
dilcretiQii of the teacher. ^This, however, we assert openly and uneoiMBtiaDaDy, that
no genuine artistic instruction and cultivation can be eqieeled from a teadtet, hum-
ever clever and conscientious he may be in all <êr respects, who does not, at tho
first fiiTOiabla opportunity, introduce to his pupils the works of the previously named
masters, and continue to make their study and practice the principal occupation
and object of his knona. To occupy pupils aolely with £uhionable dances and
similar trifles, arrangements from &vourite operas, &c. &c. h n mode of teaching
imdescrving tlie confiJincc of all who seek a genuine artistic education. No teacher
should tlitrefore be engêd without a strict inquiry into the course of instruction
he a<io|>ts ha\nnfT hvvn previously madi'.
Instruction m pianoforte playing may commence at a very early atje : tlu^
sereiith or eighth year, and still sooner, altliough tiie child may not be al)le to
reach an ()ctave. i liere are, also, to be tound numerous excellent works, particularly
amonrrst those uf Moîart aivl Huydn, in which children of tender years amy leel an
interest, when a suitable selection is made.
GoMPOsmoN.
As tlie third oViject of general musical education, we class the study of coni])0-
sition. Without this, a thorough comprehension of ml and its prcHiuctions, wiUi a
complete development of natural musical qualifications, is unattainable. Il entered
upon in the right spirit, it will reward every advancing step, by an increase of know-
ledge and pleasure, even should the want of high talent withhold from the learner
an hopes of beooming a socoesafiil oompoter.
It ia the more neeeasaiy to take this suljeet into eaapsfid considerBtifln, on aoeoant
of tiie many impedect and erroneoua ideas afttadiing to it
Mttiic, as mi^ be seen from a mere penisal of flus work, » an aggregate of
innumerable fbrno, di^ring from or assimilating with each other, and blending
together in endkas variety. Even in the abaenoe of a speeiBl moaieal eduealMn, a
toaniient or permanent impression, more or less, may be made by its works; andrS
merdy superBeial inslnietioii wiU enable the hearer to firm an Idea and giva a tola*
rably correct repreaentalion of their eontents. But, in order fiiUy to undenind

them and deqily penetrate their spirit, it is neoesaaiy that we should not only hare
a perftct knowlectge of every single featnie of a oompoaition, but also peieeive and
nnderatand the purpose and eflfoet of their combination into a complete work of art
Now every one who applies this to any of the greater productions of musical art, in
which different parts are combined in an infinite variation of modes and forms, each
part having its own cantilena, riiythm, tonal progression, &c. in whidi the relation
between every single sound in one part has a definite relation to the simultaneous
sounds m the other parts, and in wliich the most diversified gradations of movement *
and tone, as well as the different modes of perfiinnance, assist in forming a complete
whole —we say, every one, taking all this into consideration, must confess tliat, foT a
perfect understanding of such a work, special study is Gb3olutely necessary ; and
that this study, in order to lead to a true comprehension, must be searching, system-
atic, and methodical.
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THX OBJICTB AMD 8IA80NABLB OOKllVllOBiniVT
It may appear possible to enter upon such an analyzation of art in its tnMmg
productions without a practical study of composition ; but such a prnceeding would
entail upon the student an insupportable burthen of specialities, wliile he could never
hope to arrive at theend of his lal>ours, wore it only, that in art new knm are
continually adopted, or old ones newly applied.
The more animating, and, in fact, only practicable and successful proceeding, is
for the student to ap|)ly liis own hand to the production of the different forms of
musical art, and thus l>ecome |iractiially airquainted with their laws. He will then
readily comprehend every exislinp and every nev^ form or combination ; btxau«e he
has penetrated to the root of its existt iicc ; because he knows whence it ia den\cU,
and for what purp(«e. Now this is the very thing wliich the School uf Composition
proixjse" III id is able to effect. It imparts, vo( mere abstract ideas of art, not a mere
«uperti<:i<il knowledge of its works, nor a few disjointed and lifeless parts, but a
knoH'kdi/f of thf h'/iuU' art, with all its individualities and in iis unity, its material
and its spirit, its forms and its contents, in the combination of which the whole
essence of genuine art ooniiatt.
To this indication of the promiaea hdd out to Ihe attidenb of mudeai eonqpon-
tion, we are enaUed^ from long practical experience^ to add the cheering aaamanoe
tiiat eeeiy tmwaird lAtp tit Mit «ftK^ hrvn^ Kf ttfUAn reward, ecem i9 tke mere
emateuTt wHkout reîrin^ a dtuprojjortkned eaer^See ef titne, and teem tkae^

deficiency in Udent or €(ier MtâwraUe etrettuMtmeet may prevent ike ehtdemt
frmn attainu^ a high degree ef fre^cienxy. Seen the firet exereitet m em^pmrt
een^poeUkn^ lerre to quicken the fteling fiv melody and impart a dear idea of iti
fimdamental finmi, of the efikacy of rtiythm, and the manner in wfaidi atnuna and
poMagw are defdoped from a aimple motivo. The doctrine of two-part and douUe
two-part compotition based npon natural hamumy, which is equally simple and
eoaily eomprahended, makea the student aoquttnted with the easMitial hwi of har-
, mony and the conduct of harmonic parts, while it t/Sen many interesting and useAd
exerdses, even to those who are only moderately endowed with talent. This doctrine
may be mastered, without much exertion, in half a dozen lessons, and the learner
would find his labours rewarded, even should he be either unable or unwilling to
proceed further. The subsequent devdopment of the harmony, which gradually
* Tbc author has 1<ei n oL1Igo<I to inlhers to the ooune and plan of his School of ifutiMt
'
('ompoîlfnti' (Messrs. R. Corks aiul Co ), as no prpvioTi^works ou harmonv ami Uioroufrli l»ds«

euuki poiMubly fulfil' the proiui«t'« here buld out to the student of coniposilion. The aati-tulistic
tendency uid method and tbc incompleteness of the old school have been poiuU^d out in different
pttges of the ebove^muned woiit, but noie poztiedarly ind AiUj in sn essay (also by tlie
autlior) boariii^' vlu- title, " The old Dootiiiie of Music in opposition to the Spirit of our
Time" (7>t> a/tf Musikkhrc t,n Streit mit unnertr Zeit —

IWtitl-opf und Earid^ 1841), luid it
has iK'on long since perceived and acknowl<*dg-ed by Reiohfi aud every roflec tin>r person yiruoti-
cally ac<ûaintcd with musical compoaitiou. It vt attributable solely to the indolence of muc
teeners, or ^dr vtker ignonuioe of tfio real natun of eoupoiition, tiiat lo nsay of oer young
people have still to owhite SO long and useless a trouble, in the vain hope that they will ulta-
niiit( ly be able to compose, or that at least ther h.ivo ar ijuiied a deeper insijrht into the nature
and gi'uius of nrt, till sill available time has been expended, all Measure in the matter lost} and
all germii uf iiutuml ubility destroyed.
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OF MUSICAL INBTEUCnOir. B3l
increaitt in nchnesB and variety, presenta a' series of interesting features even to the
mere observer, who cannot fail to be agreeably struck with the natural and per-
fectly rational manner in which, according to a few simple laws, the most simple
fnrms load stop liy step to structures and combinations full of life and significanoe*
But far more interesting and progressive is this study to him who follows it up prac-
tically ; the realm of sound clears up and expands before his eyes at every stcyi in
advance ; and as at every stage of its development a new trace of a living spirit
reveals itself to liim, so his perception and musical feeling are more and more
quii keiicd, strengthened, and purified. Now — at the doctrine of the interweaving
of chords — ^full artistic freedom of tormati(»n is again restored, and commences its
interesting and wonderful play. From this point one artistic form arises from and
follo%V8 another in regular order, no one presenting in Us place greater difficulties than
those preceding or following, until the student arrives at their aj){)licatiou to prac-
tical purposes, hi the shape of instrumental or vocal coinpositiuns for the church, the
theatre, and other places or occasions where music is required to exert her power
or land her dianns. And thua is oompleted the entire course of this interestmg
tudy, wfaidi every person may foUov up lo fir as ability, inclination, or other
QTCumstanoes permit, with the fbll aaBurance that, at whatever pomt he stopB, he will
find hit lahouiB amply rewarded.
With talented and eager children, the study of composition may commence at an
early period; but not until a certain degree of practical ddll upon some musical
matniment^ if poesihie the pianoforte, and some insight into the nature of art, as
well as experience and power of reasoning, have been acquired. The student should
at least have gone throu^ the elementary exercises, and be equal, both technically
and and proper execution of such compositions as
intelleotuall^, to the conception
Haydn's and Mosart*s sonatas. If the instruction in composition commoioe sooner,

it will either become a more childish play, or, which is mudk mote pnnidous,
gradually neutralise in the child's still unsettled mind the natural susceptibility
for, and undisturbed enjoyment of, the compositions laid before him substituting a ;
cold and unfruitful mechanism of the undei standing for a free, animiAed, and
joyous artistic activity. This is the greatest fault of a system of instruction accord-
ing to which pianoforte-playing and composition are taught simultaneously, and
which, with various modifications, is practised by a considerable number of teachers*
This system, by means of a very cleverly devised mechanism, succeeds in rapidly
promoting the pupil's progress superficially ; this it dot^ at the expense of real
musical feeling, which it leaves not only undeveloped, but also tends to suppress and
destroy, by cuUivating almost exclusively the intellectual and mechanical powers
of the pupil. Genuine love of art and artistic perfection are the less hkely to result
from this system, tlio more it is calculated to <leceive Uie mere superficial observer,
who cannot help bemg struck with the ap]>arent delight of the student at his suc-
cessful accomplishment of mechanical tasks, as well as the rapid advance in certiun
elemtotary iiranches of musical composition, wiach, to the uninitiated, appears
altogether incomprehensible.
Su fur respecting the geiteral objects of nmsical education. Should tlie student
feel inclmed to practise any other instrument besides the pianoforte, he may select
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338 TBB OKISCTB, «T0. OW MrnOAL iMSnUCTXOII.
according to hit inclination, or the 0{^nion of a competMit musician. Upon the

inclination and time '>( tlu- learner abo dep« i. whether, and how far, he shall
engage in the study of Uie science and histviy of mtuiml art. A composer, as
wt'll iis any other really educated musician, will hardly bo nhh to resist the desire of
making him- H" ;\i-.iiminted with the history of his art; not, however, merely £ram
books, but tirom the artistic wcnrks d succeeding ages.
XEACnEUii, AND METBOD OF T£ACBINQ.
S£CIIO^ THE SIXTH.
TSACaSBS, AND METHOD OF TEAOHING.
Int order that the object of musical iottructioQ be really attained, it it evidently
of the utmost importance that the learner should obtain the aid of an efficient teadier*
and that the teadi» adi^t a proper method of instruction. There are so many
parents utterly at a loss htm to act in this matter ; so many honest and wdl-mean-
ing teachers who would be glad to improve their mode of teaching,, if its defects were
shown to them, or to see its correcbess and soundness confirmed ; so many studenU
iriio have been led astray, or utterly spoiled by a bad teacher, or a bad method of
teaching; that we feel it our duty to devote a few pages to this subject, before we
close our volume. A thofough improvement, however, cannot be effected by means
of a book, but onlyby a more careful fraiulu^ of teachers, by publie instkuiions,
and bif imparting to etery educated r Wizen a higher and more eerreet idea ^(ke
nature ami requirement* ofmtmeal art.
Since the art of sound exercises so powerful an influence over the sensual, intel-
lectual, and moral existence of man, the avocation of a teacher of music is one of the
highest importance. I'arents, in selecting a teacher, should well consider what power
he has through liis art over the mind of his {nipil ; how he may either purify and
ennohlft, or corrupt and degrade it, and what injury he may intliet l»y h aving the
nund void, while no art tends su much as music arouse all the powers uf the in-
tellect and heart. TriviaHty, thoughtlessness, sensuality, vanity, an<l unluIiliLd pa'?-
sion may be implanted and fostered by a music ma«ter, while he is e<iuaily capai)le
of awakening and cherishing the noblest p m i i s and sentiments.

The most important }»<»lnt for consideration iu the selection of a music teaiher
appears, therefore, to be Ihe influence trkich he m likeh to rxcrt over the mhid of his
pupil. In order to be sure that tliis intlucnce will le of a beneiicial nature, it is not
sufficient to know that his own sentiments are strictly correct and moral, but a fartlier
guarantee should be required in the high and pure idea he entertains of his art, and
also his capability of imparting this idea to his pupil. These points should be care-
fully tnvestiprted ; but, after this has been done, ftdl reliance should be placed in the
teadier, and he be left free to act according to his judgment Partial confidence, or
any interference with his instruction, can only tend to lessen his efficiency.
In respect to munc in particular, it is, Iherefere, first of all, necessary to consider
in what light llie teacher himself looks upon his art, and bow he practises and teaches
it A mere mechanician, who teaches his art as if it were a handicraft, can only fonn
handicnfismen. A man of mere cold understanding may impart abstract knowledge,
or rapdly advance his pupil In technical matters ; but he will never kindle a genial
fiame in the heart of his pupil, whose natural warmth he will rather help to extin-
guish. Ihe mere sentimentalist, finally, may perhaps awaken a sympathetic feeling
z 2
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840 X£AGll£Et>, AND MKTHOD OF TEACHING.
in the braatt of hb ptipQ, but wiU never be able to lead him on with any degree of
oertunty. Art u ndther a mere mechaniam, nor only a matter of the understanding
or ieeling. It is the external mamfe&tationtf man's n-hole being; and he, only, who
eonceives it in its entirety, can educate another for it in a eatiBfiietoiy manner.
Ifaturai talent, tound kfuwledge, a feeling heart, and a clear peraption of the real
nature and purpose of art — these are indiipensahle qualUies in a teacher of mutie.
One of the criteria of his artistic animus is, as ah*eady observed on a former occasion,
the dass of worki with which he occupies lumsdf and his pupils. A teacher wlio
spends his time over compositions of a trifling or worthless character, instead of occu-
pying; himself with the numerous masterpieces of our art, thereby indicates his own
low position and low conception of the nature and purjKwe of art. It is true, there qiq
teaohers who, on tlie mere autiiority of the name, select only sterling and classical
works for |<ra( tice and instruction, but witliout really i-nterinp into their spirit N\'ith
heart and nimd, and therefore without benetit t-ithcr t< thriii^rlvfs or their pupils.
The next thing absolutely neeessary in a ti ather ot music is tin' capaJnlity of

acting upon the heort mtd in iml of flir jtupU in a decided and drjinitt' manner. It
is not enough tliat he be able to comjiose a piece of music, or perfonn it witli taste
and fetjling. Tiiis prnticiency may prove highly advantageous- — it may delight, touch,
and incite the leanu r ; it may, possibly, produce a most succt-ssfu] imdaticm, and
ultimately make the pupil acquire a more or less pure and refined taste ) but, by
itself, it will not suffice to impart real lutistic freedom and certainty to the student
In order to bring about this result, the teacher must not only be able to ezeeille
an entire woik of art in such a a eoneet idea ef Sis fiiU

manner as to give the pupil
eharacter and eflbct, but also to impart to him a dear peraeption of the sagnifamce
and purpose of all its minute detaib, and the maimer in whidi each and all contri-
bute to the intended effect of the whde. Nothing but a dear tnn|^t into the geniua
of art and the spiritual contents of eadi single woik of art, cankttdtoan independent
and diaracteriatk oonoeption and mode of perfonnaaee, and raise the student to thai
eminence upon vrfaicb the individuality of the and thegenius of art unite tiiem-
artist
selves mpurity and love, imparting what we term etjfle to his compontions and per-
fbrroanoe. It is only of sudi an instruetioa that the effect extends beyond the dxde
of those special tadn and objects of study which oompiise its regular ooune. If the
pupil have obtained an insight into the real nature of the subject, he will not merely
• perceive it in those particular works and Ibnni of art whidi he has studied with his
te;u h< r, but will look for it in every other work that may come under his notice.
And this is the real life hi art ; it is the only source of security that the practaoe of
art will not terminate with instruction, but will adorn the whole course of life.
Tlii"!, however, claims, on the part of the teacher, great uitelligence and extensive
knowledge, besides a fiwility in grasping a subject, and eiqplaining it in every po>>iblc
way. A teacher must know much, &r more than he is required to teach. He must
be fully at home in, and a perfect master of, his subject, in order that he may be able
to meet every qtiesti^n, every ex presse<l, or unexpressed, want of his pupil, and have
at his ready commatid an inexhaustible fund of means and esêdients for every occa-
sion requirinrr liis aid.
liesidi'S the flenn iitary knowli-<lge of his art and technical profieiency, we abso-
lutely require of every respectable tcadicr of singing or the pianoforte, that he should
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TEACH EEB, AND MSTHOD OF TEACHINO. 341
htm iliidied mutteal cmqMfdtM, at Hut ttudy k the nucit, if not the only way of
pcnetratiagthe ml naluie and geniua of musioil art. We &rther require of him an
eactenriTe modem and andent masterpieces of
and intimate acquaintance with the
our art, and earnestly impren upon him the necessity of keeping a watchfid eye
upon all new works making their appearaoee, and every movement in the artistie
woild* enm though hosts of mistaken or retrograding attempts may cAen make it
an irksome doty. A teacher oecupying a hinder standing, particularly he who in-

structs in com}X)dtiaii, cr prepare (Ahfm for the office of teacher or condiutor, will
find it alisolutcly necessaiy to make himself thoroughly acquainted with the Victory
mtd science of music; for art, like every other thing that exists, can only be fully
eomprehended by the aid of the hisUny of its existence. The necessity of an ade-
quate general education, being a matter of course, needs not here to be dwdt upon.
With the above qualifications, which are of a strictly artistie eharactear, must be
conmbiiied I nofcledge of maniind, and the power ef acting upon the human mind;
but, besides this, the teacher must akn fake a real pleasure in teaching, and a hearty
interest i^r the progress of his pnpU. A clever teacher malces it his first business to
8tu<ly the natural capabilities as well as the dispositions and eliaracters of his jtupils.
He tries to discover how each is l>est to be gained over or eonvinceon as sufficiently strong, whicli
will require assistance, and I'tr whicli, others will have to hv broup:ht into play. He
does not place himselt in sucli a position towardiJ his pupil jls if he were altA-j. ther a
strange and different being ; nor does he lower his own views to those ol iiis pupil
(two jrrave errors into which teachers are apt to fall) ;
but, retaining his higher
ideas and superior knowledge, he contemplates art and its different f(>rms from //lit
pupir.<i jioint of rior, whence /o' is enabled to distinguish the good and iruf Iroin liiat
which is false, unhtalihy, or defective, and to foster and strengthen the former, whilst
he eradicates, corrects, or improves the latter. He thus causes the whole artistic
development to take pboe in ttic pupil*s own mind, knowing thai that akne has lifo,
and npnduccs life, wlueh grows up within ourselves, and is not acquired fiom
wtthout
Such a teacher will be folly prepared to supply every defideney, and meet even
the unexpressed wants of his pupil ; he will not be disheartened, except in cases of
decided incapacity or dislike, when he will dedine giving fiuther instruetkm, rather
tiian eniiirce and participate in useless labour. If he find that the pupil*s idea <A
time is ddbctivi, or hss been confused by previous mstructicn, he will at first lay
beAte him pieces of very simple rhythmical oonstructioo, gradually introducing dif-
ierent melodic and rhythmic alterations, so that the learner proceeds in the same
pieces from the most nmple to more complicated and difficult forms of rhythm*. If
the perception of tonal diflerences be undeveloped, the teaiAker will direct his pupil's
particular attention to the chords. He will cause him to find upon the pianoforte,
and sing, from hearing only, first the major triad, next the dominant chord, then the
major uid minor chords of the ninth ; afterwards the minor triad, with its derivative,
* For this purpose, it u of course necessary that the teacher should b« sUe tooompoie snd
vtfy a thetue extenpon, ss oocssion may require— another noson why he ibotdd not neglect
tile stadj of musicvi eompositicm.
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342 TEACUER8, ANU METHOD OP TKACHINO.
ehonU, Sc. Ac* ¥at as these chorda we oombinatknv of the most closely rdated
ounds, each of these aids the untutored ear of tlie student to find the others, and
thus he leanu» in the moet eaay and natural manner, to distinguish the intervals of
greatest importaneej aa octsre, fifth, fourth, major and minor third, fainar aeni^
whole tones, semitones, &c &c. Should the pupil have been accustomed to, or con-
ceived a p:irtii-ular &ncy f^r, the execution of brilliant passages, whUe he is deficient
in taste and eicpression, the teacher will not harshly condemn and resist this ten-
dency —such a proceeding being more calculated to alarm him, than to gain his atten-
tion —but will partially yieM to it. Tic will, hnwt^ver, in the course (if his U-ssons,
cause the student to perf )nn tlie same j-assages in various ^vays ; now stnrrato, and
now legato, iiiiw titrte ;uid now |>iauo, creseriido. diminuendo, &c. &c. and sliuw him
h'lw oue and tlie same strain may thus he made to assume different characters.
Wlicu the 8tud< nt has onee arrivi'd at this perception, it will not be diilkult to
awaken his d**^* per nie!<xlie feeling, and give a imMcr direetion to his taste. Shr.uH
the reaiwaiiug jtowers he most iu-tive and strong in tlie pujiil. tiie teacher will civaii
himself of this circumstance to imjwrt to him a clear perception of tin ua'ure and
laws of rhythm and accentuation, wliich appear tu belong, more than any otlier
element in music, to the jirovinee of the understanding. Now and then, however,
the teacher will enter vvitli his pupil (as we have done, p. 1 in) into tliose nicer dif-
ferences and gradations of accent which it is impossible to caJculatc, in order to con-

vince htm that musical activity is not confincxi to the understanding, but that tfion
are many cases in which we must trust to tiie goidance of our 6c^g akne. It will
not, then, be difiReult to arouse and more esten^vdy edtinto this latent power. U,
on the contrary, the pupil be of a more sentimentsl turn, and indiiied u> yield him-
self, perhaps with enthusSastic detight, to an mdeseribable imptession made by music
upon his feelings, let the teacher beware not to despise, or supprdu, that noble power
of the soul which lies The best way to proceed in this
at the root of this propensity.
case is to enter now and a doser examination of some of those moraMUta
then into
or passages which appear particularly to interest and ddi|^t the pupil, without, how-
ever, indulging in a lengthened and tedious scientific explanation. Hie teacher wtj
point out the leading feature which imparts to auch passês their peculiar chaxacCer,
and show its effectiveness in this req>ect by a comparison with oAer similar or dis-
similar passages, or by making audi alterilioiis aa wilb tend to deprive tfaem eitiier
of their force or delicacy. If the attention and interest of the pupil be confined chiefly
or exclusively to the melody, which is almost always the case with persons of a sen-
timental diqioei^cm, it will be advisable to lead him gradually to compositions in whieb
a diaraetadstic second part is opposed to the principal melody ; or in which two or
more expremve melodies proceetl simultaneously. The pupil will thus learn to dis-
tinguish, in each of the parts, that which has hitherto attracted him only in one, and
gradually tbssc himself from a state of dq>endence upon an obscure and partial feeling,
to a clear perception, and thereby to a more comprehensive and intellectual study, of
his art.
It would l)e imiôssihle. and also beyond the plan of this work, to enumerate all
the advaiitiiges and ex[iedit iits whiili a teacher may employ, by entering into tiie
character, di<]i'<sitioii, and natural capal.ilities of his pupil; we have done sufficient,
if, by a few practical ilhistrations, we have shown clearly tlie paints to which the
teacher should chietly direct \m attention.
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TKlCHXaS, AND MKTHOD OF TEACfiUiQ. 343
Now il ii true that, amoiigst tlie multitude of teadien, thereare tobefiiund ftsy
few Midi SB we denxe. ThoB, hcmewr, afiofds no proof against the justneM of our de-
mands, Imt ia only one of the evidenoea tiiaft comparatively litUe is done when much
is nqoiied, and beoomea an inoenti?e to our aiding atrenuoualy in tiie afleomplisb-
ment of thai which we Imow to be good and right It is also undeniahle thai many
otherwise intelligent permns are led, through thnwghtlf—nea, want cf knowledge, or
other causes, to engage an incompetent master, when a better be had. For
this^hoiram, teadiersandpiolewoQalmuneiaDsamtfaemsd^ fiv
modi too little has been done by them to diffuse amongpt the puUic at large a better
knowledge d'the real nature of musical art, and of the manner m whieh it should be
taii|ând studied-^ conviction iriuoh has farmed one of the aiidior*s diief induoe-
menta to writ« these pages.

Than is stiU one misconception, against which we must most emphatically guard
who seek for
those instmction. It is the erroneous notion that, /or a beffinrn^r, an
mdêrent teacher is "good enough and somîmes a wish to avoid&ir a time the
paym«it of higher terms to a superior master forms an inducemont to act upon this
notion, than which, one more pernicious coidJ not be conceived. An ignorant and
unskiliui master lays a ba<l foundation ; lie neglects those fundamental principles and
exercises on which the whole subsequent instruction must be based ; he leaves the
natural capacities of his ]
»npil dormant and undeveloped, gives a felse direction to his
entire nuL«ioa1 activity, til usuig and destroying both his zeal and pleasure in the pur-
suit. The better teacher who succeeds him, finds the pupil abready half disgusted
with his desultory course and unrewarded labour ; the master is impeded at every
step by tlie previous false or defective instnict in, and is ofttu scarcely able to incite
to renewed attention and exertion required by a subject, the pupil who iiad Haltered
himself tliat it wiw already completely masLcred. Wlitrc tnu ka^:her who ha.^ not
often wished, in such ca^*8 (and they are by no means rare), tliat liis j'upii iia«i never
receiyed previous instruction, and that the ground had been left clear for him to build
upon a solid foundation. And how many a talented pupil gives up the pursuit alto-
gether, when the oonTiclion is St last ftieed uiNn him, that he has studied and worked
fiir yean merely in order to commsnee anew
Lastly : it is the mtlkod of ifisfmclMn itsdf iriudi requins our oonsidenition.

On this all that has been lud, we msj confine euyaelres to a single
pomt, after
maxim, wfaidi appears to us most important anduniyersaUyapplicahle, and whidi, to
the mind cf a reflecting teacher, will derelcp itself in all directions, however briefly
it may be eoqnesied in words. It is this
" Lii tke teeitker «Asi^ htatt m mmd tkat he U ImaIm^ mm art ; — tiiat he
must, ther«(fefe treat both the pupl and sulgect of his inslroetion m the manner and
witii theiedmg of an artist
Acting upon this maxim, he will regard hb pqpil with that esteem and aflfedion
which is due to the future brother artist, and to eveiy one cnpiged in high inteUec^
purauits.
He will foster and strengthen the student's natural capabilities and love for art.
All artistic activity must SfRring freely and joyoudy fimn the heart, if it is to continue
fruitful during hfe ; we cannot force even ourselves, much less otlêrs, to it Taste
for the art is the fint and altogêr indii|>en8able cenditicu of suGoess in this sphere
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TEACUKHS, AND MKTHOD Of TEACHINO*
of afiticQ ; die teadier who knowi not hmrtDpreierve and increaie tbb pleasim,
ii mie to 611 in big <d)ject He it not, homemt, to excite a false pleoiure, to ftimn-
late Tanity, or liold out entidng prospects of gain or distinction, but to awaken the
genuine taste for art itMlC and, indeed, by all such meant at will render pupils more
and more intelligent, and capaUo of enjoying that pleasure which attends a course of
practice worthy of it, by a seasonable, animating word, by a feeling perfonnance of
artistic masterpieces, and, lastly, by a really artistic method of teaching and training.
Hie hut point demands the moet earnest consideration. Art it neither abttnci
reasoning, unintellectual feeling, nor unconscious action.
Ni'it/ier shottM the dftcfrine of art he a collection of altstra^-t rules. Fv^^ry axiom
and every rule muî bo d( nionstrated to the student from the very nature of the
siibjrrt, and immediately, or m soon as possible, applied in practice. That this plan
is th i MUf^hly jiracticable, even in tlie study of compositinn, has. we trust, been proved
in a work on this branch of musical art*. It was unr of the nnuiy tauu-tistic features
of the formor system of teaching, tltat the student had first to learn all lossible inter-
vttb, t iionls, »S:e, &c, then tn wade throiipli a host of insignificant and unartistic frag-
ments of composition, intended to illustrate all the different forms of counterpoint,
Leflore he arrived at the point (}>rior to which, however, most treatises come to a con-
clusion) where he might attempt prattically to u{ijjly what he liaJ learned. Nature
aiid the vviiole history of art dictate a different course. Wherever the human mind
has been left free, it has first grasped that which vnts coQTenient and moet needed.
In ait» it hat alw&yt proceeded at onoe topvaetical apfdication, and confined itt ^wo*
retical inTcttigpMicn to that pobttlone which, ftr n particular practical purpose, itnat
necoHary to eliicidato; that, at every step, acting with a defimta intentiiii. and in-
corponting abstract reflection with actual perfimnanoe. That art hat derdoped itself
in this pedectly coniitteiit and natural way, will be obaored by eveiy one iriio^ in a
proper qiirit, ttudiea itt hiitoiy.
In the training ior ordinaiy practical perfonnanee, the tame prindplemay alto be
applied. The tonal ayalem, notation, rfaythniet, &e. ara of a nature to thonuglily
rational, that every pupil may, with veiy little aanttanoe, develop each of tfatae doe-
trinca himaelf, and, from a mere statement of the fundamental prindplet, <fitcOf«r
them, at it were, anew. It appean to ut to be one of Uie cmditiea of the umal

system of instruction, that it burthens tiie beginner at the very outset with the wlraie
tonal system ; next (or even previously to this, as most schools and primers dof),
the whole system of notation ; then all the speciet of measures, iê. Sec. while, for
the first exeri'ise.s, he only requires to know the very smallest portion of all this ; ftr
example, a few notes confined to the lines and spaces of the staff, and written in one
clef only, the rest being explained and learned in the course of practice, andat oeeanon
reqiiires. By this erroneoug meth k1, the pupil is led away from immediate con-
t*'inplation and practice ol art f n an unartistic exercise of the memor}'', and his inentjil
powers are ocxupied in a muiuier irreconcileable with the idea of art. Prom this, it is
• **2^«8Mo«l«/Cb««MiiKMN, Finulitaltmd Tkm*HeaL**^Memn. JL Cocks &Co. London.
t They thus toach the tigm facfers they have explained the tiling which tiioae signs rt^pits
mt ; md îr doctrine of notstiaii reiiuuiis muntdltgiUe aad hujompletfl^ until die pnpil hss
beoome "t****"**^ with the smmA thcmidTiw.
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TMAOEEBB, AMD ICBTHOD 01 XBAOHINO. 346
appamit thcU the plan of really practical instruction cannot be the same as that fol~
lowed in the present work, the oetensible object of which is to supply and prepare the
tnateiial for toch instruction.
Hid tame renunk applies even to liioie exenM wUch tie <if a purely teduded
natuie. It is neither the liandf thevoifi^ nor the undentanding, which abould abne
be ooeupied with them, but the hewt also ;
they should be made as uiterasting as
poaaible, and every techdeal proficiency acquired in this way diould be applied^ as
soon as it can be done, to really artistic purposes. For this reason, we cannot look,
witiiofit some serious misgivings, upon a ^^stem nt modem imention, aooordiiDg to
which, beginners on the pianoforte are made to practise upon a key-board drawn upon
paper. The plan appeals to haTethafeeomwwndation of beingcheapandcopyenient;
but it is obvious that, if it does not actually suppress a real artistae aetavHy on the part
of the pnpQ, it, at all events, oontributes nothing towards its Ibrmation and cnoou-
ngiement.
It is the characteristie feature of a proper method of musical instruction, that it
never loaes Bi|^ of the nature and purpose of art and artistic education ; and that,
from the very commencement to the highest eminence to which the studoit is able or
willing to raise himself, he is continually occupied and interested in a really artistic
manner and spirit. But this can only be effected by a teacher who is himself an
artist, and is fiUed with the spirit of his art
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k
347
APPENDIX.
Ws employ the ftnn of an fîpendix, m carder more fiilly to elucidate lerend

points requiring ftrther ezp]«nation« by applyuig them to special worics of art, which
ooiiUl not have been done in the body of tUs work, without interrupting the direct
course of instruction. We must, however, confine ourselves to the most essential
illustrations, in a form as concise as possible. We also think it adnsaUe to select
for illustration such works only as every lover of music may be supposed to possess,
<nr be able conveniently to procure. '
A.
EET1SMICAL ASALYmS.
P. 177.
We take for our first illustration the first movement of Beethoven's sonata for the
juaiKfl rte in Eb niajur (()p. 7).
Bars 1 and '2, :\ and 4, arc the two first mentlterg of a sect ion which tcniunatt'S
at the conmieiict'iiKnt of bar 13. With this bar a repetitiun l>t'gvn8 (the melody
ay»{>euiiiig in tlie lower part), which seems to draw to a close in tlie I7th bar j
but,
iiibtead of terminating there, proceeds in the same kiud of movement, first to the
twenty-first, and then fiurther to tiie twenty-fifth bar. Iicaving out of consideration
thai the last bar of every member is, at the same time, the first of the ftUowing one,
flia whole eondils of a series ot groups respectively of
2 — —8 2 (tour time?! '!) —4 — 4 bars each.
Still more comprehensible are the next tuur members ef two bars each, which, on
^ count of the siiiiilai'ity of tht ir contents, ;issume the form of two phnuîs (p. IGO)
of f 'ur bars each. Tlie whole strain closes with a section of eight bars, again divided
into members of two bars eaeh.

Passing i»ver the next section, wc point the attention of tlie leai'ner to tlic fol-
lowing one witii dotted crotchets, which is seen at a glance to consist of four times two
bars, and, aflcr a decided dose (in the key of the dominant), is repeat<^ as far as
the third member, afttf whidi there fiiUows a prolcoigation, or coda.
The Lar^ in die sme aonata shall be our seoond example. Its first sectioii
contuna dj^ ban, which ftnn five membos 4^

1—1—1 1 —and At baib — respectively.
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848 APrSMDIZ.
Now a section of two bars is three times repeated (with altefat ions), after vdkkih,
the first lection (enlarged in the middle to ten bars) is once more introduce In the
next bar commences a section of twice foor bars, the first half of which is repeated,
with sllglit alttratioriii. and terminates in tin- fif\h bar. Tlic member, consisting of
two bars, which Ik re oomniences, is repeated tirst entire, and then partly (the last
bar only), at\er which the first subject re-enters in an altered form.
Our last illustratii>n shall be the lollowing Sfhrrzo, or A//*yro movement. Tlie
first ]>art of this movement is a yv'/vx/ofan extensive form. A section df fljur lars
and anotlier of tlirec* members (of 1 —

4 an<l ~ bars respectiv» ly), constitute the .»/.s
(p. 1(»0) of this ]>eriod. The nn/if/'f.î."! cnnsisb? of an altere<i repetitiuii of the first
section uf a member of two bars takcii Irom it, and a coda of twicc four bars, the last
(rf* which is expanded to two.
Tliis wiUsutfice au ludicatiuu of the rhythmical construction of tliis compoailion,

which is by no meaiia one of the most simple. The contents of the difierent sections
and phrases, the recurrence of the different subjects, and other signs and indications,
wOl mako it an easy taik, even ftr thoee not acquauated with musical compositiw, to
diioover and undfliitand the fhythnucal anangonent ef thii and otiher worki. After
a moderate leriei of triali, the rij/tkmkal /»A'ii^ will have aoquired a etrei^ and
activity rafficient to render a fennal aoalTne nnneoeiiaiy, and the student will m-
tuitiTely perceiye and properly represent in his perfinrmanoe the rhythmical anaqge-
ment of the moat eomplicaled mmmenti.
B.
THS FUGUX FORM.
P. 238.
We take Ibr our first Hhistntion the eimple fugue, in Bb major, contained in the
fint part of Sob. Bacfa*s **
Fmrttf -eight Prdudet and FugunT^
On comparing the two parti (baas and tenor) which appear fint, we find that,
with the exception of an alteialioii of the fint interval, the oontente of the first Mcm
ban proceed similarly. The first seven sounds in the hass, tfaerefine, disphy the
nAfeet of the fiiguef, to which the tenor supplies the taumer* Ihen, vritfaout any
intexlude, the alto follows with the subject, and the soprano with the answer. This
is the first eqDMtîbn, after which an interbide of two bars leads to a dose m
roiy or. Ihe. counter ntlêet which the bsss opposes to the answer of the tenor, b
only partially employed by the tenor and alto ; each of the parts bdonpng to the
etntnter harmoi^ (^.222") proceeding g^mlly in an independent mannw.
In this first ex} position, the four parts entered successively in tbnr natural order
&om the lowest to the higbest: vis.
* Su]Krior editions of iLU, and all Other worinnsatimMd in this bouk, may be hid of
Messrs. Cocka and Co. Loudon.
f For those who rt" farther fld^'ant-ed. we nbserre that, Strictly speakiQg, the Bab}eol tcr^
minates with the eifmauneement of the seventh bar.
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;
APPJENBIX. 849
Bass, Tenor, Alio, Canto,
the tlieme of the fugue ap]>earing alternately in the character of a subject (upon the
tonic), or answer (upon the dominant).
The second ex[)osition commences with tlie close in major. The tenor starts
with the answer, and is immediately fallowed, in the next bar*, by the subject in the
bass, and before it has reached tlie end of the answer. This, tiien, is an imitation in
tlie stretia. In the eighth and ninth bars of this exposition, the altxi ( with the an-
swer) and the soprano (witli the subject^ follow each other Ukewi&e by approximation,
so tliat tlie order of starting is lliis :
Tenor, Boat, AUo, Conto,
the theme appearing alteniatoly as amwer andfubjeet

TUs aecond expontion h» lOcewiae renuuned ahnoit everywhere m the key of
Eh major, in which it alio doMs; or latfaer, it nmauu without a definite clow» bat
kadi to an interiude of eight ban, after which the tenor reappeaaw with the theme
(aa tabject) in il b majorf. In the fbllowingtwo ban, another itietta ocean between
the Boprano and ban, as preriously between the tenor and baas; and then the fugue
doaes with a few fiee ban.
For our eecond illuitniion, we take'the iiigue in Cmmor firam the tame worlc.
Xhia eompoeition hai been eo carefiilly worked oat in its detaib, that it requina to be
examined bar by bar. The theme of the (ague terminates with the fint erolehet in
the oecond bar. It ii introduced m the alto part, and answered immediately after by
the soprano. After a short interiude, the tenor Mows (bar 4) with the subject, and
then, after a boger interlude, the baas (bar 7)i with the answer slightly altered.
Here the ezpositioa might have been brought to a close ; but Bach hag made it re-
duiidanf (p, 234) by the re-introduction of the subject, first in the discant, then (bar
10) in the alto, and bstly (bar 11) in the baas, after which a dose is efifected (bar
19) in G minor.
In this bar commences a very close stretta, the soprano starting with the theme
in its original form, and the alto following immediately with an m^mentatwn (p. 235).
In bar T5, the tenor introduces the subject in a reter«ed form ; in bar IG, the alto
and canto ; and in bar 17, the tenor and canto display the subject in its original form
and progression, huthy apj>rox{7}i(i(i(>/> ; in bar 18, it aj^pcars once more in tlie alto
after which it is imitated in the bass, being first augmented (bar 19), then reversed
(bar 21); and, lastly (b^ 22), repeated in it? original form. Tlius the tlieme ap-
pears no less t!mn eleven times in one uninterrupted exposition, showing fJmost all
the principal 1 i t us of iinitatioa. The farther examination of this interesting compo-

sition is kdl to llie student.
The fugue in A' major in this same wuik may serve as a third example. We
only notice that an exjKtsition by dini'mution (conmitiiciiig with bar 2G) is carried
out in all the iuur j>arts, ailer which the unaltered sulijcct (in tl»e alto) is answered
ill tliu bass (bar 30) both by approximation and diminution.
* The fin^t ôiind has U.>ea shortened, in order more oktily to diftioguisb it from the tenor,
t The fintKNinduahocteiied* on account 4^ the bm.
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850
THS BONDO PO&M.
P. 244.
The rondo forms are of so frequent occurronoe in niiHlom tnusir, aiid so ^sily
recognise"], tliat a fi w illustrations anJ lirief remarks will suttico. Fvt tlie sake of
convenieiico, we glial! take our examples iiroai a aiugle cuUection, viz. Beethorens
three Moatas, Op. 2*.
Rnt oumple: the Adi^ cf Ihe fint SouAl

The principal subjed is an air of two strains (]). 242), the first jiart of which
(a period of twice four bars) closes in Uie priiiciifal key, while the se<<>nd, com-
mencing witli two closely connected members of two bars uK-h, leniis iii a ni-jtlula-
tory passage of four bars to the episode or second theme. This theme terminates
with a passage in C major, based upm a motivo taken from the [trinqii^ subject,
which unmediately reappears in a Mmewhat altered fimn, and ii fttlowed faj a coda
cf aome length.
Seoond example: the JUigp of the leeond Sonata.
The principal subject (in D major), whidi hat likewise the firm of a lupoHite
air, tenninilei In bar 19. 11ie/rar<3»Mdlf idikh oonmienoeiintfaeaame b» ^
the paraUel key) awumee a leai regular fbnn, and, in bar 81, leade back to die
principal lufaject The repetition of tfaie ntbject (the eeoond part of whieh is a little
altered) extends from her 32 to bar 50. Here the oeeond episode appears m the
crigfaial key, and leads to the principal suhjeet, at fiitt in D nunor (becaiiaei>mijor
had been so recently employed), and then in 2> major to the end. In theee last
appearances of the principal sttliject, its fint strain only has been rqieated..
Third example ; the Finale of the same Sonata,
The principal subject (in A major) terminates in bar IG ; in its construction it
is similar to the preceding ones. A free passage leads (bar 2G) to the first episode
Qxi £ major), after which the principal subject is repeated, with slight alterations.
Upon this follows a largely developed second episode in A minor, which is succeeded
by the principal subject and the first episode ; both in the original key. A long coda,
consisting of extracts from the principal subject and the second episode, concludes the
whole.
The last rondo form will be better comprehended when the sonata forms have
been ooDsidered.
* A more minute and oztonsivc analysis of ihe diti'erent liondo aad Fugue Forms will b«
ibimd in the third volume of the " School of Gmpetition."
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APPBMDIX. 851
D.
TBX SONATA FOBM.
P. 245.
Th6 fint mcfreiiient of Beethomn** Mnata m ^minor (Op. 2) shall lerre finr
our fint coaunple.

The principal labjeeft ii eontttued in the fint eiglit htn, after wHidi conunenoea
a repetition in the kay of the dominant; which, howerar, k not canned thicng^
but led to the dominant (Eb major) of the xdaliTe major Ab> In bar 20, the
Bulxxrduiato lulgeet (epiaode) ia introduced in the kej of the pan^
âa episode terminates in the fonn of a passage, and Unaa the whole first strain
dosr'R \\-Ith the exposition of the ^nal subject (p. 244), commencing in the 40th bar.
The second strain begins with the principal subject in ^ b major ; this is followed
by the subordinate aulêctin the subdominant of this orig^lal Icey (.fib minor),
which, through a free passage leads (bar 33) to an organ point.
In the third strain, the principal, aubofdinate, and final subjects of the first are
repeated ; all in the original key.
Wc select for our second example Mozart's sonata in /'major.
The principal subject consists of two themes, of which the first closes in bar 12
and the other, of an entirely difTercnt character, and distinctly pt:^]>arated from tlie
first, terminates at bar 22 ; botli make a perfect cadence in F major. After tills,
there appears an extended passage in D minor, which seems to lead to a dose in
G minor, but is made to terminate Qn the manner explained, p. 198) with a half-
dose ill C minor.
Now follows the second strain (in C major), consisting of two themes, the first
of which i& sixteen bars long, and is separated from the second by a ft-ee passage.
The latter, partly derived troin Uie first, leads to aiiotlier passage, and thence to Uie
final subject
A more minute analysis is left to the student s own research.
We have alill to condder that mixed
EONDO-aONATA FOBH
before alluiied tu (note p. 245). Of this form the Finale of BeethoTen's sonata in
G major (Op. 31) affords an illustration.
The principal subject presents itself as an air of two strains (\). 242). The
first of these consists of a section of four bars, which terminates wiLli a ck»se in the
dominant, iuiJ is then repeated in the principal key. 'Ilie .second strain consists
likewise of a repeated section of four bars, terminating with aa imperfect close.

This principal subject is then repei^ with the melody transferred to the ba^s ; allcr
which, there follows a modulatory passage, which leada, through E minor and D major,
to A major. Here, upon the dosiiig note eemmencea &e episode, a aeetion of four
ban (in the luy of D major;, eoniiating of three repetitioiu of a member oontaiiNng
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862 APPBHPDC
two half-bars freely and loosely interwoven, and the cl>se. This e)ii?'">de is closely
connected with the final subject (in D major), wliich is to all appearance alKUit to
close in the dom'numt witli tlie aid of the suMominant (6* major). In this case, a
fully developed tust htrain of the sonata form would have appeared.
Tlie expected close, however, does not take jilac©; instead of this, the key of the
Bubdominant, which appeared to have been intrcKlucc'l only incidentally, is r. lained
in the chaxiu.tcr ul a principal key, and the whole principal subject (w.tii altera-
tions) repeated. Up to tliis point, therefore, tlie composition would appear to belong
to the third or fourth rondo form (p. 244), with the first strain strengthened by
tiM introductioii of a 6nal tubject
But tlui firm alio li deputed fiam. Tlw fint pvt of tiie principal tohjeet k
once more repealed in tiie key of ^mmor; then* aifter an mtermediate passage, an
entirety mem aubject (consisting only of £ntr ban) it tntrodoced, and, alternating with
tlie first part of the principal subject, aa tn the eeeond part of the pure eonata Ibnn,
conducted through the dominant to an organ point Then ftOowi the third part aa
in the lonafca.
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SUPPLEMENT
TO IHS
ENGLISH EDITION.
: — —
BUPI'LEMENT. 355
SUPPLEMENT
TO THE
ENGLISH EDITION.
I. Tonal Oedebs of the Ancient GaEEK&
(Page 40.)
Ths principal tonal tene^ oi' the Greeks were the tUatmtic, chromatic, and
enharmonic, to which were added several mixed orders.
These were all based upon
the tetrachord, or a aueoetnon of four sounds, the lowest and highest of which,
termed nete and Hypaie, were immutable, and dways fonnt <i t!ie interral of a major
fourth (c—f), while the intermediate sounds, megae and Uchanos were Tanahle,
and formed, by elevation or depression, the different tonal scries or scales.
The diatonic order comprises two tetrachords, prwetnling by two tone^ and a
semitone, thus r d e—^:
—— — —
a b—c, and was identieid with our normal
maj r pcalo. Tlie Greek? jtistly considered it as ihv most ancient, simple, and
natural of all tonal successions; fur the sounds ot wlji li it consists nj'j'ear first
m the arithmetical calculation by ascending fourths, — t a ———

tl o *^—/, while,
in on artistic point of view, it presents a well-arranged series, and tujitains all tlie
most niiportant and useful inter\ al8. " F(»r this reason," says Aristides, " it may
be sung by every person, whether musical or not."
In the chrrrmatic order, the two mutable sounds were so placed as to form the
interval of a semitone ; tlius
In the enharmomc order, uiterrals and progressions occurred which do not

i^pear in our modem ayitem. Iti lotinds proceeded fint by two jnorlar-lîwf, and
then by a miyor third ; as here,
where the quarter-tone dejtression has been indicated by tbe (Jreek letter B {f>cta).
Of the last two orders, Aristides oitserves tiiat the one could ordy be exei-uted
lyy " learned musidans," and the other, by " none but the most atxômpUshed
A a2
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366 SUPPLKMSNT.
iiiiiti.** A practical modem moAam wouUi be altogether kMt in either of tfaeee
yBtenoi, finr ttw poeueiuni of nhich fbe aiid«nt miuie of the Giedn has been lo
often extoQed. It is more than probable that thoee o-called chromatie and enhar-
monic Males WBK only employed *' on paper,** and that in practice they were identical
frith, or al least simOar to, our modem minor scale, of which Cttympca was the
inTontor. Plroeeeding in a purely experimental way, Olympoo, by altering some cf
the intwals of the diatonic order, amTed at the ftrmation of wliat b teraied die
from which was afterwards derived a scale agreeing exacUy with our normal minor
scale.
It was unly in this funn, /. e. mixed with the <jUatonic order, that the chromatic
and enharmonic orde rs could be of any practical use ; and Uiis opinion i« confirmed
by Ptolcmitus (L. 2, c. 16).
As for the other mixed orders enumerated by Greek theorists, it is at once apfrn*
rent that, as tmutmeUd hjf ihetn, tliey could nerver tune been employed in pradkal
mnwB. The nftfmal fifin of the " enhannoniC'-^Balonio*' icala li lAated to luppe
been this.
-p 1
r
containing whole tones (e —d,/—^)^ semitones (b—c), tiuee-qnaiter tones (rf-HS*»

0ie-~j\ </ — and five-quarter tones (pa^)*
Still more oomplicated, and, Ibr all pnotioal purposes, quite uadeis, wave aeveial
mixed Amis of the " ehromaticHliatonic** order, one of whidi, teraied the " tssal,**
proceededthmu^ two } tones, and an interral of tone; whila anolher, the
kmioUe order, contained two f tones and an interval of { tone.
From these obeerraticns, and for many other reasons whidi we caanot here
enumerute, it appeaia to be certain that the ancient GreelB employed, as the basis
of practical music, the lame ftmdunental series which we use at the present day
under the name of the môr and minor scales. The major scale was the first and
most natural ; it was termed the diatonic order. The minor scale was the result of
01ympos*s experiments, which led first to the eonstructi(ni of the qponduc series,
and then to that of a scale identical with our own. As to the many varieties of
mixed forms, they either only existed in the minds of calculating thwriits, or were
last attempts to modify the character of tlie two fundamental orders, by an inqwr-
ceptible depression or elevation of some of the intervals, the effect of whkh mi|^
be compared to that of a modem musician singing out of tune*.
• Abridged from the salhoc's sitidc on Qteek mmic, in th« « Jkmrnmi Lmitmitr IMkmtr
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SUPPLKJtENT. 357
II. FOBMAXIOM or THB MUTOE SOALIB.

(Page fiO.)
When speaking of tlie formation of the niajwr scales, we took occasion 48)
to advert to the ingenious manner in whicli Locjier tauglit the different keys and
their signatures tu a number of pupils simultunt'oiisly. Tlie same method may bo
applied to the minor mo<ie, which, as we have seen, is derived from tlie major ujx)n
the same tonic, by dejiressing the third and sixth degrees. In this eiuse, the thumb
of the 0|)en haml represents the tonic of the scale to be constructed, and the degrees
of the major scale (which the pupil is presumed to know) are so reckoned, that
after proceeding to the second finger, which represents the cliaracteristic tliird, tlie
reckoning recosunences with the thumb ; as shown liere,
when tiw teoond finger wQl inficafte tfie two nunii of the major scale (here e and a),
whidi hsTo to be deprened in the nunor Male on the aarne tonie.
III. MiNsniiAL Musio.

(Page 68.)
After Franco, of Cologne, who is the firet nominal faaeAar. not inventor, of
memuial music, as proved by Cotton ius, an ancient author, quoted in Bumey*8
excellent " History of Music ;" an Englishman, Walter Odington, a Benedictine
monk of Evesham, who lived about 1240, must be considered as the immediate
successor in the development of the new doctrine ; while another English monk,
John of Tewk^bury (about 1338), besides several other English musicians, claim
the honour of having materially contributed towards its improvement and success.
England remained by no means backward in the development of musiial art, which

to<.)k jilace during the middle ages, ujider the guidance of the church ;
although it
would appear that the fondness with which the people, especially in Wales, iscot-
land, and Ireland, were attached to their ancient national airs, many of which may
probably have been of oriental origin, caused tliem to otl'er a passive but per-
ceptible opposition to the music introduced amongst them mider ecclesiastical
authority. The same has occurred in other countries ; for it is more pfjssible to
induce a high-minded people to silent resignation, than to make tliem speak in oppo-
sition to their ieelings.
IV. Rhythm of National Aibs.
(P*ge88.)
The natmal long doea not acknowledge the obligation of a itrict adherence to
tone and mearaie; it is diipooed to obey feelmg more than undentanding, and
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858 BUPPLEMENT.
dainu from the linger & devotion to the more importaat ponits in the melody or
poetry, a longer dwelling upon tfaote that «re patfaetk or deep-61t» and a quick-
ening of the movement, where the ur or words are of a mora liTdy dnraeter. In
die oldest national «r>> a rhythmical anangement in ban or meaaurca b altogether
unknown ; they ftUow entirely the metre of the poetry and the Taiying feriing of
the moment. This may be most dearly puveived in those GsUc song? of venerable
antiquity whidi have become known to continental musicians chiefly tbrou^ the
industry of English collectors, while German composers (Haydn, Pleyel, B^thoven,
C. M. Weber) have employed their talent to r^reaent them in an artistic ionn.*
V. HaMDBI. AMD TBM OftAXOBIO.
(Page 253.)
If Germany rosy justly be proud of Geofge Frederick Handel as one of bcr

greatest ions, we shiJl never fitiget that it was in Ei^ând he finmd die rig^ iphem
of action^ and» indeed, that his idnd was elevated, to its higîest poMihle
And this I do not now acknowledge finr the 6rst time ; I have dieeifUlly bone
testimony to it in my Memoir of Handel (written for the Univeraal Lexicon der
Tonkumt, in the year in3n\ and since, in my preface to the Engjiah edition of the
*'
Schod of Composition." The impetuous and ambitious young man might, and did,
earn transient triumphs in Italy ; but he had to suffer fiur them ; and even in London
also, through the intrigues of the male soprani, and the nobility who took part with
them. His own native country, with its stiff and tasteless '
BmurbotMed* courts,
could not endure him; and he, the stormy <hn<1 of tlie world, was equally inca-
pable of suliinitting to the humble lot of Seb. Bucii, which, like the shining face]]of
Moses, wivs hright only in its internal holiness and piety. England, with its gigantic
relations, witii its free and vignmns Protestant people, standing out firm and in bold
relit'f. England was tlu- pruj.cr and only suitable soil for such a man; there alone
could lie find tin- for hi.s cry, " LiKrty <ir deatli" (Judas Maccabeus) f<,>r :
his solemn prayers, lor tliat grandeur of expression, and tliat purity and fulness ui
feeling, which charncti rize his arias and songs. And thus England became his
second home, and he Albion s immortal bard.
VI. Hko UU A.NIZATION OF MuSIOAL AfFAIKS IN PeU68IA.
(Page 308.)
Long liofore the year 1B48, |)re]iarations hn-l l>een made from time to time to
place the cxtcrniil conditicm of nnisical art hi Prussia upon a new basis. In that
year, so rich in hopes, expectations, and pronil.scs, 11. V. Ladenbcrg took up the
matter ;
experience*! men were sulicited to give their opinion, and did it readily.
H. V. LudtiibcTg became Kultna-MmUler ; but hi? functions stK»n ceasiMi, and

affairs remained in their previous condition. It having become clear Uiat govern-
ment was obliged to direct its attention to other and more urgent mattert^ the
* See the author's Scboul of Musical CompoMtion»" p. 366.
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SUPPLEMJBNT. 869
aiitlMr, who wu one of thM6 eomulted by the autfaoiilitt, openfid, in oonnexioii with
Br. Kulladi^ IXractar Stem, and leTenl odur experieneed teadiMS in Berlin, on
tliflir own a Qeneral Aeademjf
aooount, ^
Mumc ftr tnandifis and degrees of
mneiGalait now been two yean moperalioa;
This mtlitation has
how 6r it ia poisihle fir privale individaaLi to eifeet that which, aa Germany it at
pieient cireiunataneed, the gorenunent of a poweifiil state nug^t be ejqpected to
eany out much more efliciently and with greater certainty of iuooeia.
Digitized by Google
GENERAL INDEX.
The ItalioH hrtun emj4oi/ed t9 indicate the character of musical eompotitiotu are to be found
alphabeticaUy arranged at pp. 263. 264.
A. Arpa, 132.
Arioso, 212.
Abbreviations, 22. Arpcgpiato, arpeggio, arpc^;iatura, 10.3, 207.
Artii'ulatif)n, r29.
Accelerando, 81^ Artiatic calling, .319.
Accent, 65^ 112. 213. forms, 4j 221,
Accentuation, signification of, 282.
Acccntuato, 116. training, 2fiS.
Accessory part, 225- Anai, 7S.
Accidentals, A tempo, TSjfiL
Accompanied fugue, 'i^H Attacca, s'attacca, fiL.
vt>cal music, 1. Auber, 287.
Acoustics, 2L Angmentation, 235.
Adagio, adapissimo, 19. Augmcntcd intervals, 36.
Ad libituui, 77. triad, 187.
iKolian harp, 134. Auxiliary sounds, 211.
^¥!olian moac filL
r
Air (song form), 242. B.
Air, alia, 21.
AUegranicntc, &IL Bach (Scb.), 153, 2l0j 232, 236, 237, 241,
AUvntando, kL 246. 2.V2, 2f>r., 297.
All. -rcttn, Ml Ballet, 4, 2^
Allegriiisimu, 80. Banda, lid.
Allegro, afl. Bar, 89.
appassionato, fi. Bar line, fiL
assoi, iilL Baritone. 12fl.
con brio, 81L Bass clct, Ifi.
•
con fuocA, Sd Bass, figured, 2M.
ma non truppo, hlL Bass bora, 112.
modcrato, 811. Baas notes, 12^
•
vivace, S£L voice, 128.
Al rigore dol tempo, 78. part, lfl3.
Alto clarionet, 141. Ba.ssct horn, 140.
*
clef, 16,
part, m
voice, 122,
Bassoon, 112.
BaHso ostiuato, 233.
Basturdella, 122.
Andamento, 79. Beethoven (L, v.), 18, 246, 248, 251,
Andante, 7^ 265. 274, 2111.
Animate, (SO. Ben pronunciato, IM.
Answer (in a fugue), 233. Bind (tiu), OIL
Anthem, 262. Binary measure, 8^
Antithesis, 170. Bipartite value of sounds, fifi.
Anticipatt'd sounds, 2QiL Bis, 2^

A piacero, 12. Bourse, 212.
Appassionato, 8fL Bow instruments, 122, 13^
Appngûtura, 1 78. Brace,
Arco, col' arco, 136. Brass band, 123.
Approximation, 23^ iustruments, 122, 143.
Aria, 2iiL Brevi8,6a.
Arietta, 250, Bi io, brioso, 8IL
3G2 QENEBAL INDEX.
0. Consonance, 37.
Con sordino, LM.
Cadence, 197. Contano, 152.
Colando, SL Contra bassoon, 112.
Canon, 22^ Con tutta la forza, 116.
circular, 241. Coperti, 149.
"
free, m
enigmatical, 21L
in the octave, 239.

Comet
Como
Piston (Cornopean), 145.
Inglese, 141.
basiso, LLL
in the second, 222. dicaccia, 143.
in unison, 239. Corona, 78.
mixed, 2aS. Counter harmony, 238.
proper, 239. subject,' 233.
strict, 240. Counterpoint, fil
Canonical imitation, 239. double, 227.

Cantata, 260. simple, 22L
Cantilena, 163. Courante, 2i2.
Canto, cantiis, 127, Crescendo, Hfi.
Canto fcrmo (cantua ftrmus), 22SL Crotchet, SS.
Capo (da), 2fi. Crescent, liS.
Capriccio, 24fi- Cymbals, 149.
Cavatina, 25!L D.
Catalani, 12L
C^clef, L5. David (F.), 260.
Chamber music, 2M< Dance music, 4, 242.
Change notes, 21_L Deceptive close, 199.
Chest voice,
Chladni, 9,
Chorale, 2<&2.
m Docima, S3.
quarta, 33.
quinta, 33.
Chord, IM. tcrtia, 33.
common, 187. Dccresoendo, 116.
Chord of the diminished seventh, 192i WL Degrees of relation, 57.
fifth and sixth, IM, Degrees of sound, 10, 40.
— —— ninth, 184i
second, 193.
seventh, ISi*
]^ - movement, 79.
Demisemiquaver, 66.
Diatonic scale, 30, 163, 355.
— sixth, 193. Diese, 22.
third and fourth, ISi Dilucndo, 116.
Chords of transition, 2HL Diminiiihed intervals, 36.
Chords, fifou'ing of^ 21& triad, IfiL
Chorus, 123, 280. Diminution, 235.
Chorus singing, '21i). Diminuendo, 116.
Church modes, 58. Direct, 27.
Church music, 4, 255. Discant (discant voioe\ 127, 128.
Chromatic accidentals, 109. Dispersed harmony, 195.
Chromatic scale, 30, lî Dissonance, 37.
Circle by fifths, IL Divertimento (divertissement), 246
Cinelli (cymbals), lJifi< Divise, I3&
Circular canon, 2iL Doctrine of forms,
Clarino, 144. Dominant, 56.
Cbrionet, 1^ chord, 187, 202.
Clavi-cylinder, 150. triad, ISL
Cleft, 15. Dorian mode, fi(L
Close harmony, 195. Dot, 69, 251L

Coda, 23L Double app<^giatum, 179.
Col. colla, 24, 27, 155. bass, 137.
Come sopra, 152± bar, 91.
Combination, IM. flat, 30.
Comma, 2fiL — sharp, 3<L
Commodo, 79. stop, 13fi.
Common chord, 187. triplet, 71.
Composer, 319. Dramatic music, 4^ 255.

Composition, horanphonc, 22&. Drama with chorus, 255.
polyphone, 226. Drama with music, 264.
Compound measure, 8L Dreyschock. 101
rhythmical forms, 21. Duet, 137.
Concertino, 248. Duodecima, 33.
Concerto, 248. Duplex longa, 68.
Consecutive fifths, 196. Duplication of intervals, IM.
octaves, 190. Duration of sounds, 3.
Google
QSNERAL INDEX. 36S
s. (Jreat drum, 14<^.

Groups, rhythmical, 2Z1.
. Bar, musical, 317. Guido Aretina, 10^ 13.
£cc1cdiaatical modes, 60. Guitar, ISi
EcloRue, 2fi5»
Elegio, 2M.
Ekmentiiry fonns, Ifil,
EngU.ili burn, Ml. Half close, 128.
Enharmonic interval, 39^ Handel, 156i 232, 246, 263, 2fiL
keys, 40. M5. ITarmonipa, 153.
sounds, 29, 355. Ilariuoaic tig tuition, 2flL
Enifrnmtical canon, '241. Harmonics, 4^ 135.
Entr" acte, 247. Harmony, 3^
Etude, 2^, iifi. figurative, 230.
Euphoo, 150. Harp, 132.
Exi>osition, 234. Haydn (Joseph), 73, 154, 247, 265, 292.
Homophonic comiH)siti")n, 223.
F. forms, 242.
Horn, 143.
Fa. liL Human voice, 12fi.
Falso progrMsion, 195. Hummel, 236.
relation, 212. Hymue, 252.
Falsetto, 12iL Hypo, fil.
Fandango, 212.
Fantasie, 213,
F-c\cf, Ifi. L
Female voice, 121.
Figuration, 22SL lastic mode, filL
Figurative harmony, 2Z(L Imitation, 23iL
parts, 230. Instruments, 12L
Figured boss,
Finale, 2iL
Final subject, 211.
—^— of friction, 122.
of percussion, 122.
principal, 2liL
Fine, al fine, 2fi. concertante, 248.
Flat sounds, 22. Instrumental music, 4^ 123.
Flute, Interlude, 23L 2iil.
Forms, artistic, 22L Intt^rrupttd close, Ififl.
homophone, 212. Intervai, 34^ 184i 22L
polyphone, 230. Inversion, 192. 221.
mised, 2^212. L'Istesm) tempo, 96.
. signitication of, 2IL
Forte, fortissimo, 116.
Fugative chorale, 22&. E.
Fugato, 228.
Fughctta, Kettle drum, 112.
Fugue, 23a. Key, 43, 2M.
• accompanied, 23fi. indication of the, 54^ IM-
double, 2M. Key-board, 2.
— quadruple, 236.
triple, 2.'}(i.
simple, 237.
Keyed
Knee-fiddle, m
string instruments, 131.
free, 2aa.
strict, 238. L.
Funco, ftiof«uo, 8iL
Full close, m. Language, 121, L2iL
Larghetto, IST
G. Largo, largissimo, 79.
Leper lines, LL
Gabriel], 2M. Legfttinsirao, TL
Gavotte. 212. Legato, 77, 223.
General pause, iJL assai, TL
rest, Zfi. Leibnitz, liL
Gigue, 212. Lento, 22.
Gluck, 253, 287, 232. Libitum (ad), 77.
Graces, 152. Liazl (F ), 100, 102, 228.
Graduale, 252. Loco, 22.
Grand orchestra, L22. Logier, 18.
Oran l sonahi, 247. I/onga, CS.
Giaiin, iiliL Lower part,
Grave, IS. Lydian mode, M.
304 OBNEBAL INDEX.
M. K.
Maggiore, 2i2.
Major internal, 36. NiigeU, 238.
kojB, 33^ 46^ flL Natural qualification, 211.
•
mode, 4IL Neuma, 19.
triad, 186. Nona (ninth), 33.
Ihio voice, I2L Normal scale*, 46, 6SL
MilzcL as. Notation, 13.
Maniuu, 147. Nottumo, 247.
Mancondo, 116.
Marvato, 116. 0.
March, 242, 265.
Martcllato, im Obligate, 22L
Mam, 2o2. Oboe, LLL
Maxima, 68. Octava, 33.
Measure, 86. OcUvc, LL, 22, 33, 215.
Medcflimo tempo, &fi* Octaves, consecutive, ISfi.
Mediant, 66. Omission of intervals, 191.
Mohniica, i, Opera, operetta, 254.
Mclodramo, 252. Ophicleide, 112.
Melody, 3j ]32L Oratorio, 252.
Member Tof a bar), 22. Orchestra, 123.
Member (of a phraac), 169. Organ, 122,
Mendelaaohn Bartholdy, 250. Organ, point, 210.
McDO, glL — stopu, 147.
forte, piano, 116. Organics, 119-
Metronome, 82^ 272. Organs of music, 4, 12L
Meyerbeer, Itl. Orlando Lasso, 2M.
Mezza voce, 12(L Ottava, 22.
Mezzo soprano, 128. Overture, 247.
Military drum, 149.
Mi, HL P.
Minim, 66.
Minima, 6H. Palestrina, 257, 266.
Minor interval, 36. rarallel keys, S3.
keys, 43j 60j 63. Passecaglio, passepiod, 242.
'
mode, 51^ 356. Part, 2.
triada, ISL accessory, 226.
Minoro, 211. figurative, 230.
Minuet, 211L of the bar, SO.
Mixed forms, 224^ 212. principal, 225.
Mixolydian mode, fi(L Passage, IfiL
Mixtures, 147. Pawling notes, 211.
Motle, 40j 188, 2filL Pastorale, 26^
Moderato, 80. Pause, IS.
Modulation, 2112. Pedal, lia.
means of, 208. Pedal harp, 133.
Mordcnte, IfiL. Pedal notes, 202.
Morendo, LLfi. passage, 210.
Motetto (motet), 25iL Pendulum, Si
Motive, l&L PenU-ndosi, 116.
Moto oontrario, 2^ Perfect closes, 198.
Movement, 271. Performance, 269, 267, 268, 281.
MoMTt, 98, 107, 129, 137, 140, 236, 288, collective, 289.
295. 207. Period, 169.
Multipartite rhythmical groups, T2m Pesante, Ufi.
Musette, 242. Phrase, 169.
Muflic, L Phrj gian mode, SO.
cultivation of, 299. Piano, pianissimo, 116.
diifcrcnt species of, in connexion I*ianoforte, 131.
with other productioIu^ 2^2. Piatti, 112.
science of, 6. Pih, 80.
a glance at the present state of, 301. Piccolo flute, IMj
Musical composition, £L Piteh, 2.
culture, aOfl. Pizzicato, 136,
car, aiL Poco, poco a pooo, 81.
instruction, 292. Polyphonic composition, 226.
orgunics, 119, 121. forma, 2S0
aigiia, 22m Position of chorda, 192.
Mute, IM* Precipitando, 8L
.
OENEBAIi INDSX. 365
Prelude, 199^ 231. Serpent, 112.

Presto, prostisaimo, M± Sexta, 33,
Prima, 24j 33. Scxtuplct, 114.
Prima volta, 25. Sforzaudo, aforxata, llo.
Principal part of tho Imut, 81. Shake, iilL
in harmony, 225. Sharp sound, 2&.
Propre^^sion of parts, 207. Si, IIL
Pruuuncuttion, LliL Signatures, 51^
Psalm tunc, 2^2. Simile, 94.
Sintrinpr. i, 126^ 330i
Sympliony, 217.
Sista, alia sista, 24.
Quality of sotmda, I2£L Smorzando, 116.
Quarta, 23. Sol, IIL
Quartet, 132. Solfcpgiij, 2M.
Quinta, 3a. Sob singing, 212.
Quintet, lAL Sonata, 21fi.
Quintuplet, Z2a fom 2ii
Sonata melancholiquo, path^tique, 2M.
Sonatina, 247.
form, 2ii.
Rallentando, &L Song (air), 212-
Be, IIL Soprano dicf, UL
Eeritative, 249. Soprano part, 183.
lU'gistcTs of the voice, 12fi. voice, i2L
Bektion, false, 212. Sordino, IM^
Selative keys, Sostenuto, 72.
Bcqxiiem, 2&L Sound, 2.
Ecpoatinjj; s\^y 2o. Soimds, their quality, progressinn nnd com-
Rciiolutiou of chords, IM. bination, 276.
Restoration (the natural), 30. Staccato, 76^ 2Z3.
Bests, 14. Staff, LL
BtiToriuon, 22^ Starting notes, Ififi.
Rhythm, 5. 66. 172, 21L Stretta, 81, 232.
Rhythmical motiyo, IM. Strtngcndo, SI-
eigna, liL String band, Li3.
8if?nattirc5S, 8fl. instruments, 121, 131.
— value of sounds., M.. pendulum, 83.
Riptire del t<'nipo, IS, Study (^tude), 21H.
Rilasciando, 81. Stylo, '2M^ -151.
Riuforzando, Ilfi. Subdivision of bars, QZ.
Ritardando, HI Subdominant, submediant, 66.
Ritcnuto, HI. Subject, 233.
Ritmo (uenza), 75. (principal^, 243^ ffinal), 211.
Rolling drum, lifi. Subjects, principal and suoordmate, 245.
Eondn form, 243. Subonlinato parts of n bar, 82.
Root, miL Succession of sounds, 163.
RoBsini, 2M. Suite, 2HL
Run, ISL SiLspcnsionp, 208.
Syniphcdiy, 247.
fL Symphony cantata, 251L
Syncopation, lOo.
Sarabande, 2i2. System of notation, 13.
Scale, 12.
Sccna, 260. T.
Science of music, £.
Schneider (F), 2fiL Tamtam, lilL
Score, 123i 161^ 214, 293. Tasto solo, 2M.
Secco, rec. seoco, 212. Tempo, fll.
Section, LfiL Tenor, 12L 153.
Secunda, SiL Tenor (iiisLnimunt), l.'iG.
Segue, 24. Tenor baas, Ilfi.

Semibrcve, &L clef, Ifi.
Somibrevis, Sfi. horn, 146.

Soinidomiscmiquavor, fifi. trombone, Hfi.
Semil'usal, OIL Terpodion, IML
Semiquaver, M. Teniito, ZZ.
Bomitone, 34. Tcrtia, M.
Seiaa (tempo), IZ. Toiliary measure, fifi.
Soptima, 23. Terza, alia terza, 21x
366 QENERAL INDZX.
Theme, 233^ 243. Trumpet, LtL
Theorbo, IM. Tuba, llfi.
Thesis, 170. Tuna, 122.
Thonnigh-bass, 2J
Tie (bind), 6fL
Time, ZIL
—— boatiiig of, 290. UniTemal School of Music, L
Timpano, 149. Upper part, 183.
Toccata, 248. Ut, ISL
Tonal modes, 1(L
rdatioDB, 33, Jl, V.
succesidonf 276.
system, 9i Value of notes, 3.
Tone, 2. Variation, 242.
Tonic, 56. Vaudoille, 2M
Tonic triad, 186. Velooe, m.
Tonology, 4^ L Viola, 13|L
Training, '208. Violin, ]Mm
TrunRcription, 123, ^'i<1loncollo, 137.
Transition, 211^ 212, Vivace, 80.
Treble clef, ]A. Vivo, iiiL
notes, UL Vocal music, 4^ 123^ 242.
part, 183. Volta. 26.
Tremando, tremolo,
Triad, 184^ m
minor, dinuniahod, augmented, 187.
Volti Bubito, &1.
Triangle, 149,
Trio, 137^ 242. Weber. 0. Si
Tripartite value of sounds,
Triplets, 61L
^ Whole tone, 34.
Wind instruments, 122, 139.
Trombone, 145. Wood instruments, 122.
ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS.
8, 8^ octava, 22. Ml. S. col. Basso, 21,

L loco, 22. tol 24.
^
T 26j 28,
^-2L
1 25. K 29,
^, 31.
D. (7.26.
D 0. 31.
68i 22.
0 p. oolla parte, 2L
d. 8, or -. 26. »'
I i f Zfi-
(
.2L
Bit. ritard. Bl.

J2a//. rallent 81.
T.p. 81.
i, L 2'
off
alia 3^
24.
24,
B 1. 1» I.
^'
9, a. yolXi subito, &L.

alia {i^,
ABBRTVIA1I0NB AlTD 8IONB.
Trem 93 ûz pizzicato^ 136.
8m, M 0. a. 136.
^. 138.
lOS. «. p. 148.
JTofi. 148.
-< v» iw. Fed 148.
1—1 -T-, llfi.
cMi^. 152.
qf.^nf. 115
179.
*• , 181.
/ iy. 116. NN» , 181.
116. " " , 216.
116. .
, 216.
mf. pf. 116.
t «. tasto mIo, 210.
dter. decme. 116.
J. MALLCTT, nUMTW, Ad, WAmOOUH STRKKT, WBO, UUTOOV.

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MARX'S

UNIVERSAL SCHOOL OF MUSIC.

Db. ADOLF BERNHARD MARX,

ADDITIONAL NOTES, A SPECIAL PAEFACS, AND SUPPLEMENT TO THE

DR. ADOLPH BERNHARD MARX,

flUMtUTBD moM VHB

FIFTH EDITION OF THE OBIOINAL GERMAN

IU3BERTC0CKS ^ND 00. NEW BURLINGTON STREET,

LEIPZIG: MESSRS. BREITKOPF AND HABTEL.

SUPERIOR AUTHORITIES IN THE PROMOTION OF EDUCATION,

Education of jouth confided to their care be leally cakmlated to interest the

all the noblor spiritual and m^tal aspirations

IN FAITHFUL PABTIOIPATIOll OF TH08B SBNTIIIBNTS,

the promulgation of thifi system in the Author a and my native land.

have onoe more to acknowledge the aid of my frioid, Jamet — haa

been m some measure preserved.

and tiien a new one is in^wvceptibly ripening. Periods of

art, whether already achieved, or still in perspective.

mands. It is a well-known fact, that many of our greatest compot»_r6 — as iust^uices,

from an iniiurtcct theoretical cultivation. Ilviucst- minded aii'l well-trained prac-

to pfMMnt ft dew ykm of luntm boundariei.

To whaSerer eitent I may be MizpaBBed in partieuhur pointe by othen, I bate

entailed upon most of us, is an occurrence most surprising and unprecedented.

ADOLPH BERNHARD MARX.

SerHon the First. The tonal system . . . . .

Section the Second. The system of notation . . .

1. The G or treble clef . . . . . !;>

t;ite the writing anJ readinir of music .

Section the Fourth. Sharp and flat sounds .

D. Double sharps and double flats . . .

Section the Fifth. Definition of tonal relations .

Section the Sixth. The nmjor and minor modes ; .

Sc' fton the Strt-nth. Miijor and minor keys .

A. The major l«>y.s .

H. The niiiH.r ki-v^ fiO

Section the Xinih

Relation of the keys

Relation between tho minor and major keys of the

and between different minor kevs 58

Appendix. The ecclesiastical or church modes 60

Section the First. ....

A. Bipartite value of sounds

C. Compound rhythmical forms

Section the Second. Rests 74

Section f}w Third. ....

Section the Fourth.

The pendulum and metronome ..... 70

Section the Fifth.

Section the Sixth.

Section the Seventh.

DifFpwnt kinds of time .....

Arrani^ement and subdivision of the bars

Section the Eighth. Exceptional forms in the arrangement of bars . 106

Different kinds of measures and values in simultaneous aeries of sounds

Section the Tenth. Accentuation ......

Gradations in the intensity of musical sounds . 1 15

Part thb Tiiird. Musical organics ...... CONTENTS. XUl

Siection iht Firtt

Strfion the Stcotid. Xm-A music ....

Section the Third.

Sfudirm the Sixth.

Brass instruments .....

Section the Seventh. The organ