Foreign Policy: 16 Elements of Foreign Policy: Each nation has the right and power to secure the goals of her national interest in international relations. It is her supreme duty to satisfy the needs of her people. Each nation wants to be self-reliant in all areas of activity. However, in reality no nation can achieve cent per cent self-reliance and self-sufficiency. These are ideals towards which a nation can try to move. “The Foreign Policy of a nation is always made and implemented with an eye on the situation in various regions of the world. A situational change in West Asia or South-East Asia or Africa necessitates a change or modification of the foreign policies of many nations.” Nations have always been interdependent and these are bound to remain so even after attaining high levels of development. “Interdependence has been an incontrovertible fact of international relations.” It compels every nation to get essentially involved in the process of establishing and conducting relations with other nations. Each nation establishes diplomatic, economic, trade, educational, cultural and political relations with other nations. For giving meaning and direction to her relations with other nations, each nation formulates and adopts a Foreign Policy. It is through its foreign policy that it tries to secure the goals of national interest in international relations. The behaviour of each nation in international environment is always conditioned by its foreign policy. What is Foreign Policy? Foreign Policy can be defined as a set of principles, decisions and means, adopted and followed by a nation for securing her goals of national interest in international relations. Foreign Policy defines the goals of national interest and then tries to secure these through the exercise of national power. Definitions of Foreign Policy: 1. “Foreign Policy is the system of activities evolved by communities for changing the behaviour of other states and for adjusting their own activities to the international environment.” —George Modelski 2. “Foreign Policy is the substance of nation’s efforts to promote its interest’s vis-a-vis other nations.” —Normal Hill 3. “Foreign Policy is the key element in the process by which a state translates its broadly conceived goals and interests into concrete courses of action and to attain these objectives and preserve its interests.” —Padelford and Loncoln 4. “Foreign Policy is a thought out course of action for achieving objectives in foreign relations as dictated by the ideology of national interest.” —Dr. Mohinder Kumar The Foreign Policy of Each Nation Contains: 1. A set of principles, policies and decisions adopted and followed by the nation in international relations. 2. Objectives, goals or aims of national interest which are to be secured. 3. Means to be used for achieving the goals of national interest. 4. Broad policy principles and decisions for conducting international relations. 5. Assessment of the gains and failures of the nation in respect of its goals of national interest. 6. Policies, decisions and action-programmes for maintaining continuity or change or both in international relations. “A student of Foreign Policy analyses the actions of a state towards external environment (i.e., other states) and the conditions, usually domestic, under which those actions are formulated.” —Holstei “The study of foreign policy includes both the study of national objectives to be achieved and the means used for securing these.” —Ceeil V. Crabb In simple words, it can be observed that Foreign Policy is a set of principles and decisions, a plan of action and a thought out course of action adopted and used by a nation for conducting relations with other nations and all international actors with a view to secure the preferred and defined goals of her national interest. Elements of Foreign Policy: The foreign policy of a nation is formulated and implemented by its policy makers. In doing so they take into account the national interest of the nation, the internal and external environment, the national values, the foreign policy goals and decisions of other nations and the nature of international power structure. These constitute the factors/elements of Foreign Policy. 1. Size of State Territory: The size of a state is an important factor of its Foreign Policy. Size influences the psychological and operational environment within which the foreign policy-makers and public respond. It includes, as Rosenau says, both human and non-human resources. Nations with large human and non-human resources always try to be big powers and they have better chances of becoming big powers in international relations. Foreign Policy of a big sized state is bound to be different from the foreign policy of a smallsized state. Public and foreign policy-makers of big sized states are definitely governed by their desire to be big powers in the World. Size has been a factor in the foreign policies of the U.S.A., Russia, China, India, Brazil, France and others. Large sized states, with few exceptions, always formulate and use an active Foreign Policy and through it these play an active role in international relations. However, size alone is not an independent determinant of foreign policy. Resources and capabilities of the state are not always dependent upon size. The countries of the Middle East, even with small sizes but with the largest quantity of oil resources, have been playing quite an active role in international relations. Japan is relatively a small sized state and yet its role in international relations has been active and influential. Israel, despite being a small sized state has been influencing the course of politics among nations. Before 1945, Britain, with a small size, could play the role of a world power. Large size poses the problem of defence, security and maintenance of communications. In the absence of natural boundaries, the large size of a nation very often creates the problem of relations with neighbouring states. Despite being the large sized states, Australian and Canadian foreign policies have not been very active. Russia is a large sized state but its role in contemporary international relations continues to be weak. 2. Geographical Factor: Geography of a state is relatively the most permanent and stable factor of its foreign Policy. The topography of land, its fertility, climate and location are the major geographic factors which influence the Foreign Policy of a nation. These factors determine both the needs as well as the capability to fulfill the needs of the people of a nation. Suitable geographical factors can help and encourage the nation to adopt and pursue higher goals. The role played by English Channel in the development of Britain as a major naval power and consequently as an imperial power is well known. The influence of the Atlantic Ocean on the US Foreign Policy has been always there. Indian Foreign Policy now definitely bears the influence of the geographical location of India as the largest littoral state of the Indian Ocean. The relatively unhelpful geographical conditions of Canada have been a factor in the determination of its Foreign Policy. The territorial expanse makes it difficult for other nations to think of securing an outright military victory over Russia. The location of Pakistan too has influenced its relations with India, China and the Central Asian republics. The geographical distance from Pakistan has been a factor in the foreign policy of Bangladesh. The natural resources and the food production capacity of a nation is directly linked with its geography. These factors are also important factors in the formulation and implementation of foreign policy. Adequate existence of vital natural resources—minerals, food and energy resources—have been helping factors of the US and Russian foreign policies. Food shortage was a source of limitation on Indian Foreign Policy in the 1950s & 1960s. Consumer goods shortage have been hitting hard the foreign policy and relations of Russia. Large quantities of oil have made it possible for the West Asian and Gulf nations to adopt oil diplomacy as a means of their foreign policies. Geography, as such is an important and permanent factor of foreign policy, yet it is not a deterministic factor. The revolutionary developments in communications and modern warfare, and the ability of nations to overcome geographical hindrances have tended to reduce the importance of geography. 3. Level and Nature of Economic Development: One of the main reasons why the US Foreign Policy has been very often successful in securing its national objectives, particularly in relation to the poor and economically lowly placed states of the world is the high degree of its economic development. The developed countries of our times are highly industrialized and economically developed states. These can use foreign aid as a tool for securing their foreign policy goals. The global perspectives and policies of the two super-powers (1945-90) were again governed by their vast economic and industrial resources and their needs for foreign markets and trade. In fact, all economically and industrially developed nations (Group of seven plus one, countries in particular) are now playing a more a vigorous role in international relations than the lowly developed and developing countries. The strong commitment of the foreign policies of the lowly developed and developing countries to the cause of a New International Economic. Order is again a proof of the role of economic factors of international relations. The level of economic development also determines the scope of relations that a nation wishes to establish with other nations. The Foreign Policy of Japan in the contemporary times is directly and fundamentally related to its economic development. The military preparedness and military capability of a nation is again directly related to the factor of economic development and industrialization. Only industrially and economically developed nations can hope to become major and stable military powers. Economic power constitutes a fundamental dimension of national power in contemporary times and at present; it can be used more effectively for securing foreign policy goals. The US economic power has been a major instrument of its foreign policy. Economic weakness of Russia has forced it to change its policy towards the U.S.A. and other countries. Steadily developing India economy has definitely given a boost to India’s foreign relations. Thus, the level and nature of economic development, industrialization and modernization are important factors of foreign policy. 4. Cultural and Historical Factors: The cultural heritage and the history of a nation are again important and valuable factors of its Foreign Policy. The norms and traditions that characterize the life of the people of a state are highly influential factors of its foreign policy. During the process of interpreting and formulating the objectives of national interest, the decision makers are always governed by their cultural links, historical traditions and experiences. Strong cultural unity of the people is always a source of strength for them. It materially influences their ability to secure the objectives of national interest during the course of international bargaining. Historical experiences and cultural links further help them to analyze and assess the nature and scope of relations with other nations. Indeed, the weakness of the foreign policies of most of the Asian and African states has been largely due to the presence of internal dissensions and conflicts among their peoples. Bitter experiences with the policies of imperialism and colonialism have been a determining factor of the anti-imperialist and anti-colonial contents of the foreign policies of most of the new sovereign states. History is an important factor in determining the relations among the neighbouring nations. Foreign policy interactions between India and Pakistan are mostly the legacies of past history. The shadow of the history of 1962 still influences the course of SinoIndian relations. However, cultural values and links are always subject to perpetual changes and adjustments. Historical experiences too are forgotten in the face of national interest. The existence of conflict among the European nations, despite their cultural links and the development, and continuance of strong US—Japanese friendship and relations bear ample proof that cultural and historical factors have to have combination with other factors before influencing the course of Foreign Policy. 5. Social Structure: The structure and nature of the society for which the foreign policy operates is also an important element. The nature of social groups and the degree of conflict and harmony that characterize their mutual relations are determined by the social structure. A society characterised by strong internal conflict and strife acts as a source of weakness for the foreign policy. A society of united, enlightened and disciplined people with a high degree of group harmony is always a source of strength. The democratization of the process of policy-making in recent times has increased the importance of social structure as an element of foreign policy. The linkages between the domestic and international environments have tended to strengthen the role of this element. 6. Government Structure: The organisation and structure of government i.e. the organisational agencies which handle the foreign policy-making and implementation is another important element of foreign policy. The shape of the foreign policy is also determined by the fact as to whether the government agencies handling it are democratically constituted or not. Whether the authority relations are centralized or decision-making is free and open. The government officials also act as decision makers and this factor always influences the formulation of foreign policy. Foreign policy of a nation has to adapt to the environment. In a centralized and authoritarian system, the foreign policy can remain and often remains isolated from the domestic environment. The nature of legislature-executive relations is also an influential factor in Foreign Policy decision-making. The harmony between the two, as is there in a parliamentary system, can be a source of strength and lack of harmony between the two can be a source of hindrance for the foreign policy makers. Similarly, the nature of party system, elections and electorate are other influential factors. The continuity in Indian Foreign Policy has been also due to the nature of government-making in India. 7. Internal Situation: Like the external situational factors, sudden changes, disturbances or disorders that occur within the internal environment of a nation also influence the nature and course of foreign policy. The resignation of President Nixon over the issue of Watergate Scandal considerably limited the foreign policy of USA under President Ford. The internal opposition to the military regime in Pakistan during 1947-89 was a determinant of Pakistani foreign policy. Similarly, the declaration of emergency in India in 1975 did materially affect the relations of India with other countries particularly the super powers. A change of government is always a source of change in the foreign policy of a state. The rise of new leadership in China is now an important input of Chinese Foreign Policy. The rise of Congress-led UPA Government in India in 2004 acted as a source of some changes in relations with India’s neighbours. The internal situation of Pakistan—a military dominated state trying to be a democratic political system has always been a factor of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy. 8. Values, Talents, Experiences and Personalities of Leaders: Since the Foreign Policy of a nation is made and implemented by leaders, statesmen and diplomats, naturally it bears an imprint of their values, talents, experiences and personalities. The ideas, orientations, likings, disliking, attitudes, knowledge, skill and the world-view of the national decision-makers are influential inputs of Foreign Policy. The differences among the leaders are also influential inputs of a foreign policy. The differences between the Foreign Policy decisions of various U.S. Presidents and their Secretaries of States have been due to the differences in their attitudes and personalities. The Indian Foreign Policy till 1964 was often, and rightly so, described as Nehru’s Foreign Policy. The support at home and the popularity that PM Nehru enjoyed acted as imputes of foreign policy. Pakistani Foreign Policy, under the influence of the ideas of General Musharraf, has undergone a big change. India’s decision to develop nuclear weapons was definitely made under the influence of the ideas and the world- view of BJP leaders, who came to be power holders in 1998. The foreign policy of each nation is influenced by the personalities of its leaders. The change in leadership often produces a change in the foreign policy of a nation. However, this does not mean that this factor is an independent determinant of Foreign Policy. Leaders are always guided by the dictates and demands of national interest. Each leader is committed to the securing of national interests of the nation. The vital interests of the nations are a source of continuity if the personalities and attitudes of the leaders are a source of change. The two have to be balanced before these serve as foreign policy inputs. 9. Political Accountability: In the words of Rosenau, “the degree to which public officials are accountable to the citizenry, either through elections, party competitions, legislative oversight, or other means, can have important consequences for the timing and contents of the plans that are made and the activates undertaken in foreign affairs.” A political system which is both responsive to and responsible before the people, works in a different environment than the political system which is a closed system i.e., a system which is neither open nor accountable to the people. As such foreign policy of an open political system is more responsive to public opinion and public demands than the foreign policy of a closed political system. The difference between the foreign policies of democratic and totalitarian/authoritarian states is always largely due to his factor. 10. Ideology: Foreign Policy is a set of principles and a strategic plan of action adopted by a nation to fulfill the goals of national interest. It has always an ideological content. For securing support for its goal as well as for criticizing the foreign policy goals of other nations, it needs and adopts an ideology or some ideological principles. It, therefore, always tries to use the ideology as well as to popularize its ideology. The ideology of communism remained an important factor of the foreign policies of communist nations during 1945-90. Anti- Communism and Pro-Liberal Democracy ideologies have always influenced the shape and course of foreign policies of non-communist Western nations. Ideological conflict remained determining factor in the cold war policies (1945-90) of both the super powers. The drive in favour of democratisation, decentralisation and liberalisation in the socialist states of Europe, the new states of Central Asia, Russia and Mongolia has given a new direction to international relations of post-1990 period. Similarly, ideological commitments have been a source of affinity in the foreign policies of Islamic nations. 11. Diplomacy: Diplomacy is the instrument by which foreign policy of a nation travels beyond its borders and establishes contacts with other nations. It is diplomacy which tries to secure the goals of foreign policy during the course of relations with other nations. Besides being a means, diplomacy is also an input of foreign policy. The world view sketched by diplomacy and the reports prepared by the diplomats are valuable sources of foreign policymaking. The modes of operation and quality of diplomacy always affect the operational quality and efficiency of a foreign policy. In the late 1960s the contacts between India and Chinese diplomats helped the emergence of a definite trend towards normalization of Sino- Indian relations. It has been through diplomacy that India and Pakistan have been trying to initiate and adopt confidence building measures. Morgenthau regards Diplomacy as the best instrument of power management among states. 12. International Power Structure (Global Strategic Environment): The relations that nations establish among themselves are backed by their respective national interests and powers. In fact, such relations involve struggle for power among them. The net effect is that international relations constitute a power structure in which the more powerful nations—the super powers and the major powers—play a more vigorous and leading role than the relatively less powerful nations. The foreign policy of every nation is influenced by the nature of power structure that prevails at a particular time in the international environment. The power vacuum caused by the weakened power of the formerly powerful European states, because of their involvement in two World Wars compelled the U.S.A. to come out of its isolationism and assume a new global role in international relations. The change in the U.S. Foreign Policy and its attempt to influence the European states brought into operation a Soviet Foreign Policy of keeping close the East European friendly socialist nations. The emergence of the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. as the two super powers with cold war in between them, made it imperative for the newly independent states like India, to adopt a policy of keeping away from the cold war and yet attempt to have friendly cooperation with both the super powers. The bipolar system that emerged after World War II and its transformation into a Multipolar or Polycentric system were very influential in the making of foreign policy decisions of all the nations. Uni-polar power structure which emerged after the disintegration of the erstwhile U.S.S.R., (1917-1991) became a major factor of the foreign policies of several nations. In fact, it still continues to be a factor of foreign policy of every nation. All states now want to secure a multi-centric world. 13. Public Opinion: Public Opinion, (national as well as international) is another important input of Foreign Policy. Decision-makers of each nation have to accept and give due place to the opinion of the people they represent as well as to the World Public Opinion. Undoubtedly, the decisionmakers as leaders have to lead the public yet they also have to accommodate the demands of public opinion. The American Senate’s refusal to ratify the American membership of the League of Nations, and the opposition of Vietnam War by the Americans and other peoples, had a big impact on the Foreign Policy of the U.S.A. The real strength behind the objectives of Disarmament, Arms Control and Nuclear Disarmament, Anti- colonialism, Anti-apartheid policies of various nations, has been the World Public Opinion. The rise of several peace and development movements in the World has decidedly acted as a check against foreign policies of war, aggression and destruction. No one is now prepared to talk and act as Hitler and Mussolini did in 1930s. 14. Technology: The application of the knowledge of scientific inventions to practical and useful purposes leads to technology. The level of technological development and the nature of technical know-how are important elements of foreign policy. Highly advanced technology has been a major factor of the strength of the foreign policies of the major powers. The ability to provide technical know-how to lowly developed and developing nations has been an instrument of influence, rather power, of the foreign policies of the developed nations. India’s dependence on developed nations for getting advanced dual use technology has been a limiting factor of Indian Foreign Policy. However a steady progress in the sphere of technological advancement has been a source of strength for Indian Foreign Policy. The U.S.A. has always used the technology factor for putting pressure on the foreign policies of developing nations. The level and nature of industrial output and military preparedness of a nation are dependent upon technology. These in turn are important components of Foreign Policy. “Technological changes can alter the military and economic capabilities of a society and thus its status and role in the international system.” —Rosenau The rise of France, China, Germany, Japan and India are the classic examples of the change that technological development can bring about in the role of a nation in international relations. Technology is, however, a relatively less stable element of foreign policy because technological changes always and continuously take place in every society. Moreover, it is only in relation to scientific and industrial development that technology becomes a factor of foreign policy. 15. External Environment: Foreign Policy has to operate in the international environment which is subject to many frequent and important situational changes. Consequently, it has always to adapt according to these changes. These situational changes act as foreign policy inputs. For example, socialist revolution in a neighbouring state or a military coup, or the emergence of dispute between two friendly nations or the rise of a controversy in the United Nations or the nationalisation of industry by a major nation or the devaluation of a popular currency, or the aggression or intervention by a nation against another nation etc., are some of the situational changes that keep on taking place in the international environment. Such external changes always affect the formulation and behaviour of the foreign policies of all the nations. The emergence of Sino-Soviet rift was a factor in changing the U.S. Foreign Policy towards China. The Bangladesh war and its impact on the power structure in South Asia, the Afghanistan crisis, the supply of advanced technology and weapons to Pakistan by China, a Pakistan oriented US foreign policy etc., have been the external situational inputs of Indian Foreign Policy. The collapse of the USSR and the liquidation of socialist bloc acted a source of big changes in the foreign policy of almost every state. The presence and activities of terrorist outfits in several countries have compelled all the nations to undertake a collective fight against the menace of international terrorism. Further, the Foreign Policy of a nation is always made and implemented with an eye on the situation in various regions of the world. A situational change in West Asia or South-East Asia or Africa necessitates a change or modification of the foreign policies of many nations. Similarly, international issues and crises are also important factors of Foreign Policy. The issue of New International Economic Order, the energy crisis, the problem of distribution of international resources, the issue of proliferation, protection of human rights, elimination of international terrorism and others has been major factors in the foreign policy decisions of India and other developing nations. 16. Alliances and International Treaties (Bilateral and Multilateral): Alliance is a means by which some nations pool their powers or agree to pool their powers in the event of a particular situation. Alliances serve as instruments of foreign policies. The extensive and intensive system of alliances that emerged in the Post-1945 period had a big impact on the foreign policies of all the nations. During 1945-90 both the United States and the USSR, recognized and used alliances as the means for consolidating their respective positions. Their foreign policies, as well as the foreign policies of their allies were always governed by the goal to secure new partners in their respective alliances and to maintain and consolidate the alliance partnerships. Even now, after the demise of Warsaw Pact, the U.S.A. continues to consider NATO as the mainstay of its foreign policy in Europe. NATO’s support to the US decision to declare a war against Taliban’s Afghanistan decidedly gave strength to the US foreign policy. However, many other nations, the Non-aligned nations, still continue to regard alliances as a source of tension and distrust and their foreign policies are still governed by the anti-alliance principle. Recently, another factor has become an influential factor in Foreign Policy- making. The realization for mutual inter-dependence has given birth to a large number of regional organisations, arrangements, agreements and trading blocs. European Union, ASEAN, SAARC NAFTA, APEC, SCO and several others have been major players in international economic relations. The foreign policy of every nation is now becoming conscious of these organisations, trading blocs and economic and trade agreements. The pressures of NPT & CTBT and the decisions of WTO on every foreign policy is a well known fact. Hence, international treaties, pacts, trading blocs and alliances also constitute a factor of foreign policy. All these are the major inputs or factors of foreign policy. These are popularly called the determinants of Foreign Policy. One thing must be, however, clearly understood that all these factors are inter-related and interdependent. These act together or in combination for influencing the making and implementation of a foreign policy. None of these is an independent determinant of Foreign Policy. All these factors have to be analyzed together for understanding the nature and objective of Foreign Policy of each nation.