An Ethnobotanical Study in Central Anatolia (Turkey) - 2000

Füsun ERTUG

This study examines both edible plants and non-food uses of plants in a limited area to provide clues for archaeologists, to interpret their findings including the reconstruction of former diets. The results are based on an ethnoarchaeological study conducted in 1994–1995 on the traditional subsistence economy of a contemporary village, in close proximity to a pre-ceramic Neolithic site, Aşıklı, in the Aksaray province of Central Anatolia. As a part of this study, about 600 plant specimens were collected, of which over 300 were considered useful by the villagers.

AN ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDY ANATOLIA (TURKEY)1 IN CENTRAL FÜSUN ERTUĞ Ertuğ, Füsun (Rıdvan Paşa Sok. Refik Bey Apt. 13/14 Göztepe-Istanbul 81080 Turkey). AN ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDY IN CENTRAL ANATOLIA. Economic Botany 54(2):155–182, 2000. This study examines both edible plants and non-food uses of plants in a limited area to provide clues for archaeologists, to interpret their findings including the reconstruction of former diets. The results are based on an ethnoarchaeological study conducted in 1994–1995 on the traditional subsistence economy of a contemporary village, in close proximity to a pre-ceramic Neolithic site, Aşıklı, in the Aksaray province of Central Anatolia. As a part of this study, about 600 plant specimens were collected, of which over 300 were considered useful by the villagers. Through this study the floral potential of a limited area, and the richness of the traditional knowledge of plants was documented to provide clues to archaeologists, archaeobotanists, botanists, pharmacologists, economists, and perhaps to the planners of future local development projects. ORTA ANADOLUDA (TÜRKı̇YE) Bı̇R ETNOBOTANı̇K ÇALIŞMASI. Bu çalışmada, arkeologlara karşılaştırma malzemesi sağlamak ve geçmişte yaşamış insanların gıda rejimleriyle yaşam biçimlerini yeniden oluşturabilmelerine yardımcı olmak üzere, bir köyün ’erişim alanı’ içindeki yenen ve diğer amaçlarla kullanılan yararlı bitkiler araştırılmıştır. 1994–1995 yıllarında Orta Anadolu’da Aksaray ilinde, çanak-çömlek öncesi Neolitik döneme ait Aşıklı yerleşmesine yakın modern bir köyde geleneksel geçim ekonomisini konu alan bir etnoarkeolojik çalışma gerçekleştirilmiş; bu çalışmanın bir bölümü olarak 600’e yakın bitki örneği toplanmış ve 300’ü aşkın bitkinin köylülerce adlandırıldığı ve çoğunun kullanıldığı saptanmıştır. Bu çalışma, dar bir alandaki bitki kapasitesinin zenginliğini ve bitkilere ilişkin geleneksel bilginin derinliğini göstererek arkeologlara, arkeobotanikçilere, botanikçilere, farmakologlara, ekonomistlere ve belki yerel kalkınma projeleri hazırlayan planlamacılara önemli ipuçları sunmaktadır. Key Words: key. ethnobotany; archaeobotany; food and non-food plants; Central Anatolia; Tur- The village of Kızılkaya, is located in the Melendiz Plain, which is part of the Central Anatolian Plateau, southeast of Ankara, in the province of Aksaray. The modern town of Aksaray is in the southwest corner of Cappadocia, the ancient name once given to most of Central Anatolia. The population density of the area was 49 per sq km, in contrast to 71.6 per sq km in the national average in 1990. The Melendiz Plain is at an altitude of about 1100 m, and is bordered by a range of volcanic mountains including Melendiz Dağ (2935 m) and Hasan Dağ (3268 m). The Melendiz River waters the plain, and created some deep canyons such as the Peristrema Valley (Ihlara), with a different micro climate 1 Received 8 January 1999; accepted 21 September 1999. and subsequent floral composition. Elsewhere the Melendiz Plain is covered with volcanic soils from lava flows originating from the volcanic activities. The climate is moderate continental, with dry, hot summers and cold winters, with an average annual precipitation of 350 mm. Most of the Aksaray area belongs to the Irano-Turanian floristic region, and is dominated by treeless steppe vegetation. A Xero-Euxinian vegetation belt once surrounded this steppe vegetation (Zohary 1973). These steppe-forests begin east and south of the research area, where the altitude reaches 1400 m, and its upper limits would be about 2000 m. It includes remnants of the oak forests (dominant Quercus cerris; mixed forest of Q. pubescens, Q. infectoria, Q. ithaburensis, a few Q. trojana, and Q. vulcanica at 2000 m). Most of these oaks have been cut down for fuel, reduced Economic Botany 54(2) pp. 155–182. 2000 䉷 2000 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A. SPECIES OF THE MELENDIZ RIVER BASIN, AKSARAY, TURKEY (B 5 Family/Species Local names 156 TABLE 1. USEFUL PLAN SQUARE). Plant part Use category Voucher specimen no. P m?/u 526 Amaranthaceae Amaranthus retroflexus L. Pancar otu/Kızıl sirken L f 405, 536 Amaryllidaceae Galanthus fosteri Baker Sümbül F e 318, 341 Anacardiaceae Pistacia atlantica Desf. Pistacia vera L. Çıtırmık/Menengiç Fıstık/Menengiç* Fr Fr f/e f 329, 433, 564 431, 432, 562–563 Apiaceae Anethum graveolens L. Astrodaucus orientalis (L.) Drude Berula erecta (Huds.) Couville Caucalis platycarpos L. Daucus carota L. Echinophora tenuifolia L. ssp. sibthorpiana (Guss.) Tutin Echinophora tournefortii Jaub. et Spach Eryginum campestre L. var. virens Link. Orlaya daucoides (L.) Greuter Petroselinum crispum (Miller) A.W. Hill Peucedanum palimbioides Boiss. Turgenia latifolia (L.) Hoffm. Dereotu* Pıtrak otu Kazayağı Pıtırak otu Pıtırak otu Çörtük Dikenli çörtük Boğa dikeni Pıtrak dikeni Maydanoz* Pıtrak? Pıtrak dikeni L P L P P R/L P S/R P L P P f a f a a f/a a r a? f a a 559 65, 162 224, 315, 504 408 88 63, 160, 161 86 576 128, 572 — 528 452 Araceae Arum sp. Yiviş L f — Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia maurorum L. Gavur bostanı Fr r 48 Asclepiadaceae Vincetoxicum fuscatum (Hornem.) Reichb fil. Gavur üzerliği/ Dag biberi L a 165, 523, 547 Asteraceae Achillea cf. setacea Waldst. et. Kit. Yavşan? L f?/a 272 [VOL. 54 Meşe?/Akçaağaç ECONOMIC BOTANY Aceraceae Acer hrycanum Fisch. et Mey. ssp. tauricolum (Boiss. et Bal.) Yalt. 2000] TABLE 1. CONTINUED. Family/Species L L P P P P P P P L/P L/R L/R L/R L S S/L R Se/C B F L L L F/L L L B L P P L L L P P Use category f/a f?/a a a a a a a/m a a/u f/a f/r/a f f/a f/a a f f f f/r/b f f f/a a f/a f/a f/a f/a a a f/a f/a f/a a a Voucher specimen no. 522 422 399 87 588, 589 3 69 510 77 78, 189 74, 308 66, 232, 291–292 488 79, 309 575 580 — — — 166 497 — 2, 317 277 335, 569 303, 326, 407, 450 38, 483 487 279 566 234, 414 353, 568 306, 325, 395, 449 56 340 157 Dağ kekiği? Kokulu ot? Papatya Deve pıtırağı Yavşan Gökçebaş/Göğçebaş Çakıl dikeni Gümüş süpürge otu Sarıbaş dikeni Acımık otu Karaavlık Çıtlık/Yabani hindiba Çıtlık* Kohum/Koyun otu Kangal dikeni Kangal dikeni (small) Kengel Ayçiçeği* Yerelması* Püren/Paryavşanı Kavkaz otu/Kav otu Marul* Marul otu/Yazı marulu Kuşkonmaz dikeni Kedi çıtlığı/Çukur çıtlığı Tekercik/Dede sakalı Bırçalık Su kangalı Saçlı ot Yavşan Ebem çıtlığı/Karahindiba Çukur çıtlığı/Çukur otu Yemlik Sarı papatya Papatya Plant part ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA A. teretifolia Willd. A. wilhelmsii C. Koch Anthemis wiedemanniana Fisch. et Mey. Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh. subsp. rubens (Babington) Arenes Artemisia santonicum L. Centaurea depressa Bieb. C. iberica Trev. ex Sprengel C. pulchella Ledep. C. solstitialis L. subsp. solstitialis C. virgata Lam. Chondrilla juncea L. var. juncea Cichorium intybus L. C. pumilum Jacq. Crepis foetida L. subsp. rhoeadifolia (Bieb.) Celak. Echinops pungens Trautv. var. pungens E. ritro L. Gundelia tournefortii var. armata L. Helianthus annuus L. H. tuberosus L. Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench. Jurinea pontica Hausskn. et Freyn ex Hausskn. Lactuca sativa L. longifolia L. serriola L. Picnomon acarna (L.) Cass Scariola viminea (L.) F.W. Schmidt Scorzonera cana (C.A. Meyer) Hoffm. var. radicosa (Boiss.) Chamberlein S. mollis Bieb. ssp. szowitzii (DC.) Chamberlain Sonchus asper (L.) Hill ssp. glaucescens Jordan Ball Tanacetum aff. parthenium (L.) Schultz Bip. T. argyrophyllum (C. Koch) var. argyrophyllum Tvzel. Taraxacum microcephaloides van Soest T. serotinum (Waldst. et Kit.) Poiret Tragopogon buphthalmoides (DC.) Boiss. Tripleurospermum decipiens (Fisch. et May.) Bornm. T. monticolum (Boiss. et Huet) Bornm. Local names 158 TABLE 1. CONTINUED. Family/Species T. parviflorum (Willd.) Pobed. Xeranthemum annuum L. Local names Plant part Use category Voucher specimen no. a a 15 5 Berberidaceae Berberis crataegina DC. Karamuk çalısı/Sarı ağaç Fr/R f/r/m 271, 293, 380 Boraginaceae Alkanna cappadocica Boiss. et Bal. A. pseudotinctoria Hausskn. ex Hub.-Mor. Anchusa azurea Miller var. azurea A. undulata L. ssp. hybrida (Ten.) Coutinho Buglossoides arvensis (L.) Johnston Cerinthe minor L. Echium italicum L. Heliotropium lasiocarpum Fisch. et Mey. Boya otu Kök boya/Karakök Ballık/Çoban çedenesi Ballık Beyaz çiçek? Yenir ot? Kurt kuyruğu Tavuk otu R R F L P P F P m m b f/a a a/f? a/b a 498 22 33, 513 512 507 493 89 1 Brassicaceae Aethionema armenum Boiss. Allyssum linifolium Steph. ex Willd. Barbarea plantaginea DC. Boreava orientalis Jaub. et Spach. Brassica oleracea var. capitata Camelina hispida Boiss. var. grandifora (Boiss.) Hedge Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl Eruca sativa Miller (syn. E. cappodocica Reut.) Lepidium sativum L. Rorippa nasturtium aquaticum L. Hayek Sinapis arvensis L. Sisymbrium altissimum L. Thlaspi perfoliatum L. Pembe çiçek ? Sarı çiçek ? Götlez götü Sarı ot Lahana* Bozot Kuşkuş ekmeği Tırman otu Karınca kavağı otu Izgın Acı tere* Acı tere/Su teresi Hardal otu Elgelen hardalı/Ergelen Kalbimsi ot? P P L F L L L P P Se L L L L P a a f/a a/b f/a f/a f/a a a a/r/m f/a f f/m f/a a 41 392 289, 304, 369, 448 19 — 311, 321, 445 27, 229, 316, 484 391 16 55, 131, 132 376 230, 314 58, 156, 312 23 406 Yer otu L/R f/a 518 Çedene/Hint keneviri* Se/S f/m 67, 126 Campanulaceae Campanula cymbalaria Sm. Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa L. [VOL. 54 P/F P ECONOMIC BOTANY Kır papatyası Mor çiçek? 2000] TABLE 1. CONTINUED. Family/Species Local names Plant part Use category Voucher specimen no. P e 502 Caryophyllaceae Dianthus anatolicus Boiss. D. calocephalus Boiss. D. crinitus Sm. var. crinitus D. zonatus Fenzl var. zonatus Gypsophila eriocalyx Boiss. G. pilosa L. Saponaria prostrata Willd. ssp. prostrata Silene alba (Miller) Krause ssp. divaricata (Reichb.) Walters S. subconica Friv. S. vulgaris (Moench.) Garcke var. vulgaris Stellaria media (L.) Vill. ssp. pallida (Dumort.) Aschers. et Graebn. Vaccaria pyramidata Medik. var. grandiflora (Fisch. ex DC.) Cullen Yabani karanfil Yabani karanfil Yabani karanfil Yabani karanfil Çöğen Yağlıkara otu Ebem terliği Sığır biciği Pembe çiçek ? Tavşan ekmeği Haval otu Kıyşayak F F F F P P/Se L/P L P L L P e/a e/a e/a e/a a/u a/f? a/s a a f/a f/a a 540 514 546 91 61 554 32 556B 401 516 533 553 Chenopodiaceae Beta macrorhiza Stev. B. vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris var. altissima Döll B. vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris var. canditiva Alef. Chenopodium album L. ssp. album C. album L. ssp. iranicum Aellen C. botrys L. Kochia prostrata (L.) Schrad K. scoparia (L.) Schrad. Noaea mucronata (Forssk.) Aschers. et Schweinf. ssp. Mucronata Salsola ruthenica Ijin Spinacia oleracea L. S. tetrandra Stev. Kızıl pancar Şeker pancarı* Kırmızı pancar* Köpürgen otu Sirken otu Köpürgen otu Zelve otu? Süpürge otu* Hölmez dikeni/Hölmez otu Keteğen dikeni/Sıyırma Ispanak* Yazı ıspanağı L L/B R/L L P P P P P P L L f/a a/f f/a a f/a a a?/m? m a/u a/u f f/a 336, 409, 556 120, 560 137, 195, 202 403, 486 334, 410 557 587 182, 205 62, 215 73 427,428 142, 337, 558 Sarmaşık/Yeşil sarmaşık Sarmaşık/Boz sarmaşık Tavşan kulağı L L L a a f/a 50 49 404, 446 Fındık Fr f 11, 237, 506 Convolvulaceae Convolvulus arvensis L. C. galaticus Rostan ex Choisy C. lineatus L. Corylaceae Corylus avelanna L. 159 Kırmızı meyvalı çalı ? ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA Caprifoliaceae Lonicera nummulariifolia Jaub. et Spach. 160 TABLE 1. CONTINUED. Family/Species Local names Plant part Use category Voucher specimen no. L P f r 567 534 Cucurbitaceae Bryonia multiflora L. Citrullus vulgaris L. Cucumis melo L. Cucurbita pepo L. C. sativus L. Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl. ? Yabani asma? Karpuz/Bostan* Kavun* Kabak* Salatalık/Hıyar* Su kabağı L Fr/Se Fr F/Fr/Se Fr Fr a f/a f/a f f m 561 — — — — — Cyperaceae Carex divulsa Stokes ssp. divulsa Saz L m? 470 Dipsacaceae Scabiosa argentea L. Süpürge/Yazı süpürgesi P m 509 Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus angustifolia L. var. angustifolia E. angustifolia L. var. orientalis (L.) Kuntze İğde çalısı/Kuş iğdesi İğde/Has iğde* Fr Fr f/m f 52b, 236, 270, 500 52, 222, 269 Equisetaceae Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Ulama P a 233 Euphorbiaceae Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Rafin. Euphorbia macroclada Boiss. Yalangı ? Sütleğen R/P L u/m a/r 76 235 Fabaceae Alhagi pseudolhagi (Bieb.) Desv. Astragalus elatus Boiss. et Bal. A. elongatus Willd. subsp. elongatus A. kirshehiricus Chamberlain Cicer arietinum L. Colutea cilicica Boiss. et Bal. Genista sessilifolia DC. Hedysarum pestallozzae Boiss. Çoban çalısı At keveni Yazı yoncası Keven/Geven Nohut* Tavşan patlağı Borcak çalısı Kıraç yoncası P P/R P P/R Se/P Se P P a a/r a/r u/r/m f/a s u a 287 548 28 191, 223 130 153, 155, 430 286, 460 83 [VOL. 54 Musluk otu Çanak çatlatan ECONOMIC BOTANY Crassulaceae Sempervivum armenum Boiss. et Huet var. armenum Umbilicus erectus DC. 2000] TABLE 1. CONTINUED. Family/Species Local names Plant part Use category Yazı fiği P a L. sativus L. Lens culinaris Medik. Lotus aegaeus (Griss.) Boiss. Medicago sp. Melilotus officinalis (L.) Desr. Onobrychis tournefortii (Willd.) Desv. Ononis spinosa L. ssp. leiosperma (Boiss.) Sirj. Phaseolus vulgaris L. Pisum sativum L. Robinia pseudoacacia L. Sophora japonica L. Trifolium fragiferum L. var. pulchellum Lange Trigonella aurantiaca Boiss. T. coerulescens (Bieb.) Hal. T. foenum-graecum L. T. monantha C.A. Meyer Vicia caesarea Boiss. et Ball. V. cappadocica Boiss. et Ball. V. cracca L. ssp. stenophylla Vel. V. ervilia (L.) Willd. V. narborensis L. var. narborensis V. sativa L. ssp. nigra (L.) Ehrh. var. segetalis (Thuill.) Ser. ex DC. Fiğ* Mercimek* Devre otu Yonca* Eşek yoncası/Sarı yonca Kıraç yoncası Siğek dikeni Fasulya/Pakla* Bezelye* Akasya* Dişbudak* Yonca Üçgül Devre otu Çemen otu* Sarı yonca Nohud otu Fiğ*/Efek yoncası Dağ yoncası Burçak* Mürdümük otu Dağ fiği P Se/P P L L P P Se/C L F/P P P P P Se P P P/Se L G/C Fr P a f/a p a a a f/a f/a f u/r u a a/r p f a a a a a f/a a Pelit/Dağ Pelit/Dağ Pelit/Dağ Pelit/Dağ Fr/P Fr/P Fr/P Fr/P fa/u/m f/u f/u f/u Fagaceae Quercus cerris L. Q. infectoria Olivier ssp. boissieri (Reuter) O. Schwarz Q. ithaburensis Decne. ssp. macrolepis (Kotschy) Hedge et Yalt. Q. pubescens Willd. Meşesi Meşesi Meşesi Meşesi Q. robur L. ssp. robur Pelit/Meşe* Fr/P f/a/u Q. trojana P.B. Webb Q. vulcanica (Boiss. et Heldr. ex) Kotschy Pelit/Dağ Meşesi Pelit/Dağ Meşesi Fr/P Fr/P f f 25, 53, 412, 424, 550 119, 201 59, 118, 491 421 — 80 495 70 133, 135, 194 — 144 219 438 35 384 299, 511 402 34, 157 26, 397 515, 525 116, 117 520 524 ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA Lathyrus cicera L. Voucher specimen no. 471, 477 476 457 439–442, 454–456, 478 172, 208–210, 352, 453, 473 443 527 161 162 TABLE 1. CONTINUED. Family/Species Local names Plant part Use category Voucher specimen no. L s 20, 366 Geraniaceae Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Herit subsp. cicutarium E. hoefftianum C. A. Meyer Geranium tuberosum L. ssp. tuberosum İnnelik/Iğnelik Eşek inneliği Deve tabanı L L B/P f/a a f/a 228, 294 328, 381 29 Hydrangeaceae Philadelphus coronarius L. Beyaz çiçekli çalı ? P e 501 Illecebraceae Herniaria incana Lam. Köpürgen otu/Sabun otu P a/m 494 Iridaceae Crocus ancyrensis (Herbert) Maw Gladiolus atroviolaceus Boiss. Iris galatica Siehe I. germanica L. Çiğdem/Kırmızı çiğdem Sümbül Navrağaz Susam/Zambak B/F B B F f f f e 6, 9, 138, 302 386 10, 12, 139, 140 359 Juglandaceae Juglans regia L. Ceviz* Fr/L/Br f/r/m 221 Juncaceae Juncus inflexus L. Kova otu L/S u/m 71 Yazı irfanı/Reyhan Ebem terliği P L/P a s 383, 398 17 Ekmeklik Ballıbaba Ak yaprak ? Kayışkıran Yarpuz/Yaban nanesi Nane* Reyhan/İrfan* Yağlı Börek L F P P L L L S/L a b a? a/u a/r/m f f/a f/a 545 367 579 190, 274 72 — — 490 Lamiaceae Acinos rotundifolius Pers. Ajuga chamaepitys (L.) Schreber ssp. chia (Schreber) Arcangeli var. chia Ballota larendana Boiss. et Heldr. Lamium amplexicaule L. Marrubium parviflorum Fisch. et Mey. ssp. parviforum M. vulgare L. Mentha longifolia (L.) Hutson ssp. typhoides (Brig.) Harley var. typhoides M. piperita L. Ocimum basilicum L. Salvia candidissima Vahl. [VOL. 54 Güvercin göğsü/Şahtere ECONOMIC BOTANY Fumariaceae Fumaria vaillantii Luis. 2000] TABLE 1. CONTINUED. Family/Species Plant part Use category Voucher specimen no. L/F ? L/F ? S/L P P L L L F f?/r/a f/r f/a a? a? f? f f f/a 46 40, 489, 583 531 578 584 521 496 451 18 Liliaceae Allium atroviolaceum Boiss. A. cepa L. A. lycaonicum Siehe ex Hayek A. porrum L. A. sativum L. A. scorodoprasum L. Asparagus officinalis L. A. persicus Baker Colchicum triphyllum G. Kuntze Gagea granatellii (Parl.) Parl. Muscari comosum (L.) Miller M. neglectum Guss. M. tenuiflorum Tausch. Ornithogalum pyrenaicum L. O. umbellatum L. Tulipa armena Boiss. var. lycica (Baker) Marais T. humilis Herbert Yabani sarmısak ? Soğan/Kıska* İt dirseği Pırasa* Sarmısak* İt dirseği/Kaya sarmısağı İt üzümü İt üzümü Oksüz çigdem/Ak çiğdem İt dirseği Sümbül ? İt dirseği İt dirseği Eşek susamı İt dirseği Lale (yellow&red) Lale (pink) L B/L P L B/L P P P P P B P P P P F F f? f a f f a a a a a f/e a a a/p a e e 51 127, 187 37, 389 283 — 423, 544 434 180 7, 290, 301 8 45 352 437, 532 43 415 344, 354 13, 345 Linaceae Linum mucronatum Bertol ssp. armenum (Bordz.) Davis L. usitatissimum L. L. usitatissimum L. var. bienne Mill. Sarı ot? Zegrek/Zeyrek/Keten* Yabani keten? P Se/S P a/m? f/a/r/m a 39 124, 125, 300, 542 387 Loranthaceae Viscum album L. ssp. album Armut Öveleği/Ökse otu L a/r 343 163 Adaçayı ? Çayotu Yağlı Börek Çevlik otu ? Acı yavşan ? Kekik Kekik Kekik Sormuk otu/Ballıbaba ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA S. cryptantha Montbret et Aucher ex Bentham S. hypargeia Fisch. et Mey. S. microstegia Boiss. et Bal. S. syriaca L. Teucrium polium L. Thymus argaeus Boiss. et Bal. T. sipyleus Boiss. T. sipyleus Boiss. ssp. rosulans (Borbas) Jalas Wiedemannia orientalis Fisch. et Mey. Local names 164 TABLE 1. CONTINUED. Family/Species Local names Plant part Use category Voucher specimen no. F F L/F L/Se L a/r f f/r f/a/r f/a 64 188 — 275 535 Moraceae Morus alba L. M. nigra L. M. rubra L. Dut* Dut* Dut* Fr Fr Fr f f f — — — Oleaceae Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl ssp. angustifolia Dişbudak* P u 145, 220, 475 Orchidaceae Orchis palustris Jacq Yazı susamı P e/a 44, 418 Papaveraceae Glaucium leiocarpum Boiss. Hypecoum imberbe Sibth. et Sm. Papaver rhoeas L. Roemeria hybrida (L.) DC. ssp. hybrida Gülotu Navraz otu Gülotu/Gelincik Mor gelincik ? L L L P r a f/a a 54 14, 411 332, 419 57 Plantaginaceae Plantago lanceolata L. P. major L. Boduk kulağı/Sinir otu Boduk kulağı L L r r 82 82c Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon kotschyi (Jamb. et Spach) Boiss. ssp. kotschyi Plumbago europaea L. Keven/Geven Serkele otu P R/P u/m m 84 570 Poaceae Aegilops triuncialis L. ssp. triuncialis Alopecurus arundinaceus Poiret Avena sativa L. A. sterilis L. Bromus danthoniae Trin. B. tectorum L. Çayır otu Çayır otu Yulaf* Yabani yulaf İbubuk ekini İbubuk ekini P P Se/C P P P g a a/r a/g a a 94, 420 394 101, 102 103 96, 463 464 [VOL. 54 Devegülü/Hatmi Hatmi* Bamya* Ebemgümeci Ebemgümeci ECONOMIC BOTANY Malvaceae Alcea apterocarpa (Fenzl.) Boiss. Althaea officinalis L. Hibiscus esculentus L. Malva neglecta Wallr. M. sylvestris L. 2000] TABLE 1. CONTINUED. Family/Species Plant part Use category Voucher specimen no. Puta otu Ilamuk Ayrık otu Yabani arpa/Çavdarcık Arpa* Yabani arpa? Yabani arpa? Ekinsi ot? Kamış/Sokarık otu? Çayır otu Çavdar* Çavdar* Buğday*/Beyaz Çomak Çavdarcık/Yabani buğday Buğday*/Şahman Mısır* P P P P Se/C P P P S P Se/C Se/C Se/C Se/C Se/C Fr/P u a a/u a/g f/a/r a/g a/g a m a f/a f/a f/a/r a/g f/a f/a/r/s 95 93, 462 192 466, 467, 106, 114, 104 468 469 277 377 110 108, 111, 98, 298 109 97 136, 186, Polygonaceae Polygonum bellardii All. P. cognatum Meissn. P. lapathifolium L. P. patulum Bieb. Rumex acetosella L. R. aff. scutatus L. R. crispus L. At mercimeleği Mercimelek/Madımak Mark otu? At mercimeleği Eşkileme/Kuzum oğlağı Eşkileme Evelek/Kazan Kulpu L L P L L L L f/a f/a a a f/a f/a f/a/r 349, 555 284, 327, 333, 385, 181 60, 350 382, 417 276 81, 435 Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L. ssp. oleracea P. oleracea L. ssp. sativa (Haw.) Celak. Temizlik/Semizotu Temizlik/Semizotu* L P f/a f 425 426, 485 Ranunculaceae Adonis aestivalis L. ssp. aestivalis A. flammea Jacq. Ceratocephalus falcatus (L.) Pers. Consolida orientalis (Gay) Schröd. C. regalis S. F. Gray ssp. paninculata (Host) Soo ssp. var. paninculata Nigella arvensis L. var. glauca Boiss. Sakız otu Çanak Çatlatan/Sakız otu Döğün otu Şebboy Gelin tacı/Horoz kuyruğu Çöreotu/Tarla Çörekotu P P L/R P P Se a a r e a f?/a/r 24 492 21, 370 42 4, 159 90, 552 519 121 461, 465 268 ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA Elymus elongatus (Host) Runemark ssp. turcicus (Mc.Guire) Melderis E. hispidus (Opiz) Melderis ssp. barbulatus (Schur) Melderis E. repens (L.) Gould ssp. repens Hordeum bulbosum L. H. distichon L. H. murinum L. H. spontaneum C. Koch Melica ciliata L. ssp. ciliata Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Studel Poa bulbosa L. Secale cereale L. var. cerrale S. cereale L. var. vavilovii (Gross.) Meyss. Triticum aestivum L. T. baeoticum Boiss. ssp. baeoticum T. durum Desf. Zea mays L. Local names 165 166 TABLE 1. CONTINUED. Family/Species Ranunculus argyreus Boiss. R. isthmicus Boiss. R. repens Boiss. Local names Plant part Use category Voucher specimen no. a? a? a? 388 396 390 Resedaceae Reseda lutea L. var. lutea Eşek kerdemesi L a 365, 447 Rhamnaceae Rhamnus oleoides L. ssp. graecus (Boiss. et Reut) Hulmboe Kızıl üzüm/Kızılcık çalısı Fr f 146, 149, 150, 338 Rosaceae Amygdalus communis L. A. orientalis Miller Armeniaca vulgaris Lam. Cerasus microcarpa (C.A. Meyer) Boiss. Cotoneaster nummularia Fisch. et Mey. Crataegus meyeri Pojark C. monogyna Jacq. ssp. monogyna C. sinaica Boiss. C. szovitsii Pojark. Cydonia vulgaris L. Fragaria vesca L. Malus sylvestris Miller Potentilla recta L. Group B Prunus cerasus L. P. cocomilia Ten. P. divaricata Ledeb. ssp. divaricata P. persica (L.) Batsch. P. spinosa L. ssp. dasyphylla (Schur) Domin P. ⫻ domestica L. Pyrus communis L. P. communis L. ssp. sativa (DC.) Hegi P. elaeagnifolia Pallas Rosa canina L. R. hemisphaerica J. Herrm. Rubus sanctus Schreber Sorbus torminalis L. Badem* Acı badem/Dağ bademi Kayısı* Dağ eriği Kız elması Alıç Öküz götü Öküz götü/Alıç Alıç Ayva* Çilek* Elma* Sarı çiçek? Vişne Dağ eriği (yellow) Dağ eriği (yellow) Şeftali* Dağ eriği (purple) Erik* Armut* Armut*/Topuklu armut Ahlat/Dağ Armutu Gülpüntü/Kuşburnu Yabani sarı gül Böğürtlen Kuş üvezi Fr Fr/P Fr/Br Fr? Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr P Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr/P Fr F Fr Fr f f/u f/m f? f f/a f/a f/a f/a f/r f f a f f/a/r f/a f f/a f f f f/u/e f/a/r e f/a/r f? 330 30, 322, 458, 459 297, 313 528 178, 212, 393, 429 177, 207, 213, 267 143, 147, 206, 280 174 538 — 373 356, 357 508 355 211 152, 169 358 170, 184, 339 168, 331 346, 347 342 348, 551 175, 185 436 176 444 [VOL. 54 P P P ECONOMIC BOTANY Yağ kabı ? Sarı su otu ? Yağ kabı ? 2000] TABLE 1. CONTINUED. Family/Species S. umbellata (Desf.) Fritsch Local names Plant part Use category Voucher specimen no. f? 530 Rubiaceae Galium cf. cornigerum Boiss. et Hausskn. Rubia tinctorum L. Top ot ? Boya kökü/Kökboya P R e m 577 179, 227, 505 Rutaceae Haplophyllum vulcanicum Boiss. et Heldr. Yabani kekik ? L? f 47 Salicaceae Populus nigra L. ssp. nigra P. tremula L. Salix alba L. S. babylonica L. Kavak* Dağ kavağı/Titrek kavak Söğüt* Salkımsöğüt* P P P P m/u u m/u e 204, 372 529 203, 371 329 Scrophulariaceae Scrophularia libanotica Boiss. subsp. libanotica var. nevsehirensis R. Mill Verbascum lasianthum Boiss. ex Bentham Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. Kutnu otu Sığır kuyruğu/Yalangı Camak P P L r m f/a 31, 216, 379 266, 499 231, 305 Solanaceae Capsicum annum L. Datura stramonium L. ? Hyoscyamus niger L. Lycium anatolicum A. Baytop et R. Mill Lycopersicum esculentum L. Solanum alatum Moench S. melongena L. S. tuberosum L. Biber* Mang otu Yılan otu Beyaz çalı/Termiye çalısı Domates/Firek* İt üzümü Patlıcan/Baldırcan* Patates/Kümpür* Fr Se? Se? S Fr P Fr B f s/p p r f a f f — — — 36 — 92 — 265 Tamaricaceae Tamarix parviflora DC. Ilgın P u/e 400, 481 Thymelaeaceae Daphne oleoides Schreber ssp. oleoides Yaygıç R/L r 539 Typhaceae Typha laxmannii Lepechin Hasır otu P a/m 85, 278 167 Fr ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA Yabani elma 168 TABLE 1. CONTINUED. Family/Species Ulmaceae Celtis tournefortii Lam. Local names Plant part Use category Voucher specimen no. f/a Karaağaç P u/m 163, 171, 214, 273, 281, 374, 378, 413 218, 310, 319, 375 Urticaceae Urtica dioica L. Cızlagan/Isırgan otu L f/r 360, 517 Violaceae Viola odorata L. Menevşe L/F a 323 Vitaceae Vitis vinifera L. Asma* Fr/L f/m/r — Zygophyllaceae Peganum harmala L. Tribulus terrestris L. Üzerlik Çoban çöküren Se/P L m/s/r a 167, 482 75 Fungi Agaricaceae Agaricus subperonatus (Lange) Sing. Has mantar M f 288 Amanitaceae Amanita argentea Huijsman (A. mairei Foley) Büyük Melek mantarı M f 368 Bolbitiaceae Agrocybe praecox (Pers.) Fayod Melek mantarı M f 364 Coprinaceae Coprinus atramentarius (Bull.) Fr. Söğüt mantarı M f 363 Helvellaceae Helvella lacunosa Afz. Kulak mantarı M f 362 Hymenogastraceae Rhizopogon obtextus (Spreng.) Rauschert. Domalan mantarı M f 361 Sclerodermataceae Scleroderma bovista Fr. Foskulak mantarı M r 541 Ulmus minor Miller ssp. minor [VOL. 54 Fr ECONOMIC BOTANY Çitlembik/Kıliğli 2000] ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA to brushwood, and only Q. robur was encouraged by cultivation in gardens for its larger acorns. Neither Pinus nor Juniperus are represented in the present steppe-forest, but species that originally grew together with Pinus nigra, such as Q. vulcanica, and Acer hyrcanum are still present. There are also some small patches within the volcanic areas, where some wild fruit trees (such as Crataegus, Prunus, Pyrus, and Amygdalus) have survived. The rivers and small streams provide moisture for the grazing lands and are the site of some aquatic edible species, such as Berula erecta, Rorippa nasturtiumaquaticum, and Veronica anagallis-aquatica. Some patches of archaic cereals, such as einkorn (Triticum boeticum), and wild barleys (Hordeum bulbosum, H. murinum, H. spontaneum) are also present. It is not surprising that this area with its high ecological diversity attracted and hosted several hunter gatherer groups and was the location of the earliest villages. Today, most of the area is devoted to cereal production, with gardens near the channels or rivers, and some orchards and vineyards, so the anthropogenic landscape is larger than the original steppes. The village of Kızılkaya is about 25 kilometers southeast of the city of Aksaray, and one kilometer north of the pre-ceramic Neolithic site of Aşıklı Höyük (38⬚ 15⬘ E 38⬚ 22⬘N), dated from 8000 to 7450 years B.C. (calibrated). A team from the University of Istanbul, under the direction of Dr. U. Esin (1996, 1998) has been excavating this site for the past nine years. The economy of Aşıklı was based on crop husbandry, gathering wild plants (van Zeist and de Roller 1995), and hunting game animals. They were probably in the process of the transition from hunting-gathering to food-producing. My fieldwork (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997) provided comparative data for the interpretation of the archaeobotanical remains from Aşıklı Höyük, as well as a resource for ethnobotanists, pharmacologists, and 169 perhaps for the planners of local development projects. MATERIAL AND METHODS In the process of documenting all species known to the villagers, some 600 plant specimens in the B5 square of the Flora of Turkey gridsystem (Davis 1965) were collected. Although this study was mainly in the immediate environment of Kızılkaya, the surrounding area, which extends about 20–25 km around Kızılkaya was also investigated. Kızılkaya proper covers 2047 ha within this core area. It is not possible to identify specific catchment areas for wild plant gathering, as plants were gathered almost anywhere. The plants were collected at an altitude of approximately 1050 to 2000 m. Of the 600 plant specimens, including the cultivars (see Table 1), 340 plant species could be identified to the level of genus or species. They comprise 225 genera and 73 families. Most of the identifications were made in the Department of Biology, Gazi University, Ankara, and the samples were deposited in the Gazi University Herbarium. A file was made, ordered according to the local names of the plants, the Latin names, the information about where each plant was seen, at what altitude, the type of soil, the local use and processing methods, and a photograph was included. About 30 endemic and rare species were collected during the fieldwork, and a few species such as Galanthus fosteri, and Tulipa armena were found outside their known distribution areas. The most important information is keyed to about 300 locally-named plants, their distribution, use and management with a collection of corresponding botanical specimens. This information has been confirmed in 14 surrounding villages and towns with about 60 community members in several social categories rich and poor, young and old, men and women. Questionnaires were completed in Kızılkaya ← * indicates cultivated taxa; ? Question marks after local names indicate that these names are not used by everyone, and sometimes given arbitrarily. Plant Parts B Bulb; Br Bark; C Chaff; F Flower; Fr Fruit; L Leaf; P Whole Plant; R Root; S Stem; Se Seed/Grain. Use Categories (after Phillips and Meilleur 1998) a animal food (forage, fodder); b bee plants (pollen or nectar sources); e environmental uses (ornamentals, windbreaks etc.); f food (including grains, flowers, tea, etc.); g gene resources; m materials (including lumber, fibre, tannin, resin, wax, oils etc.); p poisons (useful and harmful); r remedies (medicine for both humans and animals); s social products (narcotics, ritual/religious value, used in children games, etc.). 170 ECONOMIC BOTANY for a randomly chosen sample of 30 households in three income groups concerning land-ownership, agriculture, and about plant gathering and gardening. With these questionnaires the different attitudes of rich and poor towards gathering and/or agricultural decisions were detected. These also helped in the quantification of wild plant use, and for comparisons between different income groups. However, the most satisfactory way to collect information about the plants was to accompany and question the women while they were gathering, as well as attending all agricultural activities, such as planting, weeding, harvesting, processing, and cooking. THE SUBSISTENCE OF THE MODERN VILLAGE The contemporary village of Kızılkaya has a population of about 1300 people occupying some 300 houses. Historical tax records for this village and many others in the area go back as far as the sixteenth century, thus they have at least a 500 year history of settlement. The main economic activities are field cropping and gardening, and the husbandry of sheep and cattle (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997). The total number of cultivated plants was 70, including 20 trees, 10 fodder plants, of which four species were no longer cultivated, and some cultivars which were planted only rarely. The basic cereal crops were bread wheat, and legumes such as beans, lentil, and chickpea. About 20 vegetables were regularly planted in spring and consumed during the summer. Some were dried, made into paste or pickled, and stored for winter. Onions, potatoes, garlic, green beans, squash, peppers, and tomatoes were the most important. Beet, spinach, cabbage, leek, purslane, green onion, cress, lettuce, parsley, and chicory were regularly planted for the consumption of their green leaves. Whereas the number of cultivated green leafy vegetables did not exceed 10 during the summer, as many as 40 different kinds of wild greens were gathered during the winter and spring. Although the women tried to plant some wild species in their gardens they didn’t like the taste. Chicory and wild spinach were the most common of these. Although the women planted commercial seeds of beet and spinach in their gardens, they also collected the wild spinach (Spinacia tetranda) and wild beet (Beta macrorhiza) in winter from fallow fields. Gardening has gradually increased during the [VOL. 54 preceding 20 to 30 years but the climate being continental, the frost starts as early as October, limiting gardening to the summer. Until recently, the last fresh products from the village gardens, such as tomatoes and leeks, were eaten during October. From November until June, a period of seven or eight months, no fresh garden vegetables could be brought to the table. With the use of plastic greenhouses and the increased availability of transportation to markets, fresh vegetables and fruit became available during the whole year. Despite this accessibility, the local traditions of wild plant gathering for food persists in Central Anatolia, and probably goes back at least 500 years. EDIBLE WILD PLANTS Over 100 wild plant species in the Melendiz Plain are considered by the local people as edible. These edibles belong to 36 plant families, and 42 wild greens (representing 18 families) make up the group most commonly and regularly consumed, followed by wild fruits, roots, and stems. Species belonging to the Asteraceae and Brassicaceae families are the most numerous among the greens exploited by the villagers. Of the 100 edible species 37 are not reported as edible in the general ethnobotanical literature (Table 2). To be able to tell this the extensive data base of SEPASAL in the Center of Economic Botany, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew have been searched as well as other local and regional literature. An additional 18 plants available in the Melendiz area, were reported in the literature as edible in other areas, but were not used for food in the study area. Thus the number of possible edible wild greens should be increased to 121. Peddlers and the villagers from neighboring areas, who brought plants to trade may increased this number even more. Greens Wild greens were the most consistent component of the local diet, and were regularly gathered between October and June, when fresh greens were most needed. During the winter, unless the snow was deep, it was possible to find green leaves of 13 to 16 different varieties of edible plants. The minimum number of species with edible leaves was 9 in June, and the number reached 33 in April, and 35 in May. Three different kinds of edible aquatic plants could also Species xx x xxx xxx xx xx x xxx x x x xxx xxx xx xxx xxx xxx x x x xx x xx xxx xxx x x xx x xxx x xx References Baytop 1994 Not reported Not reported Not reported Tanaka 1976 Not reported Not reported Baytop 1994; Işık et al. 1995; Grieve 1984; Pieroni 1996 Not reported !Baytop 1994; Tanaka 1976; Grieve 1984 !Baytop 1994; Renfrew 1973 Baytop 1994; Forbes 1976; Feinbrun & Zohary 1930 Baytop 1994; Lyle-Kalças 1974; Tanaka 1976; Grieve 1984 Not reported Not reported !Lyle-Kalças 1974 Öztürk and Özçelik 1991; Tanaka 1976 Baytop 1994; Işık et al. 1995 Baytop 1994; Işık et al. 1995 !Tanaka 1976; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991 Baytop 1994; Lyle-Kalças 1974; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991; Forbes 1976; Feinbrun & Zohary Not reported Baytop 1994; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991 !Baytop 1994; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991; Tanaka 1976; Zohary 1973; FAO 1988 Baytop 1994; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991; Zohary 1973; Boulos 1985; Işık et al. 1995; Grieve 1984; Gonzalez 1984 Baytop 1994; Işık et al. 1995; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991; Tanaka 1976; FAO 1988 Baytop 1994; Tanaka 1976; Grieve 1984; FAO 1988; Renfrew 1973 Baytop 1994; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991; Tanaka 1976 Öztürk and Özçelik 1991 !Baytop 1994; Öztürk and Ozçelik 1991; Işık et al. 1995 Baytop 1994 Baytop 1994; Forbes 1976; Zohary 1973; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991; Pieroni 1996 171 Rumex acetosella R. crispus R. scutatus Scariola viminea Scorzonera cana var. radicosa Sempervivum armenum var. armenum** Silene vulgaris var. vulgaris** Use frequency KıZıLKAYA VILLAGE, AKSARAY, TURKEY. ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA EDIBLE GREENS Amaranthus retroflexus Anchusa undulata ssp. hybrida** Barbarea plantaginea Berula erecta Beta macrorhiza Camelina hispida var. grandiflora Campanula cymbalaria** Capsella bursa-pastoris Centaurea depressa** Chenopodium album ssp. album C. album ssp. iranicum Chondrilla juncea. var. juncea Cichorium intybus Convolvulus lineatus Crepis foetida ssp. rhoadifolia Erodium cicutarium ssp. cicutarium Lactuca serriola Malva neglecta* M. sylvestris** Ononis spinosa ssp. leiosperma Papaver rhoeas Polygonum bellardii P. cognatum Portulaca oleracea ssp. oleracea Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum FOOD PLANTS IN AND AROUND THE 2000] TABLE 2. WILD 172 TABLE 2. CONTINUED. Species Use frequency References Baytop 1994; Lyle-Kalças 1974; Pieroni 1996 Not reported !Baytop 1994; Tanaka 1976 Tanaka 1976 !Baytop 1994; Grieve 1984; Renfrew 1973 Not reported Not reported Baytop 1994 Baytop 1994; Işık et al. 1995; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991; Tanaka 1976; Grieve 1984 Zohary 1973; Tanaka 1976 BULBS Crocus ancyrensis Gladiolus atroviolaceus Iris galatica Muscari comosum Scorzonera mollis ssp. szowitzii xxx x x x x Baytop 1994 Öztürk & Özçelik 1991 Not reported Forbes 1976; Pieroni 1996 !Baytop 1994; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991; Feinbrun & Zohary 1930; Tanaka 1976 ROOTS Echinophora tenuifolia ssp. sibthorpiana Geranium tuberosum ssp. tuberosum x x Not reported !Baytop 1994; Zohary 1973 STEMS Echinops pungens var. pungens Salvia microstegia x x Baytop 1994; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991 Not reported FLOWERS Crocus ancyrensis Trigonella aurantiaca Wiedemannia orientalis x x x Not reported Not reported Not reported TEA PLANTS Achillea teretifolia Alcea apterocarpa Helichrysum arenarium Salvia argeaus S. hypargeia x x xx x x Not reported Not reported Baytop 1984 Not reported Not reported [VOL. 54 xxx x x xx x xx x xxx x xxx ECONOMIC BOTANY Sinapis arvensis Sisymbrium altissimum Sonchus asper ssp. glaucescens Spinacia tetrandra Stellaria media ssp. pallida** Taraxacum microcephaloides T. serotinum Tragopogon buphthalmoides Urtica dioica Veronica anagallis-aquatica 2000] TABLE 2. CONTINUED. Species Thymus sipyleus ssp. rosulans Tripleurospermum parviflorum Use frequency References SPICES Acinos rotundifolius Mentha longifolia ssp. typhoides var. typhoides x x Not reported !Baytop 1994; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991; Tabata 1988 SEEDS Anchusa azurea var. azurea Lathyrus cicera Malva neglecta Nigella arvensis var. glauca Vicia narborensis var. narborensis** V. sativa ssp. nigra var. segetalis** x x x x x x Not reported Not reported Not reported Baytop 1984 Tanaka 1976 Baytop 1994; Tanaka 1976 WILD FRUITS (fresh) Amygdalus orientalis Berberis crataegina* Celtis tournefortii* Cerasus microcarpa** C. vulgaris* Corylus avellana Cotoneaster nummularia Crataegus meyeri C. monogyna ssp. monogyna C. sinaica Elaeagnus angustifolia var. angustifolia Pistacia atlantica* Prunus cocomilia** P. divaricata ssp. divaricata** P. spinosa ssp. dasyphylla Pyrus elaeagnifolia* Quercus cerris** Q. infectoria ssp. boissieri** Q. ithaburensis ssp. macrolepis** Q. pubescens** xx x xxx x x x x xx xx xx x x x x xx x x x x x Baytop 1994; Zohary 1983 Baytop 1994 Baytop 1994; Tanaka 1976; Hooper 1937 Baytop 1994 Tanaka 1976 Baytop 1994; Tanaka 1976 Baytop 1994; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991 Not reported !Baytop 1984; Pieroni 1996 Not reported Tanaka 1976 Baytop 1994; Tanaka 1976 Tanaka 1976 Baytop 1994; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991; Tanaka 1976 !Baytop 1994; Tanaka 1976 Tanaka 1976; Zohary 1973; Boulos 1985 Tanaka 1976 Not reported Not reported Not reported 173 Tabata et al. 1988; !Baytop 1994 Not reported ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA xx x 174 TABLE 2. CONTINUED. Species MUSHROOMS Agaricus subperonatus Agrocybe praecox Amanita argentea (Syn. A. mairei) Coprinus atramentarius* Helvella lacunosa* Rhizopogon obtextus* References xxx x x x xx x x x !Tanaka 1976; Grieve 1984 Not reported Not reported Not reported Baytop 1994; Öztürk 1991 Baytop 1994 Not reported Not reported xxx xx x x x x Bon 1987 Bon 1987; Phillips 1983 Not reported Bon 1987 Bon 1987; Phillips 1983 Bon 1987 ECONOMIC BOTANY Q. robur ssp. robur Q. trojana** Q. vulcanica** Rhamnus oleoides ssp. graecus Rosa canina Rubus sanctus* Sorbus torminalis** S. umbellata** Use frequency Notes: (*) indicates that it is exist & known as edible, but not consumed by everyone in Kızılkaya; (**) indicates that this edible plant is not known in Kızılkaya, recorded only in mountain villages; Use frequency is an impressionistic and tentative evaluation: x rarely gathered; xx commonly; xxx most commonly gathered and used species. (!) in references indicates that it does not mentioned in ssp./var. level. [VOL. 54 2000] ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA 175 Fig. 2. A woman gathering greens, note the adze nearby, Aksaray, Turkey, 1994. Fig. 1. A woman gatherer with an apron full of edible plants, Aksaray, Turkey, 1995. be found, even when the ground was covered with snow. The gathering of leafy plants was exclusively women’s work (Fig. 1, 2). They gather in groups and the women were accompanied by their children. Mothers generally took a daughter along to learn the intricacies of gathering. Sometimes groups of young girls went together, but when they came back their bags were always checked by their mothers for inedible plants. The maximum distance the women went for gathering was about one to one- and-a- half kilometers from the village. In general they gathered for about two to three hours, and collected several species of edibles, which their families consumed in three to five days. The women wore aprons (Fig. 1) or brought plastic bags to carry the gathered greens, and had a big knife or adze to dig-up the plants (Fig. 2). A few men, especially those who hunt and fish, also gather some edible plants from time to time. However, it was not customary, and their knowledge of these plants was quite limited in comparison to the women’s. The middle and poorer income women gathered greens more often and less selectively than women with higher incomes, however, about 80% of women in all income groups continued to gather wild plants as food. It was clear that gathering wild greens was more related to nutrition and taste than to economic need. Most wild greens were not considered marketable. In the market of Aksaray, one could rarely see more than a few species of wild greens and mushrooms, but none of the wild fruits, bulbs, or roots were ever for sale. Gathering was also a means of social activity for women, who took pride in providing food for their families, sharing the plants with their neighbors, and serving them to their guests. Most women considered plant gathering a good occasion to leave the house and to meet with other women. Most of the greens were eaten raw with salt between folds of flat bread (yufka), but some greens required cooking. These were chopped, and cooked together with onions and cracked wheat (bulgur). This was called cacık, and was usually eaten with yogurt. A few, such as Polygonum cognatum, was sun-dried in the spring and stored for winter. Nutritional analysis of twelve of the wild greens most commonly consumed, indicates that they were a very good source of raw protein and minerals. Most of them had protein and mineral 176 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 54 Fig. 4. Celtis tournefortii (Çitlembik) stones and fruits. On the left modern fruits and stones, and on the right 9000 year old stones from Aşıklı Höyük. of other plants, such as endemic Iris galatica (Fig. 3), were only sporadically collected. Mushrooms Six different species of mushrooms could be gathered during spring and fall. To find mushrooms, young boys dug the soil like moles after every rain. The mushrooms were consumed when fresh, eaten after being roasted with onions and tomatoes, or grilled like meat. None of the species gathered in the area of study were recorded as edible in Turkey, but most of them were recorded in the ethnobotanical literature for Europe. Fruits Fig. 3. Iris galatica (Navrağaz). An endemic plant with an edible bulb. values as high as cultivated green vegetables, and probably made a significant nutritional contribution to local diets (Ertuğ-Yaraş 1997: Table 22). Bulbous Plants Five bulbous plants were considered edible in the area. Three of them belong to the Iridaceae, and Crocus ancyrensis was the one most often consumed. It was usually gathered by children and men using a special iron tool, called Karlanguç, used primarily for C. ancyrensis. This tool had an iron point, and a long wooden handle. Crocus flowers and the bulbs were considered a delicacy, and were eaten by everyone from mid February to the end of March. Bulbs Of the 24 edible wild fruits belonging to eight families, Rosaceae was the family most often consumed. Fifteen of the 28 species were in the Rosaceae, and 7 in the Fagaceae family. None of these fruits had a market value, and were only sporadically gathered for household consumption. If a woman wanted to dry wild fruits such as hawthorn, or plums, she went together with her children, and gathered large quantities. Among these wild fruits, Celtis tournefortii in Ulmaceae (Fig. 4) was particularly important because the stones were found in large quantities in the Aşıklı Höyük excavation, as well as several other Neolithic settlements in Anatolia (Zeist van and de Roller 1995; Helbaek 1964, 1970; Hillman 1972). These C. tournefortii stones are identical with those of Aşıklı and probably formed a significant part of the prehistoric diet. Seven species of oak were documented for the area. Their acorns were edible either fresh or roasted. Fresh acorns were stored in pits covered with earth. If they were bitter, they become sweeter when embedded in the soil for a few 2000] ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA months. Acorns were once a very popular winter food, in addition to hackberries. MEDICINAL PLANTS During the study in the Melendiz area, a total of 44 species were recorded (Table 3) as having medicinal use. This included 29 plant families and 11 cultivars. One third of them have not been reported as medicinal in the folk medicine literature of Anatolia. Among these, is a fungus, Scleroderma bovista used for human skin wounds, and Scrophularia libanotica for hives on skin, while Aristolachia maurorum was used for animals, especially for treating wounds of sheep. Balick and Cox (1996: 70) pointed out that many cultures do not make a clear distinction between food and medicine. There is also a similar overlap between food and medicinal plants used by rural Anatolians. In this study, the ones that the local people gathered as food, were separated from the ones gathered specifically for the treatment of illness. However, when we checked the literature of Anatolian folk medicine, it was clear that many of the common edibles were also recorded as medicinal (Baytop 1984; Fujita et al. 1995; Sezik et al. 1991, 1992, 1997; Tabata et al. 1988). For example, Sezik et al. (1997) refers to Tragopogon bupthalmoides as stomachic, and document its use as internal. Similarly Sayar et al. (1995) lists many common species of Malva and Portulaca as medicinal. In the present study however, because of village usage the same taxa were considered as food plants. ANIMAL FODDER Barley, rye, oats, and vetch were cultivated as animal fodder. In addition to those intentionally grown plants, animals grazed about 170 wild species representing 35 different plant families. The fodder plants include 41 species that were also consumed by humans as fresh shoots, before the flowers or seeds appear. Some of these were cut during summer and fall, and stored as winter fodder, such as Lactuca serriola and Sonchus asper. A few plants were considered harmful to animals, such as Lotus aegaeus and Trigonella coerulescens, while some others such as Allium and Muscari species were avoided, because they give the milk an unpleasant taste. Fodder plants were gathered by women if they were in close proximity to the village, but sometimes they were cut by men with scythes, 177 and piled in front of the family house. Most women brought an animal load of grasses when returning from the fields or vineyards. TINDER AND FUEL PLANTS Dung cakes are the basic fuel throughout Central Anatolia. Seven different varieties of dung were prepared and used in Kızılkaya village (Anderson and Ertuğ-Yaraş 1998). Fifteen species were gathered as tinder for both wood and dung fires (Ertuğ 1998b). Astragalus, Genista and Salsola species were the most commonly gathered tinder plants, Jurinea pontica was only used as tinder in an ‘‘old fashion’’ kind of lighter with flint and an iron striker. Poplar and willow trees were cultivated all over Anatolia for their wood, and for fuel. Oak and elm, before they became scarce were the preferred fuels. In some areas, near the remnants of steppe-forests, people still cut oak trees as fuel. In addition to these trees, shrubs such as Eleagnus angustifolia, Rosa canina, and Crataegus were used as fuel. Branches of grape vines, dry stems and leaves of maize and beans were also used either as fodder or fuel. The gathering of fuel plants and dung for fuel was done by women near their home, and men sometimes gathered them from a greater distance. Tinder gathering from the gardens, and accumulating it in a corner were also part of women’s daily activity during most of the year. Cutting branches, preparing and piling dungcakes, were done by women during the spring and summer. PLANTS USED IN HANDICRAFTS Several plants were used for weaving mats, and to make baskets and brooms. Among those Phragmites australis was primarily used to plait mats for the construction of ceilings in village houses (Fig.5). The craft was common in Akhisar. Typha laxmannii was used in several ways, as mats for floor covering, containers to carry goods, or as basket-like general purpose containers (Fig. 6). Juncus inflexus was widely used to make special containers for linseed oil presses. Brooms were made from six different plants, such as Centaurea pulchella or Chenopodium album. Until recently the fibers of hemp, Cannabis sativa, in addition to wool, were used in weaving. Several dye plants for wool (17 species, including 7 cultivated plants) should also be in- Species H. x x Astragalus elatus* A. kirshehiricus* Avena sativa (cultivar) Berberis crataegina x x x x Ceratocephalus falcatus Cichorium intybus x x Cydonia vulgaris (cultivar) Daphne oleoides ssp. oleoides x x Eruca sativa (cultivar) Eryngium campestre Parts/application KıZıLKAYA, AKSARAY, TURKEY. Related disease in Aksaray area Coughs Sterility Wounds on sheeps’ tail Roots pounded, boiled w. milk Not directly used Grains boiled as tea Roots boiled as tea, drunk by both humans & sheep Leaves pounded raw & applied Roots boiled as tea Stomach pains Wound at heels Good for health Diabetics & for sheep sickness Inflamed wounds Weakness Good for health Against magic x x Leaves boiled as tea Stems with leaves boiled & bathed in its water Leaves eaten raw Leaves & roots applied on boil Euphorbia macroclada Glaucium leiocarpum x x Juice of stems mixed rye flour Leaves pounded, applied wounds Helichrysum arenarium x Flowery stems boiled as tea Hibiscus esculentus (cultivar) Hordeum distichon (cultivar) Juglans regia (cultivar) x x x Linum usitatissimum (cultivar) x Lycium anatolicum* x Malva neglecta x Mentha longifolia ssp. typhoides x Flowers dried & boiled as tea Grains recited -indirect use Leaves boiled, mixed with henna & applied on hair Seeds roasted & pounded, boiled in milk Branches & leaves burnt its juice is applied Leaves boiled or applied raw/drink as tea Leaves & stems boiled as tea x x x Epilepsy Boils & sterility Malaria Skin inflammation & on burnt skin Stomach pain Shortness of breath Wart For mouth and nostril wounds Cough, pains Skin disease, redness, allergy Skin, rheumatism & sterility Stomach pains Öztürk & Özçelik 1991 No reference Baytop 1984; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991 No reference No reference Baytop 1984 Baytop 1984; Fujita et al. 1995 Öztürk & Özçelik 1991 Baytop 1984; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991 Baytop 1984 Öztürk & Özçelik 1991; Fujita et al. 1995 Baytop 1984 Baytop 1984; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991 Baytop 1984 No reference 2, 5, 13 5 2, 5, 8, 11, 17 2, 3, 14, 11, 15 33 27 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 6, 7 14, 17 30 34 2, 16 1, 2, 3, 4 5 8 Baytop 1984; Öztürk & Özçelik 1991 Baytop 1984 Baytop 1984 Baytop 1984 2, 12, 13 13 1, 5, 8 2, 15 3, 11, 18, 19, 20 Baytop 1984 8, 21, 22 No reference Baytop 1984 Öztürk & Özçelik 1991 Tabata et al. 1988; Fujita et al. 1995 8, 21, 22 5, 15 1, 6, 22, 29, 31, 32 22 [VOL. 54 Flowers boiled as tea Whole plant boiled w. others Leaves/roots pounded Uses given in references Reference ECONOMIC BOTANY Alcea apterocarpa* Amaranthus retroflexus Aristolochia maurorum A. PLANTS USED IN AND AROUND THE VILLAGE OF 178 TABLE 3. MEDICINAL 2000] TABLE 3. CONTINUED. Species H. A. Parts/application x x x Seeds pounded, eaten w. honey Seeds pounded, eaten w. honey Leaves cut or pounded P. major x Leaves cut or pounded Prunus cocomilia* Reseda lutea var. lutea Robinia pseudoacacia (cultivar) Rosa canina Rubus sanctus Rumex crispus x x x x x x Salvia cryptantha* S. hypargeia* Scleroderma bovista* x x Scrophularia libanotica ssp. libanotica var. nevsehirensis* Trigonella aurantiaca Triticum aestivum or T. durum Umbilicus erectus Urtica dioica x x x x x Viscum album ssp. album Vitis vinifera (cultivar) Zea mays (cultivar) Fruits boiled, mash applied Bittery roots eaten raw Flowers dried & boiled as tea Fruits boiled as tea Roots boiled as tea Leaves pounded or boiled Reference Uses given in references Stomach pains, ulcer Stomach pains Wounds/rheumatism/ boils Wounds/rheumatism Baytop 1984 Baytop 1984 Baytop 1984 2 9, 17, 32, 33 2, 5, 8, 15 Baytop 1984 2, 5, 8, 15 Nipple wounds Stomach pains Good for health Stomach pains Pains, aches Skin wounds & hemorrhoids Good for health Stomach pains, coughs Skin wounds, cracks, itch Inflamed wounds, itch No reference Baytop 1984 Baytop 1984 Baytop 1984 Baytop 1984 Baytop 1984 2, 8 12, 17, 18 11, 18, 19 2, 5, 11, 18, 19, 20 8, 11, 18, 25, 26 x Flowery stems boiled as tea Flowery stems boiled as tea Mushroom itself pounded & applied Leaves & stems burnt, its ash mixed w. oil & applied Whole plant boiled w. others Grains recited- indirect use Whole plant boiled w. others Leaves applied on skin raw or boiled/used as tea Leaves pounded & applied on bite Sterility Wart Sterility Rheumatism, pains & sterility Snake bites x x Leaves used raw Stylus is boiled as tea or mash Pain or aches Hemorrhoid No reference No reference No reference No reference No reference No reference Baytop 1984 Baytop 1984 Fujita et al. 1995 Baytop 1984; Fujita et al. 1995 Baytop 1984 Baytop 1984 2, 5 2, 3, 25, 27 19, 27, 35 2, 11, 18, 23, 24 33 5, 18, 28 2, 13 ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA Nigella arvensis var. glauca Peganum harmala Plantago lanceolata Related disease in Aksaray area * Endemic plants; (H.) for human treatments; (A.) for animal treatments; Uses given in references: 1. Against cough, 2. Diuretic, 3. Appetizer, 4. Aphrodisiac, 5. Vulnerary, 6. Agains asthma, 7. Healing ulcer, 8. Laxative or purgative, 9. Perspirator, 10. Stomachic, 11. Strengthening, 12. Carminative, 13. Against kidney stone, 14. Antipyretic, 15. Expectorant, 16. Stimulatory, 17. Relaxant, 18. Astringent, 19. Hypoglycaemic, 20. Antiseptic, 21. Against gastrologic infections, 22. Pain reliever, 23. Emetic, 24. Depressor, 25. Depurative, 26. Digestive, 27. Against rheumatism, 28. Styptic, 29. Against cold, 30. Treating animals’ broken bones, 31. Against palpitation. 32. Anthelmintic-Vermifuge, 33. Antihaemorrhoidal, 34. Against malaria, 35. Against snake bite. 179 180 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 54 Fig. 6. A basket (Ot sele) made of Typha laxmannii (Hasır otu). Fig. 5. Plaiting a reed mat (Tavan hasırı) from Phragmites australis (Kamış) in Akhisar, Aksaray, Turkey. cluded in this group. A well-known dye-plant, madder, Rubia tinctorum was no longer used in the Kızılkaya and surrounding villages, but some other villages in the region collected the roots to sell at the Aksaray carpet market. The red dyed wool used in weaving the famous Taşpınar carpets, was dyed with madder and plants such as Pistachia lentiscus, Plumbago europaea, and Verbascum lasianthum were used to dye various colors. Many of these plants were gathered and processed by women. Almost all available trees were used as building materials in carpentry, woodwork, furniture making, and utensils. Although wood was scarce in Central Anatolia, more than 70 wooden tools and household items were recorded in one of the villages studied. OTHER PLANT USES One wild plant and two cultivated species were used to produce oil for lamps, for food, and for medicinal purposes. These local oil plants were: Eruca sativa; Linum usitatissimum and Sinapis arvensis. They have been used to produce oil probably from at least the fifteenth century (Ertuğ 1998 a). A variety of plants have been recorded for various purposes, such as: incense and amulets against the evil eye (e.g., Peganum harmala, Nigella arvensis), glue (e.g., Astragalus kirshehiricus, Acantholimon kotschyi), gum (e.g., Chondrilla juncea, Gundelia tournefortii), a tobacco substitute (e.g., Fumaria vaillantii), bee plant (e.g., Anchusa azurea), a musical instrument (e.g., whistle made of Salix branches), and some plants were essential parts of childrens games (e.g., Saponaria prostrata, Ajuga chamaeritys). DISCUSSION Turkey has one of the richest floras in the Near East, with over 10 000 species of vascular plants, and about one third of these are endemic. What we do not know is how many of these are useful. A 12 volume vernacular dictionary of Turkish words provides about 3000 names of plants, which are either considered useful or harmful (Derleme Sözlüğü 1963–1982). The present study indicated that about 300 useful plants were known to local farmers in a limited area of the Melendiz Plain of Central Anatolia, and about 30% of these had not been recorded previously in the scientific literature of Anatolia and the Near East. In a recent study, Fujita et 2000] ERTUĞ: ETHNOBOTANY IN ANATOLIA al. (1995) note that 50% of the medicinal remedies that they recorded in Northern Anatolia, had not been reported in Turkish folk medicine. This, as well as the high number of the unrecorded medicinal plants in the present study shows the amount of work still needed. It also means that potential sources of food, medicine, dyes, and elements possibly useful to industry as well as genetic sources are being neglected. Some ethnobotanical studies have been published, including the useful plants of Eastern Anatolia studied and published by Öztürk and Özçelik (1991) and wild edible plants sold in Aegean markets by Lyle-Kalças (1974). In addition, several articles have been published recently on the ethnomedicine of Anatolia (Fujita et al. 1995; Sayar et al. 1995; Sezik et al. 1991; Sezik, Zor and Yeşilada 1992; Sezik et al. 1997; Tabata et al. 1994). Further, Baytop’s intensive research provided considerable information not only on medicinal but also on edible plants, fodder, fuel, dyes and gums (1984, 1994). However, until this study there was no ethnobotanical research available on the variety of plants used and/or consumed in one limited geographical area of Anatolia. The floral potential of one specific area in Anatolia, and the richness of the traditional knowledge about its plants had not been documented before. Many more detailed studies are needed to obtain a comprehensive picture of plant-human interactions in Turkey. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank the following institutions for financial and/or technical support: National Science Foundation; Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research; Department of Anthropology, Washington University–St.Louis; Center of Economic Botany, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew; Department of Prehistory, University of Istanbul; Forestry Department, University of Istanbul; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Istanbul; Department of Biology, Gazi University, Ankara, and Department of Food Technologies, Hacettepe University, Ankara. Many people contributed advice, and particular thanks go to Patty Jo Watson, Gayle Fritz, Ufuk Esin, Tuna Ekim, Mecit Vural, Faik Yaltırık and İlbilge Saldamlı. I am indepted to Réne Cappers and Josephine Powell for the English corrections of the manuscript. Last but not least I must thank to the villagers of Kızılkaya for understanding the purpose of my study and sharing their knowledge with me. LITERATURE CITED Anderson, S., and F. 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