Muḥammad and the Golden Bough: Reconstructing Arabian Myth

Jaroslav Stetkevych

A Choice Outstanding Academic Book of 2000 Now in Paperback! Connects pre-Islamic Arabian myth to world mythic traditions. "Stetkevych succeeds brilliantly in reconstructing the myth of the destruction of the Thamud, an ancient people of north Arabia. . . . This book will add a new dimension to the study of Near Eastern and Mediterranean myth and legend." —Choice "Stetkevych’s critical and wide-ranging perspective reveals a wealth of insights. This book is must reading for everyone in the field of religion and one of the most important works in recent years." —Religious Studies Review "The graceful writing, interdisciplinary scope, and hermeneutical depth should make it compelling reading for those interested in the mythos of Arabia before and at the birth of Islam and in comparable myths in neighboring civilizations." —MESA Bulletin "It opens up new dimensions of how to think about, how to study, how to see interrelationships in the ancient Arabian world and their connections with the Mediterranean world in general. . . . a stunning piece of work." —Chronicle of Higher Education Through its development of a methodology for analyzing the mythic and folkloric traditions of pre-Islamic Arabia and the process of their incorporation into Islamic myth and Qur’anic texts, Muhammad and the Golden Bough offers compelling insights for students of Islam, comparative religion, and cultural anthropology. By linking Arabic myth with a broad range of ancient and classical texts—including Gilgamesh, Homer, and the Hebrew Bible—the book makes a provocative contribution to biblical and ancient Near Eastern studies, classics, and comparative literature.

Muhammad and the Golden Bough R ec o n st ru c t in g A rabian M y t h Jar o s lav S t e t ke v y c h IN D IA N A U N IV ER S IT Y B L O O M IN G T O N A N D PR ES S IN D IA N A PO L IS © 1 9 9 6 b y Ja r o s la v Ste tk e v y c h A ll r i g h ts r e s e r v e d N o p a r t o f th is b o o k m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d o r u tiliz e d in a n y f o r m o r b y a n y m e a n s , e l e c tr o n i c o r m e c h a n i c a l , in c l u d i n g p h o to c o p y i n g a n d r e c o r d i n g , o r b y a n y in f o r m a ti o n s to r a g e a n d r e tr ie v a l s y s te m , w ith o u t p e r m i s s i o n i n w r i ti n g f r o m th e p u b lis h e r . T h e A s s o c i a ti o n o f A m e r ic a n U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s e s ' R e s o l u ti o n o n P e r m i s s i o n s c o n s titu te s th e o n ly e x c e p ti o n to th is p r o h ib itio n . T h e p a p e r u s e d in th is p u b l i c a ti o n m e e ts th e m i n i m u m r e q u ir e m e n ts o f A m e r i c a n N a tio n a l S ta n d a r d f o r In f o r m a ti o n S c i e n c e s — P e r m a n e n c e o f P a p e r f o r P r in te d L ib r a r y M a te r ia ls , A N S I Z 3 9 .4 8 - 1 9 8 4 . M a n u f a c tu r e d in th e U n ite d S ta te s o f A m e r ic a L i b ra ry o f C o n g re s s C a ta l o g i n g - i n - P u b l i c a ti o n D a ta S te tk e v y c h , Ja r o s la v . M u h a m m a d a n d th e g o l d e n b o u g h : r e c o n s tr u c ti n g A r a b i a n m y th / Ja r o s l a v S te tk e v y c h . p. cm . In c lu d e s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s ( p . ) a n d in d e x . IS B N 0 - 2 5 3 - 3 3 2 0 8 - 7 ( a lk . p a p e r ) 1. M y th o lo g y , A r a b . 2. M u h a m m a d , P r o p h e t, d . 6 3 2 — L e g e n d s . 3. T h a m u d ( A r a b i a n p e o p le ) 4. M y th o l o g y — C o m p a r a ti v e s tu d ie s . I. T itle . B L 1 6 8 5 .S 7 4 1996 2 9 9 '.2 7 — d c 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 96-12390 01 00 99 98 97 96 Contents P re fac e / ix 1 In t ro du c t io n : R ec laim in g A rabian M y th 1 T he T ex tu al P u z z le 13 2 T he T ham iidic B ac kdro p to the P u z z le 17 3 T he F irst A n sw er to t he P u z z le: T he R aid on T abiik 30 4 T he T otem an d the T aboo 36 T h e M u lt ip le Id e n t it y o f A b u R ig h al T h e A m b ig u it ie s o f S t o n in g 5 P o et ic iz in g the T ham u d 49 6 D em y t ho lo g iz in g the T ham u d 57 7 T he Sc ream 78 8 T he A rabian G olden B o u g h an d K in dred B ran c hes: , , , Fraz er V erg il H o m er an d G ilg am esh C o n c lu sion 83 106 N o te s / 113 B i b l i o g ra p h y / In d ex / 165 155 P R E F A C E H M y th a s a c o n s ti tu e n t o f A r a b - Is l a m i c c u l tu r e h a s l o n g b e e n ig n o r e d o r e v e n d e n ie d . P r o d d e d , i n d e e d , i r k e d , b y th i s s ta n c e e x h i b i te d b y s c h o l a r s h ip o n th e o n e h a n d an d by a d o g m a tic th e o l o g y o r i d e o l o g y o n th e o th e r, I a tte m p t in th is s tu d y , f ir s t o f a ll, to d e m o n s tr a te th e e x i s te n c e o f a c u l tu r e - s p e c i f i c , c o h e r e n t p r e - Is l a m i c A r a b i a n m y t h — w h i c h d e s e r v e s to b e q u a l i f i e d a s a u to c h th o n o u s — a n d , f u r th e r , to e n g a g e th a t A r a b i a n m y th in th e d y n a m i s m o f s u b s e q u e n t Is la m ic m y th - b u i l d in g a n d m y th o p o e s is . T h e s tu d y f ir s t id e n tif ie s a s a n a u to c h th o n o u s A r a b - Is l a m i c m y th M u h a m m a d 's u n e a r th i n g o f a g o l d e n b o u g h f r o m th e g r a v e o f th e l a s t s u r v i v o r o f th e d i v i n e s c o u r g e th a t d e s tr o y e d th e a n c i e n t r a c e o f th e T h a m u d . It th e n p r o c e e d s to e s ta b l i s h a g r o u n d o f c o m p a r i s o n b e tw e e n th is m y th a n d th e lite r a r y a n d r e l i g i o u s tr a d itio n s c o n ta i n e d in k in d r e d s tr u c tu r e s a n d s y m b o l i c s y s te m s th a t r a n g e f r o m G i l g a m e s h a n d th e H e b r e w B ib l e to H o m e r a n d V e rg il. O n i ts c o n c r e te , tr a c e a b l e l e v e l, th is s tu d y th u s i n te n d s to i n tr o d u c e th e c o r p u s o f l a r g e ly u n r e c o g n iz e d A r a b i a n m y th in to th e p u r v i e w o f a m u c h b r o a d e r c o m p a r a ti v e w o r l d o f m y th a n d s y m b o l. A s its s ta r tin g p o i n t th e s tu d y ta k e s a n i n c i d e n t in th e b i o g r a p h y o f th e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d , in w h i c h , in th e c o u r s e o f h is r a id a g a i n s t th e B y z a n ti n e o u tp o s t in N o r th e r n A r a b ia , T a b u k , h e d i s c o v e r e d a b o u g h o f g o ld . It w a s u n e a r th e d f r o m th e g r a v e o f th e l a s t s u r v iv o r o f th e T h a m u d , a n a n c i e n t A r a b ia n p e o p l e w h o o n c e h ad p ro sp e re d in th e ir r o c k c ity o f a l- H ijr . T h e h i s to r y o f th e T h a m u d — a p a r t f r o m th e i r m y t h — w e c a n a c tu a l ly f o llo w f r o m a s f a r b a c k a s th e e ig h th c e n tu r y B .C . to th e th r e s h o ld ( f o u r th / f i f th c e n tu r y a .d .) o f th e B y z a n tin e p e r io d . M y th a n d r e p e a te d q u r ’ a n i c n o ti c e s , h o w e v e r , te ll u s th a t a t a h i s to r i c a l l y u n s p e c i f i e d tim e th e y w e r e s m itte n b y a d iv in e s c o u r g e f o r th e ir i n i q u i ty a n d f o r h a v i n g d e f ie d th e ir p r o p h e t, S a l i h , a n d th a t th e i r u l ti m a te d e s tr u c ti o n w a s p r e c i p i ta te d by th e ir s u p r e m e a b o m i n a ti o n , th e s la y i n g o f th e x P re fac e D i v i n e S h e - C a m e l , k n o w n in m y th m o r e c o m m o n l y a s th e S h e C a m e l o f S a l i h . In a d ir e c t w a y , A r a b i a n m y th m a k e s Q u d a r , th e " m a r k e d " c h a m p i o n o f th e T h a m u d , th e tr a g i c p e r p e tr a to r o f th i s f a te f u l a b o m i n a ti o n . U n d e r th e b y n a m e o f A b u R i g h a l , th i s Q u d a r is th e n a l s o i d e n ti f i e d a s th e o n e w h o w a s b u r i e d to g e th e r w i th th e g o l d e n b o u g h o f th e T h a m u d . V a r io u s d i r e c ti o n s o f i n q u i r y h a v e m a d e p o s s i b l e th e r e c o n s tr u c ti o n o f th e u n d e r l y i n g T h a m u d i c m y th . T h e y i n v o l v e d th e d r a w i n g to g e th e r o f th e lo r e o f p r e - Is l a m i c A r a b ia , th e Q u r ’ a n , th e B i o g r a p h y o f th e P r o p h e t, a n d th e S to r i e s o f th e P r o p h e ts , th e m a jo r Is l a m i c w o r k s w r i tte n in th e m a n n e r o f h a g i o g r a p h i e s . O n c e r e c o n s tr u c te d , a n d d e c o n s tr u c te d ( c h a p te r 6 ) , th i s A r a b i a n m y th th e n s e r v e s a s th e b a s i s f o r a c o m p a r a ti v e s tu d y o f m y th a n d s y m b o l , b e g i n n i n g w i th th e u n e a r th e d g o l d e n b o u g h o f th e T h a m ud i ts e l f ( a n d w i th Ja m e s G . F r a z e r ' s T h e G o ld e n B o u g h ) , b u t m o v i n g q u i c k l y to a m o r e f o c u s e d l i te r a r y d i s c u s s i o n o f a r c h a i c , c l a s s i c a l p r im a r y , a n d c l a s s i c a l s e c o n d a r y e p i c ( G i lg a m e s h , H o m e r , a n d V e r g il) . T h e In tr o d u c ti o n a r g u e s in b e h a l f o f a n A r a b i a n m y th o lo g y . F o r th e m o s t p a r t i t p u r s u e s th e tr a c e s o f th e s c a tte r e d m o r p h o l o g y o f m y th i n A r a b i c c u l tu r e . C h a p te r 1 p r e s e n ts th e e s s e n ti a l te x tu a l s o u r c e s f o r th e u n e a r th i n g o f th e g o l d e n b o u g h — a m o n g th e m th e Q u r ’ a n , th e T r a d i ti o n s o f th e P r o p h e t, th e B io g ra p h y o f th e P r o p h e t, th e S to r i e s o f th e P r o p h e ts , a n d e n c y c l o p a e d i c a n d e x e g e ti c a l c o m p e n d i a . O n th e b a s i s o f th e s e m a te r ia l s , s o m e o f w h i c h o f f e r n o m o r e th a n d e ta c h e d b r i e f e p i s o d e s o r s c a tte r e d te s s e r a e o f a s h a tte r e d a n c i e n t v e r b a l m o s a i c , w e c a n r e c o n s tr u c t th e o v e r a r c h i n g A r a b i a n m y th o f th e T h a m u d — a n d w i th i n i t b e g i n to p l a c e th e p u z z l e o f th e T h a m u d i c g o l d e n b o u g h . C h a p te r 2 p r o v i d e s f u r th e r b a c k g r o u n d to th e m y th o f th e f a ll o f th e a u to c h th o n o u s A r a b i a n r a c e o f th e T h a m u d to a llo w f o r th e c o n s tr u c ti o n o f a n a r r a ti v e a r o u n d th e m y th i c s l a y i n g o f th e S h e - C a m e l o f S a lih . C h a p te r 3 o f f e r s a n i n te r p r e ta ti o n o f M u h a m m a d 's r a id o n T a b u k a s a r e e n a c tm e n t o f th e tr i a l s o f th e T h a m u d i c p r o p h e t S a l ih . In C h a p te r 4 th e b i v a l e n t i d e n ti ty o f A b u R ig h a l , in w h o s e g r a v e th e T h a m u d i c g o l d e n b o u g h w a s d is c o v e r e d , is e x p l o r e d i n te r m s o f th e a m b i g u i ty o f to te m a n d ta b o o . C h a p te r 5 d e m o n s tr a te s h o w i n c l a s s i c a l A r a b ic p o e tr y th e tr a g i c d i m e n s i o n o f th e T h a m u d ic m y th c o m e s to th e f o r e , a s o p p o s e d to th e e x e g e ti c a l m o r a l d i m e n s i o n o f th e Q u r ’ a n a n d q u r ’ a n i c m a te r ia l s . C h a p te r 6 p r e s e n ts th e h i s t o r y — a s o p p o s e d to th e m y th o g r a p h y — o f th e d o w n f a l l o f th e P re fac e c a r a v a n c i ty o f th e T h a m u d . C h a p te r 7 d i s c u s s e s th e m y th i c a n d s e i s m i c a s p e c t o f th e T h a m u d i c f in a l " s c r e a m " th a t m a r k e d th e m o m e n t o f th e i r d e s tr u c ti o n . C h a p te r 8 ta k e s F r a z e r ' s G o ld e n B o u g h a s th e s ta r tin g p o i n t f o r a n e x c u r s u s i n to th e c o m p a r a ti v e s p h e re o f a rc h a ic a n d i d e n ti f i c a ti o n an d c l a s s i c a l e p i c w i th a v i e w i n te r p r e ta ti o n to th e f u r th e r o f th e s y m b o l o f th e g o l d e n b o u g h . F i n a l l y th e C o n c l u s i o n p l a c e s th e A r a b i a n g o l d e n b o u g h a t th e c o r e o f a n A r a b i a n m y th th a t p r o d u c e s a s y m b o l i c i d e n tif i c a ti o n o f Q u d a r , th e s l a y e r o f th e S h e - C a m e l o f S a l i h , S a l i h , th e T h a m u d i c p r o p h e t h i m s e l f , a n d M u h a m m a d , th e d i s c o v e r e r o f th e g o ld e n b o u g h . A c k n o w l e d g m e n ts I I w i s h to re c o rd my g r a ti tu d e to P a u l F rie d ric h f o r h is g e n e r o u s r e a d i n g o f th e m a n u s c r i p t a n d h is th o u g h tf u l s u g g e s tio n s , a n d to E d w a r d F. W e n te f o r s h a r i n g h i s e x p e r ti s e o n th i n g s E g y p ti a n . M o s t o f a ll, I th a n k S u z a n n e P i n c k n e y S te tk e v y c h f o r h e r h e lp a n d s u p p o r t a t a ll s ta g e s o f th is w o r k . xi Muhammad and the Golden Bough In t r o du c t io n R ec laim in g A rabian M y t h I A r a b ic l ite r a r y c u l tu r e c o m e s to u s m a g i s te r i a l l y i n tr o d u c e d b y its p r e - Is l a m i c o d e s / q a s id a h s , i n d e e d b y th e e n tir e c l a s s i c a l A r a b i c p o e ti c c o r p u s , a n d b y th e Q u r ’ a n . W e s te r n l ite r a r y - c r i ti c a l c u l tu r e h a s liv e d w i th th a t l e g a c y in a n u n b r o k e n , a l th o u g h f lu c tu a tin g , d i a l o g u e a t l e a s t s i n c e th e l a te e i g h te e n th c e n tu r y ;1 a n d o u r p o e ti c c u ltu r e , to o , h a s liv e d o f f th e l e g a c y o f th a t c u l tu r e w i th a r e c e p ti v ity th a t w a s e q u a l l y f l u c tu a ti n g — in v a r ia b l y b e tw e e n r o m a n ti c e n th u s i a s m a n d f o r m a l i s t h e s ita n c y . O u r a w a r e n e s s o f th e m y th i c - l e g e n d a r y s id e o f A r a b ic l ite r a r y c u l tu r e in p o e tr y a s w e ll a s o u ts id e it, h o w e v e r , h a s r e m a i n e d le s s w e l l i n f o r m e d — a s w e ll a s l e s s r e c e p ti v e . F i r s t o f a ll, to o e a r l y in o u r c o n ta c ts w i th th e A r a b ia n c u l tu r a l l e g a c y w e c a m e to a s s u m e th a t, o u ts i d e c e r ta i n m y th o - le g e n d a r y e le m e n ts in p o p u l a r A r a b i c l ite r a tu r e , s u c h a s th e A r ab ian N ig h t s , th e r e w a s little e ls e o f m y th i c a l, le g e n d a r y , a n d , b r o a d l y s p e a k in g , s y m b o l i c s o u r c e m a te r i a l to b e e x p e c te d f r o m th a t le g a c y . T h e r ic h l y n a r r a ti v e A r a b i c " f o l k e p i c s ," s u c h a s th o s e o f Z lr S alim , th e S ir ah o f cA n t ar , th e H ilaliy ah , a n d o th e r s , s u f f e r e d a n e a r l y l in g u i s tic - d o g m a ti c ( tr a n s la te d in to id e o lo g i c a l ) c o n d e m n a tio n b y a n i n tr a n s i g e n tl y c l a s s i c i s t A r a b ic lite r a r y - h is to r i c a l " e s ta b l i s h m e n t." F o r v a r i o u s c o d e - b a s e d so n s , w h ic h w e n o w re a f e e l f re e to c a ll s u m m a r i l y u n lite r a r y , th a t e s ta b l i s h m e n t, a tr u e A r a b ic h i s to r i c a l c o n s tr u c t, c h o s e to e x c l u d e f r o m i ts l e g iti m i z i n g c r i ti c a l c o n c e r n s a ll " p o p u l a r " lite r a r y m a n i f e s ta tio n s , th a t is , th a t k in d o f te x tu a l ity th a t d id n o t f o llo w e ith e r th e f o r m a l A r a b ic g e n r e - c o d e o r, a b o v e a ll, th e c o d e o f th e id e o l o g i c a l - m o r e - th a n - l i n g u i s ti c c o n s tr u c t o f a " l i t e r a r y " la n g u a g e . T h u s A r a b ic f o r m a l c r i tic is m a n d f o r m a l l ite r a r y h i s to r y w e l l - n ig h a llo w e d W e s te r n i n te r e s t in A r a b i c l ite r a tu r e , a n d in th e A r a b ic M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h 2 c u l tu r a l l e g a c y a s a w h o l e , to d r i f t in to a l m o s t p o n ti f i c a l l y h a n d e d d o w n f i x e d n o ti o n s o f A r a b i c l i te r a tu r e a n d o f th e e n ti r e c o m p l e x o f A r a b i c c u l tu r a l l e g a c y — a s i tu a ti o n th a t h a s o n l y r e c e n tl y b e g u n to c h a n g e , a s i n b o th th e E a s t a n d th e W e s t th e m u l tid i m e n s i o n a l r i c h n e s s o f A r a b i c f o l k l i te r a tu r e is b e i n g r e c o g n i z e d a n d s tu d ie d . R e g a r d i n g th e tr a d i ti o n a l c l a s s i c a l c o r p u s , h o w e v e r , th e lite r a r y - c r i ti c a l a n d c u l tu r a l - c r i ti c a l " f r o n t " b e c a m e ( a n d l a r g e ly r e m a i n e d ) u n i f i e d b e tw e e n th e E a s t a n d th e W e s t i n m a tte r s o f c o d e i n c l u s i o n s a n d e x c l u s i o n s , r e c o g n i ti o n s a n d d e n ia l s . In th i s p i c tu r e , q u r ’ a n i c r e l i g i o u s - d o g m a ti c , a s w e l l a s p h i l o l o g i c a l a n d c a u ti o u s l y lite r a r y , s t u d i e s — a l w a y s s u b s e r v i e n t to e x e g e s i s — c a m e to h o ld a n u n d i s p u te d p r im a c y . M y th a n d s y m b o l w e r e e x c l u d e d f r o m th e i r h e r m e n e u ti c s . T h e l e g e n d a r y , m y th - f o r m i n g p o te n ti a l o f th e m a n y n a r r a tiv e i n c i p i e n c i e s in th e Q u r ’ a n b e c a m e a te m p ti n g , n a r r a ti v e l y e x p a n s i v e g r o u n d n o n e th e l e s s . T h r o u g h o u t th e c l a s s i c a l Is l a m i c c e n tu r ie s , n a r r a ti v e f r a g m e n ts o f Q u r ’ a n a n d H a d i th w e r e p i c k e d u p a s m y th o p o e i c s p in o f f s b y h i s to r i c - e n c y c l o p a e d i c c o m p e n d i a a n d f lo r i l e g i a . T o g e th e r w i th m u c h o v e r l a p p i n g l e g e n d a r y m a te r ia l, th e y w e r e c u l l e d f r o m s u r r o u n d i n g lite r a te a n d o r a l c u l tu r e s a n d s h a p e d i n to c o h e r e n t s to r i e s a n d i d e o - u n i ts . A m o n g o th e r th i n g s , A r a b i c - Is l a m i c l e g e n d a r y r e n d i ti o n s o f d iv e r s e p r o p h e ti c l if e s to r i e s , k n o w n a s " s to r i e s o f th e p r o p h e ts " ( q is as a l - a n b iy a 3) , th u s c a m e i n to b e i n g . A n A r a b i c w o u l d - b e h a g i o g r a p h y , e s p e c i a l l y th a t p a r t o f it th a t to u c h e s u p o n m a te r i a l s o th e r th a n th o s e h e l d in c o m m o n w i th th e H e b r e w B ib l e , th a t is , th o s e th a t d r e w o n a n d g r e w a r o u n d s to r ie s o f p r o p h e ts o f A r a b i a n l e g e n d a r y a n c e s tr y , th u s b e c a m e n a r r a tiv e s tr u c tu r e s f a l l i n g s o m e w h e r e b e tw e e n " c a t e c h i s m " a n d " p e r m i s s i b l e " ( h alal) n e w m y th o lo g y . H e r e th e i n te r e s tin g th i n g is th a t, a l th o u g h th e c a te c h i s m i c p u r p o s e in th is w o u l d - b e h a g i o g r a p h y c l a i m s , o n th e s u r f a c e , to b e th e p r i m a r y o n e , a s a te x tu a l c o m p o n e n t it is , n e v e r th e l e s s , n o m o r e th a n th e e x p r e s s i o n o f a n u n c o n fesse d " n e o m y th o g r a p h y ." N o c a s e is c l e a r e r th a n th a t o f th e p e o p l e o f T h a m u d , th e i r r o c k - h e w n c i ty o f a l- H ijr , th e i r p r o p h e t S a l i h , a n d th e d i v i n e s c o u r g e th a t b e f e l l th e m w h e n th e y s le w th e S h e - C a m e l o f G o d , w h i c h , to g e th e r , o f f e r n o t m e r e l y th e s e ttin g b u t a l s o a n e s s e n ti a l s u b je c t- c o m p o n e n t in th e p r e s e n t b o o k a b o u t th e A r a b i a n g o l d e n b o u g h . " O n e o f th e p r a c ti c a l f u n c ti o n s o f c r i ti c i s m , b y w h i c h I m e a n th e c o n s c i o u s o r g a n i z a ti o n o f a c u l tu r a l tr a d i tio n , is , I th i n k , to R e c la im in g A r a b ia n M y th 3 m a k e u s m o r e a w a r e o f o u r m y th o l o g i c a l c o n d i ti o n i n g ." N o r th r o p F r y e th u s r e a d i e s h i m s e l f f o r h i s s tu d y o f th e H e b r e w B i b l e , th e O l d T e s ta m e n t, o r, in W e s te r n c u l tu r a l - h i s to r i c a l te r m s , th e G r e a t C o d e .2 S tr o n g l y a g r e e i n g w i th th i s p r e m i s e ( a n d d i m e n s i o n ) o f c u l tu r a l a n d l i te r a r y c r i tic i s m , I n e v e r th e l e s s f in d i t e x tr e m e l y d if f i c u l t to a p p r o a c h th e ta s k o f a " c r i t i c a l o r g a n i z a ti o n " o f th e A r a b ic c u l tu r a l tr a d i ti o n a n d , in it, th e p l a c e o f m y th . Fo r, o f i ts o w n v o l i ti o n a n d w i th o u t s h y i n g a w a y f r o m th e a w k w a r d n e s s o f d e c la r a ti v e r h e to r i c , A r a b i a a n d th e A r a b ia - n u r tu r e d a n d A r a b i c s p e a k in g w o r ld h a s m o s t s tu b b o r n l y d e n ie d i ts e l f th e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f a " m y th o l o g i c a l c o n d i ti o n i n g ," th a t is , w h a t w e h a v e te r m e d h e r e its " u n c o n f e s s e d n e o m y th o g r a p h y ." W ith in th e p r e m i s e s o f th i s A r a b i a n s t a n c e — b e g u n w i th th e Q u r ’ a n 's i n s ta n t, a n d a l m o s t to ta l, d o c tr i n a l i m p a c t — A r a b i c c u l tu r a l h is to r y , w i th a ll its a n th r o p o l o g ic a l c o n s tr u c ts , w a s s u p p o s e d to h a v e b e g u n a n d th e r e a f te r f o r e v e r to u n f o l d in th e c l a r ity o f b r o a d d a y l i g h t, a s it w e r e . A l l " f a l s e h o o d " a n d a ll " t r u t h " w e r e f o r e v e r a b s o l u te ly d if f e r e n tia te d in to s o m e ti m e l e s s p r e - r e v e la ti o n ( th e a g e o f Ja h i l i y a h ) th a t w a s f o llo w e d b y a n e q u a l l y ti m e l e s s r e v e l a ti o n ( th e Q u r ’ a n ) , th a t is , in to th a t w h i c h e x is t s n o t a n d th a t w h i c h e x is t s : al- b at il a n d al- h aq q . T h e f o r m e r h a s n o t h a d o r c o u l d n o t p o s s i b l y h a v e a n y c u l tu r a l - h is to r i c a l c o n ti n u u m , w h e r e a s th e la tte r , b y b e i n g a n i m m u ta b l e h e r m e n e u ti c a l m o n o l i th , o r a n a b s o l u te " g i v e n , " p r e c l u d e d in a s ta r k l y d e c la r a ti v e m a n n e r e v e n h e r m e n e u ti c s its e lf : It w as ( a n d is ) , a n d th a t w a s w h a t it w as ( a n d is) . A n a b s o l u te b i n a r y b r e a k d o w n o f id e a te d tim e th u s b e c a m e in s ti tu te d . The k n o w le d g e o f th e c o m m u n a l A r a b ia n p ast an d its i n h e r i to r s ' c r e a tiv e a n d r e - c r e a ti v e s e l f - k n o w l e d g e w i th in it w e r e d e f i n i te l y n o t f u r th e r e d by th e c o n c r e te , a h i s to r i c a l, a n d a n ti- m y th i c a l d o c tr i n a l s ta n c e th a t r e le g a te d m y th i c m a te r i a l s to a n e c d o ta l a n d " c a te c h is tic " f u n c ti o n s . A n e a r n e s tn e s s , a n d ev en s o m b e m e s s , o f r ig o r o u s th e o l o g i c a l d o g m a c a m e to r e ig n w ith a n a l m o s t p u z z l in g , a n d , in its s i n g le - m i n d e d n e s s , u n r i p p l e d m a r c h th r o u g h m o r e th a n a m il l e n n iu m o f h is to r y . It s u c c e e d e d f r o m th e f ir s t q u r ’ a n i c m o m e n t in a l m o s t s u p p r e s s i n g o r b a n i s h i n g in to u n u s u a l l y r e c l u s i v e la y e r s o f s u b c o n s c i o u s n e s s th a t p a r t o f th e c o u n te r d o g m a ti c A r a b ia n c u l tu r a l " s e l f " w h i c h , u n d e r c o n d i ti o n s o f a le s s s ta b l e d o c tr i n a l r ig o r , w o u ld h a v e h a d th e s tr e n g th to le a d th a t c u l tu r e to i ts r e m y th o l o g i z i n g , o r to " m y th o l o g i c a l c o n d i ti o n i n g ." a n a w a r e n e s s o f its M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h 4 In th i s r e s p e c t e v e n m o r e i n h i b i ti n g th a n th e s u p p r e s s i o n s a n d c o n d e m n a t i o n s t h a t c a m e f o r th fro m th e d o c tr i n a l a p p a r a tu s w h i c h h a d f o r m e d i ts e l f a r o u n d th e n e w l y - a r r i v e d A r a b i a n s a c r e d te x t a n d w h i c h s o o n s u c c e e d e d in f o r m i n g its o w n c u l tu r a l c o d e w a s th e c o - o p ta ti o n b y th a t n e w c o d e o f m u c h o f th e m o s t c e n tr a l l y a u to c h th o n y - d e te r m i n i n g m a te r i a l s o f th e o ld c o d e . T h is p r o c e s s b e g a n w i th th e c o n f r o n ta ti o n o f th e c e n tr a l v a l u e s o f th e o ld e t h o s — th o s e v a l u e s th a t w e r e e m b e d d e d i ts e l f . B y i n th e l a n g u a g e th i s I m e a n th o s e n u m e r o u s c u l tu r a l k e y w o r d s a n d c o n c e p ts o f th e a r c h a i c B e d o u i n e th o s a n d o f i ts o n c e c o m p r e h e n s i v e v a l u e s y s te m th a t f o u n d th e ir w a y in to th e v e r y c o r e o f th e n e w e th o s a n d c o d e — w h e th e r th r o u g h th e i n v e r s i o n o f th e i r o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g s , o r th r o u g h a s e l e c ti v e e x c e p ti o n a s s u m e d to w a r d th e m , o r th r o u g h th e i r f u ll, u n q u a li f i e d c o - o p ta ti o n . I t w o u l d b e to o c u m b e r s o m e to g o th r o u g h th e m o s t n u m e r o u s c o - o p ta tio n s a n d r e d e f i n i ti o n s o f A r a b i a n c u l tu r a l k e y w o r d s th r o u g h w h i c h th e o l d c o d e w a s b r o u g h t to i ts k n e e s a n d th e n e w c o d e w a s a l l o w e d to e m e r g e . T o s to p o v e r o n l y a f e w , it is e a s ily n o te d th a t s o m e , s u c h a s th e b i n a r y p a i r i n g r ag h b ah /r a h b a h ( " d e s i r e ," " a s p i r a t i o n " / " a w e " ) , c a m e th r o u g h th e p e r i p h e r a l tr a n s f e ra l o f s y m b o ls f ro m a n c ie n t, a n d n o t s o a n c i e n t, e m p i r e s a n d k i n g s h i p s in w h i c h th e s e w o r d s , o r c o n c e p ts , h a d r e l a ti o n s h i p d e f in e d th e o f th e c l i e n t to th e s o v e r e ig n . W ith th is r itu a liz e d s e n s e th e y f o u n d th e i r w a y i n to p r e - Is l a m i c A r a b ic p o e tic lo r e a n d fro m th e r e , o r a l o n g th e p a r a l le l ti e r s a n d " s c r i p t u r a l s o u r c e s ," i n to tio n s h ip s in th e v a r i a n ts o f e x i s ti n g th e c o n c e p tu a l i z i n g l a n g u a g e o f r e l a Q u r ’ a n .3 A n o t h e r te r m , g h ay b ( " a b s e n c e ," " h i d d e n n e s s " ) , th a t is , e v e r y th i n g " r e v e a l e d b u t n o t f a th o m a b l e o r v e r i f i a b l e ," h a d i ts s e m a n ti c b a s e in th e te r m i n o l o g y o f th e p r e - Is l a m i c A r a b i a n h u n t, w h e r e it m e a n t " t h e h u n te r ' s i n v i s i b i l ity to th e q u a r r y ." In th e Q u r ’ a n , g h a y b is z e a l o u s l y g u a r d e d a s th e s o l e d o m a i n o f G o d ; a n d o n l y h e c a n r e v e a l it.4 In th e p r o c e s s o f i ts c o - o p ta ti o n , a n i m p o r ta n t B e d o u i n te r m d e s i g n a ti n g " b l o o d k i n s h i p ," ca s h ir a h , 5 o n th e o th e r h a n d , u n d e r w e n t n o c h a n g e th a t w o u ld be r e g i s te r e d t e x tu a l l y o r in l e x i c o n s , a l th o u g h in its Q u r ’ a n - i n i ti a te d c o n te x ts i t f a i l e d to m a i n ta i n th e i n te n s i ty o f its c o m m i tm e n t to , a n d th e i m p l i c a ti o n s o f , o ld B e d o u i n c u s to m . A l m o s t th e s o l e w o r d o f th e B e d o u in A r a b ic s p e c if ic a lly p o e tic a n d f e s ti v e r e a lm to b e c o m e o n th e o n e h a n d q u r ’ a n ic a lly r e je c te d w h i l e o n th e o th e r h a n d , a n d , a s it w e r e , in th e s a m e b r e a th , c o - o p te d i n to th e Q u r ’ a n ' s o w n m y th i c s p h e r e o f th e G a r d e n o f th e B le s s e d R e c la im in g A r a b ia n M y th w a s k h am r ( " w i n e " ) - It is q u ite ir o n ic th a t it w a s o n ly b y f o r b i d d in g w i n e " o n e a r th ," th a t is , b y m a k i n g it in a c c e s s ib le to m o r ta l s a n d th e n b y tr a n s f e r r in g it to th e p la c e a n d th e lif e " b e y o n d m o r ta lity ," th a t it a tta in e d in A r a b ic its " m y th i c a l tr a n s u b s ta n tia ti o n ." It b e c a m e th e a n a l o g u e to th e " n e c ta r o f th e g o d s ," a m y th i c a ll y c o n c e iv e d a n d r e p r e s e n te d h u m a n d e s ir e : " A p a r a b le o f th e G a r d e n p r o m is e d to th e r ig h te o u s , in it th e r e a r e r iv e r s o f w a te r i n c o r r u p tib le . . . a n d r iv e r s o f w in e , a jo y to th o s e w h o d r i n k . . . . " 6 O r a g a in , " T r u l y th e r ig h te o u s a re in b lis s . / O n th r o n e s th e y l o o k o u t [ c o m m a n d in g ly ] . / Y o u r e c o g n iz e in th e ir f a c e s th e g lo w o f b lis s . / T h e i r th ir s t is s la k e d w ith p u r e s e a le d w in e [ n e c ta r ] , / w h o s e s e a l is m u s k : a n d f o r th is , le t th e a s p ir e r s a s p ire . / Its m ix tu r e is th a t o f T a s n im , / a s p r in g f r o m w h i c h d r in k th e f a v o r e d o n e s ." 7 T h is w i n e th u s b e c a m e a n e n tic e m e n t a n d , p a r a d o x ic a lly , a f o r m o f m o r a l c o m p e n s a to r y c u r r e n c y th a t, in o r d e r to c ir c u la te " o n e a r th ," h a d to d e n y i ts e lf o r to d e m a te r ia liz e , a s it w e r e , in to e a r th ly p r o b ity o r, ra th e r , s u b m is s io n to a l a w i m p o s e d w ith o u t e x p la n a tio n o r ju s tif ic a tio n . N o w o n d e r th a t w i th s o " a n c i e n t" a n d m u c h b u i l t- i n c o m p l e x i ty an d p a r a d o x , b o th " n e w " w in e b e c a m e a lm o s t th e o n ly d e n ie d / c o o p te d e le m e n t n o t to h a v e lo s t in A r a b ic c u ltu r a l lo re a n d s o c ia l c ir c u m s ta n c e m u c h , i f an y , o f its h o ld o n m u ltip le le v e ls o f A r a b m y th o g e n ic im a g in a ti o n — i f n o t o n its m y th its e lf , c e r ta i n l y o n m u c h o f its m y th o p o e ia .8 D e n ie d a n d m a d e i n d i s p e n s a b l e a t th e s a m e tim e w a s th e w o r d al- jah iliy ah its e lf , w h i c h , in its n e w te r m in o l o g i c a l u s a g e e v i d e n c e d a lr e a d y in th e Q u r ’ a n , h a d c o m e to d e f in e th e a g e p r e c e d i n g th e c o m i n g o f Is la m a s th e A g e o f Ig n o r an c e . In th e Q u r ’ a n th is te r m is f o u n d in d iv e r s e c o n te x ts , h o w e v e r . T h u s , in a r g u i n g a w a y th e d e f e a t o f th e M u s l i m s in th e B a ttl e o f U h u d b y th e s ti ll " p a g a n " Q u r a y s h o f M e c c a , it is u s e d to e x p l a i n th e d is tr e s s a n d lo s s o f f a ith o f th e M u s l i m h o s t a f te r th e ir p r e v i o u s e x c i te m e n t o f n e a r v i c to r y ( Q u r ’ a n 3 :1 5 4 ) . It d e f in e s th e ju d g m e n t o f th e u n g o d l y to b e lik e th a t o f al- j ah iliy ah ( Q u r ’ a n 5 :5 3 ) . It o c c u r s a g a in a s " th e F ir s t Ja h i l i y a h ," to b e u n d e r s to o d a ls o a s " th e Ja h i l l y a h o f b y g o n e d a y s " ( al- jah iliy ah l- u la, Q u r ’ a n 3 3 :3 3 ) . In th a t la tte r f o r m u l a ti o n , to o , it th e r e a f te r b e c o m e s a " c o m p a n i o n te r m " th a t s tr e s s e s th e r e m o te n e s s , b o th te m p o r a l l y a n d m o r a lly , o f th e a g e b e f o r e Is la m ; a n d , m o r e th a n th a t, it a l s o c o n tr i b u te s to a c o n s p i c u o u s l y i m p r e c i s e f u r th e r s u b d i v i s i o n o f its o w n b r o a d e r s c o p e i n to tw o p r o p h e ti c s u b - a g e s , o n e f r o m A d a m to N o a h o r, e q u a l l y lik e ly , to A b r a h a m , a n d th e o th e r f r o m Je s u s to M u h a m m a d .9 5 M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h 6 T h e m o s t r e v e a l i n g q u r ’ a n i c o c c u r r e n c e o f a l - j a h ili y a h is in S u r a 4 8 , o f V i c to r y ( a l- fa t h ) , v e r s e 2 6 , f o r th e r e it s ta n d s i n tr o d u c e d a n d , i n d e e d , i n t e r p r e te d by a n o th e r te r m o f d e c is iv e s ig n if ic a n c e , h a m i y a h 10 ( " z e a l , " h e a t , " " h e a t o f c o m b a t " ) , w h i c h , i n tu r n , is th e s y n o n y m o f j a h l , th e e ty m o n o f al- j d h iliy a h . Q u i te c le a r ly , j a h l a l s o m e a n s " i g n o r a n c e " ; b u t m o r e th a n " n o t k n o w i n g ," it is " k n o w i n g n o o t h e r [ w a y ] . " In i ts p r e - Is l a m i c tr i b a l a n d w a r l i k e c o n te x ts it i s th e B e d o u i n w a r r i o r ' s " i n t e m p e r a n c e , " " f i e r c e n e s s , " a n d e v e n s in g le - m in d e d , s e lf - s a c r if ic ia l " h e r o is m ," w h ic h is n o t e th ic a l , i d e o l o g i c a l , o r d e v o ti o n a l , b u t m e r e l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d " a d r e n e r g ic ." T h e r e w a s th u s th is e a r l i e r u n d e r l y i n g s e n s e to th e n e w Is la m i c a b s tr a c ti o n a n d c o n c e p tu a l i z a ti o n o f al- j d h iliy ah f o r it, a s te r m , to h a v e b e c o m e f u l l y m e a n i n g f u l a s p e r i o d i z a ti o n . A f te r a l l, " I s l a m " ( is la m ) d i d n o t m e a n k n o w l e d g e /g n o s i s to h a v e p r o d u c e d a s its a n to n y m n o n - k n o w l e d g e / i g n o r a n c e / a g n o s is . Is l a m w a s " s u b m i s s i o n , " a n d s u b m i s s i o n w a s n o t th e r e to a b r o g a te " i g n o r a n c e ." If i ts o p p o s i te w a s i n d e e d j a h l , th a t j a h l o f " n o n - s u b m i s s i o n ," o n c e a g a i n , d id n o t m e a n i g n o r a n c e . T h e r e h a d to h a v e ta k e n p l a c e , th e r e f o r e , a s e m a n ti c c i r c u m v e n ti o n . In a s m u c h a s is lam h a d a n a l m o s t s y n o n y m i c r e l a ti o n s h i p to a n o th e r A r a b ic c u l tu r a l k e y te r m , th a t o f h ilm ( " f o r b e a r a n c e ," " i n d u l g e n c e ," " d i s c e r n m e n t," " g r a v i t y ," " s o b r i e t y " ) , w h i c h w a s a n o b je c t o f f u l l, p o s i ti v e c o - o p ta ti o n b y th e Is l a m i c e th o s , a n d i n a s m u c h a s th is h ilm w a s th e tr u e a n to n y m o f j a h l , th i s l e g i ti m a te l y s y ll o g is ti c e q u a ti o n w a s c a p a b l e o f p r o d u c i n g th e g r a s p a b l e b i n a r y o p p o s i ti o n a n d s e m a n ti c a n to n y m y b e tw e e n is lam a n d j a h l— s u b m is s io n an d n o n - s u b m is s i o n — a n d , u l ti m a te ly , th e te r m i n o l o g i c a l a n ti p o s i ti o n b e tw e e n Is l a m , th e c r e e d , a n d a l - Ja h i l i y a h , th e n o n - c r e e d . T h u s j a h l/j d h iliy a h h a d to h av e b een a s i n g u la r l y i m p o r ta n t c o n c e p t ( o r s ta te ) i n a r c h a i c B e d o u i n i ty to h a v e d e s e r v e d s u c h a s tu p e n d o u s " t r a n s f e r " in to i ts n e w te r m i n o l o g i c a l p r o m i n e n c e — a n d i n to i ts p a r a d o x i c a l s e m i o ti c s e lf - d e n i a l . W e m u s t, th e r e f o r e , e n te r ta i n th e s tr o n g n o ti o n th a t its d e n i a l b y th e n e w A r a b ia th a t e m e rg e d w i th Is l a m a l s o m e a n t A r a b i a ' s d e n ia l o f m y th a s its c u l tu r a l , a u to c h th o n y - d e f i n i n g i n g r e d ie n t. F o r m y th , a l l m y th — th e e p i c s i t e n g e n d e r s a n d th o s e f r o m w h i c h it n o u r i s h e s i ts e l f — n o t ju s t A r a b i a n m y th , is h a r d l y c o n c e i v a b l e w i th o u t th e p r e s e n c e o f j a h l s o m e w h e r e n e a r its v e r y c o r e . T h is j a h l , h o w e v e r , a l s o in its a r c h a i c A r a b i c u n d e r s ta n d i n g , is a b o v e a ll th a t k in d o f h e r o is m th a t a l s o c o n ta i n s its o w n tr a g ic f la w . R e c la im in g A r a b ia n M y th 7 T h e p r e - Is l a m i c B a ttl e D a y s o f th e A r a b s ( A y y am a l - cA r a b ) w e r e in th e A r a b i c te r m in o l o g ic a l s e n s e p a r a d i g m a ti c m a n i f e s ta ti o n s o f j a h l. It is in s u c h D a y s th a t th e w a r f a r e b e tw e e n tw o b r o th e r l y tr ib e s , th e B a n u B a k r a n d th e B a n u T a g h l ib , f in d s its le g e n d a r y , e p ic , a n d e v e n m y th i c e x p r e s s i o n . B e g u n w ith th e s l a y i n g o f th e S h e - C a m e l o f B a s u s o f th e B a n u B a k r a n d th e c o u n te r - s l a y i n g o f K u la y b , th e i m p e r i o u s l e a d e r o f th e B a n u T a g h li b , th e b l o o d y f r a tr ic id a l a n i m o s i ty c o n ti n u e s f o r f o r ty y e a r s , p r o v i d i n g o n e o f th e m o s t f e r tile s o u r c e s f o r th e lo r e o f j a h l . n T h e m y th i c a n d s tr o n g l y a r c h e ty p a l a s p e c t o f th e W a r o f B a s u s is u n d e r s c o r e d f u r th e r b y th e v e r y s e m a n ti c s a n d s e m i o ti c s i n h e r e n t in th e n a m e s o f th e tw o w a r r i n g s id e s , th e [ B a n u ] B a k r a n d th e [ B a n u ] T a g h lib . A c c o r d i n g to tr ib a l g e n e a lo g y , th e y a r e th e d e s c e n d a n ts o f th e e p o n y m i c s o n s o f W a ’ il, h i m s e l f a n e p o n y m i c p r o g e n ito r . In th e a r c h e ty p a l s e n s e , h o w e v e r , w h a t w e u l ti m a te l y c o m e to k n o w o f th e tw o r e s p e c ti v e tr ib e s a n d th e i r f o u n d e r s r e v e a ls i ts e l f to u s f ir s t o f a ll th r o u g h th e m e a n i n g s o f th e e p o n y m o u s tr ib a l n a m e s : B a k r a n d T a g h lib . A n d th e e s s e n c e o f th e i r l e g e n d a r y f r a tr ic i d a l w a r o f f o r ty y e a r s s h o u l d a ls o e m e rg e as s y m b o l i c a l l y r e la te d to th e ir n a m e s . F o r in a r c h e ty p a l te r m s , B a k r, th e “ e ld e r ," th a t is , lite r a lly , " t h e f i r s t- b o r n s o n ," th e o n e e n d o w e d w i th th e p r i v i l e g e s o f p r i m o g e n i tu r e ( tr a n s la te d in th e A r a b ia n s e n s e in to p r i v i l e g e d p a s tu r e g r o u n d s ) , is c h a l l e n g e d a n d o v e r p o w e r e d b y h i s y o u n g e r b r o th e r T a g h lib . In s y m b o l ic te r m s th i s is b o r n e o u t b y th e n a m e o f th e s e c o n d - b o m , T ag h lib , w h i c h in p e r s o n a l te r m s m e a n s " y o u s h a ll p r e v a i l ," a n d , w i th r e f e r e n c e to th e tr ib e , " it s h a ll p r e v a i l ." It is h e r e th a t th e m y th i c a l Ja c o b a n d E s a u a r c h e ty p e o f s u c c e s s i o n - a n d - f o u n d a ti o n f in d s its f u lf il lm e n t. O f th e tw o b r o th e r s / tr i b e s , th r o u g h th e ir w a r s o f m y th i c a l c h a r a c te r i s ti c s , s u c h a s th e W a r o f B a s u s o f f o r ty y e a r s ' d u r a ti o n , th e y o u n g e r o f th e tw o i n h e r ito r s o f th e p a tr im o n y o f th e p r o g e n i to r W a 5il s h a l l b e " v i c to r i o u s " : t a g h l i b } 2 A s f o r W a ’ il h i m s e l f , h i s n a m e , to o , is s y m b o l i c a l l y s i g n if ic a n t. O n th e o n e h a n d it a p p r o a c h e s b e i n g A b r a h a m ic in its m e a n i n g o f " r e f u g e , " w h i l e o n th e o th e r h a n d it i m p r i n ts o n its e p o n y m i c b e a r e r a m a r k o f tr a g e d y b y a ls o m e a n i n g " a g r e a t c a l a m ity ." A m o n g M u h a m m a d 's o w n w a r lik e a c tiv itie s , s till a t th e d iv id e b e tw e e n th e p r e - Is la m ic a n d Is la m ic p e r io d s , th e B a ttle o f B a d r a n d th e B a ttle o f U h u d — e a c h o n e in its o w n w a y , a n d e a c h o n e d e p e n d in g o n th e p e r s p e c tiv e a s s u m e d , w h e th e r th a t o f th e n e w c o - o p ta tio n - th r o u g h - in v e r s io n o f j a h l o r th a t o f its u n to u c h e d in h e rite d 8 M u h a m m a d a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h m e a n i n g — w e r e , r e s p e c tiv e ly , e ith e r th e la s t a c ts o f p r e - Is l a m i c j ah l, o r th e f ir s t a c ts o f i ts d e n ia l. In th e B a ttle o f B a d r, d u e to u n u s u a l h e r o i s m o f e p ic p r o p o r tio n , o r, a c c o r d in g to th e n e w in te r p r e tiv e p e r s p e c tiv e , d u e to d iv in e i n te r v e n tio n , th e s m a ll h o s t o f M u h a m m a d a c h ie v e d a s ta r tli n g v ic to r y o v e r a n u m e r i c a lly o v e r p o w e r i n g a r m y o f th e s till " u n b e l i e v i n g " M e c c a n Q u r a y s h . Jah l, th e n , w a s o n th e M u s l i m s id e , i f v ie w e d f r o m th e s id e o f th e M e c c a n u n b e lie v e r s . In th e B a ttl e o f U h u d , h o w e v e r , th o s e o n c e - d e f e a te d Q u ray sh a v e n g e d th e m s e l v e s w i th a f e r o c ity th a t o n l y th e p u r e s t j a h l c o u ld h a v e i n d u c e d .13 Ig n a z G o l d z i h e r , in h i s e x c u r s u s o n " W h a t is M e a n t b y a l- Ja h i l i y y a ," u n d e r s to o d a l - Ja h i lly a h a s d e n o ti n g th e A r a b ia n " ti m e o f b a r b a r i s m " a n d , e s p e c ia lly in its p r i m a r y te r m in o lo g ic a l s e n s e , a s n o t a t a ll b e i n g th e tim e o f a n o n d e s c r i p t " i g n o r a n c e ." H e s a w f u r th e r m o r e th a t, i n a s m u c h a s j a h l is o p p o s e d te r m in o lo g ic a lly a s w e l l a s b r o a d l y s e m a n ti c a l l y to h ilm , th e a d je c tiv a l j a h i l — to h i m th e te r m i n o l o g i c a l e q u i v a le n t o f " b a r b a r i a n " — w o u l d th u s b e th e a n t onym o f th e e q u a l l y a d je c tiv a l e p ith e t h allm , w h i c h h e p r o p o s e d s h o u l d b e u n d e r s to o d a s " w h a t w e c a ll a c iv iliz e d m a n ." 14 U lti m a te ly , h o w e v e r , th is " b a r b a r i a n " / " c i v i l i z e d " a n ti p o s itio n is to G o l d z i h e r n o t a n a n ti p o s i tio n in th e s e n s e o f a m u tu a l ly e x c lu d in g , o r r e p e llin g , p o l a r iz a tio n ; f o r h e r e c o g n iz e s th a t, p r e c is e ly a s j a h l a n d h ilm f o r m p a r t o f th e p r e - Is l a m i c A r a b p e r s o n a l a n d c o m m u n a l e th o s , b o th q u a l i tie s , to g e th e r, b le n d in q u i te e q u a l m e a s u r e in to th e B e d o u i n f o r m a tio n o f th e v ie w o f th e h e r o ic — f o r w h i c h a n o th e r e a r ly te r m , th a t o f " m a n l i n e s s " ( m u r iiw ah ) , th e n e m e r g e s ( a n d is d u ly r e c o g n iz e d b y G o ld z ih e r ) a s a f ig u r a l g a lv a n i z e r a n d a n e m b o d i m e n t. W i th s o m e h e s ita ti o n in th e f a c e o f a p o s s ib l e s o c io - id e o lo g ic a l a n a c h r o n i s m , a l b e it w i th a p p r e c i a tio n o f its b a s i c a n a ly tic a l c o r r e c t n e s s , w e h a v e , th e r e f o r e , to r is e a b o v e G o l d z i h e r 's b a r b a r i a n / c i v i l i z e d , n o t e n ti r e l y f e l i c i to u s d i c h o to m i z i n g o f th e p r e - Is l a m i c B e d o u i n h e r o ic p e r s o n a in to " b a r b a r i a n " a n d " c i v i l i z e d ." Ja h l a n d h ilm , a n d th e i r i n te r tw in e d h e r o i c c o e x i s te n c e in a n i m p l i e d m u r iiw ah , c o m e to th e f o r e in th e f o l l o w i n g e a r l y a n o n y m o u s lin e s : A l th o u g h I b e in n e e d o f c ir c u m s p e c t io n ( h ilm ) , O f fie r c e n e s s ( jah l) I a m a t ti m e s in g re a te r n e e d . I d o n o t f a n c y f ie r c e n e s s a s b o s o m f rie n d a n d f e l l o w , B u t f re e re i n I d o g i v e it w h e n in s tra i ts . S h o u l d p e o p l e [o th e r w a rri o rs ] s ay , 'I n th is th e re i s a c c o m m o d a ti o n / R e c la im in g A r a b ia n M y th T h e y ' d s p e a k th e tru th : A b a s e m e n t is m o s t f o u l to o n e b o m f re e . A h o rs e I h a v e f o r c ir c u m s p e c t io n w i th c ir c u m s p e c t io n b ri d l e d . S a d d l e d w i th fie r c e n e s s , f o r fie r c e n e s s , I h a v e a n o th e r h o rs e . T o h i m th a t w i s h e s m e u n b e n d i n g , u n b e n d i n g I s h a l l b e , B u t if h e w a n ts m e c ro o k e d , th e re 's c ro o k e d n e s s in m e ! 15 W e k n o w j a h l f r o m o th e r m y th o l o g i c a l , e p ic - h e r o i c , a n d l e g e n d a r y s o u r c e s a b u n d a n tl y w e ll . T h u s in th e Iliad ' s T r o ja n W a r b o th A c h i ll e s a n d H e c to r r e p r e s e n t j a h l. T h e " w r a th o f A c h i l l e s " w a s j a h l. H i s m a d r u n a r o u n d th e w a l l s o f T ro y in p u r s u i t o f H e c to r w a s j a h l. In d e e d , th e e n tir e T r o ja n W a r w a s a m a g n i f i c e n t m a n i f e s ta ti o n o f j a h l . In th e E u r o p e a n m e d i a e v a l e p i c , s c e n e s o f j a h l a r e th o s e p o e m s ' tr u e m y th i c r e s i d u e . T h e c o m b a t a n d d e a th s c e n e s in th e N ib e lu n g e n li e d — e s p e c i a l l y th o s e o f th e d e a th o f S i e g f r ie d , G u n th e r , a n d H a g e n — w i l l b e u n d e r s to o d b e s t th r o u g h a n u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f j a h l. T h e b a ttl e a t R o n c e s v a l l e s in th e C h an s o n d e R o lan d o f f e r s a n a l m o s t s i n g le - m i n d e d f o c u s o n th e p s y c h o l o g y a n d th e e th o s o f j a h l . T h e S o n g o f I g o r a n d th e p a th o s o f I g o r ' s h o s t' s d e f e a t b y th e P o l o v c i a n s w i th th a t p r i n c e ' s h e r o ic e s c a p e a r e th a t e p i c ' s tw o f a c e s o f j a h l. A b o v e a l l, m o s t c l o s e l y q u a l if i e d a s j a h l e v e n te r m i n o lo g i c a ll y w a s th e N o r s e " b e r s e r k e r r a g e ," th e a b i li ty o f N o r s e f ig h te r s to r a is e th e m s e l v e s to a l m o s t s u p e r h u m a n l e v e ls o f s tr e n g th a n d f r e n z ie d f u r y in b a ttle . T o d a y j a h l is o n l y k n o w n to u s a s th e m o m e n ta r i l y tr ig g e r e d , u n g r a s p a b l e , a n d u n c o n tr o l l a b l e s ta te in i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s u n d e r s p e c ia l c o n d i ti o n s o f d a n g e r a n d s tr e s s . It is m o s t c o n s i s te n tl y e x p e r i e n c e d in s p o r ts , w h e r e it m a y b e r e f e r r e d to a s " b e i n g in a p h a s e ." R e g a r d le s s o f th e f li p p a n c y m e d iu m , in p r e s e n t- d a y s c ie n c e o f its n e w te l e v i s i o n f ic tio n jah l w a s c o r r e c tly i d e n ti f ie d a s a n a r c h e ty p e a n d a n e w m y th in th e s to r y / p h e n o m e n o n o f th e " w r a t h " o f th e In c r e d i b l e H u l k , th e m a n w h o m u ta te s m e ta b o l i c a l l y w h e n p o s s e s s e d b y ir e , r e a c h i n g h e i g h ts o f p o w e r a n d s iz e . H a v i n g n o u s e f o r th e m y th - f o r m i n g c a p a c i ty o f j a h l , th e n e w e th o s a n d o r d e r o f Is la m s a w its s ta te s a s d a n g e r o u s , u n p r e d i c t a b l e , a n d u n g o v e r n a b l e . In m o r a l te r m s j a h l w a s th u s u n d e r s to o d c o r r e c tly , a l b e i t s till in th e a n c i e n t tr ib a l m a n n e r , a s th a t q u a l ity th a t s ta n d s o p p o s i te h ilm . N o d o u b t s tr e n g th e n e d b y th a t c o n te x t, 9 M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h 10 th e l a tte r w a s , th e r e f o r e , c o - o p te d w i th d o u b l e z e a l, u n r e s tr i c te d an d u n c h a n g e d , w h i l e th e f o r m e r w a s e x s c i n d e d p s y c h o lo g ic a l d im e n s io n , a n d a s e th o s a n d i ts ti m e c o n d e m n e d to re m a in k n o w n , b u t n o t u n d e r s to o d , a s th e Ja h i li y a h . In a m o r e " s t o r i e d , " g e n r e - d e te r m i n e d u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f m y th a n d l e g e n d , o th e r th a n th a t o f " t h e m y th b e h i n d th e w o r d " 16 w h i c h w e h a v e p u r s u e d s o f a r, th e A r a b i a n m e m o r y o f th e p a s t p r o v e d n o t to h a v e b e e n w h o l l y s u b d u e d b y th e n e w c a n o n a f te r a l l — e s p e c i a l l y n o t b y its c o - o p ta ti o n i n to th e n e w c a n o n . S o m e m y th i c m a te r i a l e s c a p e d th a t n e w c a n o n ' s r i g o r a t le a s t v e s tig ia lly . It w a s s ti l l g i v e n to s p e a k o f p o r te n to u s th i n g s g o n e b y , th i n g s th a t h a d re m a in e d a f l o a t i n th e c o l l e c ti v e A r a b i a n m e m o r y , n o t a l w a y s d if f e r e n ti a te d i n th e i r c o m m u n a l p r o p r i e to r s h i p a n d p r o v e n a n c e . S u c h w a s th e n a r r a ti v e m y th i c d e b r i s a s s o c i a te d w i th th e H e b r e w B i b l e , o r w i th th e e v e n v a g u e r s o u r c e s th a t i m a g i n a ti v e l y a n d n a r r a ti v e l y h a d f e d i n to th e H e b r e w B ib le : th e s to r y o f th e F lo o d , th e s to r y o f Jo s e p h , th e S o l o m o n i c m y th i c f l o r i l e g i u m a n d s p r o u t i n g m y th o p o e i a o f th e B il q is l e g e n d ,17 a n d o th e r , l e s s e v o l v e d , o r m e re ly a l l u d e d - to m y th i c a l n a r r a ti v e r e s i d u e s o r i n c i p i e n c i e s . T h e s e , h o w e v e r , p r e c i s e l y th r o u g h th e ir n a r r a ti v e s ti n g i n e s s , i f n o t a l to g e th e r i n a d e q u a c y , to o k c a r e to r e m in d u s th a t in its r e c e s s e s , o u ts i d e i ts " t e x t , " th e A r a b i a n c o l l e c ti v e m e m o r y m u s t h a v e r e ta i n e d m u c h m o r e th a n i t c a r e d , o r w a s a l lo w e d , to re te ll. In th e " t e x t " i ts e l f , A r a b i a n m y th l iv e d m o s tl y in e c h o e s a n d o f f e c h o e s . T h e p r o b l e m w i th a n u m b e r o f th e s e n u c l e i o f m y th w a s th a t i n th e i r s u r v i v a l in th e n e w c o d e , th a t i s , th r o u g h th e ir c o - o p ta ti o n b y th e Q u r ’ a n ( a n d th e s u b s e q u e n t d o g m a ti z i n g tr a d i ti o n ) , th e y w e r e p u t to th e s e r v i c e o f a r h e to r i c th a t w a s a l m o s t i n i m i c a l to " n a r r a t i v e " i t s e l f — th i s d e s p i te th e q u r ’ a n i c c l a i m th a t th e r e th e y a r e b e i n g to ld in th e b e s t o f n a r r a ti v e w a y s . T h a t i s , in th e Q u r ’ a n , n a r r a ti v e , a n d i n d e e d e v e r y th i n g e ls e , is s u b o r d i n a te d to th e o v e r a r c h i n g r h e to r i c o f s a l v a ti o n a n d d a m n a ti o n .18 T h u s in th e S u r a o f th e C a v e ( 1 8 ) , a f te r a n a r r a ti v e l y c h a o ti c i n tr o d u c ti o n ( w . 9 - 1 2 ) to th e s to r y o f th e S l e e p e r s o f E p h e s u s — w h i c h is d u e p r e c i s e l y to th a t s to r y ' s to ta l s u b o r d i n a ti o n to p o s e s — w e a r e to ld a n ti n a r r a ti v e r h e to r ic a l p u r th a t " W e r e la te to y o u th e ir [ th e S l e e p e r s '] s to r y [ n e w s ] i n tr u th : th e y w e r e y o u th s w h o b e l i e v e d in th e i r L o r d , a n d w e in c r e a s e d th e m in g u i d a n c e " (v . 1 3 ) . V e r s e s 1 4 - 1 5 , a n d m o s t o f v e r s e 1 6 , th e n m e r e l y p e r p e tu a te th e n a r r a ti v e d is r u p tio n th r o u g h i n d o c tr i n a ti n g r h e to r i c , a n d o n l y v e r s e s 1 7 - 2 2 r e tu r n u s to th e s t o r y — a n d th e r e , to o , in m o s t u n e v e n w a y s . A l to g e th e r th e R e c la im in g A r a b ia n M y th n a r r a tiv e is s o s tr o n g ly p u n c tu a te d w i th th e r h e to r i c o f a d m o n i tio n th a t its f lo w m a y o n l y b e p i e c e d to g e th e r a g a i n s t th e g r a i n o f its r h e to r i c .19 In th e S u r a o f T a h a ( 2 0 ) , w h i c h r e te ll s th e s to r y o f M o s e s a t le n g th , th a t n a r r a ti v e c o n c l u d e s : " T h u s d o w e n a r r a te to y o u s o m e s to r i e s [ n e w s ] o f w h a t h a p p e n e d b e f o r e , f o r w e h a v e b r o u g h t to y o u f r o m u s r e m e m b r a n c e " (v . 9 9 ) . T h i s is th e n f o l l o w e d b y v e r s e s o f a d m o n i to r y r h e to r i c a n d e s c h a to l o g i c a l d r a m a , o n ly to b e s tr u c tu r a l l y r e p e a te d , s till in th e s a m e s u r a , in th e " s t o r y " o f A d a m a n d S a ta n , a n d e n d i n g in a n a d m o n i ti o n o f th e n e c e s s i ty o f " g u i d a n c e " ( w a m an ih t ad d ) (v . 1 3 5 ) . T h e s to r y o f M o s e s is to l d a g a i n in th e S u r a o f th e H e i g h ts ( 7 ) , f o ll o w e d b y a s i m i l a r r e f e r e n c e to , o r a d m i tta n c e o f , th e v i r tu e o f s to r y te l l i n g , a l th o u g h th e r e i t is , m o r e th a n a n y th i n g e ls e , a c u r i o u s r e f r a i n to th e s tr ic tly p r o v e r b i a l " e x a m p l e " o f " t h e d o g w i th th e l o ll i n g to n g u e " (v . 1 7 6 ) . R a r e ly d o w e s e n s e in th e Q u r ’ a n a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t a n d s e l f - ju s tif y in g jo y in s to r y te ll i n g ; i n d e e d , ra re ly , i f a t a ll, d o e s th e Q u r ’ a n a l lo w f o r th e f o r m a ti o n o f " t h e m e s " in th e l i te r a r y te r m i n o lo g i c a l u n d e r s ta n d i n g , th a t is , o f d e s c r ip ti v e ( o r i m a g i s t) u n i ts th a t p o s s e s s th e ir o w n f o r m a l a n d th e m a ti c c i r c u m s c r ip ti o n a n d " s u f f i c i e n c y " an d a r e n o t in tr u d e d upon by a s ty li s ti c a l ly d i s r u p ti v e r h e to r i c . R a th e r th a n " t h e m e s " in th e lite r a r y s e n s e , th e Q u r ’ a n , th e r e f o r e , k n o w s p r i m a r i l y r h e to r i c a l ly s u b o r d i n a te d m o ti f s .20 A n e x c e p tio n to th is is th e S u r a o f Y u s u f ( 1 2 ) , w h i c h p r e s e n ts a s u s ta in e d s to ry , e v e n i f it, to o , is in te r s p e r s e d w i th p r e d i c ta b l e , a n d s ty li s ti c a l ly e n tir e ly Q u r ’ a n - s p e c i f ic , a d m o n i ti o n s a n d " s e l f e x e g e ti c a l " i n te r je c tio n s . F u r th e r m o r e , it is n o t to ld a c c o r d i n g to th e n a r r a ti v e m o d e l o f th e H e b r e w v e r s i o n . U n l i k e th e la tte r , th e q u r ’ a n ic r e n d iti o n is n o t a n i d e o l o g y - s a tu r a te d p r e te n s e o f tr ib a l h is to r y , a n d , f o r th a t r e a s o n , it is m o r e d e ta c h e d a n d m o r e a r c h e t y p a l — a n d th u s c l o s e r to m y th .21 It is in th i s s to r y a l o n e ( p e r h a p s w i th th e e x c e p ti o n o f o n e v e r s e in th e s to r y o f th e S l e e p e r s o f th e C a v e [v . 1 9 ] ) th a t th e s e n s e o f th e " jo y o f s to r y te l l i n g " is p e r c e i v e d in th e Q u r ’ a n . W ith a t le a s t a n i n te r n a l q u r ’ a n ic ju s ti f i c a ti o n , th e r e f o r e , its v e r s e 3 o p e n s th e n a r r a ti o n : " W e n a r r a te to y o u th e m o s t b e a u ti f u l o f s to r ie s . . ." ( n ah n u n aq u s s u calay k a a h s an a l- q as as i) . It is th e n n o t s u r p r i s in g th a t in th e c l o s u r e o f th e q u r ’ a n ic Jo s e p h s to r y (v . I l l ) , to o , w e s h o u l d b e g iv e n a n o th e r o b s e r v a ti o n o n th e v ir tu e o f " s t o r y t e l l i n g " — th a t, w h e n a ll is to ld , a n a r r a ti v e s e l f r e f le c ti o n s h o u l d b e p e r c e iv e d a s n e c e s s a r y : " T h e r e is , in th e ir s to r ie s , i n s tr u c ti o n f o r th o s e e n d o w e d w i th u n d e r s ta n d i n g . It is n o t a ta le i n v e n te d , b u t a c o n f i r m a ti o n o f w h a t w e n t b e f o r e . . . . " 11 12 M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h D e s p i te th e n a r r a ti v e i n c o n s i s te n c y o f th e Q u r ’ a n , w e m u s t n e v e r th e l e s s r e c o g n i z e i ts u n f l a g g in g , a l m o s t c o m p e n s a to r y c a p a c i ty to g e n e r a te te x tu a l l y s e c o n d a r y n a r r a ti v e m y th o p o e i a . O f th i s e x p a n s i v e c o r p u s o f A r a b i c " n e o m y th o g r a p h y ," a m o s t i n tr ig u i n g e p i s o d e is th a t o f th e A r a b i a n " g o l d e n b o u g h " w h i c h th e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d — a s c o n s i s te n tl y r e to l d i n th e c o n te x t o f th e d i s s e n s i o n - r i d d e n m a r c h o n T a b u k — u n e a r th e d f r o m th e g r a v e o f th e l a s t s u r v i v o r o f th e d i v i n e d e s tr u c ti o n o f th e T h a m u d . O n e s o u r c e o f th i s e p i s o d e ' s a l l u r e is th e n a r r a to l o g i c a l c h a l l e n g e o f r e c o n s tr u c ti n g th e m y th f r o m th e b r i e f e s t o f h a d it h - r e f e r e n c e s a n d th e ir r e c o n te x tu a l i z a ti o n ; a n o th e r is th e d i s c o v e r y o f a m y th th a t i n c o r p o r a te s th e B i o g r a p h y ( S ir a h ) o f th e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d in to a u to c h th o n o u s A r a b i a n m y th ; a n d , f in a lly , th e r e is its c o m p e ll i n g c o m p a r a ti v e m y th o g r a p h i c p o te n ti a l . 1 T he T ex t u al P u z z le f l In its o w n ta n g le o f m y th a n d l e g e n d , w h i c h is n o l e s s d e n s e a n d d a r k th a n th e " b o u n d l e s s f o r e s t" th a t la y b e f o r e V e r g il 's A e n e a s o n h i s r o a d to w h e r e h is g o l d e n b o u g h s h o n e o u t a m id th e b r a n c h e s o f th e tw o f o l d tr e e ,1 th e r e l ie s b u r i e d to g e th e r w i th th e l a s t a n c i e n t T h a m u d e a n th e m y s te r i o u s A r a b i c r e f e r e n c e to a " g o l d e n b o u g h ." In its te x tu a l la te n c y , it is o n l y b a r e l y g le a n a b l e f r o m s u c h c l a s s i c a l A r a b ic s o u r c e s a s a l - T a b a r i 's ( d . 3 1 0 / 9 2 3 ) C o m m e n t ar y o n t h e Q u r ’ an , Ib n K a t h i r ' s ( d . 7 7 4 / 1 3 7 3 ) T h e B e g in n in g an d t he E n d a s w e ll a s h is T h e S t o r ie s o f t h e P r o p h e t s , a l - T h a cl a b i ' s ( 4 2 7 / 1 0 3 5 - ? ) T h e B o o k o f t h e S t o r ie s o f t h e P r o p h e t s , a n d f i n a l l y — o r f i r s tl y — f r o m its " v a l i d a ti n g ," b u t e n tir e ly d e c o n te x tu a l iz e d a n d n a r r a tiv e l y b a r e , h ad it h ( p r o p h e ti c tr a d i tio n s ) l o c u s .2 In s p ite o f th e p a r s i m o n y o f n a r r a tiv e c o n te x t in th e A r a b ic r e f e r e n c e s to th a t g o ld e n b o u g h , h o w e v e r ,— a p a r s i m o n y w h i c h is a ls o c h a r a c te r i s tic o f th e s ty le o f th e " s a y i n g s " a n d " a c t s " a ttr i b u te d to th e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( h a d i t h /s u n n a h an d ak h b d r ) — w h a t e m e r g e s o u t o f s u c h i s o la te d , i f n o t a l to g e th e r tr u n c a te d , A r a b ic te x ts is n e v e r th e le s s th e s tr ik i n g , p u z z l e - l ik e d e ta c h m e n t a n d n a r r a tiv e u n s e l f c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f th e m a n n e r in w h i c h th e te r m " g o l d e n b o u g h ," i.e ., g h u s n u n m in d h ah a b in , is s p e lle d o u t. In th e A r a b ic s o u r c e s th e " s t o r y " in th e s e m i n im a l i s ti c r e f e r e n c e s to s u c h a n a r c a n e o b je c t is a s f o llo w s : A s th e P r o p h e t M u h am m ad in o n e o f h is m i l ita r y c a m p a i g n s w a s o n th e r o a d to T a b u k , w h i c h a t th a t tim e w a s th e s o u th e r n m o s t B y z a n tin e o u t p o s t in A r a b i a , h e p a s s e d b y th e a n c i e n t a l - H i jr o f th e T h a m u d , a n d a s e r ie s o f s to r i e s /h a d i t h s c o n n e c te d to th e tr a g i c f a te o f th e T h a m u d a n d to th e i r c i ty w a s to ld . A m o n g th e s e th e r e w a s o n e M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h 14 w h i c h th e P r o p h e t h i m s e l f v o l u n te e r e d , a n d w h i c h c o m e s p h r a s e d i n a n a r r a ti v e l y p r o v o c a ti v e , s ty l i s ti c a l l y q u i te " f o l k l o r i c " m a n n e r .3 It g o e s th a t, a s M u h a m m a d p a s s e d b y a g r a v e , h e h a l te d a n d s a id to th o s e a r o u n d h im , " D o you kno w w h a t th i s i s ? " a n d th e y a n s w e r e d , " O n l y G o d a n d h i s P r o p h e t k n o w f o r c e r ta i n ." " T h i s , " he re p lie d a n s w e rin g h i s o w n q u e s ti o n , " i s th e g r a v e o f A b u R i g h a l [ R u g h a l ] ." B u t th e y s a i d , " A n d w h o is A b u R i g h a l ? " " A m a n o f th e T h a m u d ," r e p l i e d h e . " H e w a s in G o d ' s s a n c tu a r y , w h ic h p r o te c te d h im fro m G o d 's p u n is h m e n t, b u t w h e n h e s te p p e d o u ts i d e it, th e r e s m o te h i m p e o p le . H e w a s b u rie d th a t w h i c h h a d s m itte n h i s i n th is v e r y p l a c e ,4 a n d w i th h i m w as b u r i e d a b o u g h o f g o l d ! " A t th i s th e P r o p h e t' s c o m p a n i o n s d is m o u n te d a n d h a s te n e d to d i g o p e n th e g r a v e w i th th e ir s w o r d s , a n d th e y b r o u g h t u p th e b o u g h .5 B u t, w h e r e a s th e " g o l d e n b o u g h " te x ts in a l - T a b a r i a n d Ib n K a th i r e n d h e r e , th e te x t o f a l - T h a cl a b i ' s m o r e n a r r a ti v e w o r k c o n ti n u e s : " T h e n th e P r o p h e t m u f f l e d h i s f a c e in h i s c l o a k a n d h u r r i e d o n i n h i s m a r c h til l h e h a d c r o s s e d th e v a l l e y ." 6 A n i n f e r e n c e o f a w e r e m a i n s i n th e a i r a f te r th e b r i e f s to r y is th u s to ld , p l a n ti n g i n th e r e a d e r ' s m i n d a n a w a r e n e s s th a t it h a s to u c h e d upon s o m e p o r te n to u s e v e n ts , a n d th a t th e g o l d e n b o u g h is s o m e h o w th e s i g n o f th e m y s te r y s u r r o u n d i n g th o s e e v e n ts . S u c h a s c e n e r e a p p e a r s a l s o i n th e i n c i d e n t o f th e r i n g w h i c h o n e o f th e T a b u k r a i d e r s f i n d s i n th e r u i n s o f a l- H ijr . M u h a m m a d o r d e r s h im to th r o w th e r i n g b a c k , c o v e r s h i s e y e s , a n d tu r n s a w a y in m y s te r i o u s a w e .7 T h i s b r i n g s u s to th e b r o a d e r c o n te x tu a l i z a ti o n o f th e A r a b ic " s u r p r i s e " o f th e g o ld e n b o u g h . V ie w e d p r o p e r ly , th e r e a re tw o c o n te x ts to b e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t. T h e m o r e i m m e d i a te c o n te x t is th a t o f th e ti m e a n d th e c i r c u m s ta n c e in w h i c h th e f in d i n g o f th e g o l d e n b o u g h o c c u r s in th e s o u r c e s , th a t is , th e e v e n ts o f th e l a s t m i l i ta r y e x p e d i ti o n l e d b y M u h a m m a d p e r s o n a l ly , w h i c h is th e r a id o n T a b u k ( 9 / 6 3 0 ) . It w a s d u r i n g th a t r a id th a t M u h a m m a d a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s p a s s e d b y th e o ld N a b a ta e a n - T h a m u d i c m o r tu ary c i ty o f a l - H i jr / M a d a T n S a li h . B u t w e s h a ll n o t b e a b le to u n d e r s ta n d th e m e a n i n g o f th e A r a b i a n g o ld e n b o u g h in th a t c o n te x t a l o n e w i th o u t f ir s t r e a c h i n g f u r th e r b a c k in to th e p r e - Is l a m i c a n d p r e - A r a b — a l th o u g h n o t n o n - A r a b i a n — p a s t o f th e p e o p l e o f T h a m u d a n d o f th e ir c i ty o f a l- H ijr , th e d e s tr u c ti o n o f th e p e o p l e a n d o f th e ir c ity , a n d th e c i t y ' s r e b i r th a s M a d a ’ in S a l i h in m y th a n d in p a r a s c r i p tu r a l tr a d i tio n . T h is w ill b e o u r s e c o n d , le s s T h e T e x tu a l P u z z le i m m e d i a te , a l th o u g h , a s c o n c e r n s th e r e c o v e r y o f th e m y th i ts e l f , p r i m a r y c o n te x t. T h e o r i g i n a l te x tu a l s a l v a g i n g o f th e m y th o f th e d o w n f a l l o f T h a m u d ta k e s p l a c e in th e Q u r ’ a n , w h e r e th e r e a r e n o l e s s th a n tw e n ty - o n e s u r a s th a t m a k e r e f e r e n c e to th e T h a m u d a s a p e o p l e . A ll o f th e s e r e f e r e n c e s , h o w e v e r , a r e b u i l t i n to th e c o m p r e h e n s i v e r h e to r i c a l q u r ’ a n i c s tr a te g y o f s e r v i n g a s e x e m p la w i th i n th e c y c l i c th e o n o m o u s , r a th e r th a n te m p o r a l , r e a p p e a r a n c e o f r e c a l c i tr a n t n a ti o n s , o f p r o p h e ti c s to r i e s o f i n te r c e s s i o n s a n d w a r n i n g s , a n d o f th e u n f a i l i n g p u n i s h m e n t o f th o s e n a ti o n s o r o f th e i r u tte r d e s tr u c ti o n .8 B e c a u s e o f th e r h e to r i c a l s u b s e r v i e n c e o f th e " m a t t e r " o f T h a m u d in th e Q u r ’ a n , o n l y s c a tte r e d f r a g m e n ts o f it a p p e a r in a n y o n e s e g m e n t o f th a t te x t; a n d , f u r th e r m o r e , o n l y f o u r o f th e f r a g m e n ts e x te n d b e y o n d th e s c o p e o f o n e to th r e e v e r s e s . T h u s th e S u r a o f th e H e i g h ts ( 7 ) c o n ta i n s s e v e n v e r s e s ( v v . 7 3 - 7 9 ) , o f H u d ( 1 1 ) e ig h t (v v . 6 1 - 6 8 ) , o f th e P o e ts ( 2 6 ) e ig h te e n ( w . 1 4 1 - 1 5 8 ) , a n d o f th e M o o n ( 5 4 ) te n (v v . 2 3 - 3 2 ) . A f u r th e r c h a r a c te r i s ti c o f a ll tw e n ty - o n e o f th e q u r ’ a n ic o c c u r r e n c e s o f th e to p i c o f th e T h a m u d is th a t, w i th th e e x c e p tio n o f th e s i n g le - v e r s e r e f e r e n c e s in th e S u r a s o f th e R e p e n ta n c e a n d o f th e P i lg r im a g e , w h i c h a r e o f th e M e d i n a n p e r io d , a ll th e o th e r s a r e th e p r o d u c t o f th e e a r l y M e c c a n , m u c h m o r e s tr o n g ly m y th o p o e i c a l ly s w a y e d i n s p i r a tio n . T h e s to ry , a s it a p p e a r s in its c h a r a c te r i s ti c q u r ’ a n i c d i s jo i n te d n e s s in th e f o u r m a jo r te x ts ( T h e H e i g h ts , H u d , T h e P o e ts , T h e M o o n ) , is te r s e in th e e x tr e m e : in th e i r i n i q u i ty th e p e o p l e o f T h a m u d , w h o h a d o n c e liv e d in o p u l e n c e a m i d s t th e ir g a r d e n s , s p r i n g s , a n d tille d f ie ld s , f e e l i n g s e c u r e in th e ir s k il l f u l l y e x e c u te d , r o c k - h e w n d w e l lin g s , h a d b e l i e d p r e v i o u s a p o s tl e s [ o f w a r n i n g ] , till G o d s e n t to th e m h is " f a i th f u l m e s s e n g e r " S a l ih to a d m o n is h th e m a g a in s t s p r e a d in g " c o r r u p ti o n in th e l a n d " ( 7 :7 4 ; 2 7 :4 8 ) . T h e T h a m u d , h o w e v e r , c a l le d S a li h a s i m p le m o r ta l l ik e th e m s e l v e s , o r a t b e s t o n e " b e w i tc h e d ." T h e y d e m a n d e d o f h i m a " s i g n " o f G o d 's p o w e r , i f h e w e r e in d e e d " o n e o f th e tr u th f u l ." A s s u c h a s ig n , b u t a ls o " a s a tr ia l f o r th e m " ( fit n at an lah u m ) , G o d s e n t to th e T h a m u d a s h e - c a m e l . T h e tr ia l w a s to c o n s i s t o f th is : T h a t th e s h e - c a m e l, w h ic h w a s a ls o th e e x p l i c i t " S h e - C a m e l o f G o d " ( n d q at u A lla h i ) — n o t " t h e S h e - C a m e l o f S a l i h " o f s u b s e q u e n t Is la m ic h e r m e n e u ti c a l a d ju s tm e n t a n d m y th o p o e i a — w a s to h a v e th e r ig h t o f s o le a c c e s s to a ll th e w a te r o f th e T h a m u d o n a l te r n a te d a y s . O n th o s e d a y s th e T h a m u d w o u ld h a v e to w ith h o l d th e ir 15 M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h 16 h e r d s o f c a m e l s [ a n d f l o c k s o f o th e r l iv e s to c k ] f r o m a ll a c c e s s to w a te r a n d a b s ta i n f r o m i t th e m s e l v e s , a w a i ti n g th e i r o w n r e s p e c ti v e a l te r n a te d a y s ; n o r w e r e th e y to to u c h th e s h e - c a m e l w i th h a r m , l e s t p u n i s h m e n t o f " a p o r te n to u s d a y " b e f a l l th e m . B u t th e T h a m u d d id n o t h e e d th e w a r n i n g . T h e y h a m s tr u n g a n d s l e w th e s h e - c a m e l . T h e n e x t d a y th e y w e r e r e m o r s e f u l — b u t to n o a v a il. T h e P r o p h e t S a l i h g a v e th e m r a th e r , to th r e e d a y s ' r e s p ite to p o n d e r , o r " t a k e p l e a s u r e " i n th e ir a b o d e f o r th o s e th r e e d a y s { t a m a t t a cu f i d ar ik u m t h ald t h at a ay y a m in [ 1 1 :6 5 ] ) , a f te r w h i c h a g r e a t " s c r e a m " ( al- s ay h a h ) d e s tr o y e d th e m . S u c h is th e e x te n t o f th e q u r ’ a n i c u s e o f th e m y th o f th e d o w n f a l l o f th e T h a m u d . In d e e d , th e o p a q u e n e s s o f its te x tu a l l y s c a t te r e d s e g m e n ts a l m o s t f a ils to y ie l d a c o m p o s i te n a r r a tiv e . A n d y e t, d e f y i n g i ts o p a c i ty a n d d i s jo i n te d n e s s is i ts e m p l o y i n th e Q u r ’ a n a s a " c l e a r " e x e m p lu m , th u s a s s o m e th i n g w h o s e u n d e r s ta n d i n g is p o s tu l a te d o n th e p r i o r k n o w l e d g e o f s o m e b r o a d e r f r a m i n g s p h e r e o f a n i n v o k e d , b u t n o t e li c i te d , m y th o r le g e n d . T h i s m y th , o r l e g e n d , a s i t is r e c o r d e d in th e v a r i o u s e x ta n t te x ts , i s , h o w e v e r , n o l o n g e r e a s il y d a ta b l e to th e a g e o f p u r e o r a l lo re b e f o r e th e a d v e n t o f Is l a m , f o r it is to b e a s s u m e d th a t a l o n g th e c e n tu r i e s th a t l e d u p to i ts c o l l e c ti o n a n d r e d a c ti o n i t h a s u n d e r g o n e its o w n e v o l u ti o n n o t o n l y a s m y th o p o e i a b u t a ls o as a h e r m e n e u ti c to o l a t th e s e r v i c e o f th e q u r ’ a n i c te x t. It is , th e r e f o r e , o n l y a s s u c h , w i th i n th i s v a g u e c o r r e l a ti o n o f te x tu a l p u r p o s e s , th a t w e f in d e m b e d d e d th e s to r y o f th e A r a b i a n g o ld e n b o u g h : h i d d e n a n e c d o ta l l y w i th i n a m y th . T h e m y th i ts e l f is to ld , o n c e a g a i n i n a m a n n e r t h a t b e g s f o r a c u m u l a ti v e r e te ll in g , in n a r r a ti v e a s w e l l a s in e x e g e ti c s o u r c e s s u c h a s th e C o m m e n t ar y o f a l - T a b a r i , th e c o m p r e h e n s i v e h i s to r y o f " th i n g s f i r s t a n d l a s t," th a t is , T h e B e g in n in g a n d t h e E n d , o f Ib n K a th lr , th e e n c y c l o p a e d i c U lt im at e A s p ir a t io n o f a l - N u w a y r i ( d . 7 3 2 / 1 3 3 2 ) , th e h a g i o g r a p h i c S t o r ie s o f t h e P r o p h e t s o f a l - T h a cl a b i, a n d , l ik e w i s e , in th e T ales o f t h e P r o p h e t s o f a l - K i s a T , a n o t c l e a r l y id e n tif i e d a u th o r w h o m u s t h a v e w r i tte n h i s w o r k s o m e ti m e s h o r tl y b e f o r e a .d . 1 2 0 0 .9 T h e te x tu a l p u z z l e th a t r e s u l ts f r o m th e tw in m y th i c c o n te x ts o f th e A r a b i a n g o l d e n b o u g h — e x te r n a lly , M u h a m m a d 's d is c o r d rid d e n m a r c h o n T a b u k a n d , i n te r n a l l y a s w e l l a s n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l i c itly , th e d e s tr u c ti o n o f th e T h a m u d — b e c o m e s e v e n m o r e c l a m a n t a n d c h a l l e n g i n g b y th e f a c t, in i ts e l f p u z z l in g , th a t m o d em s c h o l a r s h i p h a s e n tir e l y f a i l e d to e v e n m e n ti o n th e A r a b ia n " g o ld e n b o u g h ." 2 T he T ham u dic B ac kdro p to t he P u z z le ■ It is c h a r a c te r i s tic o f a ll o f th e s e " r e c o n s tr u c ti v e " te x ts th a t th e y a r e s u s ta i n e d in a r ig o r o u s l y m y th o l o g i z i n g m o d e , n o t to u c h i n g u p o n th e a c tu a l h i s to r i c i ty o f th e p e o p l e c a l le d T h a m u d , s a v e f o r th e i r n a m e , th e ir s e ttl e m e n t in th e r o c k c i ty o f a l- H ijr , a n d th e i r u l ti m a te to ta l d i s a p p e a r a n c e . A b o v e a ll, w h a t w e a r e n o t g iv e n e v e n to s p e c u l a te a b o u t — e ith e r in th e Q u r ’ a n o r in th e e x tr a - q u r ’ a n i c m y t h — is th e h i s to r i c a l tim e o f th e ir s o jo u r n a n d , e s p e c ia lly , o f th e ir d e s tr u c ti o n . O n ly th e ir m y th r e m a in s , w h i c h is to s a y , o n l y th e a h i s to r ic a l m e a n i n g o f th e ir e x i s te n c e h a s b e e n p r o p e ll e d in to h i s to r ic a l tim e , w ith th e p u r p o s e o f i n te r p r e ti n g o th e r th in g s , n o t its e lf . O n s u c h l e v e ls w e m a y th u s e a s il y e m p a th i z e w i th Ja w a d CA H , th e m o d e r n Ir a q i h i s to r ia n o f p r e - Is l a m i c A r a b ia , a s h e v e n ts h is u n e a s i n e s s w i th th e d is ti n c t a h i s to r i c i ty o f th e p o s tu l a ti o n o f th e T h a m u d i c q u e s ti o n e v i d e n c e d in e x is tin g A r a b ic te x tu a l tr a n s m is s io n . In h i s s e a r c h f o r s u r e f o o te d h i s to r i c ity , h e c a l l s th i s p e r p l e x i n g s ta te o f a f f a ir s " a l a c k o f p e r c e p ti o n f o r e ith e r tim e o r p l a c e . " 1 B u t th e n , a s B e r n a r d F. B a tto r e m a r k s , m y th a ls o " s ta n d s o u ts id e o f tim e a s w e k n o w it a n d s e r v e s a s th e p r in c ip le o r s o u r c e o f s e c u l a r tim e a n d o r d e r ." A n d , a s s u c h , a m y th b e c o m e s " p a r a d i g m a ti c f o r th e s o c ie ty in w h i c h th a t m y th is o p e r a t i v e ." 2 T h e m y th o - q u r ’ a n i c s to r y o f th e T h a m u d d o e s in d e e d p o s s e s s i ts p a r a d i g m a ti c m y th i c a l tim e f r a m e , f o r w e k n o w q u r’ a n ic l i n e a g e s o f p r o p h e ti c c y c le s a n d f ro m th e s e q u e n c e s th a t th e T h a m u d f lo u r is h e d a n d p e r is h e d in th a t tim e o f c y c l ic p o l y th e i s ti c M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h 18 r e b e l l i o n a n d p u n i s h m e n t th a t is f la n k e d r e s p e c ti v e ly b y th e e v e n m o r e e n i g m a ti c , m y th - e n c o d e d , e x p l i c i tl y " a r c h a ic " p e o p le s o f cA d a n d M a d y a n , a n d , a s a s e c o n d a r y m y th o - f r a m e to th o s e tw o ( w e s h o u l d a s s u m e ) , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i th q u r ’ a n i c l in e a g e , b y th e p e o p l e o f N o a h / N u h a t th e h e a d o f a s e p a r a te m y th i c a l lin e a g e a n d b y th o s e o f L o t/ L u t a t th e ta il. O n l y th e n d o e s th e A b r a h a m i c / Ib r a h l m i c m y th o s b e g i n — in th e Q u r ’ a n a s w e l l a s in th e A r a b i c n a r r a ti v e a n d e x e g e ti c m y th o p o e i a — b u t n o t w i th o u t e s ta b lis h in g a lin k a c ro s s p re c e d in g p r o p h e tic c y c l e s w i th th e T h a m u d i c m y th i c m a tr i x . T h u s w e r e a d in th e e a rly , s till h i g h l y m y th o g r a p h i c l a y e r s o f a l - T a b a r i ' s H is t o r y , th a t Is m a cil, th e s o n o f A b r a h a m , is s a i d to h a v e b e e n b u r i e d b e s i d e th e g r a v e o f h i s m o th e r H a g a r i n n o o th e r p l a c e th a n a l - H ijr o f th e T h a m u d .3 T h e s to r y o f th e T h a m u d , e s p e c i a l l y u p to th e o m i n o u s " t r i a l " ( fit n ah ) o f th e s h e - c a m e l , w h i c h a l - K i s a T a n d a l - N u w a y r i r e te ll m o r e e x h a u s ti v e l y th a n th e o th e r m y th o g r a p h e r s , f r e e ly m i x e s a h i g h l y s y n c r e ti c f lo w o f th e n a r r a ti v e w i th w h o l l y d e c o n te x tu a - l i z e d q u o ta ti o n s f r o m th e Q u r ’ a n . It b e g i n s w i th K a n u h , th e h i g h p r i e s t o f th e T h a m u d , a s h e r e c e i v e s th e s i g n s o f th e c o m i n g o f h i s s o n , S a l i h . T h e s c e n e is d i s ti n c tl y o n e o f " a n n u n c i a ti o n ." K a n u h w a s i n th e te m p l e o f th e i d o l s " w h e n th e s e m e n o f S a l i h m o v e d in h is s p in e , g iv in g a g lo w to h i s e y e s . A n d h e h e a r d a v o ic e c a l l i n g : 'T r u th h a s c o m e a n d f a l s e h o o d p e r is h e d ; s u r e l y f a ls e h o o d i s b o u n d to p e r i s h . ' " 4 U p o n h e a r i n g th i s , K a n u h b e c a m e f r i g h t e n e d a n d tu r n e d to th e " s u p r e m e i d o l , " w h i c h s p o k e to h im : " W h y d o y o u tu r n to m e ? O n e l ik e y o u s e r v e s m e , b u t th e e a r th is r a d ia n t w i th th e l i g h t o f y o u r f a c e f o r th e l ig h t w h i c h is in y o u r s p i n e . " 5 T h e n th e i d o l tu m b l e d d o w n f r o m i ts th r o n e , b u t K a n u h , s till n o t g r a s p i n g th e i m p l i c a ti o n s o f th e " c h a n g e o f c o v e n a n ts ," r e - p la c e d i t th e r e .6 W h e n th a t w h i c h h a d o c c u r r e d in th e te m p l e r e a c h e d th e e a r s o f th e k i n g , h e s a n k in to d e e p g l o o m . H is c o u r ti e r s q u i c k l y p u t a ll th e b l a m e o n K a n u h , a c c u s i n g h i m o f b a d s e r v i c e to th e g o d s . T h e k in g w is h e d to k il l K a n u h , b u t G o d h id th e p r i e s t f r o m h is e n e m i e s ' e y e s ; a n d w h e n n i g h t f e ll a n d K a n u h w a s a s le e p , a n g e ls p i c k e d h i m u p a n d d e p o s ite d h i m i n a d i s ta n t v a lle y . T h e r e K a n u h s a w a c a v e i n a m o u n ta i n . H e e n te r e d it to e s c a p e th e r a y s o f th e s u n , a n d s o o n f e ll a s l e e p . H i s s l e e p l a s te d f o r o n e h u n d r e d y e a r s .7 Th e Th am u d n o w c o n s i d e r e d K a n u h lo s t a n d a p p o i n te d a n o th e r h i g h p r i e s t to s e r v e th e ir id o ls . " O n e d a y th e y w e n t o u t to c e l e b r a te o n e o f th e i r f e a s ts , w h e n th e tr e e s a r o u n d th e m s p o k e , T h e T h a m u d ic B a c k d r o p to th e P u z z le s a y in g : ' O r a c e o f T h a m u d , a r e y o u n o t g o in g to g iv e h e e d ? G o d g iv e s y o u a y ie ld o f f r u i ts tw ic e a y e a r , y e t y o u r e n e g e o n h i s b o u n ty a n d w o r s h i p o th e r s th a n h im / A n d l i k e w i s e s p o k e th e c a ttle . B u t th e y [ th e T h a m u d ] tu r n e d o n th e tr e e s a n d c u t th e m d o w n , a n d th e y s le w th e c a ttl e . T h e n th e b e a s ts o f p r e y s p o k e , c a l l in g d o w n f r o m th e to p s o f th e m o u n ta i n s : 'W o e to y o u , O r a c e o f T h a m u d , d o n o t c u t d o w n th o s e tr e e s , n o r s l a u g h te r th e s e c a ttl e , f o r th e y s p o k e th e t r u t h ! ' " 8 a t w h i c h th e T h a m u d s e t o u t w i th th e ir w e a p o n s , a n d th e w i l d b e a s ts f le d b e f o r e th e m . A f te r o n e h u n d r e d y e a r s K a n u h ' s w i f e is v i s i te d b y th e R a v e n o f P a r a d i s e , th e s a m e r a v e n th a t h a d o n c e i n s tr u c te d C a i n o n h o w to b u r y h is b r o th e r A b e l .9 It g u i d e d K a n u h ' s w i f e to th e c a v e a n d b r o u g h t h i m o u t o f h i s s le e p . It w a s th e n th a t K a n u h la y w i th h i s w i f e , a n d s h e c o n c e iv e d S a lih . T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e R a v e n o f P a r a d i s e in th e s to r y o f K a n u h a t th i s p o i n t tu r n s o u r a tte n ti o n to th e A r a b i c s y m b o l i c , m y th i c a l , a n d th e n m a s s i v e l y p o e ti c l o r e o f th a t b ir d a s o n e o f th e A r a b i a n i m a g i n a ti o n 's r ic h e s t p o e tic - e l e g ia c m o ti f s . In a ll its r o le s a n d e x e m p l i f i c a ti o n s , h o w e v e r , th e r a v e n / c r o w ( g h u r ab ) a p p e a r s a s a m e s s e n g e r ; b u t its m e s s a g e s a r e d iv e r s e a n d e v e n p o l a r iz e d . T h u s , w h e r e a s in th e Q u r ’ a n ' s b r i e f l y r e to ld s to r y o f C a i n a n d A b e l th is r a v e n , i ts e l f th e i n h a b i te r o f P a r a d is e a n d c o u r ie r o f G o d ,10 is s e n t o u t to i n s tr u c t a m u r d e r o u s C a i n in th e n e c e s s ity , a n d th u s u l ti m a te l y th e r ite , o f b u r y i n g th e d e a d , in th e T h a m u d i c m y th o p o e i a th is s a m e R a v e n o f P a r a d is e is th e m e s s e n g e r o f r e s u r r e c ti o n , th a t is , o f th e a w a k e n i n g o f K a n u h f r o m h i s c e n tu r y - lo n g s le e p , a n a w a k e n i n g th a t is n o t o n l y a r e tu r n to h is o w n lif e b u t a ls o a n e n g e n d e rin g o f n e w l if e , th a t o f th e P r o p h e t S a l ih . V ie w e d in a lig h te r v e i n , th e R a v e n o f P a r a d is e p l a y s in th e K a n u h s to r y th e r o le o f C u p id . W ith S a l i h i n h e r w o m b , K a n u h 's w i f e r e tu r n e d to th e T h a m u d , a n d , in d u e tim e , o n a F r i d a y o f th e In v io l a b l e , th e f ir s t m o n th o f th e y e a r ( s h ah r al- m u h ar r am ) , th e e a r th tr e m b le d , th e w i ld a n i m a ls f e ll p r o s tr a te , th e id o l s tu m b l e d to th e g r o u n d , a n d S a l i h w a s b o r n . W h e n S a li h r e a c h e d th e a g e o f s e v e n , h e a d d r e s s e d th e T h a m u d a n d m a n i f e s te d to th e m h is l in e a g e . H is p o w e r s w e r e r e c o g n iz e d f ir s t w h e n h e f r e e d h is p e o p le f r o m a n in v a d in g k in g w h o e v e r y s e v e n th y e a r h a d b e e n r a i d i n g th e la n d . S a l i h ' s p o s i ti o n w a s n o w th a t o f s a v i o r a n d r iv a l to th e T h a m u d 's k in g . T h e k in g a t f ir s t i n te n d e d to k ill h i m , b u t, r e a li z in g h i s p o w e r a s " h a l l o w e d ," le t h i m w a l k a m o n g s t h is p e o p l e " v e n e r a te d a n d e x a l t e d . " 11 19 M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h 20 O n l y u p o n r e a c h i n g th e a g e o f f o r ty y e a r s , h o w e v e r , d id S a l i h b e g i n h i s m i s s i o n a s p r o p h e t — a n d th e n v e r y m u c h a s th e p r e c u r s o r o f Is l a m , i .e ., e s ta b l i s h i n g th e " p r o f e s s i o n o f th e f a i th " ( als h a h d d ah ) : " T h e r e is n o g o d b u t G o d , a n d S a l i h is h i s S e r v a n t a n d h i s P r o p h e t." A n d h e r e , to o , b e g a n h i s e x c o r i a ti o n s o f th e p e o p l e 's e v i l s a n d h i s e x h o r ta ti o n s a g a i n s t th o s e w h o " b r i n g c o r r u p ti o n to th e l a n d . " 12 B u t th e T h a m u d d id n o t lis te n o r o b e y — th u s u n t i l S a l i h r e a c h e d s e v e n ty y e a r s o f a g e . T h e n d i v i n e p a ti e n c e r a n o u t. " G o d tu r n e d th e i r w o m e n s te r il e , th e i r tr e e s d r ie d u p a n d d id n o t y ie ld f r u i t, th e i r c o w s d i d n o t c a l v e , a n d th e i r e w e s d id n o t l a m b . " 13 T h e Th am u d r e m a i n e d u n r e p e n ta n t, a n d th e ir d o m a i n w a s tu r n in g i n to a w a s te l a n d . In d e s p a i r o v e r s o m u c h r e c a lc itr a n c e , S a l i h l e f t h i s p e o p l e a n d s e t o u t to w a r d th e w i l d e r n e s s . T h e r e h e r o a m e d o n th e s l o p e s o f a m o u n ta i n u n ti l th e c o m i n g o f e v e n i n g , w h e n h e f o u n d a f o u n ta i n , p e r f o r m e d h i s a b l u ti o n s , p e r f o r m e d a p r a y e r , a n d , l ik e h i s f a th e r b e f o r e h i m , e n te r e d a c a v e . In th e c a v e h e f o u n d a l a m p a n d a g o l d e n b e d d r a p e d in s il k . H e c l i m b e d u p o n th e b e d a n d f e l l a s l e e p f o r f o r ty y e a r s . G o d th e n a w a k e n e d h i m , a n d h e r e tu r n e d to h i s p e o p l e a n d to h i s te m p l e - m o s q u e , w h i c h h a d f a ll e n i n to r u in . T h u s S a lih 's la s t re f o rm in g m is s io n b e g i n s .14 H e f a c e s th e T h a m u d a n d r e n e w s th e s h a h a d a h ; " T h e r e is n o g o d b u t G o d , a n d I a m S a l i h , th e m e s s e n g e r o f G o d " ; a n d o n c e a g a i n th e p e o p l e a re p e r p l e x e d , th e i d o l s f a ll to th e g r o u n d , a n d th e b e a s ts o f b u r d e n s p e a k .15 F a c i n g f u r th e r d e f i a n c e , S a l i h p e r f o r m s a m i r a c l e b y c a u s i n g a w h o l e f a m i l y to d ie in o r d e r to r e s u r r e c t th e m th e r e a f te r . B u t th e p e o p l e ' s r e c a l c i tr a n c e d o e s n o t d i m i n i s h .16 P r o d d e d o n b y Ib l i s , th e T h a m u d c h a l l e n g e d S a li h f u r th e r. T h e y d em an d ed o f h im a m i r a c l e l ik e th o s e p e r f o r m e d b y H u d a n d N o a h .17 S a l i h a g r e e d . T o g e th e r th e y w e n t o u t to a v a l le y w h e r e th e T h a m u d a s k e d th e i r i d o l s f o r a m ir a c l e , a n d w h e r e S a li h w a s to a s k f o r o n e f r o m h i s G o d . T h e i r m ir a c l e s , o r " s i g n s , " f a il e d th e m , h o w e v e r . O f S a l i h th e y r e q u e s te d th e m i r a c l e / " s i g n " o f b r in g i n g a s h e - c a m e l o u t o f a r o c k . T h u s b e g i n s th e a c tu a l s to r y o f th e " S h e - C a m e l o f S a l i h " o f th e p o p u l a r l e g e n d , o r m y th , a n d o f th e " S h e - C a m e l o f G o d " 18 o f th e Q u r ’ a n . Fro m th e v e r s i o n s o f th e s to r y w e d o n o t k n o w w h e th e r th e T h a m u d h a d s p e c i f ie d th e i r r e q u e s t o f a m i r a c l e to S a l ih b e f o r e o r a f te r th e f a i l u r e o f th e i r i d o ls . T h e s to r i e s v a r y e v e n in te l lin g u s T h e T h a m u d ic B a c k d r o p to th e P u z z le 21 w h e th e r th e c h o ic e o f th e m ir a c l e o f th e s h e - c a m e l c a m e f r o m th e T h a m u d o r f r o m S a l i h .19 A c c o r d i n g to a l - N u w a y r i 's n a r r a ti o n , th e T h a m u d w e r e p r e c i s e a n d d e m a n d i n g in th e i r d e s c r i p ti o n o f th e r e q u e s te d m ir a c l e . T h e y s p e c i f ie d th a t th e s h e - c a m e l b e tr u l y o f b l o o d , f le s h , b o n e , s in e w , s k in , a n d c o a t o f h a i r ; th a t h e r c o l o r b e b e tw e e n w h i te a n d ru d d y , i.e ., s h o w i n g th e n o b i l i ty o f b r e e d o f th e c a m e l s te r m e d cis ; th a t s h e b e s l e n d e r o f b e lly , b u t p o s s e s s u d d e r s lik e th e l a r g e s t o f w a te r - ju g s , f r o m w h i c h p u r e m il k w o u ld s tr e a m p r o f u s e l y w i th o u t n e e d to b e d r a w n o f f , a n d th a t th e s i c k w h o d r i n k o f it b e c u r e d a n d th e i n d ig e n t s a tis f i e d ; f u r th e r m o r e , th a t s h e n o t p a s tu r e o n th e ir p a s tu r e g r o u n d s b u t i n s te a d o n m o u n ta i n to p s a n d in th e d e p th s o f v a l l e y s , l e a v i n g th e p a s tu r e s to th e m ; a n d f in a lly , th a t s h e h a v e a n o f f s p r i n g c o l t w h i c h s h o u l d f o llo w h e r an d an sw e r h e r y e a r n i n g g r o a n s .20 T o a l l th i s S a l i h a g r e e d , w i th th e r e c ip r o c a l c o n d i ti o n th a t th e m i r a c u l o u s s h e - c a m e l h a v e s o l e a c c e s s to T h a m u d ' s o n l y w a te r s o u r c e o n a lte r n a te d a y s . S o , to o , th e T h a m u d s h o u l d h a v e th e i r w a te r to th e m s e l v e s o n th e r e m a i n i n g d a y s , a l th o u g h o n th e i n te r i m d a y s th e T h a m u d w o u l d e n jo y th e b e n e f it o f th e u n r e s tr i c te d b o u n ty o f th a t s h e - c a m e T s m i l k .21 T h e s ta g e f o r S a l i h 's m ir a c l e w a s th e n s e t: a c a n o p y o r d o m e f o rm e d o v e r a h u g e ro c k o r h illo c k a n d a c irc le o f a n g e ls h o v e re d o v e r it. S a l i h a p p r o a c h e d th e r o c k a n d s tr u c k it w i th a r o d . T h e r o c k s h o o k a n d b e g a n r is in g , e x te n d i n g e v e r h ig h e r , a n d th e n o n c e a g a in s to o d f ir m in its p l a c e . C o n v u l s i o n s a s th o u g h o f a w o m a n i n c h il d b i r th s e iz e d it. T h e n it b u r s t o p e n , a n d th e r e e m e r g e d th e s h e - c a m e l a s th o u g h s h e , to o , w e r e a p a r t o f th e m o u n ta i n . " T h i s is th e S h e - C a m e l o f G o d a s a s i g n f o r y o u ," p r o c l a i m e d S a l ih , " s o l e t h e r g r a z e in G o d ' s e a r th , a n d le t n o o n e d o h e r h a r m , le s t y o u b e a f f lic te d w ith a p a i n f u l p u n i s h m e n t." 22 A n d w i th th e s h e - c a m e l w a s h e r o f f s p r in g . E v e n ts s e e m to h a v e d e v e l o p e d a s s ti p u la te d in th e c o n d i ti o n s . Ev e ry seco n d d ay th e s h e - c a m e l d r a n k a l l th e w a te r o f th e T h a m u d , g iv i n g th e m in r e tu r n h e r m i r a c u l o u s m ilk , a n d e v e r y o th e r d a y th e T h a m u d h a d a b u n d a n t w a te r to d r in k a n d to w a te r th e i r h e r d s . S u c h a g r e e m e n t a n d h a r m o n y , h o w e v e r , w o u l d n o t l a s t, f o r in th e s u m m e r ti m e , w h e n th e h e a t w a s s tr o n g , th e s h e c a m e l to o k u p th e h i g h s l o p e s o f th e v a lle y , f r i g h te n in g a w a y th e T h a m u d 's h e r d s o f c a ttle la r g e a n d s m a ll , a n d th e ir c a m e l s , a n d d r iv in g th e m i n to th e s u ltr y h e a t o f th e v a l le y f lo o r. In th e c o ld o f M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h 22 w i n te r , h o w e v e r , th e s h e - c a m e l s o u g h t p a s tu r a g e a t th e b o tto m o f th e v a lle y , c a u s i n g th e T h a m u d ' s h e r d s to f le e h i g h u p i ts s l o p e s . T h u s , b o t h s u m m e r a n d w i n te r , th e h e r d s o f th e T h a m u d w e r e a t th e m e r c y o f th e s tr a n g e s h e - c a m e l . In ti m e , th i s o u tw e i g h e d f o r th e T h a m u d th e i r c o m m i tm e n t to th e i r c o v e n a n t w i th S a l i h a n d th e b o u n ty th e y o b ta i n e d f r o m th e s h e - c a m e l . In a n a tm o s p h e r e o f c o n s p i r a c y , th e T h a m u d d e c id e d to k ill th e s h e - c a m e l w i th o u t S a l i h ' s k n o w le d g e . B u t S a l i h a n ti c i p a te d th e ir i n te n ti o n a n d p r o p h e s i e d to th e m th a t o f th e m a l e o f f s p r i n g b o m to th e m i n a g i v e n m o n th , o n e , w h o w a s a l s o to b e " a m a r k e d o n e , " w o u l d b e th e c a u s e o f th e ir d e s tr u c ti o n . N i n e w e r e b o m a n d k il l e d i n th a t m o n th , b u t a te n th i n f a n t, b y th e n a m e o f Q u d a r , w a s s p a r e d b y h i s f a th e r a n d w a s a l l o w e d to g r o w u p to a p r e c o c i o u s a n d a r r o g a n t m a n h o o d . T h e s ta g e f o r th e tr a g e d y w a s f u r th e r s e t b y th e h a tr e d th a t tw o w o m e n o f th e T h a m u d h a r b o r e d f o r S a l i h . O n e w a s n a m e d S a d u f . S h e n o t o n l y w a s w e a l th y in h e r d s o f c a ttl e a n d c a m e l s , b u t w a s a l s o o n e o f th e m o s t b e a u ti f u l w o m e n o f th e T h a m u d . T h e o th e r w a s n a m e d cU n a y z a h . S h e w a s e q u a l l y w e a lth y , o l d e r th a n S a d u f , a n d th e m o th e r o f d a u g h te r s o f g r e a t b e a u ty . T h e tw o w o m e n r e s o l v e d th a t th e S h e - C a m e l o f S a l i h th a t h a d c a u s e d s u c h d i s r u p ti o n o f th e p a s tu r a g e o f th e i r h e r d s h a d to b e k ill e d . In e x c h a n g e f o r a p r o m i s e to c a r r y o u t h e r w i l l , S a d u f th u s o f f e r e d h e r s e l f to o n e o f th e y o u n g w a r r i o r s o f th e T h a m u d b y th e n a m e o f M i s d a c, " t h e E l o q u e n t," a n d a s p a r t o f th e s a m e d e s i g n th e o l d e r cU n a y z a h o f f e r e d o n e o f h e r b e a u ti f u l d a u g h te r s to Q u d a r , th e y o u th w h o w a s a ls o k n o w n a s th e R e d O n e o f B l u e E y e s . H e , Q u d a r , w a s th u s e q u a l l y " t h e m a r k e d o n e " a n d th e o n e p r o p h e s i e d b y S a l i h to b r i n g a b o u t th e d e s tr u c ti o n o f th e T h a m u d . A b o u t h i m e s p e c i a l l y l e g e n d s m u l ti p ly a n d d iv e r g e . H i s v e r y n a m e , Q u d a r , h a s a n o m i n o u s , f o r e b o d i n g r in g i n A r a b ic : o n e o f " e n a c t e d " p o w e r a s w e l l a s o f p r e d e s ti n e d o c c u r r e n c e , th u s f a t e — b u t f a te w i th a f la w , to w h i c h th e r e p o i n ts e v e n th e A r a b i c m o r p h o l o g i c a l - s e m a n ti c m o l d o f f u cal, i n to w h i c h th e n a m e Q u d a r f a l l s .23 H i s c h a r a c te r i s ti c s o r e p i th e ts o f b e i n g b o th "re d " an d " b l u e " a r e in th e A r a b i c s y m b o l ic a s s o c i a ti o n o f c o l o r s d is ti n c tly n e g a ti v e . T h e y p o i n t to th e l i m i n a l " o t h e r n e s s " o f a n i n s tr u m e n t o f d e s tin y . Q u d a r 's re d n e s s s h o u ld i n s i s te n c e o n th e c o l o r r e d ta k e u s a s f a r b a c k a s th e " c o d e d " in th e b i b l i c a l s to r y o f Esau (G en . 2 : 2 3 - 3 4 ) . T h e b i b l i c a l te x t te ll s u s w i th c l e a r e m p h a s i s , o r, o n e s h o u l d s a y , w i th c h a r g e d i n te n ti o n a l i ty , th a t E s a u , th e f ir s tb o r n T h e T h a m u d ic B a c k d r o p to th e P u z z le 23 o v e r h is tw i n b r o th e r Ja c o b , w a s b o m " r e d " ( ad m o n i) . H e g r e w u p to b e th e s tr o n g e r o f th e tw i n s , a s k i l l f u l h u n te r , s p e n d i n g h i s d a y s in th e o p e n f ie ld s . Ja c o b , o n th e o th e r h a n d , w a s " a q u i e t m a n , d w e l l in g in te n ts ." T h e a r c h e ty p a l p a r a d o x , o r th e id e o lo g y , o f th e s to r y d e c r e e s , h o w e v e r , th a t E s a u , h i s f a th e r ' s p r o v id e r , w i ll f o r a m e a l o f " r e d p o tta g e " f o r s w e a r " h i s b i r th r i g h t" to Ja c o b . T h i s is s tr e s s e d " e d i to r i a l l y " f ir s t b y Y a h w e h , th a t " th e e ld e r s h a ll s e r v e th e y o u n g e r " ( G e n . 2 5 :2 3 ) , a n d th e n b y Is a a c , th e f a th e r : " B e h o l d , a w a y f r o m th e f a tn e s s o f th e e a r th s h a l l y o u r d w e l l i n g b e , a n d a w a y f r o m th e d e w o f h e a v e n o n h i g h . B y y o u r s w o r d y o u s h a ll liv e , a n d y o u s h a l l s e r v e y o u r b r o th e r . . . " ( G e n . 2 7 :3 9 - 4 0 ) . T h u s b o th d iv i n e a n d p a te r n a l c u r s e s f a ll u p o n th e re d E s a u , th e e p o n y m i c a n c e s to r o f th e " r e d " E d o m i te s .24 T h e b l u e n e s s o f Q u d a r ' s e y e s , th r o u g h f o l k lo r e ( al- s h ay t d n alaz r aq , " th e b l u e d e v i l " ) a n d le g e n d , p o i n ts e v e n m o r e d i r e c tl y ( in th e A r a b i c c o n te x t) to a c u r s e a n d to th e f e a r o f h i d d e n e v i l , o r e v e n to a d e m o n i c q u a lity . " A n d th e r e w a s b l u e n e s s in h i s e y e s , a s th o u g h th e y w e r e tw o l e n s e s ," s a y s a l - N u w a y r i in h is r o le a s m y th o g r a p h e r .25 S o m e th i n g o m i n o u s is s e n s e d h e r e , r e m i n d i n g u s o f Z a r q a 3 a l - Y a m a m a h ( th e B lu e - e y e d O n e o f Y a m a m a h ) . S h e , to o , h a s a " g l a s s - l i k e ," o r " l e n s - l i k e , g l a n c e " ( m it h la z - z u j d j at i) 2b a n d h e r a b ili ty to s e e , a l th o u g h s h e is c u r s e d n o t to b e b e l i e v e d , is o n l y c o m p a r a b le to th e T r o ja n C a s s a n d r a 's a b i l i ty to f o r e s e e — e s p e c i a l ly to f o r e s e e th e d o o m i m p e n d i n g u p o n T r o y — b u t n o t b e g iv e n c r e d e n c e .27 L ik e C a s s a n d r a in h e r s e e r ' s k n o w le d g e o f O d y s s e u s 's r u s e p r e p a r e d f o r th e c r e d u l o u s T r o ja n s , Z a r q a 5 a l- Y a m a m a h h a d w a r n e d in v a i n h e r h u s b a n d 's c l a n , th e Ja d i s o f Y a m a m a h , o f th e a p p r o a c h i n g a r m y o f th e H i m y a r ite s a n d o f th e ir r u s e o f c a r r y i n g a s c r e e n o f b u s h e s b e f o r e t h e m — a f o r e s t a d v a n c i n g , q u i te l ik e th e " g r e a t B i m a m W o o d c o m i n g to D u n s i n a n e ." 28 R e tu r n i n g to th e c o n s p i r a c y o f th e T h a m u d , o u r c o m p o u n d e d q u r ’ a n o - n a r r a ti v e m y th o p o e i a te lls u s th a t M i s d a c a n d Q u d a r, s e d u c e d in to a c ti o n , g a th e r a r o u n d th e m s e l v e s s e v e n m o r e c o n s p i r a to r s a n d th u s b e c o m e th e " n i n e w h o s p r e a d c o r r u p ti o n in th e l a n d ." 29 T o g e th e r th e y s e t o u t to " h o c k " ( ca q a r a ) 30 th e s h e - c a m e l. T h e p r e v a l e n t v e r s i o n o f th e n a r r a ti v e is th a t it w a s Q u d a r w h o f ir s t s h o t th e s h e - c a m e l w i th h i s b o w an d th e n , to g e th e r w ith M i s d a c, f e ll u p o n h e r w i th a s w o r d , k i ll in g h e r .31 T h e r e m a in in g c o n s p i r a to r s th e n jo i n e d th e m a n d d is m e m b e r e d h e r. O n e v e r s i o n o f th e s to r y th e n s p e a k s o f th e c o n s p i r a to r s ' p u r s u it o f th e s h e c a m e l 's c o l t, w h i c h , w a r n e d b y its m o th e r , h a d f le d to th e to p o f M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h 24 a m o u n ta i n a n d i n v o k e d a c u r s e u p o n th e T h a m u d . T h e c o n s p i r a to r s , h o w e v e r , c h a s e d i t d o w n , s l a u g h te r e d i t, a n d d iv i d e d its f l e s h a m o n g s t th e m .32 In a n o th e r v e r s i o n , h o w e v e r , th e c a m e l - c o l t, h a v i n g w i tn e s s e d its m o t h e r ' s d e a th , r u n s o f f till it c o m e s to a n i n a c c e s s i b l e m o u n ta i n c a l l e d D a w 3 ( lig h t) , o r, s o m e sa y , Q a r a h ( b l a c k s to n e s , p i tc h ) . S a l i h , in th e m e a n ti m e , is a l e r te d b y s o m e r e p e n ta n t T h a m u d e a n s to th e a tta c k u p o n th e s h e - c a m e l . H e r e a c h e s h e r to o l a te , h o w e v e r . H e th e n u r g e s th o s e a r o u n d h i m to g o o u t a n d r e s c u e th e c o l t, f o r i f th e y c a n r e a c h it p e r h a p s th e ir p u n i s h m e n t m a y b e a v e r te d . T h e T h a m u d w e n t o u t s e a r c h i n g f o r th e c o l t a n d , w h e n th e y s a w i t o n th e m o u n ta i n , tr ie d to c a tc h it. B u t G o d m a d e th e m o u n ta i n r is e u p to h e a v e n til l n o t e v e n th e b i r d s c o u l d r e a c h it. O n l y S a l i h c a m e u p to th e c o l t, a n d w h e n it s a w h i m , te a r s s tr e a m e d f r o m i ts e y e s a n d i t g r o a n e d th r e e tim e s , a t w h i c h th e r o c k s p l i t o p e n a n d th e c o l t e n te r e d th e m o u n ta in . O n l y th e n d id S a l i h p r o n o u n c e h i s p r o p h e c y o f d o o m .33 T h e n , h o w e v e r , h e g a v e th e T h a m u d a s tr a n g e r e s p ite o f th r e e d a y s , s a y i n g to th e m : " E n jo y y o u r s e l v e s in y o u r a b o d e f o r th r e e d a y s — th i s is a p r o m i s e n o t to b e b e l i e d . " 34 T h e Q u r ’ a n , a n d w ith i t th e n a r r a ti v e m y th o p o e i c a n d e x e g e ti c s o u r c e s , f a il s to c la r if y th e m e a n in g o f th i s w o u l d - b e g ra c e p e rio d o f " e n jo y m e n t " ( t a m a t t u c) w h i c h is g i v e n to th e d o o m e d T h a m u d . T h is b e c o m e s p u z z l i n g . W e o n l y k n o w th a t, a s p e r ta i n s to th e q u r ’ a n i c te x t, th e s e e n i g m a ti c T h a m u d - r e l a te d o c c u r r e n c e s o f th e m o ti f o f " e n jo y m e n t " i n th e c o n te x t o f d o o m a re f ro m th a t te x t' s " e a r l y ," s till M e c c a n , p e r i o d . N o s e l f - c o n s c i o u s i n te r n a l q u r ’ a n ic e x e g e s is is in e v i d e n c e th e r e , a l th o u g h in th e s e M e c c a n s u r a s w e a r e s q u a r e l y i n th e r i c h th e m a ti c a r e a o f q u r ’ a n i c m y th o p o e i a , w h ic h , b y its s ty l i s ti c n a tu r e , m i g h t h a v e b e e n r e c e p ti v e to e x p a ti a ti o n a n d e x p l a n a ti o n . W h e n i n a la te r , M e d i n a n , r e tu r n th e Q u r ’ a n ( 9 :6 8 - 7 0 ) s p e a k s o f th i s m o ti f a g a in , s u c h " e n jo y m e n t " ( th is tim e in its m o r p h o l o g i c a l v a r i a n t o f is t a m t a ca ) s e e m s to h a v e u n d e r g o n e a c e r ta i n lin k e d d e g r e e o f " c l a r i f i c a ti o n ." T h e r e , f o r th e f ir s t tim e , it is f u r t h e r — i n te r n a l l y e x e g e tic a l ly , a s it w e r e — to th e w o r d m e a n i n g " s h a r e o f h a p p i n e s s " ( kh ald q ) . M a tte r s d o n o t b e c o m e c le a re r, h o w e v e r. T h e s e l a te r M e d i n a n v e r s e s i n d e e d e x p la in t a m a t t u c i n i ts g e n e r a l s e m a n ti c s , b u t th e y d o n o t c l a r if y its e a r l i e r M e c c a n T h a m u d i c c o n te x t, a n d w i th it th e r a ti o n a l e o f th e d r a m a ; f o r i n th e M e d i n a n s u r a th e r e is n o " d r a m a ," n o p u n is h m e n t a l r e a d y s e t in m o ti o n f o r a n a b o m i n a ti o n a lr e a d y c o m m i tte d — a s i s th e c a s e o f th e M e c c a n te x ts . In it w e f in d m e r e ly th e m o s t T h e T h a m u d ic B a c k d r o p to th e P u z z le u n p a r ti c u l a r i z e d o f a d m o n iti o n s th a t a ll g o o d th i n g s w ill h a v e th e i r e n d — o f c o u r s e a d e s e r v e d e n d . A s s u c h , th e p h r a s i n g b e c o m e s th a t o f " g e n e r a l w i s d o m " ( h ik m ah ) , f o r m u l ti p l e u s e s , a l th o u g h its u l ti m a te r e f e r e n c e , to o , is to " t h e p e o p l e o f N o a h , th e cA d , a n d th e T h a m u d . . . " (v . 7 0 ) . T h e m u c h s tr a n g e r , a r g u m e n ta ti v e ly u n f o r e w a m e d th r o w in g o f t a m a t t u c i n to th e m id s t o f th e tr a g e d y o f th e T h a m u d is n o t e a s il y e x p l a i n e d in th i s c h r o n o l o g i c a l ly " p o s tm e d i ta te d " ( M e d i n a n ) , te x tu a l ly e x p o s t f a c t o , m a n n e r . In th e T h a m u d c o n te x t th e " e n jo y m e n t " o f th e c o n d e m n e d m a y , o f c o u r s e , i ts e l f i n v ite a n e a s y a n d a l m o s t f l i p p a n tl y p l a u s i b l e p s y c h o lo g i c a l e x p l a n a ti o n a s w e l l — th a t o f th e " l a s t w i s h " p r i n c i p l e ; o r e v e n th a t o f g a l l o w s h u m o r . It m a y a ls o b e v i e w e d , a s th e e x e g e te s v i e w it, a s a " r e s p i t e " — a l th o u g h o n w h a t g r o u n d s a n d f o r w h a t p u r p o s e r e m a i n s u n a r tic u l a te d . T h e s e , h o w e v e r , d o n o t s e e m to m e to b e p r o p e r h e r m e n e u ti c a l a v e n u e s in th e q u r ’ a n ic T h a m u d i c c a s e o f t a m a t t u c. R a th e r , I s h o u l d i n tr o d u c e a n e l e m e n t o f b r o a d e r s c r i p tu r a l i n te r te x tu a lity , n a m e l y th e e x te n d e d b i b l i c a l p a s s a g e in E x o d u s 3 2 :5 - 2 9 . T h e r e w e r e a d th a t, w h i l e M o s e s w a s " o n th e m o u n ta i n " r e c e i v i n g th e T a b le ts , th e r e w a s a r e s tl e s s n e s s in th e c a m p o f th e Is r a e l i te s , a n d to a s s u a g e th a t r e s tl e s s n e s s A a r o n f a s h i o n e d " t h e g o l d e n c a l f . " T h e Is r a e l i te s s a c r i f ic e d to it, a n d th e n (v . 6 ) " t h e y s a t d o w n to e a t a n d d r in k , a n d ro se u p to t ak e t h e ir p l e a s u r e " [ ita l ic s m i n e ] .35 S ti l l u p o n th e m o u n ta i n (v . 1 0 ) , Y a h w e h , c o g n i z a n t o f th e g o i n g s - o n b e lo w , a n n o u n c e s to M o s e s th a t h e w i ll p u n i s h th e Is r a e l i te s f o r th e ir a b o m i n a ti o n , " . . . m a y b la z e u p a g a i n s t th e m th a t m y w r a th to c o n s u m e t h e m " (v . 1 0 ) . M o s e s s u c c e e d s ( in a tr u l y f o r e n s i c m a n n e r ) 36 i n p e r s u a d i n g Y a h w e h to r e l e n t in th e p u n i s h m e n t (v v . 1 1 - 1 4 ) , b u t, a f te r h i m s e l f w i tn e s s i n g th e a b o m i n a ti o n , h i s o w n r a g e p r e v a i l s . H e a s k s A a r o n to s u m m o n th o s e in th e c a m p th a t a r e " f o r th e L o r d ." " A l l th e L e v i te s r a ll i e d to h i m " (v . 2 6 ) , a n d h e o r d e r e d th e m to ta k e th e i r s w o r d s a n d g o i n th e c a m p f r o m g a te to g a te : " a n d s la y y o u r o u m k in s m e n , y o u r f r i e n d s a n d n e ig h b o r s " [ ita lic s m in e ] . T h u s th e L e v i te s s le w " a b o u t th r e e th o u s a n d o f th e p e o p l e " (v . 2 8 ) in a n a c t o f th e ir o w n " c o n s e c r a t i o n " (v . 2 9 ) . It is i m p o r ta n t to n o te th e i m p a c t o f th i s a c c o u n t o n th e f u r th e r b i b l i c a l n a r r a tiv e , a n d m y th o p o e i a , o f th e Is r a e l ite s ' w a n d e r i n g in th e S in a i . F o r w e f in d e v e n ts a n a l o g o u s to th o s e n a r r a te d in E x o d u s 3 2 :2 5 - 2 9 v e r y c l o s e ly r e p h r a s e d in N u m b e r s 2 5 : 1 - 9 . In th a t l a tte r v a r ia n t, w h o s e " c h r o n o l o g y " is p o s te r io r , p l a c i n g it d u r i n g 25 M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h 26 th e I s r a e l i te s ' s o jo u r n a m o n g th e M i d i a n i te s , M o s e s o r d e r s th e Ju d g e s o f Is r a e l to s l a y th o s e o f th e i r m e n w h o h a v e jo i n e d th e m s e l v e s to B a a l ; a n d , a s it w e r e , u n d e r l i n i n g a n d s p e c i f y i n g th e a b o m i n a ti o n , i t is A a r o n ' s g r a n d s o n , th e L e v i te P i n e h a s , w h o w i th h i s s p e a r tr a n s f i x e s a n Is r a e l i te a n d a M i d i a n i te w o m a n d u r i n g th e i r c a r n a l e m b r a c e . T h e Is r a e l i te s ' a b o m i n a ti o n s w e r e th u s tw o f o l d : to th e i r t akin g o t h e r g o d s a n d th e i r i d o l w o r s h i p th e r e is a d d e d th e im m e d iat e c a u s e o f p u n i s h m e n t, w h i c h is th e i r r e v e l i n g a n d i n d u l g i n g in th e s i n o f c a r n a l i ty w i th M i d i a n i te w o m e n — th e p le a s u r e f a c to r .37 In a m a n n e r th a t h a s th e e f f e c t a l m o s t o f a n e d i to r i a l i n te r v e n ti o n a n d " e m e n d a t i o n " th a t is m e a n t to ta k e , a t l e a s t in p a r t, th e h u m an h an d o u t o f a s to r y th a t e n d s w i th th e d e a th o f 2 4 ,0 0 0 I s r a e l i t e s — a n d w h i c h c a n h a r d l y b e a n y th i n g o th e r th a n a v a r i a n t o f E x o d u s 3 2 :2 2 - 2 9 — v e rs e s 8 a n d 9 o f N u m b e r s 2 5 i n tr o d u c e i n s te a d a s e c o n d , d i v i n e e x e c u to r o f p u n i s h m e n t in th e f o r m o f th e p l a g u e . In a s tr u c tu r a l s e n s e , th e p r i m a r y o b s e r v a ti o n to b e m a d e h e r e is th a t i n b o th c a s e s o f th e M o s a i c / L e v i te b l o tti n g o u t o f a b o m i n a ti o n ( E x o d u s a n d N u m b e r s ) , e x te r m i n a ti o n is p r e c e d e d b y e n j o y m e n t , a n d th e f a c t a n d s tr u c tu r a l p l a c e m e n t o f th a t e n jo y m e n t a r e i n s i s te d u p o n m o s t f i r m l y — s o m u c h s o th a t e v e n in th e m u c h l a te r c o n te x t o f St. P a u l ' s 1 C o r i n th i a n s 1 0 :1 - 1 1 , w h e r e r e f e r e n c e to th e s e b i b l i c a l te x ts is m a d e , th e w a r n i n g " n o t to p u t th e L o r d to th e t e s t " (v . 9 ) 38 is c o n n e c te d w i th th e a b o m i n a ti o n o f id o la tr y . A b o v e a ll, i t b r i n g s to th e m in d o f th e a u th o r o f th e E p is tle th e c i r c u m s ta n c e i n w h i c h th e Is r a e l i te s h a d " t a k e n th e ir p l e a s u r e " f i r s t a n d th e n w e r e s l a i n (v . 8 ) . E v e n w h e n ta k i n g i n to s e p a r a te c o n s i d e r a ti o n th e n o n - T h a - m u d i c o c c u r r e n c e s i n th e Q u r ’ a n o f th e w o r d / m o ti f o f t am a t t u c, w e a r e a b l e to e s ta b l i s h a c o m m o n d e n o m i n a to r th e r e a s w e ll . F o r th e r e t a m a t t u c is a l s o i n v a r i a b l y p r e c e d e d b y th e a b o m i n a ti o n o f tu r n i n g to " o th e r g o d s " a n d is f o l l o w e d b y th e th r e a t o f f in a l p u n i s h m e n t — th u s i n Q u r ’ a n 3 9 :8 , 1 4 :3 0 , 1 6 :5 5 , a n d 3 0 :3 4 ( a ll o f th e m M e c c a n ) . T am at t u c a n d p u n i s h m e n t, w e f in d , a r e th u s a n in d iv is ib le s tr u c tu r a l w h o le th e r e to o . In th e c o n te x t o f th e q u r ’ a n i c T h a m u d s to r y , h o w e v e r , w h e r e i t o c c u r s a t th e p o i n t o f h i g h e s t d r a m a ti c i n te n s i ty a n d n a r r a ti v e u r g e n c y , a n d w h e r e th e r e i s o b v i o u s l y s o m e h i g h e r d e g r e e o f s p e c if ic ity , t a m a t t u c m u s t b e a f f o r d e d i ts b r o a d e r h e r m e n e u ti c a l l y a n d l i te r a r y - c r i ti c a l l y i n d i s p e n s a b l e i n te r te x tu a l ity , w h i c h o u g h t to b e , u ltim a te ly , th a t o f T h e T h a m u d i c B a c k d r o p to th e P u z z le 27 E x o d u s a n d N u m b e r s , in o r d e r f o r th a t q u r ’ a n i c t a m a t t u c to b e a p p r e c i a te d r a th e r th a n h e s i t a n t l y — a n d i n v a r i a b l y w i th a to u c h o f b e m u s e m e n t— a c c e p te d . A n d a f u r th e r p r o b l e m o f a f f i n i ti e s , b o th te x tu a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l ( a l b e it e x tr a - T h a m u d i c ) : M i l d in c o m p a r i s o n to th e s i n g le m in d e d h o r r o r o f L e v itic p ro f e s s io n " c o n s e c r a tio n " o f lo y a lty — e q u a lly m u st ap p ear th e a c o n s e c r a ti o n — o f H a s s a n Ib n T h a b i t, th e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ' s m o s t v o c a l p o e t- a p o l o g i s t. H e o f f e r s th e P r o p h e t h i s p r o p e r ty a n d h i s l if e , a n d a g a i n s t a ll a n d e v e r y o n e o f th e p e o p l e w h o m " to w a g e w a r h e [ th e P r o p h e t] r e g a r d s a s e n e m y — e v e n i f it b e a g a i n s t th e b e l o v e d , m o s t s i n c e r e f r i e n d ." In b o th c a s e s it is th e s a m e a b s tr a c t i d e o l o g y th a t p r e v a i l s e v e n o v e r th e tr a d i ti o n a l l y b lo o d an d m o s t sa c re d c u s to m . T h u s w e k n o w an d c h e ris h e d th a t, i n b o th ti e s o f c ases, a n ew " c o v e n a n t " h a s s e t i n .39 E v e n th e q u r ’ a n ic r e te l l i n g o f E x o d u s 3 2 : 5 - 2 9 a n d N u m b e r s 2 5 : 1 - 9 in th e S u r a o f a l - B a q a r a h , v v . 5 4 - 5 5 a n d 5 7 - 5 9 , a s p r o p e r l y o b s e r v e d b y s o m e i n te r p r e te r s — b u t o b v i o u s l y a ls o a p o l o g i s ts 40— a p p e a r s m il d b y c o m p a r i s o n w i th its te x tu a l p r e d e c e s s o r in th e w a y i t p r e s e n ts its A r a b i c v e r s i o n o f th e L e v i tic " c o n s e c r a ti o n " s c e n e a n d th e u lti m a te h a r s h n e s s th a t u n d e r l i e s th e i d e o l o g i c a l c o m m i tm e n t: " A n d k ill y o u r o w n s e l v e s [ y o u r o w n k in d ] ! T h is w ill b e b e tte r f o r y o u w i th [ b e f o r e ] y o u r M a k e r ." 41 T h e s l a u g h te r o f th e s c e n e in N u m b e r s 2 5 : 1 - 9 is a ls o in i ts e n ti r e ty " m e r c i f u l l y " g iv e n o v e r in th e Q u r ’ a n to a " p l a g u e ," o r to " p u n i s h m e n t o f p o l l u ti o n f r o m th e s k y / h e a v e n " ( r ijz an m in as - s am d H ) } 2 H e r e , to o , th e a c c e p te d ( e x e g e tic a l ? ) q u r ’ a n ic r e a d i n g ( a n d u n d e r s ta n d i n g ) o f th e k e y w o r d r ijz a s " f i l t h , " " p o l l u t i o n ," a n d s o m e n o n d e s c r i p t " p u n i s h m e n t" c o m e s s u s p i c i o u s l y c l o s e to i m p l y i n g th e a b o m i n a ti o n o f c a r n a l i ty in N u m b e r s 2 5 : 6 - 8 ; a l th o u g h it s h o u l d , p e r h a p s , b e ta k e n b a c k to th e m o r e lik e ly , a n d s tr o n g e r , e ty m o l o g y o f th e r o o t r - j- z , w h i c h , a l th o u g h p h o n e ti c a l l y c l o s e to r- j- s a n d th a t r o o t's m o r e n e a r l y p r o p e r m e a n i n g o f " p o l l u t i o n " a n d " f i l t h , " n e v e r th e l e s s p o s s e s s e s in a p r i m a r y s e n s e th e m e a n i n g o f " [ r h y th m i c ] m o ti o n ," " i n te r m i tte n t r o a r ," a n d " tr e m o r ." 43 W e w o u ld th e n h a v e h e r e , o n c e a g a in , a m u c h m o r e c h a r a c te r i s ti c , b o th s ty li s ti c a l l y a n d m y th o p o e i c a l l y p l a u s i b l e , p u n i s h m e n t w i th a " tr e m o r " (o r an e a r th q u a k e ) in th e b e s t q u r ’ a n ic tr a d i tio n r e l a tiv e to th e c o r e o f th e T h a m u d ic te x ts . W ith th e a b o v e in m in d , w e n e e d to c o n s i d e r th e n o w e n r ic h e d s e m a n ti c s o f th a t p a r tic u la r H e b r e w w o r d / te r m w h i c h , m u t at is M u h am m ad a n d t h e G o ld e n B o u g h 28 m u t a n d is , w e p r o p o s e , c o r r e s p o n d s to th e A r a b i c w o r d / te r m of t a m a t t u c i n th e q u r ’ a n i c a n d e x e g e ti c - m y th o p o e ti c te x ts o f th e T h a m u d i c l e g e n d . F o r th i s w e s h a l l i n v o k e th e h e r m e n e u ti c e f f ic a c y o f N u m b e r s 2 5 : 1 - 9 w i th i ts c l e a r e v i d e n c i n g o f a c o n n e c ti o n b e tw e e n th e tw o c a u s e s o f p u n i s h m e n t m e a s u r e d o u t to th e Is r a e l ite s : th a t o f ta k in g o th e r g o d s a n d th a t o f f a llin g p re y to c o n ta m i n a ti n g c a r n a l i ty e x p r e s s e d i n th e " p l e a s u r e f a c to r ." T h e n , w i th N u m b e r s 2 5 : 1 - 9 i n m i n d , w e s h a ll a l s o tu r n o n c e m o r e to o u r p r i m a r y m o ti v a l m o d e l , E x o d u s 3 2 : 5 - 2 9 , a n d s p e c i f i c a l l y to v e r s e s ix . T h e r e w e s h a ll ta k e c o g n i z a n c e o f th e a c tu a l te r m in o l o g i c a l H e b r e w r e f e r e n t to th e " p l e a s u r e f a c to r ," th e w o r d z a h e q o f w a y y a q e m u le z a h e q , to b e u n d e r s to o d a s " a n d th e y r o s e to ta k e th e i r p l e a s u r e ," o r, a s i t is m o r e c u s to m a r i l y tr a n s l a te d ( T h e R e v i s e d S ta n d a r d V e r s io n ) , " a n d [ th e y ] r o s e u p to p l a y " — f o r, in d e e d , th e v e r b z a h e q m e a n s i n o n e s e n s e " t o p l a y ," w h i l e in its m a i n s e n s e , w h i c h is a l s o th a t o f th e A r a b ic d ah ik a, it m e a n s " t o l a u g h ." T h i s th e d i c ti o n a r i e s o f c l a s s i c a l H e b r e w a s c e r ta i n f u l l y ; b u t th e y e q u a l l y a s c e r ta i n th a t, a s i d e f r o m " t o l a u g h ," z a h e q a ls o m e a n s " t o f o n d le ( e r o ti c a l l y ) ," a s i n G e n e s i s 2 6 :8 ( " a n d [ A b im e l e k h ] s a w Is a a c ( Y iz h aq ) f o n d l i n g ( m e z ah e q ) R e b e k a h h i s w i f e " ) . 44 W e th u s m a y n o t e x c l u d e th e " p l e a s u r e f a c to r " i n its f u l l e r s e m a n ti c s f r o m e i th e r N u m b e r s 2 5 : 1 - 9 o r E x o d u s 3 2 :6 .45 T h e s tr a n g e r e s p ite o f t a m a t t u c o f th r e e d a y s , w h i c h th e p r o p h e t o f th e T h a m u d , S a li h , g a v e to h i s i n tr a c ta b l e p e o p l e , w a s th u s a n a n c i e n t a n d s c r i p tu r a l l y - te x tu a l l y d i v e r s e l y e x tr a p o l a ta b l e r e s p ite . W e kno w f u r th e r th a t S a l i h h a d w a r n e d th e T h a m u d th a t o n e a c h o f th e th r e e d a y s o f th e r e s p ite th e c o l o r o f th e i r f a c e s w o u ld c h a n g e : f r o m y e llo w , to r e d , to b l a c k . A n d , in d e e d , o n th e m o r n i n g o f th e f i r s t d a y , th e T h a m u d w o k e u p a n d s a w th a t th e r e w h e r e th e S h e - C a m e l h a d s e t h e r p a d s p o o l s o f b l o o d h a d s p r u n g u p , a n d w h e n th e y l o o k e d a t e a c h o th e r , th e y s a w th e m s e l v e s tu r n e d y e l lo w . T h i s , h o w e v e r , d id n o t f r i g h te n th e m , b u t o n l y i n c e n s e d th e m i n th e i r a n g e r to w a r d S a li h . B u t o n th e s e c o n d d a y th e i r f a c e s tu r n e d r e d , a n d o n th e th i r d , b l a c k . N o w th e y k n e w th a t th e ir f a te w a s s e a le d . B e f o r e s u n r i s e o f th e f o u r th d a y , w h i c h f e ll o n a S u n d a y , th e y e m b a l m e d th e m s e l v e s a n d p r e p a r e d th e m s e l v e s f o r th e ir f in a l h o u r a n d f o r th e p u n i s h m e n t. W h e n th e r a y s o f th e s u n a p p e a r e d , th e r e c a m e u p o n th e m fro m th e s k y a p o r te n to u s s c r e a m , " w i t h i n w h i c h w a s th e s o u n d o f e v e r y th u n d e r b o l t a n d th e v o i c e o f e v e r y th i n g th a t h a d a v o i c e . " 46 T h e n th e r e r o s e f ro m u n d e r g r o u n d a v i o l e n t tr e m o r , a n d a ll th a t b r e a th e d p e r is h e d , a ll T h e T h a m u d ic B a c k d r o p to th e P u z z le 29 m o ti o n c e a s e d , v o i c e s f e ll s i l e n t, a n d w h a t w a s to h a p p e n h a p p e n e d . A s l i f e l e s s c o r p s e s th e T h a m u d re m a in e d a s th o u g h p e r c h e d in th e ir a b o d e s .47 A n d a b o v e th e i r a b o d e s th e r e h u n g a b l a c k c l o u d f r o m w h i c h f ir e r a in e d d o w n u p o n th e m fo r se v en d a y s , till a ll b e c a m e a s h e s . O n th e e i g h th d a y th e c l o u d co v er b r o k e , a n d th e s u n e m e r g e d . T h e n S a l i h a n d th o s e o f th e f a ith f u l w h o h a d r e m a in e d w i th h i m p i c k e d u p w h a t th e y c o u l d c a r r y o f th e i r p o s s e s s i o n s a n d jo u r n e y e d to w a r d th e l a n d o f S h a m , w h e r e th e y s e ttle d in P a l e s ti n e . T h e r e S a li h l iv e d u n ti l th e e n d o f h i s d a y s .48 N O T E S In tr o d u c ti o n 1 . S e e th e f l u ctu a ti n g a s p e c t o f th a t cri ti ca l re ce p ti v i ty in Ja ro s l a v S te tk e v y ch , " A ra b i c P o e try a n d A s s o rte d P o e ti c s / ' in M a l c o l m H . K e rr, e d ., Is lam ic S t u d ie s : A T radit io n an d It s P r o b le m s (M al i b u , C a l i f o rn i a : U n - d e n a P u b l i ca ti o n s , 1 9 8 0 ) , p p . 1 0 3 - 2 3 . 2 . N o rth ro p F ry e , T h e G r e at C o d e (N e w Y o rk / L o n d o n : H a rc o u rt B ra ce Jo v a n o v i c h , 1 9 8 2 ) , p . xv i ii . 3 . T h u s th e p ro p h e t Z a k a ri y a ' s , h i s w i f e 's , a n d h is s o n Y a h y a ' s re l a tio n s h i p to G o d is th a t o f rag h ab an w a r a h ab an — o f " a s p i ra ti o n a n d a w e " ( Q u r’ a n 2 1 : 9 0 ) . C u rre n t in th e Q u r’ a n a re a l s o th e te rm s rah ib in its p l u ra l f o rm , ru h bd n , w i th its a cce p te d m e a n i n g o f " a n c h o ri te s " ( Q u r’ a n 9 :3 1 ) , a n d r ah b an iy ah ( " a n c h o ri ti s m " / " m o n a s ti c i s m " ) ( Q u r’ a n 5 7 : 2 7 ) . T h e te rm rah ib s h o u l d , h o w e v e r, b e c o n n e cte d " i n s ti tu ti o n a l l y " w i th o u r a rc h a i c m e a n i n g o f rah b ah ; f o r r ah ib o u g h t to h a v e m e a n t s o m e th i n g l ik e a " s u p p l i c a n t" (a t c o u rt) a n d a " s e rv a n t" in o n e s e n s e , a n d in a n o th e r s e n s e an cab d o r kdhin (a s e rv a n t/ m i n i s te r) . In b o th s e n s e s h e ( r ah ib ) is o n e w h o " a p p ro a c h e s in a w e " — th u s , in itial l y , n o t th e o n e w h o " w i th d ra w s . " T h is re l a ti o n o f rag h b ah to r ah b ah th e n re ce i v e s in a l - Ja h i z 's (d . 2 5 5 / 8 6 8 ) i n ci p i e n t p o l iti ca l th o u g h t its s y n o n y m i c h e rm e n e u ti c s th ro u g h th e te n s i o n in th e " p a i ri n g " o f m ah ab ah / m ah ab b ah ( " a w e " / " l o v e " ) . S e e A b u cU th m a n cA m r Ib n B a h r a l - Ja h i z , A l- B ay an w a al- T ab y in , 4 v o l s ., e d . cA b d a l - S a l a m M u h a m m a d H a ru n , 5 th e d . (C a i ro : M a k ta b a t al - K h an j i , 1 4 0 5 / 1 9 8 5 ) 3 :1 1 5 . 4 . Q u r’ a n 1 1 :4 9 . 5 . Q u r’ a n 2 6 :2 1 4 ; 9 : 2 4 ; 5 8 :2 2 . 6 . M at h alu l- jan n at i T lat i w u cida T m u t t aq u n a f i h a an h ar u n g h a y r i d sin in . . . w a an h ar u n m in kh am r in lad lu ih at in m in m a ’ in li-sh-shdribina . . ., Q u r’ a n 4 7 :1 5 . wujfihihim khitdmuhu miskun w a 7 . In n a l- ab r ar a la f t n acim in / cala l- ar a’ iki y an z u r iin a / t acrifu f i n ad r at a n - n acim i / y u s q aw n a m in rah iq in m akh t u m in / f i d h alika fal- y at a n a fa s il- m u t an d fis u n a / w a m iz d ju hu m in t as n im in / cay n an t as h rab u b ih a l- m u q ar r ab u n a, Q u r’ a n 8 3 : 2 2 - 2 8 . T o b e n o te d h e re f u rth e r is th e te rm al- m u q ar r ab u n (v. 2 8 ) , l i te ra l l y " th e o n e s b ro u g h t n e a r," b u t o ri g i n a l l y (te rm i n o l o g i ca l l y ) " c o u rti e rs , " " f a v o ri te s , " e tc ., as b o rro w e d f ro m i m p e ri a l / ro y a l c o u rtl y i n s ti tu ti o n s a n d c u s to m s . 8 . S e e S u z a n n e P i n ck n e y S te tk e v y ch , " I n to x i ca ti o n a n d I m m o rta l i ty : W i n e a n d A s s o c i a te d I m a g e ry in a l - M a ca rri 's G a rd e n ," in F e d w a M a l tiD o u g l a s , e d ., C r it ic al P ilg r im ag e s : S t u d ie s in t h e A r ab ic L it e r aiy T radit io n . L it e r at u r e E as t an d W est 2 5 (1 9 8 9 ) : 3 1 - 4 3 . 114 N o te s f o r p a g e s 5 - 9 9 . I g n a z G o l d z i h e r, M u s lim S t u d ie s , e d . S . M . S te m , tra n s . C . R . B a rb e r a n d S . M . S te rn ( A l b a n y : S ta te U n i v e rs i ty o f N e w Y o rk P re s s , 1 9 6 7 ) , p . 2 0 2 ( " W h a t Is M e a n t b y ' A l - Ja h i l i y y a '" ) . 1 0 . T h i s v e rs e ( Q u r’ a n 4 8 : 2 6 ) , w h i c h re f e rs i ts e l f to th e c h a n g i n g m o o d s th a t l e d to th e tru ce , a n d tre a ty , o f H u d a y b i y a h , a l s o a n ti p o s e s to h am iy at a l- j d h iliy ah th e te rm s akin ah ( " tra n q u i l i ty , " " ca l m n e s s ," " g e n tl e n e s s " ) , w h i c h , l e t th e re b e n o d o u b t, is in th is c a s e a s e l f - co n s ci o u s ch o i ce o f s y n o n y m f o r th e p re - I s l a m i c B e d o u i n " b a l a n c i n g " v i rtu e o f hilm ( " g e n tl e n e s s , " " c l e m e n c y , " " m i l d n e s s , " " f o rb e a ra n c e , " " i n d u l g e n c e , " " p a ti e n c e , " " u n d e rs ta n d i n g , " " d i s c e rn m e n t" ) o p p o s i te j ah l. Ju s t a s th e s p e cif i c j ah l d o e s n o t o c c u r i n th e Q u r’ a n , n e i th e r d o e s h i lm — a l th o u g h o n e o f th e i m p o rta n t e p i th e ti c n a m e s o f A l l a h is its a d j e cti v a l d e ri v a ti v e , h alim . 1 1 . S u z a n n e P i n c k n e y S te tk e v y c h , T h e M u t e Im m o r t als S p e ak: P r e - Is lam ic P o e t r y a n d t h e P o e t ic s o f R it u al (I th a ca : C o rn e l l U n i v e rs i ty P re s s , 1 9 9 3 ) , p p . 207-10. 1 2 . L u w i s cA w a d , U s t u r at U r is t w a al- M alah im a l - cA r ab iy ah (C a i ro : D a r a l - K a ti b a l - cA ra b i li a l - T i b a ca h w a a l - N a s h r, 1 9 6 8 ) , p p . 7 , 4 5 , 8 8 . T e ch n i ca l l y , th e re l a ti o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e c l a n s o f B a k r a n d T ag h l ib is th a t o f p a te rn a l c o u s i n s ( a b n a ’ a l - cam m ) . T h i s is a l s o re f l e cte d in L u w i s cA w a d 's d i s c u s s i o n (p . 7 ). M y p re s e n t i n te n ti o n is to u n c o v e r th e a rc h e ty p e ra th e r th a n to d w e l l o n th e g e n e a l o g i ca l co m p l e x i ti e s , e s p e ci a l l y o f th e n a m e T ag h l i b . I w o u l d o n l y , a t th is p o i n t, s i d e w i th N o l d e k e 's ( Z D M G , x l [ 1 8 8 6 ] , p . 1 6 9 ) p h i l o l o g i ca l l y s o u n d c o n s i d e ra ti o n th a t T ag h l ib is o ri g i n a l l y a c o l l e cti v e te rm w h i c h q u al i f i e s th e w h o l e tri b e a s " p re v a i l i n g , " o r " v i c to ri o u s . " T h e " m a tri l i n e a l " s p e c u l a ti o n b a s e d o n th e u n d e rs ta n d i n g o f t ag h lib a s " s h e p re v a i l s " (W . R o b e rts o n S m i th , K in s h ip an d M ar r iag e in E ar ly A r ab ia [ O o s te rh o u t N . B ., N e th e rl a n d s : A n th ro p o l o g i c a l P u b l i ca ti o n s , 1 9 6 6 ] , p p . 1 3 f f ., a n d 2 5 3 f f .) , a s re f l e cte d in s o m e e a rl y A ra b i c v e rs e , is al s o te m p ti n g , a l th o u g h i t is p h i l o l o g i ca l l y n o t d e c i s i v e a n d g e n e a l o g i ca l l y s u s p e c t. F o r th e cl a s s i ca l A ra b i c g e n e a l o g i e s a n d th e i r s o u rc e s , s e e a rt. " T a g h l i b " b y H . K i n d e rm a n n in T h e E n c y c lo p ae d ia o f Is lam ( Fi rs t E d i ti o n ), a n d a rt. " B a k r b . W a ’ i l " b y W . C a s k e l i n T h e E n c y c lo p ae d ia o f Is lam (N e w E d i ti o n ). 1 3 . S e e f u rth e r, S. S te tk e v y c h , T h e M u t e Im m o r t als S p e ak, p p . 1 9 9 - 2 0 5 . 1 4 . G o l d z i h e r, M u s lim S t u d ie s , p p . 2 0 2 - 0 3 . O th e rw i s e , w h i l e a c k n o w l e d g i n g " th a t i n th e o l d l a n g u a g e , to o , w e f in d th e c o n c e p t o f k n o w l e d g e ( cilm ) c o n tra s te d to j ah l, . . . th is o p p o s i ti o n is f o u n d e d o n a s e co n d a ry m e a n i n g o f j a h l. " S a m e , p . 2 0 3 . 15. L a ’ in k u n t u m u h t d jan ild l- h ilm i in n an i ild l- jah li f i b a cd i l- ah ay in i ah iv aju W a m a k u n t u ar d a l- jah la k h id n an w a s ah ib an w a lak in n an i ar d a b ih i h in a u h r aju F a in q ala q aw m u n in n a f i h i s am ah at an f a q a d s ad aq u w a d h - d h u llu b i l- h u r r i as m aju W a l i f a r a s u n li l- h ilm i b i l- h ilm i m u ljam u n w a li fa r a s u n li l- jah li bi l- jah li m u s r aju F a m an s h a 3a t a q w i m i f a in n i m u q aw w am u n w a m an s h a ’a t a cw i j i f a in n i m u caw w aju A b u cU m a r A h m a d I b n M u h a m m a d Ib n cA b d R ab b ih a l - A n d a l u s i , K it ab a l - cIq d al- F ar id , 3 d e d ., 7 v o l s ., e d s . A h m a d A m i n , A h m a d a l - Z a y n , I b rah im a l - A b y a ri (C a i ro : M a tb a ca t L a j n a t a l - T a ’ H f w a a l - T a rj a m a h w a a l - N a s h r, 1 3 6 7 / 1 9 4 8 ) 3 :1 4 . T h i s s o u rc e re f e rs to th e a u th o r o f th e s e l in e s a s " a n d 115 N o te s f o r p a g e s 1 0 - 1 4 a n o th e r [p o e t] s a i d " ( w a qdla akh ar u ) . W i th o u t g i v i n g a p re ci s e te x tu a l re f e re n ce , G o l d z i h e r [ M u s lim S t u d ie s , p . 2 0 4 ] q u o te s o n l y l i n e s 1 , 4 , a n d 5 o f th is s h o rt p o e m (o r, its e l f , a p o e ti c f ra g m e n t) , a s d o e s h is l ik e l y s o u rc e , A b u cU b a y d A l l a h M u h a m m a d Ib n cU m ra n a l - M a rz u b a n i , M u cj a m al- S h u car d 3 (C a i ro : M a k ta b a t a l - Q u d s i , A .H . 1 3 5 4 ) , p p . 4 2 9 - 3 0 . T h e tra n s l a ti o n g i v e n o n p a g e s 8 - 9 o f th e p re s e n t te x t, a n d al l o th e r tra n s l a ti o n s a p p e a ri n g w i th o u t o th e r a ttri b u ti o n , a re m y o w n . 1 6 . M u s ta f a N a s i f , Q ir d 3ah T h an iy ah li S h icrin a al- Q ad im ([T ri p o l i, L i b y a ]: M a n s h u ra t a l - Ja m i ca h a l - L i b i y a h , K u l l i y a t a l - A d a b , n .d .) . 1 7 . S e e Ja co b L a s s n e r, T h e D e m o n iz at io n o f t he Q u e e n o f S h e b a ( C h i ca g o : T h e U n i v e rs i ty o f C h i c a g o P re s s , 1 9 9 4 ). 1 8 . S e e Ja ro s l a v S te tk e v y c h , " C o n f l u e n c e o f A ra b i c a n d H e b re w L i te r a tu re , " Jo u r n al o f N e ar E as t e r n S t u d ie s 3 2 , n o s . 1 & 2 ( Ja n .- A p ri l 1 9 7 3 ) , p . 220. 1 9 . F u rth e r o n th e m y th / l e g e n d o f th e S e v e n S l e e p e rs o f E p h e s u s , s e e b e l o w , c h a p te r 2 n . 7 . 2 0 . S e e f u rth e r, Ja ro s l a v S te tk e v y ch , T h e Z e p h y r s o f N ajd : T h e P o e t ic s o f N o s t alg ia in t h e C las s ic al A r ab ic N as ib ( C h i ca g o : T h e U n i v e rs i ty o f C h i ca g o P re s s , 1 9 9 3 ), p p . 1 6 8 - 7 0 . 2 1 . S e e a l s o S . S te tk e v y c h , " I n to x i c a ti o n a n d I m m o rta l i ty ," p p . 4 0 - 4 1 . C h a p te r 1 1 . V i rg i l [ V e rg i l ] , E c l o g u e s , G e o r g i e s , A e n e id , T ra n s . H . R u s h to n Fa i rcl o u g h (T h e L o e b C l a s s i ca l L i b ra ry ) , 2 v o l s . ( C a m b ri d g e , M a s s a c h u s e tts / L o n d o n : H a rv a rd U n i v e rs i ty P re s s , 1 9 9 4 / 1 9 8 6 ) , V o l. 1 [ A e n e id V I, 1 8 6 - 8 9 , 2 0 3 - 0 4 ], p p . 5 1 8 / 5 1 9 - 5 2 0 / 5 2 1 . 2 . A b u Ja cf ar M u h a m m a d Ib n Ja ri r a l - T a b a ri , T afsir al- T ab ar i: Jd m ic al- B ay an can T a3w il A y a l- Q u r 3dn , 1 6 v o l s ., e d s . M a h m u d M u h a m m a d S h ak i r an d A h m ad M u h am m ad S h a k i r (C a i ro : D a r a l - M a ca ri f b i M is r, 1 9 5 7 ) 1 2 : 5 3 8 - 3 9 ; Ib n K a th i r [cI m a d a l - D i n A b u a l - Fi d a I s m a T l Ib n cU m a r a l Q u ra s h i a l - D i m a s h q i ] , A l- B id ay ah w a a l- N ih a y a h fi al- T ar ik h , 1 4 v o l s . (C a i ro : M a tb a 'a t K u rd i s ta n a l - cI l m i y a h li N a s h r a l - K u tu b a l - cA l i y a h a l - I s l a m i y a h , a .h . 1 3 4 8 ) 1 :1 3 7 , a n d Q is as al- A n b iy d 3 ([ C a i ro ? ]: D a r N a h r al - N i l , n .d . [1 9 8 1 ? ]), p . T h a cl ab i, 1 2 3 ; Ib n K it ab I s h aq I b ra h i m al- Q is as a l- A n b i y a 3 al- M u s am m d b i a l - cA r d 3is ( C a i ro : A l- M a tb a ca h a l - K a s ta l l y a h , a .h A h m ad Ib n M u h am m ad Ib n . 1 2 9 8 ) , p . 6 2 ; A . J. W e n s i n ck a n d J. P. M e n s i n g , e t a l ., C o n c o r d an c e e t in d ic e s d e la T r adit io n M u s u lm an e : L e s S ix L iv r es , L e M u s n ad d 3al- D d r im i, L e M u w at t a3 d e M alik, L e M u s n ad d e A h m ad Ibn H an b al (L e id e n : E . J. B ril l , 1 9 6 2 [p h o to - o f f s e t o f 1 9 3 6 - 1 9 4 3 e d i ti o n ]) 4 : 5 1 9 (f ro m A b u D a w u d , ch . 4 1 [ im d rah ] ) . 3 . W h a t w e ch a ra cte ri z e h e re a s a " f o l k l o ri c m a n n e r" in a h ad it h is al s o re co g n i z a b l e a s a s ty l i s ti c tra i t o f a n u m b e r o f th e s h o rte r q u ri a n i c s u ra s , s u ch as 7 7 :1 3 - 1 4 ; 8 2 :1 7 - 1 8 ; 8 3 : 8 - 9 , 1 9 - 2 0 ; 8 6 :1 - 3 ; 9 0 :1 1 - 1 3 ; 9 7 :1 - 3 ; 1 0 1 :1 - 3 , 9 - 1 1 ; 1 0 4 :4 - 6 . 4 . T h e i m p o rta n ce o f th is " p l a ce o f b u ri a l " in th e d i s e n ta n g l e m e n t o f th e co m p l e x i ty o f th e p e rs o n a o f A b u R ig h al w ill b e d is cu s s e d in ch a p te r 4. 5 . En tire l y , o r in p a rt, th is e p is o d e is to l d b y al - T ab ari , T afsir 1 2 :5 3 8 ; Ib n K ath ir, A l- B id ay ah w a al- N ihd y ah 1 :1 3 7 , an d Q isas al- A n b iy d 3, p p . 1 2 2 - 2 3 ; a n d 116 N o te s f o r p a g e s 1 4 - 1 8 a l - T h a cl ab i, K it ab Q is as al- A n b iy a ’ , p p . 6 1 - 6 2 , a l th o u g h w i th o u t th e i n tro d u c ti o n o f M u h a m m a d 's p a s s i n g b y a g ra v e a n d as k i n g h is p e o p l e th e rh e to rical q u e s tio n . I n s te a d , a l - T h a cl ab i's n a rra ti o n o f th e i n cid e n t co m e s e n tire l y in te g ra te d i n to th e s to ry o f S al ih a n d th e T h a m u d . It is a l to g e th e r o d d , o r ra th e r s y m p to m a ti c , th a t S . A . B o n e b ak k e r, in h is e n try o n A b u R ig h al , s h o u l d h a v e to tal l y f ai l e d to tak e n o ti ce o f th e e xi s te n ce o f as s tra n g e an o b j e ct a s a g o l d e n b o u g h f o u n d in th e g ra v e o f A b u R ig h al . S e e S. A . B o n e b a k k e r, a rt. " A b u R i g h a l ," T h e E n c y c lo p ae d ia o f Islam (N e w E d .), e d . H . A . R . G ib b e t al. (L e i d e n : E . J. B ril l; L o n d o n : L u z a k a n d C o ., 1 9 6 0 - ). 6 . A l - T h a T a b I , K it ab Q is as a l- A n b iy a ’ , p . 6 2 . 7 . M u h a m m a d I b n cU m a r Ib n W a q i d , K it ab al- M ag h d z i li al- W d q id i, 3 v o l s . , e d . M a ri s d i n Ju n s [ M a rs d e n Jo n e s ] (O x f o rd : O x f o rd U n i v e rs i ty P re s s , 1 9 6 6 ) 3 : 1 0 0 8 . 8 . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e u l ti m a te i m p l i ca ti o n s o f th e q u r’ a n i c cy cl i c s c h e m e , s e e m y " A ra b i c H e rm e n e u ti ca l T e rm i n o l o g y : P a ra d o x a n d th e P ro d u c ti o n o f M e a n i n g , " Jo u r n al o f N e ar E as t e r n S t u d ie s 4 8 n o . 2 (A p ri l 1 9 8 9 ), p . 84. 9 . A l - T a b a ri , T afsir 1 2 : 5 2 4 - 4 7 ; I b n K ath i r, A l- B id d y ah w a al- N ih d y ah 1 : 1 3 0 - 3 9 ; a n d , m o re c l o s e l y k e y e d to th e Q u r’ a n , Ib n K ath i r, Q is as al- A n b i y a ’, p p . 1 1 2 - 2 7 ; S h i h ab a l - D i n A h m a d Ib n cA b d a l - W a h h a b a l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at al- A r ab f t E u n iin al- A d ab , 3 1 v o l s . (C a i ro : D a r a l - K u tu b a l - M i s ri y a h , 1 3 4 2 / 1 9 2 4 - 1 3 7 4 / 1 9 5 5 ; A l - H a y ’ a h a l - M i s ri y a h a l - cA m m a h li a l - K i ta b , 1 4 1 2 / 1 9 9 2 ) 1 3 : 7 1 - 8 6 ; a l - T h a cl ab i, K it ab Q is as al- A n b iy a ’ , p p . 5 7 6 2 ; M u h a m m a d Ib n cA b d A l l a h a l - K i s a ’ I, Q is as al- A n b iy a ’ , e d . I s a a c E i s e n b e rg ( L e i d e n : E . J. B ri l l , 1 9 2 2 /2 3 ), p p . 1 1 7 - 2 1 . S ee also th e E n g l i s h tra n s l a ti o n , T h e T ales o f t h e P r o p h e t s o f a l - K i s a 3i, T ra n s l a te d f ro m th e A ra b i c w i th N o te s b y W . M . T h a c k s to n , Jr. (B o s to n : T w a y n e P u b l i s h e rs / G . K . H al l an d C o ., 1 9 7 8 ), p p . 1 1 7 - 2 8 . C h a p te r 2 1 . cA d a m id r d k li al- z am d n w a al- m akd n , s e e Ja w a d cA l i, A l- M u fas s al f t T d r ikh a l - cA r a b q ab l al- Is lam , 1 0 v o l s . (B e i ru t: D a r a l - cIl m li a l - M a l a y i n / B a g h d a d : M a k ta b a t a l - N a h d a h , 1 9 6 9 ) 1 :7 5 . 2 . B e rn a rd F. B a tto , S lay in g t h e D r ag o n : M y t h m ak in g in t h e B ib lic al T ra d it io n (L o u i s v i l l e , K e n tu ck y : W e s tm i n s te r/ Jo h n K n o x P re s s , 1 9 9 2 ) , p . 1 2 3 . 3 . A b u Ja cf a r M u h a m m a d Ib n Ja ri r a l - T a b a ri , T dr ikh al- T ab ar i: T drikh a l- R u s u l w a al- M u liik , 11 v o l s . , e d . M u h am m ad A bu a l - F a d l I b ra h i m ( C a i ro : D a r a l - M a ca ri f b i M i s r, 1 9 6 0 ) 1 :3 1 4 . 4 . A l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at a l- A r ab 1 3 :7 3 ; a n d a l - K i s a ’ i, Q is as al- A n b iy a ’ , p . Ill [E n g l i s h tra n s l a ti o n , p . 1 1 8 ]. T h i s q u o ta ti o n f ro m th e Q u r’ an (j a 3a l- h aq q u w a z ah aq a l- b at ilu in n a T b at ila kdn a z ah u q an [1 7 :8 1 ]) is u n re l a ta b l e to th e s to ry o f th e T h a m u d , u n l e s s it is to b e ta k e n a s a " f i g u ra . " In its c o rre c t, n o t m y th o p o e i c a l l y a d a p te d , c o n te x t it m e re l y a n n o u n ce s , o r c o n f i rm s , th e i n s ti tu ti o n o f th e o b l i g a to ry d a i l y p ra y e rs . 5 . A l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at al- A r ab 1 3 :7 3 . 6 . W e e a s i l y re c o g n i z e in th e T h a m u d i c (o r w o u l d - b e T h a m u d i c ) K a n u h , a s S a l i h 's f a th e r is n a m e d in th e A ra b i c m y th o p o e i c te x ts , a c o g n a te o f th e H e b re w , a s w e l l a s A ra m a i c , k o h e n ( p ri e s t) — to g e th e r w i th th e 117 N o te s f o r p a g e s 1 8 - 1 9 a rc h a i c A ra b i c te rm o f kah in ( p ri e s t), w h i c h p e rh a p s o u g h t to o c c u p y th e p ri m a ry p l a ce in o u r e ty m o l o g i c a l a w a re n e s s . F u rth e rm o re , in th e e n tire s c e n e in w h i c h K a n u h is i n tro d u ce d , w e a re g i v e n a n A ra b i c v a ri a n t o f th e a rc h e ty p a l m o ti f m o s t i co n i ca l l y re p re s e n te d in th e C h ri s ti a n a n n u n ci a ti o n . I n th e T h a m u d i c / A ra b i a n ca s e , h o w e v e r, it is th e m a l e w h o is th e re c e i v e r o f " th e g o o d ti d i n g s ," b e a ri n g in it a s i g n th a t is b o th p h y s i o l o g i cal a n d a te s ti m o n y to h a v i n g c o m m u n i c a te d w i th d i v i n ity . A l s o c o m p a re K a n u h ' s a n n u n c i a ti o n w i th th a t o f S a ra h (G e n e s is 1 8 : 9 - 1 5 , a n d Q u r’ an 1 1 : 6 9 - 7 4 ) , a s w e l l a s w i th Z a c h a ri a h (L u k e 1 : 8 - 2 4 ) a n d M a ry (L u k e 1 : 2 6 3 8 ) . In a s p e ci a l w a y , tre a d i n g th e th i n n e s t o f l in e s b e tw e e n b e i n g o u tri g h t e a rth y a n d m y s ti ca l - s y m b o l i c, th e e p i s o d e o f th e p a rti c u l a r g l o w th a t ra d i a te s f ro m th e e y e s o f K a n u h a n d i s s u e s f ro m th e f e cu n d a ti n g s ti rri n g s in th e m a rro w o f h is s p i n e s h o u l d b e p l a ce d s i d e b y s i d e w i th th e h a g i o g ra p h i c s to ry to l d b y Ib n I s h aq , th e s o u rc e o f Ib n H i s h a m , o f h o w th e P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d w a s f a th e re d a n d c o n ce i v e d . In it, a s M u h a m m a d ' s f a th e r, cA b d A l l a h , a p p ro a c h e s h i s w i f e A m i n a h , th e w o m a n to b e co m e M u h a m m a d ' s m o th e r, h e to o b e a rs a s ig n o n h i s f a ce : th e " l i g h t" o f a b l a z e o n h is f o re h e a d . A f te r th e u n i o n , w h i c h l e a d s to M u h a m m a d 's co n ce p ti o n , th e b l a z e d i s a p p e a rs . S e e A b u M u h a m m a d cA b d a l - M a l ik Ib n H i s h a m , A l- S lr ah al- N ab aw iy ah , 4 v o l s . (C a i ro : D a r a l - Fi k r li a l - T i b a ca h w a a l - N a s h r w a a l - T a w z i c, 1 9 8 0 ) 1 : 1 7 3 - 7 4 ; a n d , w i th o n l y m i n o r te x tu a l v a ri a ti o n , A b u M u h a m m a d cA b d a l - M a l i k Ib n H i s h a m , A l- S ir ah al- N ab aw iy ah li Ibn H is h am , 6 v o l s ., e d . T a h a cA b d a l - R a ’ u f S acd (B e i ru t: D a r al - Jil , 1 4 1 1 / 1 9 9 1 ) 1 : 2 9 2 - 9 3 . T h is M u h a m m a d a n h a g i o g ra p h i c p a ra l l e l w i th K a n u h , h i s w if e , a n d th e c o n ce p ti o n o f th e T h a m u d i c p ro p h e t S al ih is o f p a rti cu l a r i m p o rta n c e to u s , f o r it w il l s u b s ta n ti a te a n d cl a ri f y o u r f u rth e r a n a l o g i e s p e rti n e n t to S al ih a n d M u h a m m a d . 7 . K a n u h 's re f u g e in a m a g i c c a v e a n d h i s s l e e p in it f o r o n e h u n d re d y e a rs is to b e p u t i n to th e Q u r’ a n ' s o w n m y th o p o e i c c o n te x t o f th e C o m p a n i o n s o f th e C a v e ( A s h ab al- K ah f) , Q u r’ a n 1 8 : 9 - 2 6 , a n d th e i r s h e l te re d th re e h u n d re d a n d n i n e y e a r s l e e p . T h e q u r’ a n i c v e rs i o n o f th e s to ry o f th e S l e e p e rs h a s in tu rn its o ri g i n in th e l e g e n d o f th e " S e v e n S l e e p e rs o f E p h e s u s , " w h i ch , in its i n te rn a l te x tu a l re f e re n ce p o i n ts , d a te s b a ck to th e m i d - th i rd ce n tu ry , th e ti m e o f p e rs e cu ti o n o f C h ri s ti a n s u n d e r th e E m p e ro r D e ci u s . In its C h ri s ti a n co n te x t th e l e g e n d a c q u i re s a d i s ti n ct h a g i o g ra p h i c c h a ra cte r, a n d in th e s i x th c e n tu ry a s h rin e o f th e S l e e p e rs o f E p h e s u s is k n o w n to h a v e e x i s te d as a p l a ce o f w o rs h i p . A c c o rd i n g to th e Q u r’ a n ( 8 :2 1 ) , to o , a m o s q u e is e re c te d o v e r th e C o m p a n i o n s o f th e C a v e . S e e e s p e ci a l l y P. M i ch a e l H u b e r, D ie W an d e r le g e n d e v o n den S ie b e n s c h lafe r n (L e i p z i g : O tto H a rra s s o w i tz , 1 9 1 0 ) , p . 2 3 7 - 3 8 ; a n d , g e n e ra l l y , T h e E n c y c lo p ae d ia o f Islam (N e w E d i ti o n ), a rt. " A s h a b a l - K a h f ." 8 . A l - N u w a y ri , N ih d y at al- A r ab 1 3 :7 3 . 9 . Q u r’ a n 5 :3 4 . It is i n te re s ti n g to n o te th a t w h a t in th e Q u r’ a n is a " s to ry " o f b u ria l is h e re a s to ry o f a w a k e n i n g , o r, a s it w e re , o f re s u rre c ti o n . T h e n , to o , s e e a l - N u w a y ri , N ih d y at al- A r ab 1 3 : 7 4 ; a n d a l - K i s a ’ i, Q is as al- A n b iy a3, p . 1 1 2 [E n g l is h tra n s l a ti o n , p . 1 1 9 ]. 10. In h is V og el als B o t en (G o ttin g e n : V an d e n h o e ck u n d R u p re ch t, 1 9 7 7 ), O th m a r K e el d e v o te s m u c h a tte n ti o n to th e m y th o l o g ical f ig u ratio n o f th e ra v e n / c ro w a s th e g u i d e - o r o ri e n tatio n - b ird . H e b e g i n s w ith th e E a rl y - D y n a s ti c II (ca. 2 6 0 0 B .C .) M e s o p o ta m i a n cy l i n d e r s e al f ro m Fa ra (S h u ru p p a k ), w h i ch is in te rp re te d a s re p re s e n tin g G i l g a m e s h h o l d i n g in h is h a n d th e 118 N o te f o r p a g e 1 9 p l a n t, o r b ra n c h , o f y o u th f u l i m m o rta l i ty , s e a te d U tn a p i s h ti m . B e h i n d h i m i n a b o a t o p p o s i te th e re s ta n d s a b o a tm a n (U rs h a n ab i [? ]), w h il e o v e r th e b o a t's s te rn th e re e i th e r f lies o r p e rc h e s a ra v e n (p p . 8 3 , 8 5 ). C a l l i m a ch u s o f C y re n e (d . ca . 2 4 0 B . C . ) , i n h is S e c o n d H y m n , a d d re s s e d to A p o l l o , p ra i s e s th e g o d , w h o , a s a ra v e n , g u i d e s h is p e o p l e to L ib y a. In as m u c h a s th e j o u rn e y i n v o l v e d th e cro s s i n g o f th e s e a, A p o l l o th e R a v e n is i n i t cl e a rl y th e " o ri e n ta ti o n - b i rd " (p . 8 3 ). S o to o w a s A l e x a n d e r th e G re at g u i d e d b y tw o ra v e n s to th e A m m o n o ra cl e in th e o as i s o f S h iv a (p . 8 2 ). K e e l p ro v i d e s e q u a l l y p e rs u a s i v e e x a m p l e s f ro m e a rl y (f irs t c e n tu ry b .c .) I n d i an m a ri ti m e tra v e l s i n w h i c h th e ra v e n w a s tak e n o n th e s h ip s b e ca u s e o f its ab i l i ty to o rie n t, th a t is, g u i d e , th e s e af are rs . C o n ti n u i n g a f te r C a l l i m a c h u s w i th O v i d , w e re tu rn to th e ra v e n a s th e m e s s e n g e r o f th e g o d A p o l l o , a n d th u s a s th e i n h a b i te r o f a P a ra d i s e - l i k e s p h e re . T h e re th i s G re e k m y th i c a l ra v e n sn o w y d o v e s , s w an s , an d even h ad o n c e b e e n w h i te r th an g e e s e . A s A p o l l o ' s b i rd , i t h a d m i s f o rtu n e , h o w e v e r, to h a v e o n c e c o m e u p o n th e a n i n d i s cre ti o n o f th e b e a u ti f u l C o ro n i s o f L a ri s s a , a m a i d e n w h o s e l o v e A p o l l o h a d ta k e n f o r h i m s e l f a n d o f w h o s e f a i th f u l n e s s h e e n te rta i n e d a n u n j u s tif ie d il l u s io n . W h e n , i n h i s s tra i g h tf o rw a rd n e s s as m e s s e n g e r, th e ra v e n , a g a i n s t e v e ry b e tte r j u d g m e n t, i n f o rm e d A p o l l o o f C o ro n i s 's u n f a i th f u l n e s s , th e g o d in h i s ra g e n o t o n l y k il l e d th e g i rl b u t a l s o ch a n g e d th e ra v e n ' s co l o r to b l ack an d b an ish e d it f o re v e r f ro m th e c o m p a n y o f al l w h i te b i rd s (O v i d , M e t am o r p h o s e s , tra n s . R o l f e H u m p h ri e s [B l o o m i n g to n : I n d i a n a U n i v e rs i ty P re s s , 1 9 6 4 ] , p p . 4 5 - 4 8 [2 : 5 3 9 - 6 3 1 ] ) . F ro m th e n o n th e ra v e n re m a i n e d th e b i rd o f ill o m e n a n d o f s e p a ra ti o n . I n th e M i th ra i c m y th th e ra v e n is co n f i rm e d i n i ts A p o l l o n i a n c o n n e c ti o n . T h e re th e " s e rv i to r o f th e S u n " s e n d s th e ra v e n to M i th ra a s th e m e s s e n g e r th a t b e a rs th e c o m m a n d to s l a y th e b u l l . In th e c o m p a ri s o n b e tw e e n th e tw o ra v e n s , th e A p o l l o n i a n a n d th e M i th ra i c, w e h a v e to k e e p i n m i n d th e " A p o l l o n i a n " u n i f ie d s o l a r d i v i n i ty a s a g a i n s t th e M i th ra i c d i v i s i o n i n to tw o c o m p l e m e n ta ry d i v i n e p e rs o n a e . N o t e n tire l y to b e s e p a ra te d f ro m b e i n g th e s o l a r m e s s e n g e r, in th e M i th ra i c m y s te ri e s , to o , th e ra v e n c o n s ti tu te s th e f irs t o f th e s e v e n s ta g e s o f i n iti ati o n . S e e Fra n z C u m o n t, T h e M y s t e r ie s o f M it h r a, tra n s . T h o m a s J. M c C o rm a c k (N e w Y o rk : D o v e r P u b l i c a ti o n s , I n c., 1 9 5 6 ) , p p . 1 5 2 , 1 5 4 - 5 5 . B e a ri n g s til l re c o g n i z a b l e A p o l l o n i a n c h a ra cte ri s ti c s , in th e A ra b i c m y th o p o e i a w h i c h g re w , o n e m i g h t s ay , e x e g e ti ca l l y , o u t o f th e q u r’ a n i c n a rra ti v e p a u c i ty o f th e N o a h s to ry , th e ra v e n /g h u r a b is a l s o th e " f a i l e d " m e s s e n g e r b i rd . T h e c a u s e o f its f a il u re , h o w e v e r, is n o t e x ce s s i v e z e a l , as w a s th e c a s e o f A p o l l o ' s ra v e n , b u t its b e i n g re m i s s in b ri n g i n g N o a h th e n e w s o f th e a b a te m e n t o f th e f l o o d . It b e ca m e d i s tra c te d b y a ca rc a s s f l o a ti n g o n th e f l o o d w a te rs a n d f ai l e d to re tu rn . F o r th a t it w a s p u n i s h e d to re m a i n a b i rd o f d i s ta n ce a n d s e p a ra ti o n f ro m m a n — as w e l l as b e i n g c o n d e m n e d to a n n o u n c e th e i n e v i ta b i l i ty o f s e p a ra ti o n a m o n g m e n . T h e o p p o s i te is th e n th e ro l e a n d th e m y th o p o e i c a n d l i te ra ry f a te o f N o a h 's o th e r m e s s e n g e r, th e d o v e . S e e a l - T h a cl ab i, Q is as al- A n b iy a 3, p . 5 0 ; K a m a l a l - D i n a l - D a m i ri , H ay at al- H ay aio an al- K u b r a zva b i H am is h ih a cA j a 3ib al- M ak h lu q d t w a al- H ay aw d n d t w a G h a r a ’ ib al- M aw ju d at b y Z a k a ri y a Ib n M u h a m m a d Ib n M a h m u d a l - Q a z w i n i , 2 v o l s . (B e iru t: D a r I h y a 3 a l - T u ra th a l - cA ra b i , n .d . [p h o to o f f s e t o f th e e d . C a i ro : M a tb a ca t al - H i j az I , a .h 2 :1 7 2 - 7 4 . . 1 3 5 3 ]) 119 N o te s f o r p a g e s 1 9 - 2 3 11. " H a l l o w e d " is h e re m a cs u m a n d " v e n e ra te d a n d e x a l te d , " m u kar r a- m an m u caz z am an , b o th b e i n g w i th f u l l i n te n ti o n a l i ty u s e d a s " p ro p h e ti c " e p i th e ts , th u s re s o n a ti n g w i th M u h a m m a d ' s " n a m e s " / e p i th e ts . A l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at al- A r ab 1 3 :7 5 . 1 2 . T h a t is, allad h in a y u fs id u n a fi- l- a r d i. S e e a l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at al- A r ab 1 3 :7 6 ; a n d Q u r’ a n 2 6 : 1 5 2 ; o r 2 7 :4 8 . A n i m p o rta n t g e n e ra l o b s e rv a ti o n in th i s c o n te x t s h o u l d b e th a t " b ri n g i n g c o rru p ti o n to th e l a n d " a p p e a rs to b e th e m a i n a c cu s a ti o n c a s t a g a i n s t th e T h a m u d . T h i s s h o u l d a l l o w u s to p l a ce its s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g w i th i n th e b ro a d a rc h e ty p a l s co p e o f v e g e ta ti o n s y m b o l i s m , th e " w a s te l a n d , " th e Fi s h e r K i n g , e tc.. 1 3 . A l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at al- A r ab 1 3 :7 7 . 1 4 . T o o m a n y l a te ra l i s s u e s o f i n ci d e n ta l a n d ta n g e n ti a l s y m b o l i s m (b u t e v e n th e n o f a p o s s ib l e c u m u l a ti v e c o h e re n ce ) a re s u rg i n g h e re f o r u s to e v e n try to g i v e th e m j u s ti ce w i th i n th e l i m i ta ti o n s o f o u r p re s e n t e s s ay . I t is s u f f i ci e n t to n o te h o w a rc h e ty p a l is S a l ih 's " s e tti n g o u t to w a rd th e w i l d e rn e s s ," a n d h o w i t f al l s i n to p a tte rn s s u c h a s th o s e o f Jo h n th e B a p tis t a n d C h ri s t. E q u a l l y a rc h e ty p a l is S a l i h 's e n te ri n g th e c a v e , h is p ro p h e ti c s l e e p / g e s ta ti o n o f f o rty y e a rs , a n d e v e n h is " g o l d e n b e d " a n d th e l a m p c a n d e l a b ra . W ith re g a rd to th e l a s t, w e m a y th in k o f th e Fi s h e r K i n g o f th e G rai l s a g a , b u t a l s o o f th e b u ri e d g o l d e n b o u g h itse lf . 1 5 . A l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at al- A r ab 1 3 :7 8 . 1 6 . A l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at al- A r ab 1 3 :7 9 . 1 7 . A l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at al- A r ab 1 3 :7 9 . A s m u c h a s w e k n o w o f th e " m i ra c l e o f N o a h , " w h i c h is th e b u i l d i n g o f th e A rk , w e k n o w n o th i n g o f a s p e cif ic " m i ra c l e o f H u d . " In Q u r’ a n 1 1 :5 3 , 5 4 th e p e o p l e o f cA d e v e n s a y to H u d ' s f a ce : " O H u d , n o c l e a r s ig n h a v e y o u b ro u g h t u s . " O n ly H u d ' s p ro p h e c y o f cA d ' s a n n i h i l a ti o n a n d th e i r re p l a ce m e n t b y a n o th e r p e o p l e c a n , th e re f o re , b e th e " m i ra c l e . " T h e a c tu a l " s t o r y " o f th e i r a n n i h i l a ti o n is g i v e n , o n c e a g a i n , m o re p i c tu re s q u e l y a n d e x h a u s ti v e l y in a l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at al- A r ab 1 3 :5 6 . 1 8 . T h u s in Q u r’ a n 7 :7 3 ; 9 1 : 1 3 ; e tc. 1 9 . C o m p a re , f o r e x a m p l e , th e n a rra ti o n o f a l - N u w a y ri ( N ih ay at al- A r ab 1 3 :7 9 ) w i th th a t o f a l - T a b a ri ( T afsir 1 2 :5 2 5 ) . 2 0 . A l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at al- A r ab 1 3 :7 9 . 2 1 . S u ch is th e a c c o u n t o f a l - T h a cl ab i's K it ab Q is as a l- A n b iy a ’ (p . 5 8 ) , an d th e s a m e m e a n i n g m a y a l s o b e c o n s tru e d f ro m a l - T a b a ri 's T afsir (1 2 :5 2 6 ) . I n a l - N u w a y ri ' s N ih ay at al- A r ab ( 1 3 :8 0 ) , o n th e o th e r h a n d , e v e n th e w a te ri n g o f th e S h e - C a m e l o n a l te rn a te d a y s re m a i n s o n e o f th e s p e cif ic c o n d i ti o n s p re s e n te d b y th e T h a m u d . 2 2 . S a l ih 's w o rd s in th e n a rra ti o n a re a q u o ta ti o n f ro m Q u r’ a n 7 :7 3 . 2 3 . A s i d e f ro m th e re b e i n g a g o o d re a s o n f o r th e e x p l o ra ti o n o f Q u d a r' s e ty m o l o g i e s b a s e d o n m o rp h o l o g i ca l l y d e te rm i n e d s e m a n ti c s , a n d e v e n o n " f o l k - a s s o c i a ti v e " u s a g e s , o u r m a i n a p p ro a c h m u s t u l ti m a te l y b e th a t o f c o n cre te e ty m o l o g y w i th i n th e ro o t q /k - d h /d - r a n d kh - d- r , n o t e x cl u d i n g H e b re w e ty m o l o g i ca l a s p e c ts . M o s t o f al l , s e e b e l o w (ch . 6 , " D e m y th o l o g i z i n g th e T h a m u d " ) , th e v a l i d a ti o n o f e ty m o l o g y in th e " h i s to ri c i ty " o f q u d a r /Q u d a r. 2 4 . T h e f o rm u l a i c c h a ra c te r o f s u c h e s s e n ti a l l y i d e o l o g i ca l " i n - te x t" h e rm e n e u ti cs is a l s o e v i d e n t in th e o th e r G e n e s i s " p a i ri n g " o f C a i n an d A b e l (G e n . 4 ), o r in th e i d e o l o g i ca l l y e v e n m o re tra n s p a re n t d i s tri b u ti o n o f p a tri m o n y a n d cu rs e a m o n g th e s o n s o f N o a h (G e n . 9 : 2 4 - 2 6 ) . T h e N o te s f o r p a g e s 2 3 - 2 4 120 R o m u l u s a n d R e m u s p a ra l l e l is a l s o o b v i o u s . In its m y th - m a k i n g a n d i d e o l o g i ca l a s p e c ts th e l a tte r re c e i v e s its p e rh a p s m o s t co m p re h e n s i v e tre a tm e n t in T . R W i s e m a n , R e m u s : A R o m an M y t h (C a m b ri d g e : C a m b ri d g e U n i v e rs i ty P re s s , 1 9 9 5 ) . 2 5 . W a kdn a f i ca y n a y h i z u r q at u n ka an n a h u m d cad as at d n i. A l - N u w a y rl , N ih a y at al- A r ab 1 3 :8 3 . 2 6 . M it h la z u jajat in . S e e a l - N a b i g h a h a l - D h u b y a n i , D iw an , re d a c ti o n o f I b n a l - S i k k it, e d . S h u k ri F a y s a l (B e i ru t: D a r a l - H a s h i m , 1 9 6 8 ) , p p . 1 4 - 1 6 ( rh y m e d in d al, e s p . v . 2 8 ) . S e e f u rth e r ' A m r Ib n B a h r a l - Ja h i z , K it ab al- H ay aw d n , 8 v o l s ., e d . cA b d a l - S a l a m M u h a m m a d H a ru n (C a i ro : D ar a l - M a ca ri f , 1 9 3 8 ) 6 :3 3 1 . 2 7 . O f i m p o rta n c e to u s p ri m a ri l y is C a s s a n d ra ' s ro l e in A e n e id 2 : 2 4 6 - 4 9 . I n m y th to b e a " s e e r, " o r to b e c o m e a " s e e r, " c o m e s , u n a v o i d a b l y , v e ry d e a rl y . T h ro u g h h e r p re f e re n ce o f a m o rta l o v e r a g o d — in th i s c a s e te rm e d m y th o g ra p h i c a l l y a s " u n f a i th f u l n e s s " — C a s s a n d ra , f o r h a v i n g th u s d e f i e d A p o l l o , w h o h a d g i v e n h e r th e g if t o f p ro p h e cy , h a s to l iv e w i th th e a g o n y o f i g n o re d p ro p h e c y a n d , u l ti m a te l y , o f w i tn e s s i n g th e d e s tru c ti o n o f T ro y . T o e x p a ti a te f u rth e r o n C a s s a n d ra ' s A ra b i a n a n a l o g u e : Z a rq a ’ a l - Y a m a m a h , a l i e n a te d f ro m h e r k in b y b e i n g m a rri e d i n to a cl a n (Ja d i s ) h o s ti l e to h e r o w n ( T a s m ) , a l th o u g h s h e d e te cts th e c a m o u f l a g e d a d v a n c i n g H i m y a ri te s f ro m a d i s ta n ce o f th re e d a y s ' m a rc h , is n o t b e l ie v e d b y th e Ja d i s . Y a m a m a h f al l s , th e Ja d i s a re p u t to th e s w o rd , a n d Z a rq a ’ a l - Y a m a m a h ' s e y e s a re p l u ck e d o u t b y th e k i n g o f th e c o n q u e ri n g H i m y a ri te s . S e e A b u a l - H a s a n cA l i Ib n a l - H u s a y n Ib n cA l i a l - M a s cu d I , M u r u j al- D h ah a b w a M a cad in al- Jaw h ar , 4 v o l s ., e d . Y u s u f A s ca d D a g h i r (B e iru t: D a r a l - A n d a l u s li a l - T i b a ca h w a a l - N a s h r w a a l - T a w z f , 1 4 0 1 / 1 9 8 1 ) 2 : 1 1 7 19. 2 8 . M ac b e t h , A c t I V S ce n e 1 a n d A c t V S ce n e 5 . 2 9 . Q u r ’a n 2 7 : 4 8 . 3 0 . T o " h o c k " o r " h a m s tri n g " ( caq ar a) a n a n i m a l , e s p e ci al l y a ca m e l , is n o t o n l y a c o m p l e x w o rd in th e A ra b i c l e xico n ; it is, a b o v e all, a co m p l e x term in th e e arl i e s t A ra b i c l a n g u a g e o f ri tu a l a n d s acrif i ce , f o r it is th e f irst s te p in th e p ro c e d u re o f s l a u g h te ri n g a n a n i m a l w h ich in s o m e f o rm , e xp l icitl y o r im p l icitl y , is o f f e re d , o r c o n s u m e d , in a ritu al iz e d m an n e r. T h is ap p l ie s m o s t cl o s e l y a n d m o s t v a ri e d l y to p re - I s l a m i c A ra b i a. T h u s a l s o th e s u b s e q u e n t M u h a m m a d a n i n j u n ctio n a g a i n s t th e p re - I s l am i c A rab i an f u n e rary a n d co m m e m o ra ti v e c u s to m o f s l a u g h te ri n g ca m e l s a t th e g ra v e s o f k in s m e n : " T h e re s h al l b e n o s l a u g h te ri n g [i.e. h o ck in g ] o f ca m e l s in I s l a m " (la caq r a f i l- is lam ) . T h e " h o ck i n g " ( caq r ) w a s th u s th e b ri n g in g d o w n o f th e a n i m a l (s acri f icial ), f o l l o w e d b y th e s l a y i n g (cu tti n g o f th e th ro a t). T e rm in o l o g ical l y , h o w e v e r, s u ch " h o ck i n g " a l s o to o k o v e r th e m e a n i n g o f th e f ull p ro c e d u re o f th e k ill in g o f th e a n i m a l . A n d , m o re th a n th a t, w h e n e m p l o y e d , it g a v e th e s l a u g h te ri n g o f th e a n im a l th e i m p l ici t s e n s e o f s o m e th i n g e n d o w e d w i th " s i g n i f i ca n ce " : s acrif icial , ri tu a l , o r e v e n f ig u rativ e l y re l ate d to s acri f i ci al a n d ritu al . Fo r th e b ro a d s e m a n ti c s co p e o f th e v e rb caqar a, al b eit w i th ti g h te r l e x i co g ra p h i ca l f o cu s a n d circu m s cri p ti o n , s e e E d w a rd W il l iam L a n e , A r ab ic - E n g lis h L e x ic o n , 8 v o l s . ( N e w Y o rk : Fre d e rick U n g a r, 1 9 5 8 [L o n d o n , 1 8 6 3 ]) 5 : 2 1 0 7 - 0 8 . S e e a l s o b e l o w , ch . 4 n . 11. 3 1 . A l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at al- A r ab 1 3 :8 3 . 3 2 . A l - N u w a y ri , N ih ay at al- A r ab 1 3 :8 3 . 121 N o te s f o r p a g e s 2 4 - 2 7 Q is as a l- A n b iy a ’ , p . 6 0 ; a l - N u w a y ri , N ih d y at al- A r ab 3 3 . A l - T h a cl ab i, 1 3 :8 4 . 3 4 . Q u r’ a n 1 1 :6 5 ; a n d , in a n o th e r v e rs i o n , 5 1 :4 3 . 3 5 . T h e re a re d if f e ri n g tra n s l a ti o n s o f w ay y aq e m u le z ah e q ( E x o d u s 3 2 : 6 ) , s u c h a s " a n d ro s e u p to p l a y " (R e v i s e d S ta n d a rd V e rs io n ), o r " a n d ro s e u p to m a k e m e rry " (T h e H o l y S cri p tu re s A c c o rd i n g to th e M a s o re ti c T e xt [P h i l a d e l p h i a : T h e Je w i s h P u b l i ca ti o n S o ci e ty o f A m e ri c a , 1 9 5 5 ] ) . N o t o n l y is o n e u n co m f o rta b l e w i th " p l a y i n g " a n d " m a k i n g m e rry " in th i s u n c o m p l i c a te d w a y , b u t th e i n s i s te n ce o n tra n s l a ti n g w ay y aq e m u a s " a n d r o s e " s e e m s h a rd l y te n a b l e , s i n ce th is v e rb m a y f u n cti o n h e re o n l y in a m a n n e r s i m i l a r to th a t o f th e A ra b i c v e rb s o f " b e g i n n i n g , " " u n d e rta k i n g , " a s w e l l a s " o c c u rri n g . " In th e tra n s l a ti o n o f th is v e rs e , I d i v e rg e f ro m b o th th e R S V a n d th e M a s o re ti c T e xt tra n s l a ti o n s . 3 6 . T h i s " f o re n s i c m a n n e r" o f M o s e s re a p p e a rs a l m o s t a s a ca ri ca tu re in th e H a d i th , w h e n , in th e s to ry o f M u h a m m a d ' s N i g h t Jo u rn e y a n d A s c e n s i o n (a l- is r a ’ w a a l- m icraj) , th e f i g u re o f M o s e s a p p e a rs to M u h a m m a d , a d v i s i n g h i m h o w to b a rg a i n d o w n w i th G o d th e n u m b e r o f o b l i g a to ry p ra y e rs . T h u s th e n u m b e r o f d a i l y p ra y e rs re q u i re d o f M u s l i m s w a s s e t a t a m e rci f u l f iv e ra th e r th a n G o d 's o ri g i n a l i m p o s i ti o n o f f if ty . S e e A bu al-H u say n M u slim Ib n al - H aj j aj a l - Q u s h a y ri a l - N a y s a b u ri , S ahih M u s lim , 6 v o l s . (C a i ro : D a r I h y a ’ a l - K u tu b a l - cA ra b i y a h : cIs a a l - B a b i a l H a l a b i w a S h u ra k a h u , 1 9 5 5 ) i : 1 4 5 - 4 7 [ h ad it h n o . 2 5 9 ] . 3 7 . In th is s ce n e e v e n P i n e h a s ' s ch o i c e o f a s p e a r w i th w h i c h to tra n s f i x th e M i d i a n i te w o m a n ' s b e l l y b e g s f o r a F re u d i a n re a d i n g . 3 8 . T h e s in o f " p u tti n g th e L o rd to a te s t" is o n e o f th e m o s t i m p o rta n t m o tif s o f th e q u r’ a n i c / T h a m u d i c s to ry its e l f , w h e re th e " S h e - C a m e l o f G o d " (a n d o f S al ih ) is h e rs e l f g i v e n a s a f it n a h ( " te s t" ) ( Q u r’ a n 5 4 :2 7 ) . 3 9 . S e e H a s s a n Ib n T h ab i t, S h ar h D lw an H as s an Ibn T hd bit , re ce n s i o n o f cA b d a l - R a h m a n a l - B a rq u q i (C a i ro : A l - M a k ta b a h a l - T i j ariy ah a l - K u b ra , 1 3 4 7 / 1 9 2 9 ) , p . 4 2 6 . C o n ce rn i n g a n o th e r b ib l ical te x t, th is i n tra n s i g e n ce in th e s e rv i ce o f a n e w , o r re n e w e d , " c o v e n a n t" in th e I s rae l ite Y a h w i s t ca s e h a s , in th e l a co n i c w o rd i n g o f B e rn a rd M . L e v i n s o n , " U n d e rs ta n d a b l y . . . l o n g tro u b l e d s c h o l a rs . " F o r h i s d i s cu s s i o n o f D e u te ro n o m y 1 3 : 6 - 1 1 / 1 3 : 7 — 1 2 s e e h is " ' B u t Y o u S h al l S u re l y K ill H i m ': T h e T e x t- C ri ti ca l a n d N e o - A s s y ri a n E v id e n ce f o r M T D e u te ro n o m y 1 3 :1 0 ," in G e o rg B rau l i k , e d ., B u n d e s d o ku m e n t u n d G e s e t z : S t u d ie n z u m D e u t e r o n o m iu m (Fre i b u rg , B as e l , V i e n n a , B a rce l o n a , R o m e , N e w - Y o rk : H e rd e r, 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 3 7 - 6 3 . W i th te x tu a l re f e re n ce s to N e o - A s s y ri a n tre a ti e s , L e v i n s o n re a ch e s th e u n a v o i d a b l e co n cl u s i o n th a t co n te x tu a l i z e s th e D e u te ro n o m y m u c h a s it d o e s th a t o f H a s s a n te x t (as Ib n T h ab i t): " A b s o l u te l o y a l ty to th e s o v e re i g n re q u i re s th e s a cri f i ce o f al l o th e r l o y al tie s . A n y o n e u n d e rm i n i n g th a t p ri m a ry co m m i tm e n t m u s t s u m m a ri l y b e e x e c u te d " (p . 6 0 ). 4 0 . A b d u l l a h Y u s u f A l i, T h e H o ly Q u r ’an . T ex t, T ran slat io n an d C o m m e n t ar y , 2 d e d . ( N e w Y o rk : T ah ri k e T ars il e Q u r’ an , In c., 1 9 8 8 ) , p . 3 0 . 4 1 . F a - q t u lu an fu s aku m d h d liku m kh ay r u n laku m cin d a b d r P iku m . Q u r’ an 2 :5 4 . 4 2 . Q u r’ a n 2 :5 9 4 3 . T h e ro o t r- j- s, in tu rn , h a s its e l f ca rri e d o v e r f ro m r- j- z th e m e a n i n g o f " c o m m o ti o n . " T h u s th e s e tw o ro o ts e n d e d u p d e v e l o p i n g th e ir c o m m o n , p o l y s e m i ca l l y i n te rtw i n e d s e m a n ti c f ield . N o te s f o r p a g e s 2 8 - 3 1 122 4 4 . W i l h e l m G e s e n i u s , H e b r ais c h e s u n d ar am d is c h e s H an d w d r t e r b u c h t ib er d as A lt e T e s t am e n t (B e rl i n , G o tti n g e n , H e i d e l b e rg : S p ri n g e r V e rl ag , 1 9 5 4 ) , p. 680 ( " lie b ko s e n m it e in e m W e ib e ” ). S e e a l s o th e co m p l e te c o n te x t o f G e n e s i s 3 9 : 1 4 , a s it, to o , re f e rs i ts e l f to " s e x u a l a d v a n c e s . " C f . th e A ra b i c T h i rd F o rm o f l a ciba. 4 5 . It is f o r th a t re a s o n th a t th e p ro b l e m o f th e s e m a n ti c s o f z ah e q h a s l e d H e b re w e x e g e s i s a n d l e x i c o g ra p h y to a s s o ci a ti n g its ro o t z - h - q w i th th e ro o t, a n d th e s e m a n ti c s , o f s - h - q , to b e ta k e n , in G e s e n i u s ' s c o y p h ra s i n g , im iib le n S in n e — w h i c h , e q u a l l y im iib le n S in n e , is a l s o u n d e rs ta n d a b l e i n A ra b i c a s s ah aq a. I n h e r p a p e r " S a ra a n d th e H y e n a : L a u g h te r, M e n s tru a ti o n , a n d th e G e n e s i s o f a D o u b l e E n te n d re " { Jo u r n al o f t h e H is t o r y o f R e lig io n 3 6 n o . 1 [ A u g . , 1 9 9 6 ] , p p . 1 3 - 4 1 ) , S u z a n n e P i n ck n e y S te tk e v y c h h a s s tu d i e d th e s e m a n ti c a n d e x e g e ti c a l p ro b l e m o f th e A ra b i c v e rb d ah ik a i n its q u r’ a n i c o c c u rre n c e ( 1 1 : 6 9 - 7 4 ) i n th e e p i s o d e o f " th e l a u g h te r o f S a ra " a n d th e a n a l o g i c a l h e rm e n e u ti c s i t s u g g e s ts co n ce rn i n g th e H e b re w z - h - q in th e b i b l i ca l s to ry o f S a ra (G e n e s i s 1 8 : 9 - 1 5 ) . 4 6 . A l - T a b a ri , T d rikh 1 : 2 3 0 . 4 7 . T h is s c e n e is ch i e f l y a c c o rd i n g to Ib n K a th i r, A l- B id d y ah w a al- N ih d - y ah 1 :1 3 6 . 4 8 . T h e i m a g e o f th e b l ack , o v e rc a s t s k y a n d th e d e p a rtu re o f S al ih to P a l e s ti n e is g i v e n in a l - N u w a y ri ' s v e rs i o n o f th e s to ry { N ihd y at al- A r ab 1 3 :8 5 ). C h a p te r 3 1 . S e e th e a n ti p o s i ti o n o f B a d r a n d U h u d p re ci s e l y in s u ch a n th ro p o l o g i ca l l y d e f i n a b l e ri tu a l a n d trib a l re s p e cts in S . S te tk e v y ch , T h e M u t e Im m o r t als S p e ak , p p . 1 9 9 - 2 0 5 . T h i s i s a l re a d y cl e a rl y re f l e cte d in a l - T a b a ri , T d r ikh 1 : 4 2 1 - 8 3 ( B a d r) , 4 9 9 - 5 3 7 (U h u d ) , 2 : 1 0 0 - 1 1 1 (T ab u k ). In th e l atte r, to o , c o m p a re e n tri e s o n B a d r a n d U h u d w i th th e e n try o n T ab u k . 2 . I b n H i s h a m , S ir ah (C a i ro ) 4 : 1 3 6 8 - 9 0 . 3 . A l - W a q i d i , M ag h d z i 3 : 9 8 9 - 1 0 2 5 . 4 . T o th is th e Q u r’ a n re f e rs i n 9 : 4 9 . In a s i m i l a r v e i n is th e s to ry o f th e i n co n ti n e n c e o f th e A n d a l u s i a n U m a y y a d e m i r cA b d a l - R a h m a n Ib n a l H a k a m , i n ci d e n ta l l y a l s o a s a g h a z iln ] , w h o d u ri n g o n e o f h i s ca m p a i g n s to th e " f ro n ti e r" h a d a n i g h tl y d i s c h a rg e w h i l e d re a m i n g o f o n e o f h is co n cu b i n e s . E x ci te d f u rth e r b y s o m e p e rti n e n t t a y f d l- k h ay al (n i g h tl y p h a n to m ) v e rs e s w h i c h h e e x c h a n g e d w i th o n e o f h is c o u rti e rs , h e l e f t th e c o m m a n d o f h i s a rm y , m o u n te d a h o rs e a n d g a l l o p e d f ro m G u a d a l a j a ra b a c k to C o rd o v a to s a ti s f y h i s d e s i re s . F u rth e r c e l e b ra to ry v e rs e s o n th at " g a l l a n t" i n ci d e n t f o l l o w e d u p o n th e e m i r' s re tu rn . S u ch a d m i s s i o n o f i n te m p e ra n c e , c e rta i n l y a m o n g p ri n ce s , w a s v e ry m u c h p a rt o f th e cu l tu re o f th e ti m e . S e e I b n a l - Q u tl y a h a l - Q u rtu b l , T drikh Ift it dh al- A n d alu s (M a d ri d : R e a l A c a d e m i a d e l a H i s to ri a , 1 8 6 8 [A ra b i c te x t]) , p . 6 0 . 5 . T h u s in Q u r’ a n 9 :8 2 . 6 . Q u r’ a n 9 : 4 8 ; s e e Ib n H i s h a m , S ir ah (C a i ro ) 4 : 1 3 7 1 - 7 7 , 1 4 0 2 ; a n d A . G u i l l a u m e , tra n s ., T h e L ife o f M u h am m ad : A T ran s lat io n o f Ish aq ' s S ir at R as u l A llah ( L a h o re a n d K a ra c h i / L o n d o n a n d N e w Y o rk : O x f o rd U n i v e rs i ty P re s s , 1 9 5 5 [ 1 9 7 4 ] ) , p . 6 0 4 (h e n c e f o rth ci te d a s S ir ah [E n g l is h ]). Jar o s lav S t e t ke v y c h is P r o fe s s o r E m e r it u s o f A r a b ic L it e r at u r e at t h e U n iv e r s it y o f C h ic ag o . H e is t h e a u t h o r o f T h e M o d e m A r a b i c L i te r a r y L a n g u a g e : L e x ic a l a n d S ty l i s ti c D e v e l o p m e n ts an d T h e Z e p h y r s o f N a jd : T h e P o e ti c s o f N o s ta l g i a i n th e C la s s ic a l A r a b ic N a s ib . H is a r t ic le s o n c las s ic al a n d m o d e r n A r a b ic lit e r at u r e h a v e a p p e ar e d in S p an is h , E n g lis h , A r a b ic , a n d U k r ain ian .

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