the nazca lines Written and Edited By: Dr. Austin Mardon Jasrita Singh Mackenzie Schuler Hareem Bilal Natalie Jean-Marie Mya Elisabeth George Nawshin Haq Mical Habtemikael Michael Tang Nataliya Raza I II the nazca lines Dr. Austin Mardon, Jasrita Singh, Mackenzie Schuler, Hareem Bilal, NatalieJean-Marie, Mya Elisabeth George, Nawshin Haq, Mical Habtemikael, Michael Tang, Nataliya Raza III Copyright © 2021 by Austin Mardon All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the publisher except for the use of brief quotations in a book review or scholarly journal. First Printing: 2021 Typeset and Cover Design by Summer Shields ISBN 978-1-77369-395-8 Golden Meteorite Press 103 11919 82 St NW Edmonton, AB T5B 2W3 www.goldenmeteoritepress.com IV CONTENTS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What & Where are the Nazca Lines? .......................................................... 1 The Origin & Construction of the Nazca Lines .......................................11 Who Were the Nazca People? .................................................................... 19 Discovery & Archaeological Significance of the Nazca Lines .............. 27 The Preservation of the Nazca Lines......................................................... 35 The Nazca Lines Today: Impact on Tourism, Culture and the Arts .. 45 The Nazca Lines in Popular Culture .......................................................... 53 Mysteries Behind the Nazca Lines: Unanswered Questions and ........... Conspiracy Theories ...................................................................................... 61 References ................................................................................................................ 69 V 1 WHERE & WHAT ARE THE NAZCA LINES? Written By: Mackenzie Schuler Introduction to the Nazca Lines The Nazca Lines are important historical artifacts in Peru. Due to their size, they must be viewed from up above in order to grasp the full picture. The Nazca Lines hold some historical significance as they were created by the ancient Nasca in South America. The Nasca people lived in what was once known as the Nazca region, but is now known as the Ica region.1 The Nazca Lines were initially discovered in 1926. Due to the dry climate in Peru, these lines have been beautifully preserved and UNESCO added the site to their World Heritage List in an effort to maintain preservation of the historical area.2 The World Heritage List is a list created by UNESCO that recognizes certain environmental, cultural, and historical sites as important and the responsibility of the whole international society to conserve and protect. There are criteria to determine what should and what should not be included on the World Heritage List.3 The Nazca Lines have been an important influence on tourism, namely ecotourism, 1 History. “Nazca Lines.” 2018 2 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, Kuiper, Sampaolo, Setia, Tikkanen, & Young 2015 3 Parks Canada. “The World Heritage Convention.” 2019 1 The Nazca Lines which is the effort to travel responsibly to conserve the environment, encourage safety and well-being of locals, and to educate.4 In addition to the influence on tourism, they have been widely represented in popular culture including film, literature, video games, and fashion, among others..5 Throughout the book, each chapter unpacks a unique layer of these ingenious Nazca Lines, and provides a cohesive description of them and topics closely tied to Nazca Lines. What are the Nazca Lines? The Nazca Lines are geoglyphs. These geoglyphs are visible from the air, and carved into the surface of the desert.6 The Nazca Lines represent many things; they range from animals to shapes, some of the etchings being plants. They have been studied for over 80 years.7 There are three types of Nazca Lines. There are straight lines, geometric designs, and pictures. Considering how many Nazca Lines there are, there is believed to be over 1170 different Nazca Lines carved into the desert. The latest discoveries of Nazca Lines were in 2011, 2016, 2018, and 2020. The geoglyph discovered in 2011 was quite small compared to others in the past. In 2016, the discoverers of the 2011 geoglyph (a team from Japan) discovered another geograph was discovered, and this geoglyph was approximately 30 meters long and depicted a mythical creature. This mythical creature had several legs and spots along its body. It also is sticking out its tongue. A recent discovery, in 2018, was discovered by a team of Peruvian archaeologists, who discovered over 50 new geoglyphs in the same region as the first discovered ones.8 The most recent discovery, from 2020, is the figure of a cat. The cat was unnoticed until some plans for a new pathway were created, which led them to the newly discovered geoglyph. Out of the approximately 1700 Nazca Lines, about 800 of them are straight lines. Not much research is known about why the lines are straight, but 4 The International Ecotourism Society. “What Is Ecotourism?” n.d. 5 New World Encyclopedia. “Nazca Lines.” 2020 6 New World Encyclopedia. “Nazca Lines.” 2020 7 History. “Nazca Lines.” n.d. 8 History. “Nazca Lines.” 2018 2 Chapter 1 the large magnitude of them implies a significance of the shape. Some of these lines are 48 kilometres long, while others are much smaller. The straight lines vary in length.9 There are more than 300 geometric shapes, including triangles and spirals, even some arrows. These geoglyphs are very large.10 Some of these geoglyphs span several kilometres. In addition to the straight line geoglyphs and the geometric geoglyphs, there are also geoglyphs of animals and plants. The most well-known geoglyphs seems to be the ones depicting animals or plants.11 In 2020, a cat geoglyph was discovered. This geoglyph is approximately 37 metres long, and due to its position (on a slope), was very close to disappearing. Thanks to Peru’s culture minister, the cat has been cleaned and the lines are being preserved better than before. However, this cat figure seems to predate the rest of the Nazca Lines, according to archaeologist Johny Isla. This geoglyph is thought to be from the era of the Paracas, which is believed to be from 500 B.C. to 200 A.D., while the Nazca Lines are from the era of the Nasca people, from approximately 200 A.D. to 700 A.D..12 Some of the most popular animal or plant Nazca Lines are in the shape of a spider, a whale, a tree, and a cactus plant. What are Geoglyphs? The Nazca Lines are a popular example of geoglyphs. Geoglyphs are art displays created by setting up objects in a certain area. This can include moving objects, like rocks, around to make a certain shape, or even carving into the Earth to create an art piece. Geoglyphs carved into rock or deserts (like the Nazca Lines) are sometimes referred to as “chalk giants”, as they expose the rock or surface below the initial layer in an attempt to create a long lasting art piece.13 To determine whether or not an art piece is a geoglyph, there are some criteria. The geoglyph must be more than 4 metres in length. In addition, 9 History. “Nazca Lines.” 2018 10 Krystek (n.d.) 11 History. “Nazca Lines.” 2018 12 BBC News. “Large 2,000-Year-Old Cat Discovered in Peru’s Nazca Lines.” 2020 13 Akintola 2014 3 The Nazca Lines the art must be visible from the sky, and not easy to determine or view from the ground. The first geoglyph is thought to have been discovered by Ondemar Dias in 1977, and there have been many more discovered since. There is a presumption that most, if not all geoglyphs, are old and ancient.14 However, this is not the case. For example, the Spiral Jetty (created by Robert Smithson), was created in 1970 in Great Salt Lake.15 Considering this was created some 40 years ago, it cannot be considered ancient. There is a large magnitude of geoglyphs throughout the world. Although there are many across the world, there are no confirmed reason as to why geoglyphs were created, even though there have been several studies conducted and theories derived on this particular topic.\ There is a lot of debate in the scientific community about the purpose of the geoglyphs, with their specific purpose continuing to be a mystery.16 Where are the Nazca Lines? Some of the Nazca lines are in Peru, on the coastal plain. This plain is about 400 kilometers south of Lima, Peru’s capital. The Rio Grande de Nazca river basin is one of the driest places on earth, and is a massive 75, 000 hectares. This river basin can be found in the south-western part of Peru, about 35 kilometers from the coast. The majority of the Nazca Lines are located in this area.17 Although many of the Nazca Lines are located at the Rio Grande de Nasca river basin, many can be found on the Pampa Colorada, also known as the Coloured Plain. This site has geoglyphs that span over 500 square kilometers.18 Pampa Colorada is on the coast of central Peru. There are also some smaller geoglyphs, and the popular killer whale Nazca Line, hidden in the hills of Palpa.19 Palpa is a town in Southern Peru, north of Nazca and about 75 kilometers from the coast. 14 Akintola 2014 15 Dia. “Robert Smithson, Spiral Jetty.” (n.d.) 16 Akintola 2014 17 History. “Nazca Lines.” 2018 18 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, Kuiper, Sampaolo, Setia, Tikkanen, & Young 2015 19 Collyns 2020 4 Chapter 1 How Did the Nazca Lines Come To Be? Although it is unknown what purpose the Nazca Lines serve, there are some predictions of how the Nazca Lines were made. Considering the Nazca Lines are ancient, archaeologists and scientists can only agree on an estimate of how they were created, as they cannot know exactly what happened in the past. Considering the location of the Nazca Lines, it’s thought that rocks and dirt were removed to create the geoglyphs, rather than adding things to the surface. It’s suggested that grids created from ropes and wooden stakes were used to help create the precision required for the geoglyphs.20 Maria Reiche formed several theories on how some of the lines were made. She believed that lines were made using wooden stakes and a rope. For spirals, Reiche thought that ropes were tied to two or three wooden stakes and then the Nazca people would walk in a circle to create the spiral shape. For her final theory, she believes that the figurine geoglyphs were designed using rope and wooden posts, and possibly even painted to create designs with specific proportions and shapes.21 Why are the Nazca Lines Important? These geoglyphs are believed to carry some astronomical significance. 22 Nazca Lines were thought to be created to present an offering to a goddess, which has now been connected to some celestial events. For example, the geoglyph El Candelabro is thought to be connected to astronomical occurrences. Some of the Paracas people focused on astronomy. They connected celestial events to weather. Thanks to their observations, the format of the El Candelabro allows for the sea salt (from the ocean) to run through the grooves of the geoglyph. The astronomers were able to predict this beautiful occurrence thanks to the cosmos, which led them to the decision of placing El Candelabro on a hill slope.23 One historian, Paul Kosok, described the geoglyphs as “the largest astronomy book in the 20 admin 2020 21 admin 2020 22 World Heritage Convention. “Lines and Geoglyphs of Nasca and Palpa.” (n.d.) 23 Mendoza 2019 5 The Nazca Lines world”.24 He determined that the measurements of one of the geoglyphs he studied coordinated with sun alignment, which is useful for directions. Another researcher, Maria Reiche from Germany, suggested that the animal geoglyphs relate to some constellations.25 Not only that, but she believed that the lines were used to help determine how celestial bodies moved, and allowed the Nasca people to identify the seasons (which is useful for agriculture).26 Another belief of the significance of the Nazca Lines relates to water. There is a theory, created by David Johnson and some researchers at the University of Massachusetts, that the geoglyph lines served the purpose of representing underground water resources. Although this is an interesting theory, there is very minimal evidence and this theory does not apply to every drawing.27 The approach that is considered the most acceptable in current times also relates to water. Johan Reinhard (an explorer) believes that the Nazca Lines are a ritual to bless the land with the good fortune of water. Other researchers, such as Anthony Aveni, agree with this hypothesis, as the Nasca people needed more rain in the desert.28 Are There Nazca Lines Elsewhere in the World? The Blythe Intaglios in the U.S.A. are anthropomorphic geoglyphs (human or animal figurines) west of the Colorado River. They are approximately 24 kilometers north of Blythe, which is in California. The Intaglios are on two low terraces, and thought to have been created by the Mohave and Quechan indigenous people somewhere between 450 and 2,000 years ago. This geoglyph is thought to represent Mastamho, who was a spiritual being identified as the creator of life. One of the human-shaped geoglyphs is approximately 50 meters long, and very hard to see from the ground.29 There are six figures/geoglyphs in three separate 24 Fathy 2019 25 Yanes 2019 26 Fathy 2019 27 Fathy 2019 28 Fathy 2019 29 Dan (n.d.) 6 Chapter 1 locations. There is a geoglyph representing a human at each location and an animal geoglyph and two of the three locations. The animal figures are thought to represent Hatakulya, who is a person or possibly a mountain lion that helped in the creation of the world.30 According to the Mohave indigenous tribe, Mastamho is the younger brother of the powerful being Matavilya. Unfortunately, before he could spread teachings of the world, Matavilya was killed by his sister (known as Frog Woman). Mastamho stepped up and began leading the people and the world. No animals existed at the time of this story. He taught everyone what they needed to know about living and survival, for no one was aware of any survival tactics. Using a stick made from a willow tree, he pierced the Earth and awoke the waters that are now the Colorado River, bringing with it fish and ducks. Mastahmo created mountains using mud and planted seeds to feed his people. He taught the people everything, including how to make a fire and how to build a house. He gave people fingers so that they could count. He created animals, bugs, birds, plants, everything that lives and breathes. Mastamho created the river and everything close to the river, blessing the Mohave people with the ownership of everything that grew there. Because of this, Mastamho is known as the creator.31 Hatakulya is also part of the creation story, and is represented by the lion figurine geoglyph.32 The Cerros Pintados (translates to Painted Hills) in the Atacama Desert of Chile hosts more than 350 geoglyphs that were created between the years of 500 A.D. and 1450 A.D.. However, the exact date is unknown. These geoglyphs were created in an attempt to represent guideposts for explorers that would cross the desert. Unfortunately, although the Cerros Pintados are a protected site under the National Reserve of Pampa del Tamarugal, these geoglyphs have been damaged. Some of these damages were caused by illegal mining, natural erosion, 30 U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management. “Blythe Intaglios.” (n.d.) 31 Fort Mojave INdian Tribe 2021 32 NVus Allen. “THE BLYTHE INTAGLIOS: ANAMORPHIC GEOGLYPHS OF HUMANOIDS.” (n.d.) 7 The Nazca Lines and unlawful tourism. Considering that there is no security or even tourist facilities in the area, people have decided to steal artifacts from the geoglyphs and place graffiti throughout the site.33 In northeastern Iowa, U.S.A. there are Effigy Mounds. These mounds were ceremonial ritual areas for indigenous people in the United States of America. The Effigy Mounds are located along the bluffs of the Upper Mississippi River, and many of them are in the shape of animal figures. There are over 200 mounds at the Effigy Mounds National Park, covering over 2,500 acres of land. About 31 of these mounds are in the shape of animal figures. These mounds are believed to have been created by the Woodland Native people, between the years of 500 B.C. and 1200 A.D.. It’s not known exactly why these mounds were created, but it’s believed they were created to serve as a ritual ground to connect to the spiritual world and lost ancestors.34 The Quebrada de Santo Domingo is located near Bellavista, Peru. Not much is known about them. However, these geoglyphs are essentially a human-made stream that is elevated over 1600 meters high.35 The geoglyphs in this area are thought to have been created by the Moche and Chimu people of Peru, and serve as evidence of human life from a culture that has died off. The Quebrada de Santo Domingo is in a valley surrounded by mountains and hills, surrounded by plant-shaped and semi-circle shaped geoglyphs. Some of them are small, while some are relatively large. The most popular geoglyph in this area is an animal figurine.36 In Lovell, Wyoming lies the Bighorn Medicine Wheel. This is a geoglyph located at the summit of Medicine Mountain. This geoglyph is in the shape of a wheel with 28 spokes and has a diameter of approximately 24 meters. Although this figure is extremely unique, there are several other similar wheels such as this one. The Bighorn Medicine Wheel was cre33 World Monuments Fund. “Cerros Pintados.” (n.d.) 34 National Park Service. “Iowa: Effigy Mounds National Monument.” 2019 35 Mapcarta. “Quebrada Santo Domingo.” (n.d.) 36 Cueva & López (n.d.) 8 Chapter 1 ated by Native Americans, and this wheel is thought to have been used for the purpose of predicting astronomical events. Archaeoastronomer Jack Eddy believes that this wheel was used to predict the position of the Sun during the summer solstice, as it is covered by snow in winter so it shows very minimal purpose in the winter. Two alignments of the spokes coordinate with positions that the sign rises and sets during the summer solstice, providing evidence to Eddy’s theory. This geoglyph is thought to have been built by the Plains tribe somewhere between 300 and 800 years ago.37 37 Trevor (n.d.) 9 10 2 THE ORIGIN & CONSTRUCTION OF THE NAZCA LINES Written By: Hareem Bilal An Overview: Mystery of the Nazca Lines The majority of the archaeological investigations take place in the research area of the Nasca-Palpa project located in the Andean region, South America.38 The heartland of the ancient Nazca Culture of the south-central coast of Peru are formed by the fringes of the valleys and the desert plains, where the famous “Nazca Lines” are located.39 The Nazca lines are an array of spectacular zig-zag scrawls, geometric and biomorphic figures, all laid out on the hazy, warm desert between the Nazca and Ingenio river valleys, northwest of Nazca on the southwest coast of Peru.40 The geoglyphic designs also include animals, such as spiders, killer whales, quadrupeds, birds, as well as triangles, trapezoids, spirals, spokelike arrangements and straight lines several kilometers long.41 The nature of the Nazca Lines as one of the world’s most fragile archeological landscapes is matched by its status as an icon of international cultural heritage.42 38 Reindel & Wagner 2009 39 Brownie 2016 40 Aveni 1986 41 Bray 1992 42 Ruggles & Saunders 2012 11 The Nazca Lines The Origin of the Nazca Lines A Range of Speculations The Nazca Lines are dated around the time when the Nazca ceramics were manufactured. There is much debate and discussion surrounding the meaning behind these mysterious lines. The lines have been speculated to be astronomical sightings. Several other speculations were on a more imaginary level. For example, some interpretations concluded them as landing-strips for outer space astronauts from prehistoric times. Others interpreted these lines as evidence that the Nazca people were responsible for inventing large hot-air balloons which were used primarily to look down upon the geoglyphs from the sky. George Kubler, an art-historian, remarked: “They are clearly monumental, serving as an immobile reminder that an important activity once occurred. They inscribe human activity upon the hostile wastes of nature, in a graphic record of what was once an important ritual. They are an architecture of two-dimensional space, consecrated to human actions rather than to shelter, and record a correspondence between the earth and the universe, as at Teotihuacan and Moche, but without their corresponding masses. They are an architecture of diagram and relation, but with the substance reduced to a minimum.”43 A Correspondence Between Nature and Society The Nazca lines represent a correspondence between nature and society, the underlying notion after several investigations of their functions. Archaeo-astronomers have reported that part of elaborate regional calendars are formed by the environmental cycles along the Peruvian coast, such as the best fishing, the local periods of water abundance, or the brief appearance of vegetation in foothills of the Andes. Furthermore, during critical “boundary” times in the seasonal cycles, these calendars were reported as key to celestial phenomena that set, rose, or stood at zenith. It was beginning to appear that plazas and pyramids, prominent examples of celestial structures, were oriented to such celestial events along the Peruvian coast.44 43 Townsend 1985 44 Townsend 1985 12 Chapter 2 Worshipping Mother Nature In his study, Johan Reinhard primarily linked the majority of the Nazca Lines to the worship of water, mountains, and fertility. Fundamental to native Andean religions is, and was, the worship of mountains, and must have been so in the ancient times of Nazca. Today, mountains are regarded as guardian deities of wildlife and the lords of extensive domains, which possess special powers governing regeneration and fertility. In this respect, mountains, from whom different people trace descent, are also worshipped as the home of the rain gods. In the Andean world, mountains are known to be the sources of life in terms of ecology, as rain clouds form upon mountains. Evidence presented by Reinhardt states that, although they may be dry and covered with rock and sand, worship in the Nazca area of certain hills continued. Such outcroppings and knolls are local topographic icons of the Andean heights, even though they are far from those distant mother-mountains. For Reinhardt, connections with mountains are formed by a majority of the figures and lines on the desert, as links between related heights, as identifying signs associated with symbolic or real sources of water, or as direct pathways.45 Townsend (1985) states that in the mountainous regions of central Mexico, the findings at a series of major archeological ruins is consistent with this interpretation of the Nazca Lines. The article also states that there is conclusive evidence that temples, pyramids and related sculptures were symbolically and physically bound to the local topographic setting at the fifteenth-century religious and civic centers of Tenochtitlan and Tetzcotzingo, at sixth-century Teotihuacan, and at Chalcatzingo, which dates from about 500 B.C.. These prominent ritual centers mainly functioned as symbolic landscapes, where architectural effigies and shapes of nature-gods mirrored the caves, mountains, rivers, clouds and agricultural products of the surrounding region. Having not been explained or systematically reported before, an underlying level of ancient Amerindian religion is where such findings point towards. The evidence reveals a perception of animism that was linked to familiar landscape features; an archaic vision that believed that certain forces and forms were sacred, as part of natural processes that had important correspondances with 45 Townsend 1985 13 The Nazca Lines the sphere of man. The changing life cycle of the seasons, animals and plants, and water and earth, in this system of correspondence, were part of a cosmic pattern that involved all important community and individual activities and the organization of society.46 Ancient Riddle: Different Ages Offer Different Answers Paul Kosok, an American geographer, stated that the Nazca lines were intended to point towards astronomical events at the horizon in his beautifully illustrated Life, Landy and Water in Ancient Peru. At the age of eighty, Maria Reiche, his disciple, explored the hypothesis, and with the help of her assistants, seeked to preserve the figures from the headquarters in Nazca Hotel. Gerlad Hawkins published his negative results in 1968, but his work had little influence on the astronomical theory supporters. Besides astronomical ones, other theories in literature argue that the lines were the expression of pure geometrical knowledge. Theories regarding the Nazca geoglyphs perceived as pure art have also been advanced. For instance, Robert Morris, a sculptor, sees a work of minimalism on a giant scale in the sinuous curves of the monkey geoglyph.47 Though, in 1986, Anthony F. Aveni argues for irrigation and planting as the intention of the Nazca lines and states his concern for monumental preservation in his research article published; “The Nazca Lines: Patterns in the Desert”: “The pampa is not a confused and meaningless maze of lines, and it was no more intended to be viewed from the air than an Iowa wheat field. The lines and line centers give evidence of a great deal of order, and the well- entrenched concept of radiality offers affinities between the ceque system of Cuzco and the lines on the pampa. All the clues point to a ritual scheme involving water, irrigation and plant- ing; but as we might expect of these ancient cultures, elements of astron- omy and calendar were also evident. Through photography and mapping we have tried hard to preserve the record on the pampa. Still, it is close to being tragic that these fragile and highly distinctive artifacts are rapidly being destroyed today by advancing industrial pollution and the automo- bile track of the 46 Townsend 1985 47 Aveni 1986 14 Chapter 2 ever-curious tourist.”48 The Nazca Lines: Comprising Geoplyphs The Impressive Lines At first, the Nazca lines seem like a confused array of lines running across the desert from ground level. There are three hundred geometrical figures consisting mostly of the zig zag scrawls and spirals, trapezoids and triangles already mentioned, varying in width; thirteen hundred kilometers of straight lines, and a rough estimate of three dozen biomorphic drawings including fish, bird, spider, a monkey, and a few plants. Near the Ingenio Valley, nearly all of them are confined to a tiny corner of the Pampa, and are fairly small, although the biomorphs are quite famous. Having been laid down no later than the second half of the Early Intermediate period (A.D. 200-600), they are substantially older than the larger Nazca Lines. For the larger lines, Persis Clarkson of the University of Calgary conducted ceramic surveys of the line which indicated a time nearer the Late Intermediate period (beginning after A.D. 900).49 The Pampa is dominated by geometry and lines. For example, geometrical figures alone are etched out in the area, as it covers a staggering thirty-six hundred thousand square meters, and from Pampa’s total area of two hundred square kilometers, comprises about two percent of it. Except for the ancient dry ravines or quebradas that heavily eroded the surface or northeast-southwest flowing tributaries, which are usually dry, the desert floor is otherwise unmarked. The Nazca Lines are not a spectacular feat of engineering comparable, for example, to the Eygptian pyramids, despite the impressive dimensions of the lines.50 Construction of the Geoglyphs The Simplicity of the Process Constructing the geoglyphs, contrary to some assertions, required no great engineering skills or surveying equipment. Simple stakes and ropes 48 Aveni 1986 49 Aveni 1986 50 Aveni 1986 15 The Nazca Lines were more than enough to complete the task. Rocks covered the surface of the pampa, which were constantly subjected to daily extremes of humidity and temperature. Dark-collared varnish on the upper parts of the rocks was formed through bacterial action. The color of the underlying soil is light, and a bright patch of ground is created if the surface stones are removed, which contrasts greatly with the undisturbed, darker desert floor. This contrast will last for centuries, and will only diminish gradually if the newly created surfaces are acted upon by the same weathering agencies. Construction of a Nazca geoglyph, in most cases, requires nothing more than the stripping of the required width or area of its upper stones, and forming a boundary by the regular action of piling rocks along the edge. Based on the observation of incomplete examples, on the surface of the intended cleaning, before moving them to the edges, collecting the surface stones in a series of small piles most likely in baskets rather than sweeping was an intermediate stage in the construction of the enclosure. To clear sixteen thousand square meters in a week, an estimated number of ten people would be required. In less than two hours, a ten meter diameter spiral was built in a trial. A preliminary model was most likely required for the construction of the biomorphs, such as figures etched on wood, textile embroidery, or sand drawing. Although several geometric systems have been suggested, it is unknown what the precise method whereby the final geoglyph depiction was scaled up from this model. There have been unconvincing attempts to demonstrate, for their formation, the use of a particular standard unit of measurement.51 Swept Down From the Andes As previously mentioned, advanced technology was not required to build the geoglyphic figures. Coating the pampa floor since prehistoric times, the simple process of cleaning the pampa floor of the desert-varnished, fist-sized, angle pieces of rocks fragments was used to build them. Occasional flooding was responsible for sweeping down this debris from the Andes, often induced by El Niño, in a century that typifies this region, the peculiar heavy rain occurs a few times. Rendering each figure distinctly visible through the exposure of the black borderline composed of the neatly piled detritus coupled with the pinkish unoxidized undercoating of sand. During his field work, Anthony F. Aveni discovered that geoglyphic 51 Browne 2016 16 Chapter 2 lines are easy to build. On a remote area of another pampa in June 1984, ten Earthwatch volunteers assisted him with his study of the Nazca Lines. They helped construct a one meter wide and a thirty-five meter straight line that wound up into a spiral. All of this took about an hour and a half and was done without a printed plan. One group was in charge of collecting stones into piles by squatting, while another group was responsible for arranging them in a neat hummock about half a meter high by removing these stones from the edge of the figure. To ensure that things lined up correctly, a third “elite” group supervised the edging process. Compared to other figures measured by the surveyor’s transit, the resulting figure was reported to be at least as accurate in its outline. Original builders most likely used such a method to build the Nazca Lines. This theory can be attested by the fact that, after their construction commenced, for more than a millennium, unfinished lines still existed. Awaiting removal to the edge of the figure in question, Aveni and his team found piles of stones conveniently located from one another at an arm’s length. His studies also indicated that brooms had not been employed during the building of the lines, as has been suggested sometimes previously. Extrapolation of Aveni’s results lead him to the conclusion that, in a week’s time, his crew could have cleared an average-sized trapezoid of an area of sixteen thousand square meters. In less than a decade, every trapezoid and line on the entire pampa could be cleared with concentrated effort and the combined workforce of ten thousand people.52 Our interest in these lines should not be diminished due to the conclusion that these lines were not a stupendous engineering achievement, for these enormous geographic figures carved on an unforgiving desert are unique in this world.53 Building Figures: The Practice Etching In the two centuries before ca. 200 BCE, the communities sharing the Paracas material culture had seemingly started the practice of building figures or etching in the unoccupied desert adjacent to settlements. Perhaps inspired by a tradition of inscribing petroglyphs, emerging evidence shows that the activity may have started with the construction of humanlike figures in the Palpa region. On the Pampa de Nazca, roughly contemporaneously, the building of mythical beings related to the so52 Aveni 1986 53 Aveni 1986 17 The Nazca Lines called “Oculate Being ‘’ of Paracas iconography took place. Although, until the late fifteenth century, some communities continued the practice of building geoglyphs locally on a small scale, there is little doubt that the people of the Nazca culture (ca. 200 BCE–AD 600) were responsible for building most geoglyphs. Falling within the later Nazca period are the two radiocarbon dates from wooden posts that are supposedly associated with the Nazca lines. To indicate the use and construction of Nazca pottery during its currency, it is found so repetitively on the surface of many enclosures. Lifted by line builders, sealed under the varnish on the rocks, the radiocarbon dating of the organic matter indicates a similar date range. A clear association of some geoglyphs with the Nazca ceremonial architecture at the lesser complex at Llipata and the great pilgrimage center of Cahuachi provides additional support.54 54 Browne 2016 18 3 WHO WERE THE NAZCA PEOPLE? Written By: Natalie-Jean Marie Overview Modern Peru has been settled by many groups in the last several millennia. Though today the average person may only be able to name the Inca Empire, many smaller, less structured cultures had a lasting influence on the land, and on archeology today. One such culture is the Nazca, which existed from approximately 200 BCE to 600 CE, though these dates vary.55 As there were no writing systems in the region at the time, these timelines can only be based on found artifacts and radiocarbon dating. It was not a cohesive state, but rather a group of chiefdoms that shared many social ties, as well as culture and religion.56 The Nazca Valley is located in modern-day southern Peru, in the Rio Grande de Nazca drainage. There are many rivers in this area, and the Nazca people occupied the area surrounding the southernmost- and driest- four.57 These challenging conditions led to innovative land uses, as well as a rich culture centred on water and fertility. Religious beliefs and artistic focus resulted in ceramics and other creations that are renowned to this day. This chapter will explore 55 Cartwright 2014 56 Cartwright 2014 57 Schreiber 1995 19 The Nazca Lines several aspects of Nasca culture, including how it started, technological innovations, religion, art, social structure, interactions, and its downfall. Birth of Nazca Culture The southern Nazca region was, for the most part, unpopulated until the end of the Early Horizon period (800 BCE- 1 CE). Though it is not known exactly when this transition happened, Nazca culture evolved from the Paracas people, who belonged to a society that was prominent in modern-day Peru for hundreds of years, until around 100 BCE.58 The archeologist Van Gijseghem’s work refers to the southern Nazca region as a frontier, a last effort of a group to avoid massive social reorganization due to population growth.59 This is parallel to the idea of the American frontier: a group of relatively conservative individuals who colonise new territory to avoid social change. In the case of the Nasca people, this change was likely the formation of a state. However, the Paracas culture died out soon after, and Nasca culture evolved and flourished for many more centuries. This cultural transition can also be tracked by artifacts found in distinct geographic areas. There is an abundant collection of pottery and other remains that are uniquely Paracas found in the Ica Valley. However, artifacts found in the Nazca region are recognisable as Nazca creations.60 In intermediate regions, the artistic and cultural transition can be tracked. Over time, Nazca culture shifted away from Paracas, in religious beliefs, colour and design choices in pottery and art, and other cultural markers. These changes will be examined in more depth in the next sections. Adapting to their Environment Possibly the largest challenge for the Nasca people was water access. The region was- and still is- extremely dry, with almost no rain.61 The surrounding rivers had no surface water for most or all of the year.62 Water was of high importance, and it is believed to have been central to their 58 Carmichael 2016 59 Van Gijseghem 2006 60 Silverman 1994a 61 Schreiber 1995 62 Schreiber 1995 20 Chapter 3 religious beliefs. To work around the lack of water, inhabitants of the Nazca Valley built puquios and wells. Puquios allowed access to the underground water system that was present all year long. A puquio consists of a nearly horizontal well, which connects the subsurface water to the surface.63 Water flows through the puquio into either a reservoir or into irrigation canals. Despite the extremely dry climate, certain areas of the Nazca Valley are actually home to fertile soil. With the puquios creating irrigation systems, the Nazca people were able to grow some food. In addition, the reservoirs provided enough water for drinking and other domestic uses. To this day, there are 36 puquios that are still functioning in the middle valley.64 There is some debate about when exactly the puquios were built. Many believe that they were built by the Nazca people. Habitation patterns suggest that the early Nazca lived mostly in areas of higher elevation, where water was more abundant all year long. However, by the middle and late period of Nazca existence, there is evidence of settlements in the drier middle valley, where water was most scarce.65 The puquios are also longer than they would need to be today, which likely means they were built in a time of drought. While there is no data for earlier weather patterns, scholars found that there were severe droughts in the sixth and seventh centuries CE, during the late Nazca period.66 Despite this evidence, some modern Nasca locals believe that the puquios were built by the Incas, or even by Spanish settlers, nearly 1000 years after the existence of the Nazca culture. Religion Though little is known for certain about the religious beliefs of the Nasca people, much can be speculated from the artifacts left behind. Due to the evidence from burial practices, art, and rituals, it is likely that the religion was based on the importance of ancestors, water, and fertility.67 For example, burial practices include mummification and trophy heads. 63 Schreiber 1995 64 Schreiber 1995 65 Schreiber 1995 66 Schreiber 1995 67 Carmichael 2016 21 The Nazca Lines Mummies were buried with art and other belongings, and usually sitting up.68 As there is an abundance of pottery depicting their central deity alongside trophy heads, it is assumed that particular practices related to killing as well as natural death were a major part of the Nasca spiritual beliefs. In addition to the mummies found with their war trophies, others were not buried intact. Some bodies were found with particular organs or other body parts missing. The parts that were missing were generally consistent, suggesting that ritual sacrifice was also a component of Nasca culture. An extremely common motif in Nazca art, as well as in burials, is a meticulously mummified severed head with long hair intact, with the eyes and mouth pinned shut.69 These heads usually belonged to native Nazca people, not foreign individuals. The Nazca worldview consisted of a vast collection of supernatural beings. While each being had its own following, or cult, as is common in polytheistic religions, the principal figure is now referred to as the Masked Being.70 It was the patron deity of the huayo cult, or the severed head cult.71 This group was exclusive, consisting mostly of the elite Nazca men. However, it was also central to the society’s belief system. The Masked Being was derived from the Paracas deity, the Oculate Being.72 Imagery surrounding the Masked Being includes many different animals; the mask may have been inspired by the face of a spider monkey.73 It is speculated that- through trade and other travel- the Nazca people were occasionally exposed to animals living in the jungle, leading them to believe those animals were in some way supernatural. Another animal that may have inspired parts of the Masked Being is the river otter. Otters would appear near rivers when they were flowing, but would disappear during the dry seasons. This could have led to the belief that otters somehow controlled the flow of the rivers, a precious part of life in the dry Nazca region.74 68 Tonye 2015 69 Carmichael 2016 70 Carmichael 2016 71 Carmichael 2016 72 Carmichael 2016 73 Carmichael 2016 74 Carmichael 2016 22 Chapter 3 One remarkable monument left behind by the Nazca people is the city of Cahuachi. Previously believed to have been an urban centre, Cahuachi was in fact a place of pilgrimage.75 An underground water source finds its way to the surface in Cahuachi, likely a factor in its perceived sacred nature. Altogether, there are 40 mounds surrounded by adobe walls, which were constructed and maintained during sacred times.76 Some individuals were buried in these mounds. While there are remains of food and dishware, there is no evidence of habituation. Most likely, people from all over the Nazca region gathered there to partake in feasts and ritual activities. Some holes and posts have been found; remnants of temporary housing for those who made the pilgrimage.77 Despite there being little or no permanent residences in Cahuachi, it was a major cultural centre for the Nazca people. This is where members of different villages maintained social ties, and where Nazca religion and culture was developed. It was also considered to be a place where humans could contact deities. Towards the end of Nazca presence, one or more shamans would always be present at Cahuachi, in order to act as intermediaries between the natural and supernatural world.78 Art Though clearly inspired by earlier, simpler Paracas art, Nazca pottery, tapestry, and other artifacts are well known for their complexity. More than any other Andean culture, the Nazca people made use of many different colours.79 Their distinctive style involved black outlines around figures, drawing attention to the fixation on linear design. This fixation can also be seen in the best known Nazca creation; the Nazca Lines. In addition, pottery was made in many different shapes and for many different uses. These include bowls, jars, effigy drums, and human head-shaped pottery. Artistic motifs often consisted of geometric patterns, shamanic imagery, deities, and mythical creatures, especially felines.80 Pottery and 75 Lasaponara, Masini, & Orefici 2016 76 Lasaponara, Masini, & Orefici 2016 77 Silverman 1994b 78 Silverman 1994b 79 Proulx 2007 80 Cartwright 2014 23 The Nazca Lines embroidery was highly ornate, and often abstract. They also, however, were often narrative in nature, telling stories of sacrifice and other religious or ritual activities.81 Without a writing system, it is almost like Nazca religious beliefs were codified in their artistic representations. Maria Reiche, as well as other scholars, noticed that there is notable overlap in the imagery found on pottery and in the Nazca Lines.82 One of the reasons that Nazca ceramics are distinct from Paracas is because of the method of painting and firing them. In earlier years, Paracas artists would fire the pottery before painting, and then paint using plant pigments. The Nazca people, on the other hand, painted before firing. They also used pigments called slip paints, which were derived from minerals mixed with clay. These developments not only allowed a much larger array of colours, but meant that the colours lasted much longer.83 It is most likely that this technique was developed around 200 BCE by the Paracas people, but it is in Nazca culture that it really flourished. In addition to the remarkable ceramic creations of the Nazca people, they also created complex textiles and metal works, such as masks.84 Many of these items have been found through excavating graves, or unfortunately more frequently, robbing them. Since the early twentieth century, there have been many graves found with varying amounts of art and pottery. This variance, however, is not incredibly large; there was not a huge social stratification. The common person may have had one or two ceramic items buried with them, while religious elites may have had up to twenty.85 Social Organization For decades after the discovery of the Nazca culture, it was believed that it made up an organised state, with its urban centre at Cahuachi. Later evidence showing that Cahuachi was not inhabited disproved this theory. In fact, despite the strong cultural and religious ties between villages in the Nazca region, there was very little overarching political structure. An 81 Cartwright 2014 82 Proulx 2007 83 Proulx 2007 84 Cartwright 2014 85 Vaughn 2006 24 Chapter 3 individual’s place on the social hierarchy, then, was determined by their knowledge of rituals and the spiritual world.86 Power could not be directly tied to agricultural or water surplus, as there was none in the harsh conditions of the area. However, the ritual knowledge that some individuals held was linked to fertility and abundance. It is likely that most of these elites were young men that were a part of the previously described huayo cult.87 While the subsistence economy- that is the production and trade of food and other necessities- mostly operated on the village level, the production and consumption of ceramics was another way that the villages remained connected.88 This too was largely controlled by the spiritual elites, who organised and sponsored many feasts in Cahuachi. Pottery not only contained important religious imagery, but was used as vessels for food and drink at these festivals, making ceramic usage central to Nazca life on both a spiritual and practical basis. By having some level of control over production, elites were able to align themselves with images of fertility in both humans and plants, as well as the spiritual world in general. To summarize, social ties and hierarchies were maintained through the ceramic economy, as well as religious gatherings at Cahuachi. Elites were those who were able to craft their image, rather than those who had the most resources. Contact With Other Groups Some scholars argue that the prevalence of severed heads and related imagery is evidence of war with other groups in the area.89 Though it is known that many of the heads were related to ritual practices, and taken from Nazca individuals, others fail to match this description. The civilisation that occupied the Nazca region in the centuries following the Nazca people are known to have taken trophy heads as well, likely influenced by their interactions with the Nasca culture.90 Many have evidence of 86 Vaughn 2006 87 Carmichael 2016 88 Vaughn 2006 89 Tung and Knudson 2008 90 Tung and Knudson 2008 25 The Nazca Lines violence before severing, implying that these heads, at least, were taken in war.91 While the details of organized violence are not clear, it is known that there was some level of interaction between the Nazca people and other groups. The Nazca use of wool in textiles shows that there must have been trade, as llamas and other wool growing animals could not live in the harsh conditions of the Nazca region.92 As examined in the discussion about religion, some Nazca individuals must have also been exposed to animals like spider monkeys, despite living far from any jungles. This likely also occurred during trade with neighbouring groups. Downfall It is not entirely clear when or how Nazca culture definitively died out. The sixth and seventh centuries brought severe droughts and earthquakes, possibly causing major upheaval and instability.93 Most likely, the Nazca people survived in some capacity until the eighth century, when the Wari empire invaded the region.94 It is evident that the two groups interacted at this time, as Wari art and spiritual activity became influenced by Nasca culture. One bizarre event that took place near the end of Nazca survival was the burning of Cahuachi. The extent of the fire was such that it could not have been accidental, but the cause is still unknown. It may have been caused by riots against the priestly class, or- more likely- been a part of a ritual burning at a time of change.95 The downfall of the Nazca culture likely happened slowly, over several centuries. A combination of factors- natural disasters, political unrest, and invading forces- likely all contributed to the Nazca people’s demise. While the Nazca people may not have left major monuments or been a part of a major empire, their art and culture certainly left a lasting impact. Many of their creations, in particular the Nazca Lines, continue to earn international attention, from tourists, creatives, and scholars alike. 91 Tung and Knudson 2008 92 Cartwright 2014 93 Schreiber 1995 94 Tung and Knudson 2008 95 Lasaponara, Masini, & Orefici 2016 26 4 DISCOVERY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NAZCA LINES Written By: Mya Elisabeth George Introduction Archaeological scholarship surrounding the Nazca Lines is characterized by different rounds of researchers leading working theories surrounding the nature of the Lines and the intention behind their creation. When initially discovered, resources were limited in general society and the scientific community to fully study geoglyphs. Later on, the advent of flight and advances in measurement and documentation devices improved the process of gathering and analyzing data surrounding the Lines. Approaches in studying the Lines, by a series of anthropologists and archaeologists, demonstrate fundamental changes in the disciplines. Initial theories were largely shaped by specific biases and the work of a few scholars. In time, more researchers came to focus on the sociocultural, historical, and environmental aspects surrounding the Nazca Lines. Modern perspectives, while still missing more specific details, have connected the figures to one of the most important human resources, required for all societies throughout time: water. The Initial Discovery of the Nazca Lines and an Increase in Public Attention The Peruvian archaeologist Toribo Mejia Xesspe (1896-1983) had 27 The Nazca Lines climbed a small hill overlooking the pampa (the desert plain) between the Ingenio and Nazca valleys on the Southern coast of Peru, when he came across the Nazca Lines in 1926.96 Across the desert before him was an intricate pattern of Lines seemingly marked in the earth’s surface. When Xesspe published his account of the Lines years later, he hypothesized that the Lines themselves were ceremonial roads linked to ancient aqueducts and burial sites in the region. Although Xesspe is officially credited with first discovering the Nazca Lines, there are some accounts that seemingly reference the discovery before Xesspe ever came across the geoglyphs. In his book published in 1553, Pedro Cieza de León (1520-1554) mentioned what he referred to as “trail markers” in the same geographical area where the Lines are currently known to be.97 Both the Peruvian military and non-commercial pilots also reported seeing the Lines in the 20th century, before Xesspe witnessed and wrote on the discovery. The design of the Nazca Lines are difficult to view and comprehend from surface level. With the advent of flight, there was a greater opportunity to study the Lines from above and see the more complex geometric shapes and zoomorphic designs. In the 1930s, commercial aircrafts began flying over the area and brought public awareness and attention to the Nazca Lines.98 While flights across the Andes allowed for the Lines and the larger figures to be seen, the Nazca lines have persisted as an archaeological wonder and enigma. Forced Connections Between the Nazca Lines and Astronomy A common theory that emerged regarding the creation of the Nazca Lines is that the biomorphic figures represented constellations seen in their creator’s lifetime, and were used to predict the times of key astronomical events such as equinoxes and solstices. The Lines, going every which way and forming different shapes, have the possibility of correlating with something of astronomical significance, but this does not neces96 Silverman & Browne 1991 97 Cieza de León 1553 98 Golomb 2021 28 Chapter 4 sarily mean that that was the intention behind their creation. Paul Kosok (1896-1959), an American professor, happened to come across one of these possibilities when he saw that the sun was in direct alignment with one of the Lines as it set.99 This incident occurred on June 22, 1941, the day after the solstice and this led him to seriously investigate his theory of the ancient astronomical calendar. Kosok’s background as a professor was in history and government, and he taught these subjects at Long Island University, in Brooklyn, New York.100 One of his specific research interests was the irrigation systems of ancient Peru. Alongside other researchers and colleagues, he mapped ancient canals and man made waterways and analyzed their functionality. When Kosok encountered the Nazca Lines in 1939, because of his familiarity with historical irrigation systems in Peru, he knew that the lines were not part of an irrigation system.101 In the years that followed, Kosok led the efforts to map and characterize the Lines. He enlisted the help of Maria Reiche (1903-1998), the German-Peruvian mathematician and archaeologist, and worked with the Peruvian Air Force to collect aerial photos.102 All of Kosok’s work, and the consequent work by Reiche, viewed the Nazca Lines as a massive calendar used in the stead of written script because they were an agrarian society. Maria Reiche, nicknamed the Lady of the Lines for her long standing dedication to the archeological find, spent a further 40 years studying the Lines and gathering material in support of the ancient astronomical calendar theory.103 She was one of the initial surveyors of the site, using measuring tape and a compass to draw maps in the late 1940s. In time, she came to use a theodolite (a moveable measuring instrument that is easier to measure angles with) to better document minute details of the landscape. Reiche not only believed that the lines pointed towards places where the 99 Golomb 2021 100 University of Texas at Austin n.d. 101 Silverman & Browne 1991 102 University of Texas at Austin n.d. 103 Silverman & Browne 1991 29 The Nazca Lines sun would fall under important astronomical events, but also that images formed by the Lines were representative of constellations.104 However, Reiche’s research has been criticized for only looking at specific examples in support of the astronomical theory and ignoring the more numerous examples where there is no connection to astronomy.105 This process of “cherry picking” evidence is not approved of in the scientific community and reflects poorly on the work of other scholars to carefully consider existing evidence. The assumption that the geoglyphs had a foundation in the stars, while not outside the realm of possibility or consideration for archaeologists of the time, was ultimately unfounded. The scholarship surrounding the Nazca and the Nazca Lines serves as an example of misdirection due to a lack of interdisciplinary collaboration and communication. Kosok and Reiche held onto their own biases in evaluating the practices of an ancient civilization and as consequence, the entire study of the Lines was impacted by the astronomical theory reigning for decades and it was the dominating theory until the 1970s. Gerald Hawkins (1928-2003), an American astronomer, was one of the first professionals to dispute connections between the Lines and astronomy. He visited and studied the geoglyphs in 1965 after being commissioned by the National Geographic, and came to the conclusion that there was no significant connection between the Lines and key astronomical events and celestial bodies.106 Something that Hawkins found particularly intriguing is that there were no significant alignments with the brightest stars, including the star Pleiades, which has been noted as an important subject in Andean cosmology. His findings showed no basis in astronomy for the creation of the Nazca lines, and further research came to support other theories. Additionally, Anthony Aveni, the pioneer in archeoastronomy further contributed to evidence against the ancient astronomical calendar theory. As communicated in her writings, Reiche’s purpose was to raise awareness of the Nazca Lines, share her findings on the Lines and Nazca pottery, and encourage new directions of research. Despite the faults in the 104 Lambers 2004 105 Isbell 1979 106 Iammarino 2016 30 Chapter 4 theory she supported with her life’s work, she succeeded in furthering international discussion and appreciation of the Nazca Lines. She even lived near the Lines, a testament to her life’s dedication. It was in part due to Kosok and Reiche’s work that the Nazca Lines received such widespread attention and became a site of national and international protection. In 1994, the Nazca Lines were officially declared part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site.107 This is an important distinction as it consolidates international protection efforts and recognizes the cultural, historical and/or scientific significance for a site. Paul Kosok, having left Maria Reiche to continue her research surrounding the geoglyphs, continued to study the irrigation systems of civilizations of Northern Coastal Peru.108 After conducting fieldwork himself for a number of years, Kosok returned to the United States and devised an outline for two books detailing his life adventures. He planned for his first book to include journalistic accounts of his discoveries alongside aerial photographs. For the second one, Kosok would further explore the specifics of archaeological irrigation systems in the regions he had studied with connections to the culture and history of the peoples there. Paul Kosok passed away while the first book was still in the process of being printed, and the second one remained an idea, unwritten. Many of the photographs included in the book were previously unpublished and brought new details to light amongst scholars. New Perspectives on the Nazca Lines In the latter half of the 20th century, a new wave of researchers introduced new perspectives regarding the Nazca Lines and brought attention to expansive holes in existing theories. Johan Reinhard, the American anthropologist best known for his discoveries of Inca mummies in the Andes, played an important role in forming the most accepted theory behind the Nazca Lines today. Reinhard argued that the Lines and trapezoidal figures were ceremonial paths walked by the Nazca, and used for rituals related to obtaining water and the fertility of crops.109 His theories, published in 1985, hypothesized that the Lines served as sacred paths leading 107 UNESCO n.d. 108 Murra 1965 109 Iammarino 2016 31 The Nazca Lines to places dedicated to the worship of dietities connected to water security. With this, he thought that the larger figures and animals depicted in the earth were meant to help with religious rituals. Despite the exact purpose and usage of the Lines being unknown, Reinhard’s work is of particular importance because of his multidisciplinary approach in analyzing the geoglyphs. He specifically encouraged considering Nazca culture and the involvement and interaction with the surrounding environment, a vast difference from the researchers who came before him. Reinhard also acknowledged his own shortcomings as an anthropologist and archaeologist having said, “No single evaluation proves a theory about the Lines, but the combination of archaeology, ethnohistory, and archaeology builds a solid case”.110 While modern humans will continue to unearth details surrounding the Nazca Lines and their creation, Reinhard’s theory will mark an advance in how humanity considers outside perspectives and actions. The importance of water in relation to the Nazca Lines has also been noted by David Johnston, the retired social studies teacher turned Nazca researcher. Differently from Reinhard, Johnston believed that, in combination, geological faults and rocks rounded by water flow (alluvial gravels) led water to accumulate in the valleys of coastal Peru.111 Because of these geological features, digging in certain locations of the valley would result in one finding fresh water. Johnson saw the Lines as a map marking where reliable sources of water could be found, and therefore, it helped to sustain the Nazca people. It is important to note that despite different teams of archaeologists investigating Johnston’s theory in more recent years, mixed results have been observed and there is no extensive evidence in support of this more complicated theory.112 The ultimate conclusion from modern research surrounding the Nazca Lines is that the geoglyphs are associated with water to some extent. As mentioned above, the American anthropologist and astronomer Anthony Aveni contributed to establishing the lack of scientific data linking the Nazca Lines to key astronomical events and objects. Aveni’s research has also connected the Lines to the movement of water. In his analysis, he 110 Iammarino 2016 111 Proulx n.d. 112 Iammarino 2016 32 Chapter 4 noted a strong correlation with the orientation of figures and the direction of water flow, with the centres of lines frequently overlooking rivers or near bends in a waterway.113 By looking at this phenomenon, Aveni came to support the idea that the Nazca Lines formed pathways for water-related rituals and also a potential association with the mountains of the region. While his contemporaries have identified areas lacking statistical analysis in his published work, the main ideas explored connect to the work of both Reinhard and Johnston. The Discipline of Archaeology, an Exploration in Human Bias Archeology is a subfield of anthropology where human culture is studied through the analysis of physical remains114, whether those physical remains are pottery or skeletal remains or a complex series of geoglyphs in the valleys of Southern Peru. Physical remains allow for greater insight into the lives of ancient humans, but the interpretation of such items is at the responsibility of archeologists. This interpretation in the field has historically been linked to longstanding biases which mar the academic integrity of published works and have misled research efforts in different circumstances around the world. It was not until the early 1980s that this professional bias received widespread attention, and specific research into the impact it can have on other areas of life.115 More development of data-collection and analytical devices in the 1990s, including the introduction of a geographic information system (GIS) as a component of landscape documentation, helped to improve accuracy and eliminate bias in some areas of archeological fieldwork. However, improvement in technology can only account for one aspect of archeological interpretation. Human beings, with their own complicated identities, are more difficult to account for when aiming to reduce inaccuracies. Modern-day archeology aims to gain comprehension of ancient materials and practices, while considering different perspectives outside one’s own. A key part of this is limiting bias, and one way that archeologists tackle this issue is by considering the selectiveness of their research sample.116 113 Reinhard 1992 114 Iqbal 2020 115 Van Leussen n.d. 116 Van Leussen n.d. 33 The Nazca Lines Seeing as fieldwork is often intentional with non-random data collection, evaluating the parameters that one has placed on the scope of their research is an important consideration. Failing to do so adequately or even intentionally limiting the scope of one’s data collection can lead to inaccurate and biased ‘research’. Furthermore, in a field such as archeology that requires one to embrace the perspective of ancient humans, it is necessary that one must be able to acknowledge the biases of their own upbringing and education, to consider a foreign perspective rather than project their own thoughts as theories. In archeology, answers to mystifying questions lie in the past and are not easily answered even by experts. Understanding and knowledge in this field is increasingly evolving to encompass multidisciplinary considerations and elimination of personal bias. Conclusion The Nazca Lines are an archeological wonder that remain a partial mystery to modern humanity, as well as the scholars who have dedicated their lives to studying them. Their presence in remote valleys of Southern Peru have made them less accessible, both physically and in terms of the public attention they receive outside of South America. The niche subjectivity of the Nazca Lines has created the ideal circumstances for less evidence based theories to thrive and gain more attention. It has taken the dedication of multiple, interdisciplinary researchers to begin reestablishing what humanity truly understands about the Nazca Lines. Further exploration into the identity of the Nazca people, their environment, and connections to scientific facts have allowed for a new generation of scientists to improve upon existing archeological frameworks and approaches, to consider multiple perspectives as one looks back in time. Archeology has historically been dominated by the perspectives of the discoverers, those capable of seemingly rewriting reasoning and reality. A greater focus on facts and contributing factors instead of personal bias shows promise for the future of the discipline as a whole. 34 5 THE PRESERVATION OF THE NAZCA LINES Written By: Nawshin Haq Introduction The Nazca Lines are renowned for being one of Peru’s greatest treasures and as some of the most alluring geoglyphs in the entire world. As a result, one must wonder about the amount of energy and time that the Peruvian government spends on conserving these stunning pieces. The lines were created approximately 2000 years ago, so how does the Peruvian government keep them in such fantastic conditions? What extra measures have they taken in order to preserve these geoglyphs in relatively intact conditions? Well, the most surprising fact about the preservation measures taken for these geoglyphs might be that there are none. There are almost negligent amounts of preservation measures taken to conserve these geoglyphs over these 2000 years! The only protection offered is given by the force of nature. While this might be unfortunate nowadays, it sure is awe-inspiring that these geoglyphs lasted this long with relatively low damage, just because the earth willed them to. However, to make more of an effort to conserve Peruvian heritage, the basics of how these delicate drawings were conserved by the climatic aspect of deserts in the first place must be understood. There are also considerations of what is the main aspect, particularly in the Nazca desert, that conserved these drawings. Over many generations and after 2,000 years of self-preserva- 35 The Nazca Lines tion, the conservation of these lines is now in extreme danger due to various climate factors and especially man-made damage. Thus, there should be various steps undertaken in order to ensure that these geoglyphs are preserved as long as humans are still alive on Earth. The world must not forget these human-made pieces that were left behind as evidence of the occupation of our talented ancestors. There is also the fact that we still have not properly answered the questions regarding the origin or the meaning of these lines. Conditions of Deserts The breath-taking Nazca Lines are primarily preserved due to the dry and humid climate of the desert, though this would largely be an understatement117. In order for one to explore the conditions within the Nazca desert and infer why the lines are so well preserved, we must observe the deserts around the world. This is due to the fact that enough research is not yet conducted in order for us to properly speculate the climatic properties of the Nazca desert itself. Scientists are, fortunately, attempting to fix this oversight and conduct more research on the Nazca Desert itself. However, until the time that all this novel and fascinating research is released, we must partially infer how the Nazca desert preserves the lines by using climatic information from deserts in general. Therefore, this section will explore the climatic conditions of deserts before diving into the scarce climatic information provided on the Nazca desert. There are four kinds of deserts around the world; Hot and Dry deserts, Semi-arid deserts, coastal deserts and cold deserts. These deserts have different characteristics that make them unique due to the climate they are acclimated to. Deserts cover approximately thirty-three percent of the total land surface of the Earth.118 In fact, according to the Updated world map of the Koppen-Geiger climate classification, hot deserts occur so frequently across the world that they are the most common types of land.119 Hot deserts cover approximately 14.2% of the Earth’s land surface, with Tropical Savannah following at 11.5%.120 Hot deserts are extremely im117 Nazca Lines | Archaeological Site, Peru n.d. 118 Peel et al. 2007 119 Peel et al. 2007 120 Peel et al. 2007 36 Chapter 5 portant to study as they take up such a large area of the Earth’s land mass. The Nazca Lines are located within the desert plains of the Nazca Region, which is situated in the Rio Grande de Nasca river basin. This area is known as one of the most humid and driest places on the Earth. No wonder the lines were so well preserved! While many humid places within the Earth, for example rainforests, retain moisture due to humidity, deserts somehow manage to be one of the driest places on Earth.121 Humidity is defined as ‘a moderate degree of wetness especially of the atmosphere’, according to the Marriam Webster Dictionary.122 Simply put, humidity is the amount of moisture in the air in a certain place at a specific time. The humidity in the Nazca Desert is considered extremely high (one of the highest in the world) due to the fact that any ‘wetness’ or moisture evaporates into the air.123 The University of California Museum of Paleontology claims that deserts, in general and altogether, encounter less than 20 inches of water content per year.124 To put that into context, the annual rainfall in Toronto alone is 33.3 inches every year.125 As you will notice throughout this chapter, when there is a comparison drawn between Nazca and Toronto in terms of precipitation, and average temperature, the results are quite shocking and reasons behind the preservation of the Nazca Lines becomes increasingly clearer. The rainfall in desert areas is, once again, extremely low. Rainfall in these regions usually occurs at short intervals or in concentrated bursts, and the rate of evaporation often surpasses rates of precipitation.126 Winters usually bring low amounts of rainfall within these hot deserts. The temperature in hot deserts frequently reaches extremely high temperatures during the summer months, and the winters are characterized by exceedingly low amounts of precipitation or snowfall. The temperatures are at extremes almost every single day.127 This is primarily due to the inability 121 The Desert Biome 2007 122 Definition of HUMIDITY n.d. 123 The Desert Biome 2007 124 The Desert Biome 2007 125 Toronto Climate: Average Temperature, Weather by Month, Toronto Weather Averages - Climate-Data.Org n.d. 126 The Desert Biome 2007 127 The Desert Biome 2007 37 The Nazca Lines of the low amount of humidity to block the sun’s radiation. There is also a lack of plant life to utilize the sun’s rays along with there being a scant amount of clouds to help this process. Therefore, all of the radiation goes towards the surface of the desert, making the desert unbearably hot at times. Deserts generally tend to be situated in lower terrain areas underneath high level areas, such as mountains.128 As air continues over these higher places and warms, it maintains this heat throughout while descending throughout the mountain.129 The air maintains this heat throughout the descent. As the air sinks over the higher terrains, it compresses and warms over time, which in turn dries the amount of moisture in the atmosphere of that area. However, during the nights when the sun has gone down, these same mechanisms can sometimes drop temperatures below freezing as the radiations that were created from sunlight are no longer available. There are even certain deserts where the maximum temperatures range from 43.5-49°C. However, due to the extremities of the climate conditions within deserts the temperature drops to -18° C at times. While soils in other types of land masses have a composition of silt and clay (silt can maintain water without oxygen or air flow while clay is the base for many of the chemical and physical properties of plant life130), the majority of desert soil is composed of sand. In fact, 90-95% of desert soil is composed entirely of sand. Sand is good for oxygen infiltration (when oxygen is passed through the sand particles) however sand cannot retain moisture and it is susceptible to erosion due to its lightweight.131 Thus soils that are mostly composed of sand are not recommended for most plant life. There are also layers within the desert soils, each layer is built over years of minerals, sand and rock. The surface of the horizon of the desert usually consists of a hard pavement-like finish. The top of the desert layer is also dry therefore, the surface remains compact and fragile. After the top layer there is usually an accumulation of different kinds of calcium carbonate, salt and clay, along with a rocky base. The composition of soil cannot retain water and can become extremely heated 128 The Desert Biome 2007 129 WHY ARE DESERTS HOT? n.d. 130 Nordin n.d. 131 Nordin n.d. 38 Chapter 5 due to the sun’s radiation. On top of that there is also the fact that the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of rainfall.132 This would make desert soil extremely unfit for retaining any kind of sustainable or regular plant life. Only certain organisms can survive in deserts, particularly those that can survive without the usage of water and the process of photosynthesis, on a daily basis (for example, cactuses which can live without water for two years). Adding to that, there is usually a mixture of different minerals within desert sand. These minerals could be quartz, mica, feldspar, etc.133 Air is copious within the sands of these hot deserts. This can be displayed through the fact that one can, with minimum effort, pick up and drop sand through their fingers but the same cannot be said for other types of rich soils. This is due to the fact that rich soils are packed with organic matter and water. Conditions of the Nazca Desert While all of this fascinating information, the main point of it is to provide context to the further discussion of the annual temperature and rain conditions of the Nazca desert in particular. Without first knowing the original conditions that are required to keep deserts high and dry, one would not understand why the Nazca desert is indeed quite special. The Nazca region has an average temperature that ranges from 20° C to 30° C in the hottest months of the year, and for winters the temperature ranges from 15° C to 25° C.134 The chance of precipitation rarely goes over 10%, and the highest amount of precipitation within any of the months was in February, during which the average rainfall was 8 millimeters.135 In terms of sun radiation in the Nazca region, the shortest day has approximately 11 hours of sunlight while the longest day has 13 hours. To give a bit more insight into the situation, the shortest day in Canada, according to Narcity, is the winter solstice and lasts for about 7 hours.136 132 The Desert Biome 2007 133 The Desert Biome 2007 134 Nazca Climate: Average Temperature, Weather by Month, Nazca Weather Averages - Climate-Data.Org n.d. 135 Nazca Climate: Average Temperature, Weather by Month, Nazca Weather Averages - Climate-Data.Org n.d. 136 Winter Solstice In Canada Is The Shortest Day & Longest Night Of 39 The Nazca Lines The Nazca region experiences moderate winds throughout the majority of the day which allows the sand to be picked up and carried away from the grooves of the Nazca Lines.137 This ensures a clear depiction of the lines. The Nazca desert surface is entirely covered by iron-oxide enclosed pebbles that are of a rust-like reddish tone. As is aforementioned, the desert soil is packed around pockets of air, and is thus very light. This is one of the factors that endorses the wind to carry away the loose pieces of sand so effortlessly. There are many, yet unexplored, factors concerning the inner minerals contained within the soils, that can provide more insight into the preservation of the Nazca Lines. However, these are some of the most crucial underlying mechanisms at work that maintain the Nazca Lines the way they are presently. The fascinating aspect of all of this is that these basic underlying natural structures of deserts have kept these lines intact for approximately two millenia. Threats to Preservation The Nazca desert is one of the most recommended areas to visit for tourism in Nazca, Peru. However, no matter how stunning the Nazca Lines and the beauty of viewing an actual desert is, one must also acknowledge the amount of annual rainfall and heat the desert experiences. These factors must be considered due to the near constant threat of erasure that they enforce on these geoglyphs. The situation is quite brittle if one takes the time and effort to really understand it. The preservation of the Nazca Lines are continuously threatened primarily due to human-made accidents and natural disasters. The Nazca Desert displays some of the amazing long-lasting evidence of the beautiful Latinx culture that the South American cannot afford to lose. It is tragic but the Nazca Lines are some of the minimum shows of proof that South American cultures have left of their rich ancestry. The truth is, however, that the preservation of these lines is actually quite precarious. This is due to the fact that the primary force that has been preserving these lines for these decades is the sheer dryness, heat and wind force within the desert along with the composition of the soil. The following discussion addresses the horrifying threats and destruction that is endangering the preservation of these lines, as well as the recent conservation efforts made by scientists over the years. 137 The Desert Biome 2017 40 Chapter 5 The threats to this delightful masterpiece are unfortunately many, as these are very basic and fragile drawings that were made into the loose top area of the desert. One simple overtly large rainstorm could potentially wipe the drawings out. There is also a constant threat of flooding as many areas around the world are being flooded as well. Mudslides as well as strong concentration of rain could have destroyed these drawings but they ultimately escaped drastic harm.138 These are natural threats of erosion, defined as the gradual destruction of something by natural forces (such as water, wind, or ice) by the Marriam Webster dictionary.139 Erosion mainly occurs when rocks or other rock-like sediments are carried to another location by water, winds, or ice. The main concern for the Nazca Desert is erosion by water or wind as the drawings can be easily erased as a result of a natural downpour of wind or rain. The lines are also worryingly close to bodies of water, such as streams and rivers. Quite recently, as within the past few decades, there were a large number of industrial companies that located themselves extremely close to the Nazca Lines, the residue waste materials from these companies flow are released into the rivers and streams.140 As a result of industrial companies there has been an increase of erosion in this area. The water from the streams and rivers within the desert region could potentially wipe these lines out. These lines, as stated in previous chapters, are extremely shallow, being only 20-30 cm deep. The Geoglyphs could be easily eroded away. Humans can be, at times, quite destructive, although most times human beings are attempting to improve the status of a certain situation. Throughout the historical timeline they have, accidentally, at times caused more harm than good. As a result of this many organisms have suffered at the hands of human caused destruction. Since humans have arrived, ninety-nine percent of the animal population went extinct. According to NBC News, humans have single-handedly driven at least 680 species to extinction.141 This could be through destruction of habitat, 138 Environmental Dangers to Integrity of Nazca Lines - Science in the Sand n.d. 139 Definition of EROSION n.d. 140 Environmental Dangers to Integrity of Nazca Lines - Science in the Sand n.d. 141 Chow 2019 41 The Nazca Lines hunting, science, etc. Along with the many organisms that have gone extinct, thousands of ancient, human-made arts in the world have been demolished. An example of this would be the great library in Alexandria, which was said to have been destroyed in 68 B.C. as a dire consequence of the conquest of Egypt conducted by Julius Caesar.142 Therefore, it should not come as a surprise that history may repeat itself in the case of the beautiful lines of Nazca. There are two major instances of human made error and destruction in regards to the Nazca Lines. Many other examples of the small and slowly building human constructed destruction such as the buildings being built on the outskirts of the Nazca Line zone, are omitted from this discussion, but are prevalent. In 2014, the environmental activists at the organization Greenpeace, planned to post a banner next to the gorgeous geoglyphs.143 The banner would proclaim ‘Time for Change, the Future is Renewable, Greenpeace’ as an encouragement for United Nations negotiators meeting in Lima, Peru to address climate change. The original intention of this protest was to honour the legacy of the Nazca people and how they would respect the environment. The 20 activists involved, unfortunately, unrolled the banner extensively close to the geoglyphs. As a result, they left their footprints on the geoglyph site which is increasingly fragile and requires special footwear for even ministers to tread across.144 Another incident occurred in 2018, when a truck driver ignored all of the warning signs and road signals from UNESCO, veered off the original road and drove his vehicle into one of the biggest geoglyphs.145 There are currently tire marks on approximately 150 by 350 feet of these geoglyphs highlighting the unacceptable quantity of damage that was caused to this beautiful site.146 Recent Measures Taken and Need for Preservation Environmental scientists, and engineers have been attempting, for years, 142 The Burning of the Library of Alexandria | EHISTORY n.d. 143 McGrath 2014 144 McGrath 2014 145 “A Truck Driver Inexplicably Plowed over a 2,000-Year-Old Site in Peru, Damaging the Designs” n.d. 146 “A Truck Driver Inexplicably Plowed over a 2,000-Year-Old Site in Peru, Damaging the Designs” n.d. 42 Chapter 5 to draw attention to the mineral composition of the sand in the Nazca desert to learn more on how the drawings were preserved for such an extensive amount of time. Scientists of different fields have been attempting to make others acknowledge the enormous contributions of these lines to South American heritage and culture. Though these efforts are impressive and, due to scientists like this, the world has come this far in preserving many of the art pieces displayed today. Unfortunately, the government still has not added extra measures to protect these geoglyphs. There needs to be more attention paid to these 2,000 year old drawings that contribute such a substantial amount to South American culture and art. Conclusion The preservation of the lines is largely owed to the environmental pressures and general human ignorance of the desert. However, as the population grows larger and the distance between general human residence and the site of the geoglyphs grows smaller, the Peruvian Government needs to decide on how to effectively defend these geoglyphs from outside damage. 43 44 6 THE NAZCA LINES TODAY: IMPACT ON TOURISM, CULTURE AND THE ARTS Written By: Mical Habtemikael The modern day inhabitants of the Nazca region have their ancestors to thank for a lot of the cultural norms they indulge in. Regionally, their influence has expanded from their initial cultural production in 650 A.D. into the Cañete Valley in the north to the valleys of Ocoña, Camaná, and Sihuas in the Department of Arequipa to the south.147 The aboriginal people who inhabit the Andean regions of Peru, however, are fighting the perception of insurmountable poverty, bleak unproductive mountains and vulnerable circumstances.148 To this point, one of the largest factors that affects the shaping of the Nazca region is first and foremost their geography. The coastal plains of the Nazca require the people to come up with creative ways to acquire and store water. As such their agricultural practices reflect the realities of their climate and access to fundamental resources. As for their religious beliefs and practices, Nazca artifacts evidence a belief system heavily connected to the natural world. The beliefs Nazca inhabitants have in natural spirits are heavily related to their existence 147 Cartwright 201 148 Murra 2017 45 The Nazca Lines and subsistence.149 Interestingly enough, certain hallucination inducing plants were used to connect shamans to these spirits and act as an intermediary.150 As per UNESCO, the ancient inhabitants of the Nazca line regions are believed to have drawn such large scale zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figures, lines or sweeps to uphold highly regarded social and cultural rituals.151 Their attention to detail translated to a level of geometric precision that is reflected in the highly symbolic, ritual and social cultural landscape remaining today. These designs are believed specifically to have been performed for astronomical rituals but this has yet to be contended with. This heightened awareness of the environment also has economic and political implications in that modern day Nazca inhabitants covet a more environmentally conscious approach. This intimate knowledge of their environmental conditions has evoked a desire to minimize risks and decentralize their sort of state structure.152 With the historical development of desert-and-highland agriculture, different Andean ecological pockets have to contend with more of a survivalist atmosphere rather than one of economic prosperity.153 Art The lines that create the shape of the Nazca Lines or geoglyphs are referred to as Labyrinths. Labyrinths are considered sacred symbols in several ancient civilizations, such as ancient India, Egypt, Scandinavia and France to name a few.154 The earliest labyrinths are estimated to have been built in 550 B.C. In comparison, the Nazca Lines are thought to have been built between 200 B.C. to 600 A.D. The Nazca Lines are often very large and walkable in size in addition to having a central location for a person to enter and exit. In terms of the specific design of the Nazca Lines, a vast majority of them 149 Proulx 2010 150 Cartwright 2014 151 Rosenberg 2018 152 Proulx 2010 153 Murra 2017 154 Aveni 2000 46 Chapter 6 are simple straight lines that run parallel, intersect or converge with one another.155 Because of the limited rainfall in southern Peru and particularly the desert-like nature of the Nazca area in question, the ancient Nazca people would have been concerned over their freshwater supply. It is believed that these same skills are put to use into the production of their aqueduct systems called puquios.156 Thus allowing them to carry water from underground reservoirs for storage and supply water to their crops. Because of this skillset, the people of Nazca were able to grow a number of crops including corn, beans and squash.157 The series of drawings include images of a monkey, whale, condor, spider, dogs and more but one of the most notable images is the hummingbird. It is approximately 300 feet long and is a rendition of a miniature bird with outstretched wings, a tail and a long beak.158 Nazca art, which includes pottery and textiles, focuses on using iconography and symbolism that portrays a variety of natural and supernatural elements. From fauna plants to scenes of subsistence to deities and other supernatural beings, the Nazca people utilized art and their worldly creations to depict their daily lives.159 In fact, their dire need for a consistent access to water made it vital to reflect that in their art and even made its way into the execution of an intensive irrigation system they developed to sustain their agricultural practices and feed their local population. Archaeologists initially thought it was impossible to create such designs without the type of technology that exists today but quickly realized that it could have been accomplished through the use of a pulley system and a large labour force.160 It is estimated that the Nazca people employed a large set of strings and ropes of various lengths to measure the lines, which contributes to why they are as precise as they look today. One of the most interesting features of the Nazca lines is the ability of the ancient peoples to parallel lines that never cross or touch each other, meaning 155 The British Museum Press 2000 156 Clarkson et al. 2014 157 Cartwright 2014 158 Reinhard 201 159 Proulx 2010 160 The British Museum Press 2000 47 The Nazca Lines that if one of the lines another it becomes a path to the centre point. The intricacies of the animal figures depicted by the Nazca lines emphasize the directional capabilities of the ancient peoples and their ability to pursue pilgrimages with success. In fact, archeologists have discovered food and pottery fragments around the perimeter of the lines which indicates frequent human visitation. Nazca pottery and ceramic art mirrors a lot of the design sensibilities reflected in the Nazca Lines. One notable piece that was recovered, Figure with Human Heads, consists of a male with his arms at his sides and a nose that is modelled in three dimensions. His facial features are painted with a head cloth over his hair and a black and white motif tunic. His tunic is monochromatic so as to add visual impact and further emphasize the design. The border of this ceramic piece is decorated with repeated abstract heads with their eyes closed and loose hair. It is believed that this is a representation of a ritual that promotes fertility.161 The Figure with Human Heads piece is currently housed at the Dallas Museum of Arts and was found in 450-650 C.E. This style of ceramic is referred to as “trophy heads”, and archaeologists believe that its purpose is to create a connection between the Nazca people and their ancestors. The use of trophy heads can sometimes indicate the existence or premeditation of warfare.162 Another residual impact of the earlier Nazca design strategies are the introduction and utilization of abstract approaches to art. This is especially interesting because the Nazca people experimented with alternative shapes and structures that would not become popularized in art until the 20th century.163 Their artistic sensibilities are reflected in the way that they have chosen to permeate their art into the landscape of southern Peru and have left a long-lasting mark on the artistic lineage of pre-Colombian Andes.164 Another reflection of these leanings is the Double spout and bridge pottery vessel with a bird deity, estimated to have been created between 200 161 Stone-Miller 1995 162 Atkinson et al. 2018 163 Stone-Miller 1995 164 Proulx 2010 163 Stone-Miller 1995 164 Proulx 2010 48 Chapter 6 B.C.E. - 600 C.E. It is essentially a jar that depicts the flight of a bird with a human face and the bird appears to be holding the head of a human as a trophy.165 What is known about Nazca symbolisms denotes a ritual beheading which is a common practise in the Andes region. Birds depicted in Nazca art can often be identified as particular species. This reverence for birds still exists in the Andean region to this day, with many residents in the modern-day towns that make up that region still associating birds such as pelicans and herons as manifestations of mountain deities or as signs of impending rainfall.166 But some representations like the one in the jug display anthropomorphic elements while others display more naturalistic depictions of subjects.167 In addition to this, the utilization of a variety of colours is another way that Nazca people have passed down their artists’ leanings as they are one of the only cultures in the Americas to use a diverse amount of colours before European contact.168 A lot of the Nazca region ceramic art also has a utility, many of which served as dish ware. Everything from bowls to dishes to vases or vessels were moulded from animals or edible plants. The early phases of these vessels were created in three colours: black, brown and white, but this range of colours expanded to include around 10 in the latter years.169 These vessels were made through a very progressive technique of coiling, which requires wounding the length of a material in a joined sequence of concentric rings. The items were then fired and burnished to give it the sort of finish that exists with many ceramics we see today. But this method of production is still quite unique to the modern-day Andean region. Tourism After the oil and mining industry, tourism is Peru’s third biggest industry. Peru is home to South America’s most important and mysterious archeological sites. While people often associate the terrain of Peru as vast and Amazonian, the lost city of Machu Picchu and the snow-capped 165 Stone-Miller 1995 166 Atkinson et al. 2018 167 Rogers 2017 168 Rogers 2017 169 Stone-Miller 1995 49 The Nazca Lines mountains of the Cordillera Blanca are some of the most well-known associations.170 Another such example is UNESCO World Heritage protected Nazca Lines.171 Hence why Peru’s most popular visitors come from the United Kingdom, Brazil and Argentina. Further, there has beens an increase in visitors of about 25000 people since 2002.172 But with such great beauty and historical value comes a great threat to the environmental and cultural structures. Ecotourism is a branch of tourism that is intended to have sustainability at its base.173 Oftentimes these ventures have to critically examine the economic, anthropological, social and biological factors that exist in any given environment. This is especially the case in countries that are a part of the global south where ecotourism has development implications. Some developing regions with dense populations promote independent tourism travels, wherein ecotourists have the option to choose amongst different providers who have to adhere to regional infrastructure guidelines and resource availability. Because of the tight-knit regional similarities and tourist structures, many of these independent ventures benefit from cross-promotion. Recent tourism campaigns have focused on the country’s archeological sites as a result of growing trends in travel towards eco-sustainability. This broad awareness of the terrain of Peru has resulted in an emphasis on the country’s gastronomy and soft-adventure itineraries in the Amazonian regions.174 Because of the superficiality of the Nazca lines, many conservationists and locals are concerned about the threats of pollution and erosion caused by deforestation in the region.175 Now while the lines only receive a small amount of rain, preservationists feel that many of the climactic changes occurring across the globe. After experiencing a plethora of mudslides in the area in 2007, Peru’s National Institute of Culture 170 Atkinson et al. 2018 171 Meghji 2004 172 Atkinson et al. 2018 173 Doan 2013 174 Atkinson et al. 201 175 Taj 2012 50 Chapter 6 teamed up with archeological specialists to survey the area.176 Now while the mudslides did not affect the lines in particular, it did damage a nearby highway which is a reminder of the Nazca lines’ fragility. Nearby iron mines and the increase in tourist vehicles that produce a large amount of pollution and dust that are cause for concern. The Maria Reiche centre has actually stated that international intervention is necessary to protect the lines and enforce a local irrigation system.177 In fact, Maria Reiche questions whether or not the Ministry of Culture is willing to make a shift in their attitude towards a more conservationist approach, she states, “The question is not if the Nazca Lines can be repaired. The question is can the Ministry of Culture and all the other authorities be repaired?”.178 Due to the high coverage of political instability within the government and a plethora of kidnapping reporting and government corruption scandals it is hard for first-time tourists to trust in the country’s safety.179 That said, increased tourism comes from an increase in security investments on behalf of the Peruvian government. In response, tourist areas such as Lima’s Miraflores district are seeing an increased police presence.180 Currently, the local Nazca government has two government archeologists on retainer to protect the line with no access to a vehicle. Additionally, there has been a lot of controversy over the attempts of other activists to advocate for renewable energy such as the case of Greenpeace activists who inadvertently damaged the site in 2014 and were consequently fined for the damage.181 As part of their protest, they emblazoned “Time for Change! The future is renewable” next to the Hummingbird geoglyph causing permanent damage to it. One such activist, Wolfgang Sadik, was also eventually convicted to a three year and four month sus- 176 Living in Peru 2007 177 Meghji 2004 178 Meghji 2004 179 Atkinson et al. 2018 180 Atkinson et al. 2018 181 The Santiago Times 2017 51 The Nazca Lines pended prison sentence and fined $198, 170 USD for the damages.182 Prior to this incident, the geoglyphs were also damaged due to off-road vehicles that participated in a nearby rally. Another example is international coverage of the Minister of Culture’s report that Jainer Jesus Flores Vigo was arrested for errantly driving through and damaging three geoglyphs.183 The Ministry of Culture currently only monitors the larger geoglyphs but spokesman Johnny Isla has said that the geoglyphs may never be fully protected due to potential access through valleys and streams.184 In summary, inhabitants of the coastal Andean region of Peru have gained and sustained much of their ancestral cultural heritage. This preservation is exemplified by many of the existing artistic and cultural touchstones that exist within them today. With the growing surge of ecotourism within the Global South they are able to mitigate much of the damaging effects of tourism into their region. This very much aligns with their regional political and economic leanings. However, in thinking of the sort of protections available via the Peruvian government, there seems to be a growing gap between their willingness and ability to safeguard the national treasure that is the Nazca lines. 182 The Santiago Times 2017 183 Rosenberg 2018 184 Rosenberg 2018 52 7 THE NAZCA LINES IN POPULAR CULTURE Written By: Michael Tang What is Popular Culture and its Significance? Popular culture, sometimes referred to as “pop” culture, includes all aspects of modern society that are widely popularized and accepted by most, if not all members of society. In other words, popular culture is the common culture shared by people living together in a particular society, and this common culture encompasses various elements such as popular literature, video games and movies.185 Thus, certain industries and businesses (such as fashion and entertainment) can also be considered a part of popular culture. These industries often depend on either their own popularity within popular culture or the use of other elements within popular culture to attract consumers. While all elements within popular culture are universally favoured by (at least) the majority of the particular society, some brands, objects and people can become so popular and accepted that they achieve a pop “icon” status.186 Due to their popularity and fame, pop icons can become defining characteristics of a particular society or era. Due to its widespread nature, popular culture has a huge impact on society and is an important topic of study. In terms of its impact on society, 185 Delaney 2007 186 Delaney 2007 53 The Nazca Lines popular culture allows for a sense of collectivity or cohesion in heterogeneous societies and outlines acceptable behaviours and ideals.187 Popular culture can provide a foundation for a collective sense of identity that brings people together within a larger society. As such, it is consumed or followed by most, if not all members of a society to conform to that society and to gain prestige or acceptance within a peer group or social structure.188 Popular culture can also be used to measure or estimate the fame and approval/disapproval of a particular object, person, concept or behaviour. While the Nazca Lines may not be considered a pop icon, it is often featured in various elements of pop culture (such as in video games and movies), which demonstrates its popularity and appeal to society in terms of its historical, cultural and archaeological importance. Perceptions of the Nazca Lines in Popular Culture and its Impact The Nazca Lines are relatively respected and popular throughout the world as evidenced by its designation as an UNESCO World Heritage Site, its impact on tourism and the large amount of interest and effort in uncovering the mysteries behind its creation and purpose. As such, the Nazca Lines have been featured in various components of popular culture ranging from books to video games. There are three main purposes that the Nazca Lines appear to be used for. First, the Lines are often used as a reference to a significant historical, archaeological and cultural structure to add realism in fictional forms of literature and entertainment such as novels and video games. Second, the Lines are featured as a topic of discussion or interest in educational movies, documentaries and shows to assist in education in subjects ranging from history to archaeology. Third, the Lines are used as inspiration for art and artistic designs for fashion and other merchandise. The remainder of this chapter will discuss several examples of references to the Nazca Lines in popular culture and what the purpose of these inclusions could be. However, it is important to note that there may be misinformation or conspiracy theories involving the Nazca Lines in popular culture and discourse due to its mysterious nature and uniqueness. 187 Delaney 2007 188 Delaney 2007 54 Chapter 7 The Nazca Lines in Movies and Documentaries The Nazca Lines have been featured in certain movies that focus on the exploration of ancient ruins and cities in the search of treasures and ancient artifacts. One such example is Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, the fourth movie in the Indiana Jones movie franchise.189 The film was released in 2008 and focuses on the struggle to obtain a powerful artifact known as the Crystal Skull of Akator or “El Dorado” between the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold War. The titular character, Indiana Jones, becomes involved in this struggle and he and his companions travel to Nazca, Peru as part of their search. One of the clues that Indiana Jones uses during his search is the Nazca Lines, and he refers to the Lines as “the lines that only God can read”.190 Indiana Jones also refers to a book (that is completely fictional or only exists in the movie) titled Mirror of the Gods: Ancient Astronomy and Celestial Navigation in deciphering the Nazca Lines.191 These could be references to two of the many hypotheses regarding the purpose of the Nazca Lines: that the Lines were meant to serve as messages to gods in the sky and that the Lines were created to act as an observatory or tool for astronomy and cosmology. In addition, some of the Nazca Lines depicted in the movie were based upon real-life Nazca Lines, likely contributing to the film’s perceived realism of the film and historical “authenticity”. The inclusion of real-life historical, cultural and archaeological structures and artifacts such as the Nazca Lines could also serve to attract fans or consumers who are interested in those subjects or those who enjoy experiencing a blend of realism and fiction. Overall, the inclusion of the Nazca Lines in Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull would likely further contribute to the overall element of historical and archaeological realism in the Indiana Jones franchise. Next, the Nazca Lines have been featured in various documentaries and episodes of series that focus on historical, archaeological and cultural objects and structures. These documentaries and episodes usually cover everything from the historical and cultural context or background behind the Lines to the current mysteries surrounding them. Some examples of 189 Spielberg 2008 190 Spielberg 2008 191 Spielberg 2008 55 The Nazca Lines stand-alone documentaries on the Nazca Lines include Nasca Lines Decoded (released in 2009 by National Geographic) and Nasca Lines: The Buried Secrets (directed by Philip Day and released in 2010). Finally, the Nazca Lines have been featured in episodes of documentary series such as in Secrets of the Nazca Lines (released on March 21st, 2005 as Episode 10 of Season 2 of the Digging for the Truth TV series created by the History Channel) and Nazca Lines and Portals (released on February 15th, 2021 as Episode 6 of Season 3 of the Ancient Civilizations TV series). Overall, the very existence of these educational documentaries shows curiosity and interest in the Nazca Lines among the general public and contributes to historical, cultural and archaeological education. The Nazca Lines in Cartoons and Anime The Nazca Lines have been featured in various cartoons and anime (a term often used outside of Japan to refer to all Japanese animations), often for the purpose of providing a sense of realism or historical “authenticity” or for aesthetic or artistic purposes. One example of the inclusion of the Nazca Lines into an education cartoon is in Season 1, Episode 19 of The Mysterious Cities of Gold, a French-Japanese animated series that focuses on the voyage of a young boy named Esteban to the New World (the Americas) during the Discovery Age to search for his father. Esteban journeys to the New World and he and his companions encounter ancient South American civilizations such as the Inca and Maya and explore ancient structures such as the Nazca Lines. In Episode 19, Esteban and his companions investigate Nazca Lines that resemble a condor in the Nazca plateau.192 The location of the Nazca lines in this episode is relatively accurate and the condor Nazca Line featured in the episode is relatively similar to real-life Nazca Lines that resemble a condor. Overall, the inclusion of the Nazca Lines contributes to the series’ historical and archaeological theme. Yu-Gi-Oh! 5D’s is a spinoff of the Yu-Gi-Oh! multimedia franchise that includes several manga (Japanese comics or graphic novels) and anime adaptations or series and is based on a popular trading card game. In particular, the Yu-Gi-Oh! 5D’s anime features several Nazca Lines that were formed when evil entities known as the “Earthbound Immortals” 192 Deyriès and Toriumi 1982 56 Chapter 7 were sealed in the Earth by deities.193 This could be a reference to some hypotheses that the Nazca Lines were created as messages to the gods or for other religious purposes. While the Nazca Lines in Yu-Gi-Oh! 5D’s have a bright purple glow, their actual shapes and overall designs are very similar to real-life Nazca Lines. There are eight Nazca Lines featured in the Yu-Gi-Oh! 5D’s anime: spider, giant, hummingbird, lizard, monkey, killer whale, condor and serpent.194 All seven of them are based on real-life Nazca Line geoglyphs. Overall, the Nazca Lines are used as inspiration or as a model for the designs for several antagonists (in their sealed and unsealed forms) in the Yu-Gi-Oh! 5D’s series and likely contributed to the supernatural or mystical theme or atmosphere of the series. The Nazca Lines in Fiction and Non-Fiction The Nazca Lines have been featured in several fiction novels and series, usually as a historical/archaeological reference for realism. Evil Star (published as The Gatekeepers in the United States) is the second book in the The Power of Five series written by Anthony Horwitz that was published in 2006. In The Power of Five series, the protagonists attempt to stop the opening of gates that would allow demons and other evil entities to enter the human world and must defeat several ancient, evil deities.195 The Nazca Lines were featured in Evil Star as the physical representation of one such gate. The protagonists travel to the Nazca Desert where they encounter the Nazca Lines and realize that the Lines are the second gate. Unfortunately, the Nazca Lines crack open and allow a demon army to enter the human world. The Nazca Lines were also featured in The Night of the Scorpion, another book written by Anthony Horwitz that was published in 1985. Similar to Evil Star, the Nazca Lines were featured as a gateway for demons and other evil entities to enter the human world, and the protagonists must prevent an invasion.196 Overall, the Nazca Lines can be used to add a sense of realism to fictional books focusing on supernatural events and can be used to attract readers who are interested in history and archaeology. Finally, the Nazca Lines have also been featured in many non-fiction books for more educational purposes. Non-fiction 193 Ono 2008 194 Ono 2008 195 Horowitz 2006 196 Horowitz 2006 57 The Nazca Lines books have discussed almost everything about the Nazca Lines, from their discovery to various hypotheses about their purpose(s). Some examples include Mystery of the Nazca Lines (written by Bonnie Hinman and published on December 15th, 2015) and The Mysteries in the Nazca Desert (written by Tom Evans, edited by Paul Kobasa and published on July 1st, 2015). The Nazca Lines in Video Games Similar to movies, historical and archaeological objects such as the Nazca Lines are included in certain games to add a sense of realism or for character and background designs. The Assassin’s Creed video game franchise focuses on the struggle between two organizations that have existed throughout several eras of human history: the Assassins and the Templars. The players play as people who relive the memories of their Assassin ancestors hidden within their genetic memory via special machines. Much of the gameplay is spent on controlling these ancestors and experiencing their story during their lifetime. As such, the settings for much of the gameplay are based on historical and ancient civilizations that are realistic and based on real-life to a certain degree. In Assassin’s Creed II, the protagonist or player is involved in the search for several artifacts known as the “Pieces of Eden”. The protagonist discovers several hidden clues that include several depictions resembling real-life Nazca Lines.197 There are three different Nazca Lines present in the game: a hummingbird, a monkey and a spider.198 Overall, these hidden messages served as hints towards the location of the “Pieces of Eden” and several other historical objects or symbols were included in these messages, such as the Eye of Horus (an ancient Egyptian symbol).199 The creators of the game could have used any kind of symbols for this element (such as creating their own fictional symbols), but chose to use actual historical objects and symbols. This was likely done to contribute to the overall sense of realism or create a blend of reality and fiction within the Assassin’s Creed franchise. The unique blend of science fiction, historical fiction and real-life historical and ancient civilizations, objects and figures is part of the reason why this franchise is relatively popular and it can potentially 197 Ubisoft 2009 198 Ubisoft 2009 199 Ubisoft 2009 58 Chapter 7 be used to attract players/customers who are interested in archaeology and history. Finally, the Nazca lines can also appear in games where they are not programmed into or directly included. There are several open-world or sandbox video games that allow players to build, manipulate and design their environment, ranging from the construction of buildings and structures to moving them around. As the Nazca Lines are at least somewhat wellknown in popular culture, some players have built or designed representations of the Nazca Lines in these games. Stardew Valley is an open-ended RPG (role-playing game) where the player is able to build and design their own farm.200 As the player is free to manipulate their environment, crops and buildings, some players have created representations of Nazca Lines (such as the hummingbird geoglyph) by manipulating the layout of their crops, for example.201 Minecraft is an open-world sandbox game where players can build large and complicated structures (out of various materials such as wood and stone) if they invest enough time.202 Several players have built structures using building materials such as cobblestone that look very similar to real-life Nazca Lines, especially when seen from above. Overall, many players have paid homage to the Nazca Lines in creative games where players are free to build and design their environment. The Nazca Lines in Fashion and Other Merchandise Given the inherent unique and artistic designs of the various Nazca Lines, the Lines have been adapted into or have inspired many forms of fashion and merchandise ranging from clothing to artwork. Products inspired by the Nazca Lines can be seen in various online marketplaces and stores, and can include T-shirts, posters and backpacks. The inherent unique and artistic designs of the Nazca Lines allows for the creation of aesthetically-pleasing products that can be sold to consumers. The inclusion of the Nazca Lines in fashion and merchandise signifies its popularity within popular culture as artists and other creators feel that they can 200 ConcernedApe 2016 201 Bell 2020 202 Mojang 2011 59 The Nazca Lines achieve sales by including the Nazca Lines in their products. In addition, the inclusion of the Lines in popular culture can also reinforce or further increase the popularity of the Nazca Lines as more people who are not aware of the Lines can be exposed to them throughout daily life. The inclusion could also increase the overall positive perceptions and respect or awe towards the Nazca Lines. Overall, the Nazca Lines have a relatively significant impact on various aspects of business and commerce, ranging from fashion to tourism. 60 8 MYSTERIES BEHIND THE NAZCA LINES: UNANSWERED QUESTIONS AND CONSPIRACY THEORIES Written By: Nataliya Raza Introduction From the unique silhouette of an astronaut to the detailed outline of a hummingbird, the formations made by the Nazca lines have raised many questions as to the potential architects of this archeological site. The vivid images made by the lines have many questioning both the origins and the intentions behind the extensive formations. These creations have been conferred many eccentric titles such as alien runways or prehistoric Olympic fields and were believed to be the largest astronomical text on Earth.203 However, some theories have more scientific basis than others, scholars have many unanswered questions in regard to this archaeological site. The lines are often referred to as ‘one of the most impenetrable enigmas in archeology’ by UNESCO due to their distinctive images and their confounding nature.204 The Nazca Lines have brought forth many controversial ideas from various groups internationally in an attempt to justify these peculiar in-ground formations. The Nazca lines also sheds deeper insight into the culture of the Nazca and raises many questions as to the purpose and importance behind each unique shape seen across the 203 Aveni 2006 204 Vergano, 2014 61 The Nazca Lines archeological site. Conspiracy Theories The preliminary concern that is often brought to attention is the method of construction of the Nazca lines. Many scholars are bemused as to how the lines were successfully built without modern-day technology such as cranes and aircrafts. Due to the extensive nature of the geoglyphs, many images stretch out expansively and can only be visualized from the sky. One of the most popular hypotheses has been the belief that the Nazca lines serve as the largest astronomy book known to mankind. The direction and style of the lines are often attributed to the intentional design which is believed to point to astral constellations in the sky. This theory was promulgated by Paul Kosok and Maria Reiche as first alluded to in Chapter 2 and was widespread across the globe mainly due to mass media coverage. The role of mainstream media exposure cannot be undermined in popularly held beliefs by the masses and the Nazca lines is a classic example of this. Due to Reiche’s over exposure on multiple platforms, she was often cited as having a quasi-monopoly on the rhetoric surrounding the Nazca Lines.205 While both Kosok and Reiche’s initial work generated major interest universally and sparked an increase in the tourism of the Nazca Lines, their hypothesis was tested and largely rebuked by scientists. Although astronomy might have been valuable and integral to the Nazca people, there is no association believed to be held between the Nazca Lines and astronomical insights. Despite Reiche’s erroneous speculations, her popularity and ideologies prevailed through her students who continued to further research and expand on her work. Her protégé, Phyllis Pitluga carried forward much of Reiche’s research through her own archeological quests to reframe the Nazca lines with a fresh perspective on the influence astronomy played in the creation of these lines.. As aforementioned, Reiche was one of the most preliminary and popular researchers studying the Nazca Lines in the late 1900s. She had met Pitluga during the latter’s visit to Peru and is believed to have seen a vision wherein Pitluga would be her successor.206 205 Lambers 2004 206 Aveni 2015, 204 62 Chapter 8 Reiche invited Pitluga to study and research as her disciple and within 2 years, Pitluga had begun to expand on her teacher’s findings. She believed that not only did each zigzag and spiral hold immense astrological value but so did each unique biomorph. Pitluga’s emphasis turned to the spider shaped figure which she believed mapped out the constellations with uncanny accuracy. Pitluga is observed to say, ‘The figures (of the spider) so well matched what the stars of Orion were doing as seen from the focal point over a few hundred years’ time, it was strong overwhelming evidence of the relationship of one set of lines to another in terms of dating, showing the kinds of changes that my theodolite [a surveying instrument] and calculations were showing.207 While Pitluga’s work was presented in a most persuasive fashion, her findings were very selective in the areas she chose to focus on. She observed the curious similarities where the spider figurine’s legs cross over to the ray centres in the Orion, however, she noted that the figurine’s legs matched 3 lines in the ray system all whilst completely ignoring the remaining 12 lines that comprise of the total 15 lines in the ray system.208 Pitluga was criticized for arbitrarily choosing specific lines to study with little to no reasoning as to why she had chosen those particular lines. Furthermore, her work often ignored previously established data discovered by other leading archeologists in the area. Ultimately, Pitluga was unable to gain any long-term momentum or acknowledgment due to her selective research which made it difficult to ignore the discrepancies in her theories. Likewise, many individuals besides Reiche and Pitgula were fixated on the concept of the Nazca lines from the perspective of the skies. Jim Woodman, an American explorer, was determined to prove that the Nazca must have used flight as a medium to create the geoglyphs. He theorized that the Nazca civilization developed the ability to fly using hot air balloons. In partnership with a grave robber, he had uncovered artifacts from a Nazca burial ground, wherein he had discovered a depiction of what he thought to be a hot air balloon in the ceramics. He posited that the Nazca must have used artifacts found in the burial site such as woven cloth, which he judged would have been pliable for flight alongside 207 Aveni 2015, 204 208 Aveni 2015, 204 63 The Nazca Lines braided rope to create a balloon type structure to send their deceased up in the sky. Woodman’s theory was inspired by the International Explorers Society’s (IES) belief that early Peruvians had aspired for flight as a means to reach divine beings above in the sky; these hot air balloons were dubbed the ‘chariots of the Gods.’209 Woodman was intent on proving his theory and with the assistance of British Ballooning expert, Julian Nott set out to build a model using material that would have been readily available to the Nazca at that time. In 1975, Nott and Woodman successfully created a balloon using a similar type of cotton fabric found in the burial sites and a woven basket found from the types of local braided ropes. The pair fashioned the natively sourced items to create a working hot air balloon and filled it with smoke to propel it in the sky. The apparatus was successful in achieving a brief flight wherein it was 300 feet above the ground for a number of minutes. While the journey in the sky was short lived, Woodman believed that it was sufficient evidence to corroborate his hypothesis. The relative success of the Condor I demonstrated that the Nazca potentially could have traversed the sky in order to construct the modern-day Nazca geoglyphs. He noted down his journey and success in building a flight-able contraption in his book, Nazca Journey to the Sun in 1977. However, his theories were largely debunked as most scholars found Woodman’s hypothesis to be unsubstantiated and incohesive. One historian who was particularly opposed to Woodman’s theories wrote a paper to outline the inconsistencies and the misinformation put forth by him. Historian Katherine Reeve authored the paper, ‘Grounding the Nazca Balloon,’ in which she expounded on the inaccuracies across Woodman’s experiment. Firstly, she debunked his belief that if the Nazca created the lines for the Gods above, why would they need to witness the formations themselves.210 It would not be reasonable for the Nazca to take such painstaking efforts to curate unique figures which they could never witness. Secondly, Reeve argued that Woodman’s understanding of the local geological background was also flawed. She underscored how the Nazca lines can be directly seen on the surrounding foothills in the region, providing the Nazca with a clear overview of their geoglyphs.211 She purported that the Nazca had clear views of the geoglyphs once they 209 Flood 2008 210 Zieber 2018 211 Zieber 2018 64 Chapter 8 reached the summit of the nearby hills, wherein they could direct, alter and erase any formation of their choice. Although Woodman’s work did not aid in furthering the history and knowledge surrounding the Nazca Lines, his work was not entirely in vain. Nott believed that their airborne journey had provided more than adequate insight about ancient history and upheld philosophical implications for other ancient civilizations as well. He was resolute that while the Nazca had not used flight as a means to create or view their unique icons, they certainly could have if they had desired. Nott believed if he could successfully create an airborne apparatus using 1000-year-old technology, it was possible that the Egyptians, the Vikings, the Romans and any other civilization had the capacity as well.212 Unanswered Questions The Nazca Lines can be more thoroughly understood with historical background of the culture prevalent during that specific time as well as the influence of neighbouring civilizations. The Paracas culture is often believed to have been one of the greatest influences on the Nazca. However, the Paracas impressed more than culture and religion upon the Nazca people, the Paracas were also noted to have created the geoglyphs in the Palpa region, known as the Palpa glyphs. The Palpa glyphs are denser in concentration but have been observed to use more trapezoids and fewer drawings than the images on the Nazca lines.213 The Palpa glyphs are less detailed and adhere to more elementary forms of illustration such as spirals, zigzags and loops. Scientists believe that the Palpa glyphs represent the iconography and themes present in the Paracas culture. It was hypothesized that these particular geoglyphs aimed to increase efficiency by routing the most accessible and least difficult pathways for the Paracas by outlining the routes further away from the margins of the valley and expanding to the margins of other regions close by. The Palpa glyphs are often criticized for being ignored by scientists despite upholding equal historical value as the Nazca lines. The Nazca-Palpa project was commissioned in 1997 to address this widening gap in knowledge between the geoglyphs of the broader Palpa area as well as to further examine the 212 Nott 2019 213 Aveni 2006 65 The Nazca Lines Nazca culture. The Palpa lines had been relatively unexplored and comparative to the Nazca Lines had been rarely reported on. Hence, there has been a recent movement to research both regional geoglyphs to gain a deeper understanding of Andean culture as well as to gain deeper archeological insight. The collective cataloguing of the geoglyphs has resulted in a classification method that allows scientists to better analyze and label geoglyphs using the motifs seen across the iconography of the broader Andean culture. One method wherein motifs are often depicted are on ceramics and textiles, these motifs are compared with the depictions seen across the geoglyphs. However, most iconography used in both the Nazca lines and the Palpa glyphs do not match most of the motifs found across other Andean artifacts with the exception of biomorphic figures. Biomorphic figures portray the head and body of an individual whether real or fictional and often provide background as to the culture and norms of the individual. Many biomorphic figures displayed in Nazca-Palpa artifacts are observed to have headdresses or objects held in their hands.214 The first geoglyphs of the area are believed to be anthropomorphic figures which have been found on both textiles and ceramics in the Palpa region as well. The first figure is ascribed as being either a whale or a bird type figure. The image of the whale is generally largely upheld by the archeological community due to the recurring motif of the Mythical Killer Whale often modeled across other artifacts found in the area.215 Moreover, the ambiguity in geoglyph interpretation poses a conundrum to the scientific community and impedes their ability to successfully trace back the original icon and its implications. The field of stratigraphy demonstrates the difficulty that alterations in rock formation may impose on the successful interpretation of geoglyphs. Research by stratigraphists reveals that older geoglyphs were often incorporated into newer or larger ones so modern-day geoglyphs were often the consequence of two or more former geoglyphs or possibly a geoglyph that was partially expunged and then redrawn. Due to this erratic nature of development and the physical decay of certain geoglyphs, certain motifs were more likely 214 Lambers 2004 215 Lambers 2004 66 Chapter 8 to be depicted across the Nazca-Palpa areas such as straight lines, spirals and the most noteworthy and widespread, the trapezoid geoglyph. The recurring use of trapezoid in both areas upholds deeper implications and begs the question as to why the trapezoid was so important. The trapezoid is frequently thought to be an icon that relays geographical information. A major theory contends that the purpose of the Nazca lines was to serve as a map for the Nazca indicating areas with an absence or presence of water. Zigzag lines would signify lack of water while trapezoids were utilized to map out water flow nearby.216 Many lines found across the northern Nazca lines are directly connected to the local rivers and streams that would renew periodically. However, these symbols would often occur concurrently, so a trapezoid with a zigzag below it might imply a contradiction or perhaps refer to something entirely different. While the exact meaning of the symbols is not entirely known today, most evidence points to the fact that the geoglyphs used in the Nazca lines and the broader region were used to signify concepts of water and fertility.217 The association between water flow and geoglyphic iconography is one of the more widely proven theories today. Many scholars believe there’s a strong association between the Nazca Lines and the irrigation systems used by the Nazca as previously mentioned in other chapters. This association between water, pertaining to the direction of flow and availability, continues to be one of the most persistent reasoning attributed to the Nazca lines today. Researchers are continuously striving to decode these geoglyphs to determine what can be learned from the Nazca and about the Nazca. Conclusion The Nazca Lines have been largely understood through various scientific breakthroughs and modern theories yet the extensive and distinct patterns continue to puzzle tourists, archeologists and historians alike. The geoglyphs uphold countless associations with each zigzag and spiral possibly serving as multiple meanings. The true intentions behind each formation cannot be entirely known but it serves as a reminder of the intellect, grit and power of its creators and upholds great significance in many fields of knowledge. The unique iconography and the sheer arche216 Lambers 2004 217 Lambers 2004 67 The Nazca Lines ological preservation of this site makes it a popular site to study, examine and explore by all people from various walks of life. 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