A ISH A A L-OWA IS -฀REH A N GEL A NI AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM GRADUATE STUDENT FORUM 108 Volume 13 • Issue 2 • July 2020 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION 109 AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM A ISH A A L-OWA IS -฀REH A N GEL A NI AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM AISHA AL-OWAIS* REHAN GELANI** ABSTRACT The mânâ-i harfî approach, established by Bediuzzaman Said Nursi in the 20th century, is a concept that perceives the beings from a holistic perspective, and acknowledges the Almighty to be the cause behind everything in the universe, leaving out the secular trio; cause, nature and chance. Omar Khayyam, used this approach along with the Ash’arites school of thought and that of Avicenna’s. Therefore, he developed his own understanding of the being. He perceived this universe as a body united by the Almighty’s soul. He used himself as an identifier pointing to the others and identified God in every single being. Khayyam developed his own mana-i harfi approach using his poetic language, which not many were able to understand and hence labeled him as a heretic. His other works, however, reflected a clearer mânâ-i harfî approach and a holistic worldview. Additionally, the thoughts of Khayyam were similar in some aspects with Nursi’s thoughts, especially when one looks at how each of them utilized the six pillars of a Tawhidi worldview in their writings. Keywords: Omar Khayyam, Said Nursi, Mânâ-i harfî, mana-i ismi. * University of Sharjah, Department of History and Islamic Civilization, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. ** The University of Lahore, Department of Islamic Studies, Pakistan. 110 Volume 13 • Issue 2 • July 2020 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION 111 A ISH A A L-OWA IS -฀REH A N GEL A NI AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM The literal (mânâ-i ismî) and letteral (mânâ-i harfî) meaning paradigms are based on and an orientalist, lists several westerners and Muslims who have cited Khayyām in their the writings of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi (1878-1960) who is one of the reformists or mujaddid works. He begins with Ali bin Mahmud Al-Husaini who mentioned Khayyām in his Tazkirah of the 20 century (Turner & Horkuc, 2009, 2). In his exegesis of Quran Risale-i Nur, he titled as the Bazmarai (1592) where he showed how Khayyām was excellent in mathematics discusses these two approaches along with the concept of Ëne or the transcendental “I” which and brilliant in poetry; he cited Omar’s qit’a which was a dialogue between him and reason. he believes is the key to human experience and understanding of the phenomenal world and Beveridge then goes on to refer to the Tazkirah written by Mir Husain Dost Shambali around beyond (Aydin, 2019, 11). Bediuzzaman believed that a path of scientific knowledge leads to 1750 who included biographies of Imams and poets in his treatise. In the westerner world knowing God (ma’rifatullah), yet in order to achieve that he first attempted to filter out secular however, Beveridge believes that Thomas Hyde (1636-1703) was the first European to study ideologies from science by applying the mânâ-i harfî approach. Omar Khayyām and quote one of his quatrains. After Hyde, Mountstuart Elphinstone is th The letteral approach is a paradigm through which one looks at the world from a holistic worldview and views beings as manifestations of God’s creation (Aydin, 2019, 11). thought to have been the second westerner to mention Khayyām as “Kheioom” a Persian poet who dwelled on the existence of evil in his writings. Such worldview, unlike the secular one, implies that God is the cause of everything in this Ahmad Rami (2000), an author who studied the Persian language in the University of universe, nature or chance is not. It views beings as letters that point to others which we Sorbonne, Paris, has published his first translation of Khayyām’s quatrains in Arabic in 1923 read as signs of God, hence the word “letteral” (Nursi, 2012, 12). This approach means to see after comparing between all the copies he collected from London, Paris, Berlin and Cairo. the Almighty in every single creation and behind every cause as a real doer fa’il-i-Haqiqi. He began his book by introducing Omar Khayyām and quoting Muslim historians who have Opposing this approach is the literal approach which is a self-referential method that views mentioned Khayyām in their works. He cited Nizami Samarqandi, whose work is considered beings disconnected from God, hence not having a transcendental truth that connects them to be the earliest Muslim work to have mentioned Omar Khayyām in his Jahar Maqala (1155) to the universe and God. Furthermore, there are six pillars that make up a holistic worldview where he mentioned in it some biographical information about the poet. Rami also quoted which are phenomenology, ontology, epistemology, teleology, anthropology and axiology Shams Al-Din Al-Shahrazuri in his “Nuzhat Al-Arwah” (1203) who briefly mentioned some of (Aydin, 2019, 101). Omar’s works such as “Risala fil Wujud” and “Risala fil Kawn wa’l Taklif ”, and some anecdotes Omar Khayyam, a Muslim mathematician, astronomer, philosopher and a poet from the from Omar’s life. Ibn Al-Qufti is also referred to as one of the earliest people who spoke of 11 century, has composed several works in the mentioned fields. As an individual with an Khayyām in 1242 in his Tareekh Al-Hukama’. Rami also cited Ibn al-Athir’s mention of Omar Islamic worldview, the mânâ-i harfî perspective in his thoughts was clearly reflected in some in his Al-Kamil fi al-Tareekh (1230), and al-Qazwini’s book ‘Athar Al-Bilad wa Akhbar Al-‘Ibad of his works. Moreover, the six pillars of a holistic worldview were also found in some of his (1275) Moreover, Rami went over the time of Khayyām, how he lived his life and finally gave a writings which showed his usage of the tawhidi self-referential dictionary which uses words brief description of Khayyām’s quatrains and the quatrains themselves. th that describe the acts of God in everything (Aydin, 2019, 98). Dashti (2011), in his In Search of Omar Khayyām, investigates several aspects of Omar’s intellectual life. He first introduces him as a poet and how he is seen by his contemporaries, then explains his spiritual aspect as a Sufi and goes on to explain his relation with Ismailism. I. LITERATURE REVIEW Moreover, he further explores Khayyām’s quatrains, his literary style and the use of symbolism in it as well as Khayyām’s imitators. Research about Omar Khayyām by westerns have been taking place ever since Edward FitzGerald published his first Edition of Khayyām’s quatrains in 1859 (Maine, 1947, 25). However, before FitzGerald there were other orientalists who took interest in Omar and mentioned him in their works. Henry Beveridge (1905), who was an Indian Civil Service officer 112 Volume 13 • Issue 2 • July 2020 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION 113 A ISH A A L-OWA IS -฀REH A N GEL A NI AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM Scientists in this region have benefited greatly from persian and greek works that were II. LIFE ASPECTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM translated into arabic. Al-Hakim Abu’l Hasan Al-Anbari who was Khayyam’s tutor, as well as Al-Kharaqi who had several works in astronomy (Sarton, 1931, 205). Al-Khazani also lived at For understanding of his personality, we will examine several aspects of Omar Khayyām life as social, scientific, political and spiritual, to see how each perspective shaped his character and influenced his ideologies. the time of Khayyam and produced the esteemed Sinjarik Tables in honor of the Sultan Sinjar5. Al-Bayhaqi was also contemporaneous to Omar as he also worked on astronomy. Therefore, it can be seen that there was a scientific community conducting scientific activities which shaped and influenced Khayyām’s general scientific scheme. During his life, he produced works in A. SOCIAL ASPECT Omar Khayyām, whose surname implies that he was involved in the trade of tent-making, has studied a number of different sciences including mathematics, astronomy and philosophy which were based on books like Ptolemy’s Almagest and Avicenna’s works (Khayyām, 1991, many different fields ranging from mathematics and astronomy, to dreams interpretation, philosophy and poetry. C. POLITICAL ASPECT 40). He was also excellent in the Arabic language, jurisprudence and other compulsory Islamic During the upbringing of Khayyām, the Seljuk Sultan Tughril Beg was the ruler of disciplines of his time . When he moved to Isfahan, he was requested by Malik-Shah, the Seljuk Khurasan. His rule shaped an empire which witnessed some religious issues as it aimed to Sultan, to supervise the observatory and to reform the solar calendar used in Iran (Fernini, establish an orthodox Muslime state. The Ash’arite school of thought was prevalent during the 1998, 226). By working for him, Khayyām was highly appreciated by the Sultan which gave time of Khayyām which is why his Ruba’iyyat are considered to be a resistance reaction and an him a higher social status. However, Khayyām seemed to not pursue such a luxurious life, he objection to those who were enemies of rationalism and free-thinking (Aminrazavi, 2012, 39). preferred seclusion to study and pray (Fitzgerald, 1922, 8). Furthermore, philosophy, logic and mathematics were frowned upon in addition to astronomy 1 2 by Muslim scholars like Al-Ghazzali, Al-Nowbakhti and Ahmad ibn Hanbal (Aminrazavi, B. SCIENTIFIC ASPECT Scientific activities were flourishing in the time of Khayyām as they were in the stage of progress as defined by Açikgenç (Açikgenç, 2014, 528). Khayyām was contemporaneous to AlGhazzali,3 Al-Khazini, and Al-Bayhaqi. However, in his mathematical treatise, he complained that not many were interested in knowledge and pursuing it.4 Nevertheless, when he was running the observatory, he had eight astronomers working with, hence partially shaping the scientific community. 1 2 3 4 in his Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra where he explained that there were some issues that hindered him for completely devoting himself for learning, including the mockery raised up by those who used science in a very shallow way, and those who pretend to have knowledge and deceive others. D. SPIRITUAL ASPECT It is narrated in Tarikh al-Hukama that Khayyam was once asked about the interpretation of AlMu’awwidhatan (verses of refuge) by Qazi Abdu-al-Rasheed, Khayyam replied him in a bath placed in Merv and started quoting all popular and interpretations and arguments of these verses. Moreover, scholars of his time were astonished by his knowledge of the Qur’an. Khayyam said to the vizier “The greatest boon you can confer on me is to let me live in a corner under the shadow of your fortune, to spread wide the advantages of Science, and pray for your long life and prosperity.” It is narrated by Ali Rumi in his book Rabi’ Al-Marsoom that Omar was the teacher of Al-Ghazzali in philosophy (Ali, 1593, 13) and Al-Qazwini in his Athar Al-Bilad wa Akbar Al-’Ibad said that there was an event about a Faqih and Khayyam (1960, 475). Other than this only event we did not find anything about the meeting of both scholars. This event is not true because if there is such a thing about Ghazali it cannot remain hidden. Perhaps, he was referring to a certain group of people or those who were at the place where he wrote that treatise. He may be even comparing his time to the 9th century which marked the Golden Age of Islam. 114 2012, 41). Such religio-political circumstances could have been the issues Khayyām mentioned Volume 13 • Issue 2 • July 2020 Khayyām was one of the philosophical mystics, who can be considered as a pioneer of illuminationism or ishraqi philosophy.6 This school faced criticism from other Muslim scholars, mystics, theologians and Sufis, whom Avicenna was among. After 20 years of the death of Khayyām, Shahabuddin Sohrawardi known as Sheikh-i-ishraq, developed the illuminationism. There were two main streams of Tasawwuf in Islam. In Omar’s time the representation of one stream was by Al-Ghazzali, and the other was by Avicenna and other Hukama (philosophers). Khayyām seems to be in between, or at least initially he was following 5 6 He is the son of Malikshah. This school or ideology have probably developed in the minds of Muslim Sufis under greek influence. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION 115 A ISH A A L-OWA IS -฀REH A N GEL A NI AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM the school of Avicenna and other Hukama as we will see in his discourses and debates on the III. MANA-I HARFI IN THE WORKS OF KHAYYAM existence of being; he also has a keen interest in discussing relation between Haq and creation. According to Farīd al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm ʿAṭṭār (1142-1220), Tariqat (Sufism) took The worldview of Omar Khayyam was shaped by the several dimensions of his life as the philosophical ideas or thoughts after a meeting that was between Abu’l-Hasan Karaqānī discussed. However, out of pure interest and curiosity in many different fields, one can see that (963-1036) and Avicenna (Aṭṭār, 2009, 578).7 His literature proves this claim.8 he developed a chosen worldview by which he modified his default worldview.14 In this section, Khayyam followed the path of ishraqi sufis, and later developed his own Sufism thoughts. we will list Khayyām’s works that were available to us and analyze them from a mana-i harfi He was the first renowned Hakim who chose the Quatrains for expressing the ideology, a genre perspective. His treatise on mathematics, dreams interpretation as well as some philosophical specific to the Sufis . As we will examine, his quatrains reached into the khanqahs (monasteries) works and his quatrains will be investigated. In some works, Khayyām have used divine names and have been recited in Majalis (gatherings) of Sima’ (devotional mystic songs). His ideology explicitly through his treatises, and in other works his thoughts implied his knowledge of the is more relevant to the category of sufis which struggled for ma’rifah (cognizance). At the Divine attributes and hence implicitly integrated them. Moreover, the six pillars of the tawhīdī time of his death he was reading Avicenna’s treatise about ma’rifah and he said: “O my Lord worldview in his works will be discussed. 9 you know that I tried, as I have capacity in your Marifah, forgive me because I have only this A. MATHEMATICS ma’rifah as a medium for seeking your forgiveness.”10 His piousness is not for the reward but for divine love (‘ishq-i ilahi).Fear of hell and desire Mathematics, with its numerous branches is an intriguing field of knowledge that almost for heaven, he believes, is only for those who do not have the seed of divine love in their heart all Muslim scholars from the Islamic civilization were involved in it. Acikgenc classifies and who do not know the secrets of the Almighty, he believes.11 It seems that Khayyām, because mathematics under the formal sciences category in the ‘âlam-i Shahâdah, and that is in fact of his wisdom and philosophical discussions about God, fell in to the group of Hukama and what Omar Khayyām’s treatise reflect in his Risāla fil barāhin ‘ala masa’il al-jabr wal muqābala the mystics of illuminationism, as well as he had the spiritual states of divine love which are (Treatise on Demonstration of Problem of Algebra and Al-muqābala)15. He provided new ecstasy, extinction, permanency, intoxication (in light of quatrains) like pure Sufis, who do not methods using geometrical shapes to solve equations with ranks that cannot be solved unless follow any kind of logic or reason and who remain drunk in the love of almighty like Abu al conics were used. By doing so, he introduced a new method of solving equations that were not Hassan Kharaqani12 and Rabia Basri.13 extant before him. Khayyām also has another mathematical work titled as Sharh mā Ushkila min musādarāt kitāb Iqlīdis (Commentary on the difficulties of the postulates on Euclid’s book) and an untitled treatise on a right triangle (Özdural, 1998, 701). 7 ‫تا بعد ازان طریقت (تصوف) بفلسفہ کشید۔‬ 8 The persian text in Kulliyat fil wajood “The whole about being” is as below: ‫ کہ بتصفیہ باطن و تہذیب اخالق نفس ناطقہ را از کدورت و ہیءت بدنی منزہ کردند چون آن جوہر‬،‫ایشان بتفکر و اندیشہ طلب معرفت نکردند‬ )Khayyam, )1106( 422( ‫ صورتہای آن بحقیقت در آنجایگہ پیدا شود بے ہیچ شکی و شبہتی۔‬، ‫صافی گشت و در مقابلہ ملکوت افتاد‬. Translation: They did not demand the gnostic by meditation and power of abstract thought. They purified their inner self and civilized their self from malice and when the essence is purified and its counter the angels, the face of truth or reality take birth in it [self after purification] place without any doubt. 9 The Sufis later developed it for describing their ideologies. 10 ‫ فاغفرلی فان معرفتی ایاک وسیلتی الیک۔‬،‫اللحم تعرف انی عرفتک علی مبلغ امکانی‬ 11 ‫ترسندہ دوزخ اند و جویائے بہشت در صومعہ و مدرسہ و دیر و کنشت‬ We argue that Khayyām sought to understand the Book of the Universe using many ways among them is the use of arithmetic and geometry. In general, arts and sciences in Khayyām’s 12 ʿAli bin Ahmad bin Ja’far bin Salman (352-425/963-1033) was a Persian poet and sufi of Kharaqan, Iran. Also known as Attar of Nishapur, a famous Persian poet and Sufi, devoted a large part of his book Tadhkirat al-Awliya (Biography of the Saints) about the personality, state and stories of Kharaqani. Attar has him as Sultān-e Salātin-e Mashāyekh “King of kings of Sufi Masters”, “Ocean of the spiritual knowledge”, “Sun of the Lord”, “Mystery of the Lord” and “Qibla of his people”. 13 Rābiʿa al-ʿAdawiyya al-Qaysiyya (714/717/718-801) a Muslim saint a sufi born in Basra, we have attar as his first birography writer, She is often cited as being the queen of saintly women and known for her complete devotion and love for God. As an exemplar among others devoted to God, she provided a model of mutual love between God and His creation; She prayed: “O Lord, if I worship You because of Fear of Hell, then burn me in Hell; If I worship You because I desire Paradise, then exclude me from Paradise; But if I worship You for Yourself alone, then deny me not your Eternal Beauty.” 14 A default worldview is given to one by his society which he then modifies and calls chosen worldview (Aydin, 2019, 85). 15 This manuscript, written originally in Arabic, is available in Qatar’s Digital Library. However, only 17 pages are available. Nevertheless, there are English translations of it by Roshdi Rashed, and another one by Roshdi Khalil which we will be using in addition to the Arabic one for this research in order to see how the letteral approach was applied and implied in his algebraic treatise. 116 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION ‫اسرار خدا با خبر است‬ ‫آنکس کہ ز‬ ِ ‫اندرون دل ہیچ نہ کشت‬ ‫زین تخم در‬ ِ Volume 13 • Issue 2 • July 2020 117 A ISH A A L-OWA IS -฀REH A N GEL A NI AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM time were used as a means to understand the universe which includes both ‘âlam-i shahâdah Khayyam’s mathematical works, specifically the one on al-gebra wal muqābala, we will begin (physical world) and ‘âlam-i ghayb (transcendental world) (Ghannad, 2003, 478). In fact, with the phenomenology pillar which perceives the self as signified with absolute impotence Khayyām, as cited in Özdural (1998, 99), believes that numbers and geometry are sciences and reliance on God (Aydin, 2019, 95). Throughout his work, he often refers that he would that go hand in hand, thereby bridging formal and applied sciences under which architecture not have come up with the new solutions if it were not for God’s help and guidance, and falls (Acikgenc, 2014, 436). Not only does geometry sets the foundation of the science of implicitly indicates that he is impotent and all that he has is from God. Hence, he in fact was architecture, but it is also a manifestation of God’s creation for it is present in all of His âyât using his Ëne as a measuring tool (vahid-i kiyasi) and a signified self which depends on God. (signs) starting from the shapes of atoms and molecules, and all the way to the wonderful Moreover, Khayyām warns the reader from considering him as arrogant for he believes that geometrical shapes of the Holy places of worship. those who show off upon their acquisition of some knowledge are manifesting an egoistic self In Islamic architecture, geometry is used as a means to penetrate through the physical (anâniyah).17 world and reveal what is beyond. The shapes, curves, dome and other geometrical forms From an ontological perspective, Khayyām in one of his articles in the treatise, begins convey spiritual messages which are a translation of revealed knowledge into a form of art with the Name of God whom he seeks from exact knowledge.18 By seeking exact knowledge that is tangible and observable thereby connecting both worlds. For example, the geometrical from God, he implies that ultimate knowledge and truth is in the hand of Allah who manifests shapes in the mosques and their domes are not there to fill a void, rather, they reflect detailed it through his signs in the universe. Epistemologically speaking, we argue that Khayyām did beauty and harmonious shapes that are customarily ordered and fitted side to side to illustrate not compose his works merely for instrumental use but also as a way to read God’s verses in the the unity of all beings. Likewise, the Almighty has placed every being in its right place at the book of the universe. That is because, he perceived learning and spreading knowledge was a right time and has made everything in the universe work in harmony. form of understanding the universe. Likewise, from a teleological view, he pursued knowledge Özdural claims that Omar Khayyam may have been the designer of the North Dome in to understand Divine wisdom in the different proportions, sizes, and interconnectedness in the Masjid-i Jami’i in Isfahan, if not, his treatise on right triangles must have been used in order the universe that were reflected in his use of mathematics to solve problems. To present the to engineer and build the dome. The geometrical structure of the dome, based on his treatise, anthropological aspect, Khayyām knew his weaknesses when he expressed that he was not holds symbolic meanings which connects the use of architecture to spiritual interpretations. able to find all proofs for all of the equations and hence hoped that someone after him could For example, based on a general interpretation by Nasr (1987) as cited in Ghannad (2003, 480) find that.19 Finally, Khayyām demonstrated the axiological pillar when he expressed that his the ground level of the dome corresponds to the physical world, the middle level represents work in the al-gebra treatise was nothing but a way of speaking of God’s beneficences. the angelic realm and finally the last level which has the Dome as a ceiling reflects God’s Mathematics with its branches and astronomy are highly linked and interconnected protection (Al-Waliyy) and heavenly vault that relates of levels of the cosmic existence to the fields which Khayyam excelled in both. He gained a good reputation which reached the Seljuk One (Al-Ahad). He also used God’s name Al-Waliyy to seek refuge and protection from those Sultan Malik Shah who invited Khayyam to work in an observatory in Isfahan. As a result of who ridiculed him for his possession of knowledge. Therefore, Khayyām used mathematics that, he produced astronomical tables known as “Zij Malik Shah” (Fitzgerald, 1993, 9). He also with its branches as a way to look at the universe and this reflected his attempt to deeply understand both worlds. Özdural also believes that Khayyām may have hinted to this dome on his poetry.16 In order to present the holistic worldview pillars from a mânâ-i harfi perspective in 16 My beauty’s rare, my body fair to see, Tall as a cypress, blooming like the tulip; And yet I don’t know why the hand of Fate Sent me to grace this pleasure-dome of Earth 118 Volume 13 • Issue 2 • July 2020 17 “Thanks to almighty God for his beneficences upon many of his worshippers. For, speaking of beneficences is great thanks to the giver, as God says in his book “speak of your God’s beneficences”. So the reader of this article should not think that this is showing off. Showing off is a practice of the arrogant, and they love it. Such people try to understand a little science. Once they have comprehended it (the little science), they think they know about all sciences, and God forbid that we allow ourselves to believe in such a way that prevents us from understanding the facts and winning salvation.” (Roshdi, 2008, p.49) 18 “In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful, from Him we seek exact knowledge, and on Him we depend.” (Roshdi, 2008, 44). 19 “Hopefully, someone who comes after us will be able to (supply the proofs).”(Roshdi, 2008, 3). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION 119 A ISH A A L-OWA IS -฀REH A N GEL A NI AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM contributed in reforming the calendar of that time along with several other astronomers. The good is from Allah as we will see in his philosophical treatise, yet human wrongdoings could result was the Jalalian calendar which is said to be more accurate than the Gregorian calendar be the reason behind a person’s bad dream interpretation.22 (Sarton, 1931, 760). We believe that this work itself is a strong indicator of Khayyāmi’s application of the mana-i harfi in his thoughts, for if he was not, he would not have linked dreams which are B. DREAM INTERPRETATION Khayyām’s interest in dreams interpretation is rarely mentioned in the books and studies. However, because of his well-known interest in death and spirituality, it is not surprising to see his work Ta’bir Al-Manam.20 This work reveals Khayyām’s interest in the transcendent world where he tries to know more about human’s souls (nafs). Realizing not only his own self, but the self of others by interpreting their dreams illustrates the phenomenological aspect that part of the metaphysical world to the factual world and would have not used God’s words in the holy Quran to interpret the dreams to the people.23 Furthermore, it is important to point out that Khayyam had a persian background unlike Ibn Sirin who was from Basra and hence reflected Arab thoughts. C. PHILOSOPHY looks at the self. Furthermore, the interpretation of a dream can be a way to guide or warn 1. Risala fi Al-Kawn wal Taklif (Treatise on Being and Duty) a human.21 His interest in what is beyond reality and the factual truth which is experienced by senses, reflects his ontological view in a holistic worldview through which a mana-i harfi perspective is used. For a person to be a dream interpreter, he is more likely to be a righteous one inside and out, and a keeper of people’s secrets (Al-Hifni, 1991, 13). Therefore, Omar Khayyam possessed such noble traits which led people to trust him and ask him for dream interpretations as it is considered a noble job that not anyone can do. Moreover, carrying out this job reveals that Khayyām was aware of the true meanings of words as well as symbolism which he uses as a means to understand the transcendental world. It also proves Omar’s desire in reaching and understanding the deep knowledge that lies in the metaphysical world thereby reflecting the ontological and epistemological aspects. Therefore, those who would look at this work, will understand his Ruba’iyat in a better form and the use of the symbols in them. Since Khayyam strongly believes that dreams and vision could hold true meanings sometimes, he is reflecting his realization of divine telos behind the dreams. We argue that he perceives dreams as realms which humans can temporarily access in the transcendental world for a certain reason; dreams could be messages that are delivered to humans in order to act accordingly. Moreover, Khayyam has cited Ibn Sirin and Al-Karmani often whenever he wanted to support his interpretations or when he did not have, hence reflecting the anthropological pillar in a holistic worldview. In terms of axiology, Khayyam believes that all Although Khayyām’s poetry caused others to accuse him of heresy and materialism as we will see in the following section, his philosophical works reflect that he was a muwahhid who believed that Allah is the cause of everything. His thoughts on Being and Duty24 reflected his mânâ-i hârfi perspective where he perceived that he and other beings are a manifestation of God’s creation. He also believed that duty and obligation is an emanation from God which helps an individual reach the highest point of perfection by depriving it from animal passions and developing virtues of modesty. Khayyām began his article with characteristic humility by acknowledging that the questioner was well aware of this topic; al-Nasawi wanted to see his opinion about this matter. Khayyām showed understanding of the self by explaining that he will be responding to the questions as a mere student who is sharing what he learned, not as an instructor25. He also expressed that success is from God and all good and justice is from Him26. The first part of the phrase reflects his dependence on God for having such kind of knowledge, and the second elucidates the point of obligation and duty imposed on humans for their own good. That also reflected the axiological aspect in Khayyām’s mânâ-i harfi perspective since he believed that 22 If a human did a wrongdoing, he might dream something that would symbolize that and hence warn and guide him. 23 There is an anecdote which could be thought of as a foresight of Khayyam, he once told his pupil Nizami Samarqandi that “My tomb shall be in a spot where the north wind may scatter roses over it”, years after his death the pupil visited his resting-place and saw that it was covered with flowers, in a garden (Maine, 1947, 40-41). 24 Omar Khayyām composed this philosophical treatise in 1080 as a response to the question imposed by Muhammed bin AbulRahim Al-Nasawi regarding God’s creation of being and their duties. 20 This work was scrutinized and published in 1991 by Abdulmu’min Al-Hifni. 21 If one dreams that he is praying towards a direction other than the qibla then this is an indication that the person is going astray, as Khayyam states (Khayyam, 44). This is one of the many examples in Khayyam’s work on dreams interpretations. 25 26 120 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION Volume 13 • Issue 2 • July 2020 “...‫ویكون كالمي فیهما [مسألة الكون والتكلیف] كالم المستفید ال المفید والمتعلم ال المعلم‬...” )Al-Kurdi, 167(. “‫) ”واعتصم من فضل الله تعالى انه ولى كل خیر ومفیض كل عدل‬Al-Kurdi, 167(. 121 A ISH A A L-OWA IS -฀REH A N GEL A NI AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM all good is from God including the knowledge he was given and the duties all creatures are mawjudat al-mumkina) emanated from God (Al-Kurdi, 182) which reflects the ontological obligated with. reality, and that all beings have well within them. However, when it comes to the matter of From an ontological view, Khayyām believes that God is the necessarily existent one 27 evil, Khayyām used black and white as an analogy to explain the matter of contradiction and that everything is created and caused by him. However, he admits that the debate on which then can be applied to all other contradicting concepts. He explained that God created existence is difficult and that his opinions are based on those of Avicenna’s who was influenced blackness not for it to be the opposite of whiteness, but because blackness itself is a contingent by the Greeks. He seems to believe that God did not create beings all at one but rather in a being. Therefore, evil exists as an opposite of good only as an accident (‘ardh). From the mana-i form of chain where the first substance to exist is pure reason and the last is transient beings. harfi perspective and the teleological dimension, Khayyām believes that all that comes from This does not go in line with the mânâ-i harfi perspective, nevertheless Khayyām admits that God is good, and evil is merely an accident that arises from the action of humans yet still he was convinced by Avicenna’s thoughts either because he succumbed to his Master’s ideas preserve some divine wisdom in it that not all humans can realize. By discussing this issue, which were arguably convincing or due to him having a weak, content soul.28 Khayyām did Khayyam shows that he understands his Ene and used it correctly to understand God; that is, not seem to be very convinced by the thoughts of his Master, yet he found it to be the most he is not the source of evil. From the epistemological perspective, by knowing God, Khayyam acceptable theory to present. Nevertheless, his use of God’s names as “Al-Hayy” and “Al- explicitly states that evil should not be associated with God.30 Moreover, holistic anthropology Qayyum” reflects the epistemological pillar which Khayyām used to reflect the Almighty’s provides insights about human nature in order to understand their potential for both good attributes. and evil, thereby leading to the holistic axiology that derives moral principles from the works When discussing obligation, he believed that it is an emanation from God which helps and words of God (Aydin, 2019, 162). an individual reach the highest point of perfection by depriving it from animal passions For the second article, Khayyām was asked who is better; Jabris or Qadaris?31 He briefly and developing virtues of modesty29, thereby demonstrating the telos behind the matter of explained that perhaps Jabris are closer to the truth so long as they do not become delirious Obligation by God. In addition to that, he concludes with an anthropological view saying that and not fall in ecstasy. By saying this Khayyam seems to take the anthropological perspective duty makes one aware of his origin and of the transcendental world which disciplines human into consideration as it is where followers of both schools determine what is right and wrong. behavior (Dahsti, 2011, 74). Moreover, in his quatrains, he mentioned again that both parties are not on the right path. As for longevity, he explained that it is nothing but the endurance of existence, hence reflecting 2. Al-Jawab ‘an thalāth masā’il: dharurat al-tadadd fī’l ‘ālam wa’l Jabr wa’l baqā (An his ontological and epistemological view on this matter. In addition to the philosophical treatise investigated above, Khayyām also has other answer to the Three Questions: on the Necessity of Contradiction in the World, on the two letters entitled as Al-Diya’ Al-’Ali fi Mawdû’ Al-’Ilm (The Brightening of the Intellect Necessity of Determinism, and on Longevity) This philosophical work consists of three main topics which Khayyām discussed, the first was on the matter of contradiction, the second on determinism and the last on longevity. In the first article, he answered questions which were raised in his time regarding the existence of oppositions, especially the existence of evil. He explained that the contingent beings (al- 27 28 29 122 “...‫إذن واجب الوجوب بذاته وهو الواحد الحي القیوم الذي عنه الوجود لكل موجود‬....” )Al-Kurdi, 169(. “‫فاعلم أن هذہ مسألة قد تحیّر فیها أكثر الناس حتى ال یكاد یوجد عاقل إال ویعتریه في هذا البا تحیر ولعلي ومعلمي أفضل المتأخرین الشیخ الرئیس أبا علي‬ ‫الحسین بن عبدالله بن سینا البخاري أعلى الله درجته قد أمعنا النظر فیها وانتهى بنا البحث إلى ما قنعت به نفوسنا إما لضعف نفوسنا القانعة بالشىء الركیك الباطل‬ ‫) ” ”المزخرف ظاهرہ وإما لقوة الكالم في نفسه وكونه بحیث یجب أن یقنع به‬Al-Kurdi, 171(. “... ‫التكلیف هو األمر الصادر عن الله تعالى السائق لألشخاص اإلنسانیة إلى كماالتهم المسعدة لهم في حیاتهم األولى واألخرى الرادع إیاهم عن الظلم والجور‬ ‫) ”واالنهماك في متابعة القوى البدنیة المانعة إیاهم عن اتباع القوة العقلیة‬Al-Kurdi, 172(. Volume 13 • Issue 2 • July 2020 on the Subject of Universal Knowledge) where he argued that existence is primary and cannot be added to essence because if so, infinite succession will follow. This represents his ontic reality of the Divine and the understanding of the self by which he reationalzed and understood the matter of essence. In his Risala fi Kulliyyat AlWujud (On the totality of existence), Khayyāmi also mentioned the issue of existence and that it does not need another existence, again, demonstrating a mana-i harfi 30 “...‫وال یكون الشر منسوبا إلى موجد السواد‬...” )Al-Kurdi, 183(. 31 The Jabris refers to the school of thought which claims that humans have no choice over their actions while the Qadaris believe in human free will. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION 123 A ISH A A L-OWA IS -฀REH A N GEL A NI AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM thinking. Moreover, he explains that being a sufi is the correct way to know God. He had very certain and clear thoughts about tawhid and nubuwwah, and he said that the ultimate purpose for man is recognition of Almighty. for example - the king’s people say “Allah has completed the work on the hand of this king” (AlHifni, 1991, 97). The use of the word Allah34 and the expression as a whole reflects Khayyam’s Tawhidi worldview and his mana-i-harfi perspective. He implicitly implies that humans are impotent and cannot complete any work without the help of God. Khayyam’s way of speaking of old traditions and providing a story to substantiate his D. HISTORY Related and based on astronomy, Khayyam composed a work on a day that marks an explanations could hint at his understanding of divine telos; behind every story there is a astronomical event. His Nowruznameh ‫نوروزنامه‬,32 is a work on the origins of history and rituals lesson for living humans to learn from. By reading about those who were once alive and who of the celebration of the Nowruz. As Khayyam mentions in this treatise, the Nowruz has been were one of God’s signs in the cosmos, we establish the epistemological aspect that perceives set on a day which marks the spring equinox; when the sun crosses the Earth’s equator on the meditative purpose behind God’s acts. Moreover, when concluding his treatise, Khayyam March 21 making the length of the day equivalent to that of the night. In this work, Khayyam asked God to seal his work with good, happiness, safety and health, all of which reflected his explained the origins and traditions that are usually carried out when celebrating the Now- axiological aspect (Al-Hifni, 1991, 137). ruz. In this work, not much can be said about Khayyam’s mana-i harfi perspective as he was transmitting the thought of the ancient persian yet showed profound knowledge in astronomy E. POETRY Khayyam became popular in the west because of his Quatrains this popularity led to the and the old traditions. He begins his treatise by thanking God whom he acknowledges to be the Creator (Al- beginning of series of researches on him in his hometown (Iran). The Quatrains are claimed Khaliq) of the universe and owner of space time, the Giver and Bountiful (Al-Razzâq) of His to be his final words after all of his other scientific and philosophical works which include creatures, the All-Knowing (Al-Âlim), and the Able (Al-Qâdir). He expresses that nothing is hierarchical development of his concepts is shown in his quatrains. He reflected his deep more honorable than speech which God has used to communicate with his messenger, and understanding of the Creator and being with different and certain conceptual consciousness. no better companion is better for a human other than a book. Before getting into speaking In his Quatrains, he discusses the perishability of this world; he believed that joy, pleasure and of the Persian’s traditions on Nowruz, Khayyam utilizes the name Al-Khaliq to manifest his happiness are extinct, death is the perpetuated reality because everyone in this life is merely ontological view of God being the controller of this world. He also uses Al-Âlim to show that a passenger who will pass from this inn to another world, regardless of how long they lived whatever he will be discussing throughout the book will not come close to what God already or how many mountains of gold he had. So the world and its materialism are temporary and knows thus showing a profound understanding of the self being impotent and relatively reality is somewhere else -as he believed in transcendental truth and Alim-i-Ghayb- there is ignorant. His of Al-Razzaq reflects the anthropological aspect knowing that God is the nothing real or reliable in it. He emphasized death and warned others from falling in love with provider who provided the kings he will be speaking of the power and rule. this knavish world. Khayyam explains that kings have a tradition of continuing their predecessor’s work Khayyam admired the beauty of the universe and realized that it was a reflection of the either to gain a good reputation, or for the sake of the sense of fulfillment, or getting close to Creator himself. It left him in absolute wonder, and although he was the genius of his time in Allah and seeking his acceptance (rida). The last reason seems to be a reflection of Khayyam’s mathematics, astronomy and philosophy, he concluded that he did not know anything about tawhidi understanding and not that of Zoroastrians.33 Once a work is completed - a building Alim-i-Ghayb “I came to know that I don’t know anything” because the only true knowledge about that realm is revealed knowledge. Khayyām watched the Almighty as a soul and energy in the body of being rather than an 32 Scholars have argued and debated regarding the ascription of this work to Khayyam because his style of writing is different than of his poetry, and because he complimented kings and their celebration of the Nowruz. However, Al-Hifni lists five credible authors who thought that this work is most likely of Khayyam’s because no one else at his time could have written such a work. 33 The third reason seems somewhat unlikely to be from the times of the kings he was speaking of for they were Zoroastrians. 34 Given that the translator translated Khayyam’s treatise authentically. 124 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION Volume 13 • Issue 2 • July 2020 125 A ISH A A L-OWA IS -฀REH A N GEL A NI AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM ultimate cause, he said that the whole universe is a body and Al-Haq -the real truth and source IV. KHAYYAM AND NURSI of truth- is the soul. Meaning that the essence of everything in the universe is the Almighty. He also explained that angels are the senses of this body along with the four elements and the three types of beings (Mavalid-i-Salasa) which are inanimate objects like stones and animates ones like plants and animals including humans and their organs.35 Divine attributes of the Almighty as Al-Rahman, Al-Ghaffar, Al-Aleem, Al-Raziq, AlKhair, Al-Qadir, Al-Jabbar and Al-Jameel were used in his quatrains. He believed that God is the absolute governor and every being is under his obedience. Nothing in the universe is without telos, nothing is in improper order, and everything is just perfectly organized and has its own importance in this world hence manifesting the divine name Al-Hakim (The Wise). 36 Furthermore, although everything in the universe was already written in the Lowh-i-Mehfoz (sacred tablet) including our wrongdoings, it is quite ignorant to use this as a justification for them.37 Khayyām also pointed out that the sustenance of Rizq is specified by the Almighty and it cannot be depreciated even a single bite, so one needs not to worry. Also, the purpose of human beings in this life is to know the creator, almighty Allah, and man is nothing without Ma’rifah. He believed that humans should develop good ethical values with the purification of themselves; integrity is the most important purpose of life. He dealt with pain and evil as he believed that almighty is absolute virtue and nothing evil will come from his side, so during the bad times, one needs to be patient and need not to worry about it. Khayyam’s work did not only reflect his application of mana-i harfi approach, but it also revealed several similarities between him and Said Nursi. Starting with the concept of Ëne in his quatrains, it shows that he presents it as one’s self, which reflects the human self. He says that the “I” is the central point or the dot of the compass is the self “I”, the cup of Jamshed, destiny, heaven and hell; everything is the self “I”.38 He adds that the “I” is the purpose of whole creation, it is the essence of seeing in the eye of rationality, this whole universe is like a ring and the impression stone of that ring is self.39 He notes that the “I” is just a virtual line, a temporary impression which comes out for a moment on the sea of reality, and then vanishes.40 He realizes that the knowledge of the secrets of the universe and key to the talisman of creation is self “I”, it is the veil which makes the difference between the creator and creation.41 Nursi, on the other hand, considers the “I” as the only way to know God (Ma’rifatullah). This “I” is a double edged sword, it has two sides. The “I” in Khayyām’s quatrains is one’s self, which is a symbol of humans; he considers that the universe is being created because of “I”. Both scholars have a certain importance to the “I” in their own style, however, Nursi’s idea of the “I” is clearer. While discussing the two sides of Ëne, Nursi mentioned Khayyām42 along with others 38 ‫جستن جام جمم جہاں پیمودیم روزی نہ نشستیم و شبی نہ غنودیم‬ ‫در‬ ِ ‫زاستاد چو وصف جام جم بشنودیم‬ ‫خود جام جہاں نمای جم می بودیم‬ ‫بر طرز سپہر خاطرم روز نخست‬ ‫لوح و قلم و بہشت و دوزخ می جست‬ ‫پس گفت مرا معلم از علم درست‬ ‫لوح و قلم و بہشت و دوزخ با تست‬ 39 ‫مقصود ز جملہ آفرینش مائیم‬ ‫در چشم خرد جوہر بینش مائیم‬ ‫این دائرہ جہاں چو انگشتری است‬ ‫بے ہیچ شکی نقش نگینش مائیم‬ 40 ‫می پرسیدی کہ چیست این نفس مجاز‬ ‫گر بر گویم حقیقتش ہست دراز‬ ‫نقشیست پدید آمدہ از دریای‬ ‫وانگاہ شدہ بقعر آن دریا باز‬ 41 ‫اسرار‬ ‫واین حل معما نہ تو دانی و نہ من ازل را نہ تو دانی و نہ من‬ ‫ہست از پس پردہ گفتگوی من و تو‬ ‫چون پردہ بر افتد نہ تو مانی و نہ من‬ 35 The lines below are from the quatrains in which Khayyām mentions the body, soul and its senses. ‫حق جان جہان است و جہان جملہ بدن‬ ‫واصناف مالئکہ حواس این تن‬ ‫افالک و عناصر و موالید اعضا توحید ہمیں است و دگر ہا ہمہ فن‬ 36 The use of the divine name Al-Hakim is in the lines below. ‫جز حق حکمی کہ حکم را شاید نیست‬ ‫ہر چیز کہ ہست آنچنان می باید آن‬ ‫ہستی کہ ز حکم او برون آید نیست‬ ‫چیز کہ آنچناں نمی باید نیست‬ 37 The lines below explain that our wrongdoings should not be justified just because they are already written in the sacred tablet. ‫این نکتہ بگوید ار کہ او اہل بود آنکس کہ گناہ بنزد او سہل بود‬ ‫علم ازلی علت عصیان کردن‬ ‫نزدیک حکیم غایب جہل بود‬ 126 Volume 13 • Issue 2 • July 2020 42 We are giving here the original text from Turkish and then the English translation from Shukran Vahide, İşte felsefenin şu esasat-ı fasidesinden ve netaic-i vahîmesindendir ki: İslâm hükemasından İbn-i Sina ve Farabî gibi dâhîler, şaşaa-i surîsine meftun olup, o mesleğe aldanıp, o mesleğe girdiklerinden; âdi bir mü’min derecesini ancak kazanabilmişler. Hattâ İmam-ı Gazalî gibi bir Hüccetü’l-İslâm, onlara o dereceyi de vermemiş. Hem mütekellimînin mütebahhirîn ulemasından olan Mu’tezile imamları, zînet-i surîsine meftun olup, o mesleğe ciddî temas ederek, aklı hâkim ittihaz ettiklerinden, ancak fâsık, mübtedi’ bir mü’min derecesine çıkabilmişler. Hem üdeba-yı İslâmiyenin meşhurlarından, bedbînlikle maruf Ebu’l Alâ-i Maarrî ve yetimane ağlayışıyla mevsuf Ömer Hayyam gibilerin, o mesleğin nefs-i emmareyi okşayan zevkiyle zevklenmesi sebebiyle, ehl-i hakikat ve kemalden bir sille-i tahkir ve tekfir yiyip; “Edebsizlik ediyorsunuz, zındıkaya giriyorsunuz, zındıkları yetiştiriyorsunuz” diye zecirkârane te’dib tokatlarını almışlar. (Nursi, 2012b, 543) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION 127 A ISH A A L-OWA IS -฀REH A N GEL A NI AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM philosophers like Farabi and Avicenna and Abu A’la al Mu’arri, who went on the path of was also in search of God as we can tell from his quatrains and philosophical works. However, philosophy and rational thinking and followed the misleading principle of ancient philosophers Khayyām was accused by eastern and western scholars of being secular and atheist because “ from one, one proceed” and faced harshful criticism and slaps from perfect people. Nursi of the symbolism in his poetry. While in reality, the symbol of wine and drinking in Persian described Khayyām as a mislead poet, who people did not consider him neither in the group poetry was a routine work, to the extent that no poetry was free from the use of wine at that of philosophers nor in scientists. time because it essentially meant that wine is a divine drink of love, not the juice of fruits. 43 It seems that like all the other Muslim scholars, Nursi also did not know about Khayyām’s Khayyam’s use of geometry reflects his understanding that the whole has unity and philosophical and scientific works, and only knew about his quatrains which are full of is in harmony. Likewise, Nursi uses the analogy of stones in a dome to show how each ideological conflicts and wine talkings. Therefore, he described him as a person who made his piece, like beings, is dependent on the other and ultimately dependent on God. Moreover, Nafs-i-Ammara happy. In Nursi’s 28th letter, believes that true dreams are windows in the factual world that look One can assume that Nursi read Khayyam’s quatrains and considered him one of the onto the transcendental world hence representing some similarities with Khayyam regarding mallamatiyah, or a mislead one, that is why he did not say that Khayyām was wrong as he dreams. Additionally, in Nursi’s second ray, he argues the calamities are merely a few partial described the others, and he used the world pitiful lamentations instead to describe him. After and individual results from the many consequences of his general and universal laws, which taking a closer look at his period and the circumstances which he was facing at that time, we represent the total wills under the name of “the laws and customs of God,” (‘adatullah). From can say that Khayyām appeared as a sad lamenter who used his poetry as an escape to report the mana-i harfi perspective and the teleological dimension, Khayyām believes that all that what was happening to him and the world surrounding him. comes from God is good and evil are merely accidentals that arise from the action of humans Both Khayyām and Nursi used the Divine names and attributes, however, in different yet still preserve some divine wisdom in it that not all humans can realize. ways depending on their scope of writing. In Khayyām’s literature we find the names Al-Haq, The poet of quatrains is like a traveller of “The Supreme Sign”, a book by Nursi where he Al-Awwal, Al-Wajib, Al-Âlim, Al-Qadīr, Al-Rahmân, Al-Rahīm, Al-‘Adl, Al-Khair, Al-Khâliq spoke about a traveler seeking God and his attributes, who wondered and travelled virtually repeatedly, while Nursi used Al-Hayy, Al-Bâqī, Al-Razzâq, Al-Muhiye, Al-Qadīr, Al-Hakīm, in the universe in search for signs of the oneness of the Almighty and Ma’rifah. While talking and many other names. about the presumption of this world both used the same allegories; as Nursi explains, the body The social and political circumstances of Khayyām and Nursi have led both into is not immortal, neither it is made by iron nor by stone, it is just a meat, and if one looks at the seclusion, however, not very much is known about Khayyam’s seclusion phase. Nevertheless, past he will a vast graveyard of people who were after worldly pleasures.44 Although Khayyām we can see that he devoted his life for knowledge and wisdom. Khayyām, similar to Nursi, describes those who get old and those who are new, each of them will obtain his wish, this world will never remain with anyone, many came and went, and many will come and go.45 Translation: It is because of these rotten foundations and disastrous results of philosophy that geniuses from among the Muslim philosophers like ibn-i Sina and Farabi were charmed by its apparent glitter and were deiced into taking this way, and thus attained only the rank of an ordinary believer. Hujjat al-Islam al-Ghazzali did not accord them that rank, even. Also, the foremost of the mu’tazilites, who were among the most learned scholars of islamic theology, being fascinated by the apparent glamour of the way of philosophy and being closely involved with it, assumed intellect to be self-sufficient. Because of this they could attain only the rank of deviating, novice believers. Moreover, because those famous literary figures of Islam, like Abu al-‘Ala al Ma’aari who was renowned for pessimism, and Umar Khayyām, who was characterized by pitiful weeping, took pleasure at the line of philosophy’s caressing their evil, commanding souls. They received contemptuous and condemnatory rebuffs and restraining the chastening slaps from the people of truth and perfection. Who said; you are being insolent, you are approaching heresy, and you are disseminating heresy. 43 128 ‫الواحد ال یصدر عنہ اال الواحد‬ Volume 13 • Issue 2 • July 2020 44 Ey nefs-i emmare, kat’iyyen bil ki, senin hususî ama pek geniş bir dünyan vardır ki; âmâl, ümid, taallukat, ihtiyacat üzerine bina edilmiştir. En büyük temel taşı ve tek direği, senin vücudun ve senin hayatındır. Hâlbuki o direk kurtludur. O temel taşı da çürüktür. Hülâsa, esastan fasid ve zayıftır. Daima harab olmağa hazırdır. (Nursi, 2012b, 58) ‫اے دل ز زمانہ رسم احسان مطلب‬ ‫واز گردش دوران سروسامان مطلب‬ 45 Evet bu cisim ebedî değil, demirden değil, taştan değil.. ancak et ve kemikten ibaret bir şeydir. Âni olarak senin başına yıkılıyor, altında kalıyorsun. Bak zaman-ı mazi senin gibi geçmiş olanlara geniş bir kabir olduğu gibi, istikbal zamanı da geniş bir mezaristan olacaktır. Bugün sen iki kabrin arasındasın; artık sen bilirsin!... Arkadaş! Bildiğimiz, gördüğümüz dünya bir iken, insanlar adedince dünyaları hâvidir (Nursi, 2012b, 58). ‫چون مردن تو مردن یکبارگی است‬ ‫یکبار ببمیر این چہ بیچارگی است‬ ‫خونی و نجاستی و مشتی رگ و پوست در کار نبود این چہ غمخوارگی است‬ ‫آنہا کہ کہن شدند و آنہا کہ نوند‬ ‫ہر یک بمرا ِد خویش یک یک برسند‬ ‫رفتند و روند و دیگر آیند و روند این سفلہ جہان بکس نماند جاوید‬ INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE A SIAN PHILOSOPHICAL A SSOCIATION 129 A ISH A A L-OWA IS -฀REH A N GEL A NI AN APPROACH TOWARDS LITERAL & LETTERAL MEANING IN THE THOUGHTS OF OMAR KHAYYAM Khayyām said that this world is no more than a dream, presumption and wiles and it lasts only V. CONCLUSION for a moment. Nursi has the same thinking when he says that for every human; a virtual world is in its complete meaning, but he knows about it only at the moment of his death.46 The Quatrains, along with Khayyām’s other scientific works, showed that he perceived The worldview of Omar Khayyām was not that of Mutakallimun nor that of philosophers, everything in this world as a temporary being; his focus was on the transcendental realm yet he was not an actual sufi. He developed a worldview which encompassed elements from (‘Alam-i Ghyab). He realized that the whole universe, celestial bodies, beings, inanimate all of the mentioned worldviews. His case is very similar to that of Said Nursi, he was not creations, are temporary and nothing but a manifestation of the Almighty. He also treated under a certain group like philosophers or theologians nor did he confined himself in circle of serious concerns such as existence, evil, beings and other pertinent topics in his philosophical Maturidits, Asharits or Sufis, although he did the practice of Ishraqi hukama (illuminationists) works. Most importantly, Khayyam in the majority of his works, demonstrated the application first47 (Nursi, 2012, 32). Nursi claimed himself as a servant of Quran and the salesman in the of the mana-i harfi approach through which he understood the universe and its Creator. shop where quranic diamonds were sold. He also once mentioned that “what I am doing is a Omar Khayyām had his own mana-i harfi approach, where he described every being as a need of this time. If Ghazali or Abdulqadir Gelani will come to this time they will do the same manifestation of the Almighty and their existence is because of his will, not due to causation. as me” (Nursi, 2012b, 23). Therefore, one can see the resemblance between Khayyām and Yet again, his thoughts resemble Nursi’s to a certain extent but with a different methodology Nursi. which was his poetic language and use of symbolism. 48 Having applied the mana-i harfi approach to the works of Omar Khayyām, we can see how Nursi’s paradigm to understand the world is very much applicable to the scholars of REFERENCES the Islamic civilization. Throughout this research, we have shown how Khayyām reflected a holistic worldview and always linked creation to God as he applied tafakkur (contemplation) and pondered upon the creations of God wherever he looked. Nursi, like Khayyam, have also applied tafakkur when he was in isolation. This was a result of his decision to step aside from the debates on philosophy, theology and different political and social issues of his time which Acikgenc, A. (2014). Islamic Scientific Tradition in History. Penerbit IKIM. Ali, M. A. (1593). Rabī’ Al-Marsoum. 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Fakat, öldüğü zaman dünyası yıkılır, kıyameti kopar (Nursi, 2012b, 58). ‫خاک کیقبادی و جمی است‬ ‫شادی مطلب کہ حاصل عمر دمی ست ہر ذرہ ز‬ ِ ‫احوال جہان و اصل این عمر کہ ہست خوابی و خیالی و فریبی و دمی است‬ ‫لذات جہاں چشیدہ باشی ہمہ عمر‬ ‫یار خود آرمیدہ باشی ہمہ عمر‬ ِ ‫با‬ ‫ہم آخر عمر رحلتت باید کرد‬ ‫خوابی باشد کہ دیدہ باشی ہمہ عمر‬ 47 Evvelâ: Hükema-yı İşrakiyyunun mesleklerine sülûk ederek, zühd ve riyazete başladı. Hükema-yı İşrakiyyun, tedric kanunu mûcibince vücudlarını riyazete alıştırmışlardı. O ise tedrice riayet etmiyerek birdenbire riyazete daldı. Gün geçtikçe, vücudu tahammül etmeyerek zaîf düşmeye başladı. Üç günde bir parça ekmekle idare ediyordu. Ulema-yı İşrakiyyunun, “Riyazetin küşayiş-i fikre hizmet ettiği” nazariyesi üzerine, onlar gibi yapacağım diye çalışıyordu. Sâniyen: İmam-ı Gazalî Hazretlerinin “İhyaü›l-Ulûm”unda tasavvuf nokta-i nazarında َ‫َد ْع َما ی ُِریبُكَ اِ ٰلى َماالَ ی ُِریبُك‬ kaidesine ittibaen, ekmeği bile bir zaman terkedip, ot ile idareye koyuldu. 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(2014). Kulliyat Al-Wujud. In Suleiman, N. (Ed.) Khayyam (pp.412-423). India: Dar-al-Mussanifeen. . & Rashidī, H.. (1990). Rubayyat -i Khayyām )ṭarab khanih( (Humā’ī. Ed.). Iran: Intishārāt -i Anjuman -i Āsār-i Milī. . “Avicenna and Al-Biruni”. (2014) Jami’ al Badā’i’ (Sabrī. Muhyī-al Dīn, Ed.). Lebanon: D฀r -al Kutūb -al ‘Ilmiyah. Maine, G. F. (1947). Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyām. Collins: London and Glasgow. Mīr Walī Allah. (1924). Kā’as -al Kirām. Lahore, Nawal Kishūr, Kāshī Rām. Munir A. and Al-Nahar, A. (2017). ‘Athat Al-Hadara Al-Islamiyya ‘Ala Europa (The influence on the islamic civilization on Europe). Sharjah: Sharjah Institute for Heritage. Nursi, S. (2012). Al-Mathnawi Al-Arabi Al-Nouri (Mesnevi Nuriye), (Ihsan Qasim Al-Salihi, trans.) . Istanbul: Soz Basim. . (2012b). Mektubat. Istanbul: Soz Basim. Ozdural, A. (1998). “A Mathematical Sonata for Architecture: Omar Khayyam and the Friday Mosque of Isfahan”. Technology and Culture, 39 (4), 699-715. Pollen, J. (1915). Omar Khayyām. London: East and West. Rami, A. (2000). Rubaiyat Al-Khayyām. Cairo: Dar Al-Shurooq. Roshdi, R. (2006). “Riyadiyat Omar Al-Khayyām (The Mathematics of Omar Khayyām)”. Al-Mustaqbal Al-Arabi, 28 (323), 144-148. This can be accessed at: http://search.mandumah.com/Record/209407 Shajrih, H. (1942). Tāhqiq Dar Rubā’iyāt ve Zindāgāni-yi Khayyām. Iran: Kitābfarūshī ve Chāpkhānīh-’i Iqbāl. Turner, C., & Horkuc, H. (2009). Said Nursi. London: I.B. Tauris. 132 Volume 13 • Issue 2 • July 2020