The Construction of “the Turk” and
Entextualization of Historical Stereotypes
Political Cartoons in French
by
Senem Öz
M.A. (Sociolinguistics), Simon Fraser University, 2013
B.A., Boĝazici University, 1992
Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts
in the
Department of French
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences
Senem Öz 2014
SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY
Spring 2014
Approval
Name:
Senem Öz
Degree:
Master of Arts (French)
Title of Thesis:
The Construction of “the Turk” and
Entextualization of Historical Stereotypes in
Political Cartoons in French
Examining Committee:
Chair: Dr. Jorge Calderon
Associate Professor
Dr. Cécile B. Vigouroux
Senior Supervisor
Associate Professor
Dr. Gaëlle Planchenault
Supervisor
Associate Professor
Dr. Alexandre Duchêne
External Examiner
Professor of Sociology of Language and
Multilingualism
Université de Fribourg
Date Defended/Approved:
February 18, 2014
ii
Partial Copyright Licence
iii
Abstract
This thesis explores the metaphorical/stereotypical construction of “the Turk” depicted in
the discourse of the political cartoons relating to the accession of Turkey to the
European Union.
Through a multimodal semiotic analysis of selected cartoons
disseminated on the web between 2001-2013, this thesis aims to unfold how “recontextualizing” a vast repertoire of historical metaphors and stereotypes represents the
Turks and Turkey. From a theoretical perspective, this thesis also aims to reflect on the
role of caricature in the construction of the Turkish image and the part it plays in the
formation of an anti-Turkish discourse.
Keywords:
Turkish image in the political cartoons; entextualization; historical
stereotypes; Turkey’s EU membership; multimodal semantic analysis;
anti-Turkish discourse
iv
Dedication
To my mom Ȕlku Işın, whose encouragement and constant unconditional love have
sustained me throughout my life and gave me inspiration to “reach for the stars.”
To Dr. Cécile B. Vigouroux, who introduced me to the wonderful world of Sociolinguistics
and taught me how to spread my wings.
To Canada, who offered me “freedom” and endless academic opportunity.
v
Acknowledgements
Although only my name appears on the cover of this thesis, a great many people have
contributed to its production.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor and mentor Dr. Cécile
Vigouroux who always got the best out of me, with her encouragement, insightful
criticism, immense knowledge, and role modeling. Without her, this thesis would have
remained a dream.
I would like to thank Dr. Gaëlle Planchenault, whose stimulating suggestions, questions,
and comments helped me to focus my ideas and complete my research.
I am grateful to all my professors, Dr. Catherine Black, Dr. Jie Yang, Dr. Rejean CanacMarquis, and Linda Bruneau for their untiring effort in encouraging me to pursue
professional and academic growth.
In addition to my supervisors and professors, I would like to acknowledge the academic
and financial support of Simon Fraser University and the French Department.
I would like to offer my special thanks to my husband Mark Rowlands for his patience
and support.
vi
Table of Contents
Approval ................................................................................................................... ii
Partial Copyright Licence ........................................................................................ iii
Abstract................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. vi
Table of Contents ................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................ viii
1.
Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1
2.
Theoretical Framework .......................................................................................... 5
2.1. Political Cartoons and Multilayered Semiosis .................................................. 5
2.2. Toward a “Taxonomy of Graphic Discourse” ................................................... 7
2.3. Travelling Cartoons through Time, Space and Contexts ................................ 11
2.4. The Data ....................................................................................................... 13
2.4.1. The Internet as a Research Medium .................................................. 13
2.4.2. The Corpus of Analysis ...................................................................... 15
3.
Analysis ................................................................................................................ 22
3.1. Road Metaphors: Turkey’s Long Journey to the EU ...................................... 22
3.2. Container Metaphors: Turkey’s Knocking on the Door ................................... 31
3.3. Entextualization of “Generic” Cartoons ......................................................... 50
3.4. Islamophobic Cartoons .................................................................................. 60
3.4.1. Flag Metaphors .................................................................................. 61
3.5. Turks vs. Europeans ..................................................................................... 66
3.5.1. Turkish Men ....................................................................................... 70
3.5.2. Turkish Women.................................................................................. 72
3.6. Entextualization of the Historical Stereotypes and Symbolism of the
Red Fez ........................................................................................................ 76
3.7. Topos of Turkish Fear: The Image of “The Terrible Turk” ............................... 79
3.8. Topos of European Superiority: Ottomans as the “Sick Man of Europe” ........ 81
4.
Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 84
References ................................................................................................................... 87
Appendix: Entextualization of the cartoons ........................................................... 101
vii
List of Figures
Figure 3.1. Izel Rosental, 2005 ................................................................................... 24
Figure 3.2. Janusz Majewski (MAYK), 2008 ................................................................ 25
Figure 3.3. Slavomir Svitalsky, 2009 ........................................................................... 27
Figure 3.4. Plantu, 2005 .............................................................................................. 28
Figure 3.5. Nicolas Vadot, 2004 .................................................................................. 30
Figure 3.6. Niels Bobojesen, 2005 .............................................................................. 32
Figure 3.7. Ali Dilem, 2007 .......................................................................................... 34
Figure 3.8. Janusz Majewski, 2010 ............................................................................. 35
Figure 3.9. Plantu, 2005 .............................................................................................. 37
Figure 3.10. Door-maze metaphors by Plantu and Arikan ............................................. 38
Figure 3.11. Patrick Chapatte, 2009.............................................................................. 43
Figure 3.12. Plantu, 2009 .............................................................................................. 44
Figure 3.13. NO AUTHOR ............................................................................................ 45
Figure 3.14. © Bastion n°67 de Janvier 2003 ................................................................ 49
Figure 3.15. Bergolix (Steph Bergol) ............................................................................. 52
Figure 3.16. Bergolix (Steph Bergol) ............................................................................. 55
Figure 3.17. Bergolix (Steph Bergol) ............................................................................. 57
Figure 3.18. Cox & Forkum, 2007 ................................................................................. 62
Figure 3.19. Bergolix (Steph Bergol) ............................................................................. 63
Figure 3.20. Hasan Bleibel, 2010 .................................................................................. 65
Figure 3.21. Bergolix (Steph Bergol) ............................................................................. 65
Figure 3.22. Cristina Sampaio, 2006 ............................................................................. 71
Figure 3.23. Helder Oliviera, 2011 ................................................................................ 71
Figure 3.24. Plantu, 2005 .............................................................................................. 73
Figure 3.25. Plantu, 2005 .............................................................................................. 74
Figure 3.26. Avin Nono, 2010 ....................................................................................... 76
Figure 3.27. Posters by Nissarebela.com...................................................................... 78
Figure 3.28. Depictions of the Ottomans in History (16-18 Centuries) ........................... 81
Figure 3.29. Different depictions of the Red Sultan ....................................................... 83
viii
1.
Introduction
The aim of the present study is to analyze European nations’ institutional
opposition discourse regarding Turkey’s accession to the European Union (EU) as
constructed in the political cartoons written in French. Turkey’s long-standing efforts to
become a fully-fledged member, is the most contentious and intricate story in the EU’s
history. Turkey was the “second” country to seek membership in the newly created
European Economic Community (EEC).1
Its membership application (1959) was a
starting point of the Turkish government’s permanent hope, which then turned into a
cycle of disappointments and refusals ranging from smooth and friendly to sometimes a
hostile relationship, between EU member countries and Turkey.
We can compare
Turkey’s relationship with the EU to a stormy marriage in which both parties have
managed to stay together for more than 50 years,2 despite many ups and downs. In
fact, Turkey has been patiently knocking on the doors of the European Union for half a
century, only to be told explicitly to keep waiting.
As argued in the next sections,
Europeans were afraid that Turkey’s possible accession would be a “threat” to the
integrity of Europe and it would demolish European ideals and values.
This stormy relationship has been discursively articulated in many forms:
newspaper articles, personal blogs, academic books, etc. The discourse I analyse in
this study is that of political cartoons (PCs) depicting Turkey’s EU accession process. I
argue that political cartoons are “contextualized activities” (Scollon, 2001 as cited in
Blommaert, 2005, p. 4) and that they reflect “the actual and densely contextualised
1
2
The EEC was an international organization created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957 in the
aftermath of the World War II. Its aim was to bring about economic integration, including a
common market, among its six founding members: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, and West Germany. Upon the entry into force of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993
the group changed its name from the EEC to the European Union (EU).
In 1963, Turkey signed an Association Agreement (Ankara Agreement) with the EU. This
association agreement aimed to harmonize Turkey's economy with the EEC and it was the
first step on the path to full membership.
1
forms in which language occurs in society” (Blommaert, 2005, p. 15). They contribute to
public discourse and help readers to understand and make judgments about the
extremely complex interactions at work in political systems and society. In this respect,
political cartoons offer important tools for disseminating information and framing debates
on social issues (Harrsion, 1981; Marley & Mello, 1995; Press, 1981). Although it is
difficult to determine their effect on the formation of public opinion, they are still a
significant source of information about the societal discussions that stir a nation or group
of nations because they “reflect cultural attitudes and values, and record and perpetuate
many commonly held beliefs” (Mazid, 2008, p. 434).
By engaging humor, satire,
exaggeration, and illusion combined with commonly understood metaphors, symbols,
and stereotypes, political cartoons reify meanings within a wider socio-political context
and they reflect the “repertoire” of a society conditioned by their sociolinguistic
background.
As Blommaert argues: “People … are not entirely free when they
communicate, they are constrained by the range and structure of their repertoires”
(2005, p. 15). Political cartoons by exploiting those repertoires, position their readers
within a political context of meaning and they situate problems and conflicts within the
discourse of everyday life (Burke, 1962). They sometimes comment on an issue or
particular person in the news, or they offer a reference to a particular event, institution,
or idea, and reflect the cartoonist’s own values, opinions, or observations in society on
that issue. Cartoons may appear simple and almost naive at times, nevertheless they
might affect the perception of their reader and therefore their behaviour: the reader, by
accepting or refusing what is offered in the cartoon, might form his/her own opinion.
Political cartoons are accordingly a rich terrain for the analysis of visual and visual/verbal
evaluation since they reveal features of society that are not usually observable through
other sources; they provide access to “everyday” reactions to politics and events that are
not reflected in the news, discussions, and opinion polls. As Medhurst and De Sousa
underscore (1982), political cartoons provide a vast archive and a valuable source for
discourse analysis because they exhibit openly “the interrelationships of people, events,
and power” (p. 84). The most common form of political cartoons in journalism appear in
the editorial pages, where they supplement and/or reinforce what is being said in the
editorial article and they can make the argument more convincing. Due to their satiric
form political cartoons offer “an aggression reduction function which derives from the fact
that they provide a symbolic avenue for the public to vent its frustrations against political
2
figures and authorities” (Medhurst & DeSousa, as cited in Abraham, 2009, p. 119). The
laughter they provoke can deflate pretentiousness, distinguish heroes from villains, and
expose the contradictions in the statements and actions of the mighty political figures.
The power of political cartoons lies in the fact that they do not have to be
objective or true. In fact, cartoonists by implementing a range of, “technical evasions”
(Goldstein, 1998, p. 798) are able to disguise political criticism under visual puns and
other forms. In their re-construction of reality, cartoonists have the freedom to amplify or
de-emphasize the dominant characteristics of their subjects needed for their readers to
get the intended message. In other words, in this creative process, the artists have the
power to re-contextualize and re-activate stereotypes and clichés and they are free to
choose sides or to be subjective. Newspapers and editorial articles on the other hand
may not reflect shared national perspectives on particular issues and widely held beliefs
and prejudices about other people, cultures, and countries as “openheartedly” as
political cartoons do. Therefore they do not “mark their readers” consciousness as
strongly as political cartoons. In fact, the accepted principles of journalism today do not
allow journalists and editors to satirize the subjects of news articles and urges them to
be more “objective.”3
As shown by the political cartoons of my corpus, Turkey is generally portrayed as
distant from Europe by the reactivation of historical images through verbal as well as
visual means, generating an anti-Turkish discourse that began between 2001-2005.
During this period the EU member states, after many years of negotiation came to
realize finally, that Turkey might actually become a member of the EU in a foreseeable
future.4 This realization stirred up deep controversies within Europe regarding European
identity, Europe’s symbolic borders, and the politics of religion within the EU itself. In
fact relations between EU member states and Turkey formally entered a new stage
when the EU launched formal accession talks with Turkey, in 2005. This is the period
3
4
This required objectivity is often debatable, as journalists work for media corporations and the
level of freedom they exercise depends on the society they live in. For example, in Turkey the
media (TV, Radio, newspapers, news websites) is controlled and censored by the ruling AKP
government and Turkey is unfortunately the world’s leading jailer of journalists, followed
closely by Iran and China.
After 46 years of negotiations, the European Council decided to open accession talks with
Turkey at the end of 2005. However, the talks have not made much progress since then.
3
during which EU member states started debating Turkey‘s Europeanness and its place
in Europe.
I argue here that the repeated questioning of the nature of Turkey‘s
membership and the on-going anti-Turkish discourse based on cultural and political
grounds, reinforced the recycling of centuries-old stereotypes and prejudices about the
Turks and conditioned the Europeans to view the Turkish people as backward, despotic,
unlettered, authoritarian, and corrupt people. The long and controversial Turkish EU
membership process is reflected and shaped in the political cartoons of the era as a part
of this anti-Turkish discourse.
The political cartoons about Turkey’s EU accession that I will analyze (Chapter
3), document the time in which they were created and address an array of social issues
and arguments. They also recontextualize the well-known historical and cultural symbols
and stereotypical images of the Turk in a humorous way. I question how these political
cartoons propagate stereotypical constructions of Turks as “non-European,” “Muslim,”
and Turkey as a nation that is “foreign and distant to civilized Europe.” I argue that they
mobilize long-standing dualities — barbaric vs. civilized, dogmatic vs. rational, backward
vs. modern, and so on —. Political cartoons display judgmental ideas or even sensitive
topics and criticism about Turkish people without being overtly discriminative due to their
simplistic pictorial form and condensed meanings accompanied with humor, irony,
absurdity, or unacceptability of a situation.
Before turning to my analysis (Chapter 3), I present my theoretical framework
and the methodology used to construct my corpus of political cartoons (Chapter 2). In
the conclusions (Chapter 4) I sum up my arguments by explaining why historical and
stereotypical representations of the Turk have been recycled in political cartoons’
modern discourse on Turkey’s accession to the EU.
4
2.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical toolbox used in this study belongs to different linguistic traditions
as shown by the literature quoted in this section. Combining different approaches helps
me analyse the cartoons in both their macro- and micro-contexts, i.e., their socio-cultural
context and the small-scale web page in which they appear.
2.1. Political Cartoons and Multilayered Semiosis
By deploying both graphic (visual mode) and discursive (verbal mode) resources,
political cartoons function like complex, multimodal riddles; they construct images and
trigger cognitive mechanisms in the minds of their readers through the mixing of current
events with analogies. When things do not match or when an incongruity is perceived,
then readers often gain a new perspective. To this end, cartoonists typically create an
imaginary scene-situation, with make-believe characters to refer to real life events or
characters and to provide a social, political, or cultural commentary. This deliberate
cross-domain mapping of features from the fictional scene onto the actual people and
events in contemporary politics helps the cartoonists to “condense complex meanings
into a single striking image” (Bostdorff, 1987, p. 44). It enables cartoonists to structure a
complex statement or a concept with something succinct and easily understood. In
other words, a metaphorical similarity is “created” through a transformative process. The
message and the frame that a political cartoon offers depend on the multimodal
interaction between two different semiotic modes (visual and verbal), which combine
their strength to compensate their limitations. “Sometimes words simply anchor visual
meaning, but in many cases they add further information or create a sense of incongruity
and irony that could not be conveyed through the image alone” (El Refaie, 2009a, p.
199).
Thus, political cartoons, being political commentary drawings, challenge the
traditional ways of literacy and meaning making, and affect how the reader interprets
reality. “Furthermore, the visual code and its interaction with the verbal one result in the
5
non-linearity of cartoon messages, affecting thus the cognitive processing of cartoons”
(Samson & Hempelmann, 2006 as cited in Tsakona, 2009, p. 1171). Political cartoons
offer “complex, continuous and multilayered narratives of the social and political reality
we live in” (Chalániová, 2013, p. 10, emphasis added). In other words, as Harris (1995)
defines “political cartoon creation is a process of symbolization or semiosis that
constructs some social reality for the discursive and rhetorical purpose of presenting to
an audience material that evokes amusement [...]” (p. 188, emphasis added).
This
process requires the manipulation of linguistic, visual, and communicational components
in a rule or construct-breaking manner — over and above the more commonly expected
rhetorical uses of visuals and text — transforming them into symbolic representations
which the cartoonists then relates to culture, society, ethos, ritual, common places, and
the like.
The multimodal interaction between the text and the visual, and the metaphorical
constructions of the political cartoons requires a certain level of multiliteracy from the
reader. In order to decode the polysemous and mostly symbolic meaning and
understand the humor transmitted by a cartoon, the reader must actively participate in
the comprehension process and draw on a whole range of different literacies (El Refaie,
2009b). The reader must first determine the referents of the cartoon to understand the
mapping between the fictional setting/situation/persons as created by the cartoonist with
the personalities or events in the real world. Analytical and critical thinking of social
functions and effects of images allows the viewer of political cartoons to grasp the
meaning with more understanding. Thus, interpreting the message of a political cartoon
necessitates that readers understand the current events portrayed, common cultural
symbols, and rhetorical figures (such as metonymy, metaphor, etc.) that are employed,
references made, and symbols utilized. In short, the reader must be able to see how
multiple semiotic resources are used to generate meaning (Kress, 2004) and understand
intratextual (within text) and intertextual (between texts) links established (Lemke, 1998,
Lemke 2007). Medhurst and DeSousa (1981) remind us "to decode the cartoon, one
must be somewhat familiar with the literary or cultural source to which it refers" (p. 201).
In fact, different readers will have different levels of multimodal literacy and perceive very
different — even contrasting — meaning of the same cartoon. As Kress et al. explains
(2001), “each mode […] requires different ‘cognitive work’ in order to be understood”
6
(p. 26).
The Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy in 2005, is a good
example of how multiple meanings based on different cultural contexts, may generate
contrastive readings (see Kuipers, 2008 & 2010; Kublitz, 2010; Olesen, 2006) and also
to the continuing importance and potential power of cartoons as a medium of political
communication .
In order to investigate the metaphorical/stereotypical construction of the Turk in
political cartoons, I will use a multimodal semiotic analysis (Iedema, 2003). I believe that
“a semiotic” analysis develops a better understanding of how cartoonists construct social
reality by intentionally and systematically breaking the linguistic codes, playing with
different modes, and creating incongruity to achieve more persuasive messaging to the
reader. Furthermore, semiotic analysis provides theoretical and methodological
frameworks for deconstructing and explaining different levels of meaning — language as
text and the image as visual text. I use the term multimodal in the sense of Kress & van
Leeuwen (2001), which they define as: “the use of several semiotic modes [i.e., written
text, images, layout, colors] in the design of a semiotic product or event, together with
the particular way in which the modes are combined” (p. 20). “Multimodal analysis,” is
an analysis of communication in all of its forms, which reveals how the images and
verbal text relate to each other, to identify any new meanings that might arise from this
interaction or integration of these two semiotic resources. Beside the interaction of the
image and text within the cartoons frame, a multimodal analysis also considers the
interaction between text, image, page, layout, and context. In Jewitt’s (2004) terms:
“[m]ultimodality
describes
approaches
that
understand
communication
and
representation to be more than about language, and which attend to the full range of
communicational forms people use — image, gesture, gaze, posture, and so on — and
the relationships between them” (p. 14, italics added).
2.2. Toward a “Taxonomy of Graphic Discourse”
The criteria for the analysis of my data are shaped by the semiotic notion of
intertextuality (Kristeva, 1980) to which I return below and by the rhetorical elements
provided by Morris (1993) and Medhurst and DeSousa (1981). Morris (1993) identifies
four rhetorical tools in order to understand the political cartoon:
7
1. Condensation — compressing disconnected, complex issues into a single
metaphor by artificially juxtaposing different elements or ideas from different
places with multiple and diverse meanings (i.e., showing inflation as a monster).
2. Combination — blending various elements/ideas from different domains such as
combining politics with sports.
3. Domestication — depicting a complex or unknown area of experience or an
abstract idea or unfamiliar people in terms of a more familiar one such as
describing the EU as a house.
4. Opposition — reducing events and problems to a binary opposition such as East
vs. West. (Morris, 1993, pp. 199-202).
To enhance Morris’s rhetoric tools, I combined them with some of the stylistic
elements defined in Medhurst and DeSousa’s (1981) taxonomy.
Medhurst and
DeSousa expanded the scope of rhetorical studies to non-oratorical discourse and
developed a “taxonomy of graphic discourse” to explain the rhetorical analysis of political
cartoons. In their seminal paper (1981) they identified four “major inventional topoi” (pp.
200-205) and established a scheme for recognizing and analyzing the elements of
graphic persuasion embodied in the political cartoons:
1. Political commonplaces — economy, foreign affairs, elections, terror, war, etc.
2. Literary/Cultural allusions — references that draw from mythology, popular
culture, literature or folklore, and fictive characters.
3. Personal character traits — morals, age, and ability to lead, etc.
4. Situational themes — transient episodes that occur during a campaign — which
serve both as an “inventional storehouse” (p. 204) of rhetorical material for artists
to create drawings and “a toolbox” (p. 205) for the audience in interpreting
cartoons.
Another rhetorical strategy taken into consideration is Kenneth Burke’s notion of
“perspective by incongruity” (1984), which reveals problems in common assumptions by
8
locating them, in a seemingly incongruent context. The idea is that we laugh at things
that surprise us because they seem out of place or contradictory to our commonsensical
expectations. We also laugh about misfortunes of others because they assert the
person’s superiority on the shortcomings of others. For instance we sometimes can’t
help but laugh when people fall unexpectedly. Children laugh at clowns because they
look and act different, out of place. In the same way, cartoons are “funny” or “ironic”
because they involve ideas and imagery that run against our expectations causing a
diversion from the cognitive model of references.
For Burke (1984) among others, language is a form of symbolic action allowing
us to communicate, and also to control what we do. He states that how we perceive the
world is shaped by our “orientations” (p. 31) as they form an archive of judgments on
how things were and how they are, and how they may be in the future. In fact, Burke
argues that it is difficult to persuade people to question their deeply held cultural
assumptions which he calls “pieties” (p. 74), forming stable frames of reference and
judgements about what is proper in a given context.
Political cartoons, offer an
incongruous perspective or “orientation” to our long-held “pieties.” Burke further defends
that in order to argue against a commonly held belief, one should use all available
modes and invent creative ways by “merging categories once felt mutually exclusive” (p.
69). Political cartoons alter the reader’s “orientation” by creating an incongruity: they
displace words and images from their constitutional settings (de-contextualize) and
combine them with unexpected concepts and ideas (re-contextualize).
Within that perspective I will take into consideration the four major tropes that
Burke defines “as organizing principles that help readers grasp the concept of specific
persuasive arguments within political cartoons” (Bostdorff, 1987, p. 57). The first trope is
metaphor — the foundational trope of Burke, which consists of the (partial) mapping on
to each other of two concepts that belong to different knowledge domains. The actual
referent of a metaphor is thus likely to be quite an abstract concept and the figurative
term is often drawn from the domain of basic human experience (Lakoff & Johnson,
1980).
According to Bostdorff (1987) “By labeling something that which it is not,
metaphor makes use of perspective by incongruity; our perception of the object or
9
person is altered by its incongruous pairing with some other name5 in this way, metaphor
provides insight” (p. 48). As a result, in this mapping process a complex concept (the
target) can be structured (understood) in terms of the other (the source).
Similarly,
political cartoons use metaphors — especially “visual metaphors” — and sometimes
stereotypical reference-point structures to alter the traditional patterns of association in
the minds of the reader. A visual metaphor makes an analogical comparison between
two terms by stating that one term is figuratively like the other term.
For example
juxtaposing a picture of a sports car with the image of a panther is a visual metaphor and
it suggests that the product has comparable qualities of speed, power, and endurance
similar to a panther. The incongruity in a visual metaphor is therefore created by the
lack of structural and semantic correspondence between the source and target elements
in the presented context and the pre-existing knowledge structures associated with it.
For Lakoff and Johnson (1980) a metaphor is a fundamental mechanism of the mind or
an integral part of our thought processes because we use metaphorical frames when we
think, when we speak. They propose that people are able to better comprehend their
experiences in terms of a metaphor and thus, in time the metaphor itself would become
“a deeper reality when they start acting in terms of it” (p. 131).
Therefore, by
understanding the mechanisms at work for the metaphoric conceptualizations in political
cartoons we might, in fact, understand how those pre-existing knowledge structures
(stereotypes, prejudices, imagery) influence the way people frame and perceive the
Turk. In the analysis section I will include an historical section with images of the Turks
and also incorporate background information about the Ottoman Empire to better
understand why Turks are represented in their historical image even today. I believe the
historical image of the Turk entextualized (extracted from its original context and then reinserted into a new context) in these cartoons has an important role in the construction
of the contemporary Turkish image and Turkish identity in the eyes of the Europeans.
The second trope this study considers is metonymy, which is an organizational
principle that fulfills the function of reduction. This means that a large concept, or idea,
can be effectively conveyed through a reduced single image (e.g., we can refer to Islam
by invoking “crescent”).
5
In other words, we can define anything as a conceptual
For example, the abstract subject of LOVE (target) might be understood in terms of the very
concrete subject matter of WAR (source): LOVE IS WAR (to conquer someone’s heart).
10
projection that involves using one signified to stand for another which is directly related
to it or closely associated with it. Burke argues that, the basic strategy of metonymy is to
convey an “incorporeal or intangible state in terms of the corporeal or tangible” (ibid., p.
506).
The third trope synecdoche is a conceptual projection and is closely related to
metonymy as they both involve the substitution of an attribute or a phenomenon to
represent the attribute or phenomenon itself (e.g., the container for the contained).
Synecdoche achieves its purpose by incorporating “signs drawn from the everyday
actions and objects that surround public figures” (Bostdorff, 1987, 52). In synecdoche
the word used to represent the phenomenon is classified into the same language
category with it. Burke notes that all theories of political representation are a matter of
synecdoche (Burke, 1984, p. 510). The way we perceive things involves synecdoche,
because the mind uses sensory data to represent the things observed.
The fourth trope is irony and it is based on binary oppositions and usually reflects
the opposite of the thoughts or feelings of the cartoon character, or the cartoonist, or the
opposite of the truth about external reality (as in “There's a crowd here” when it's
deserted). “What gives irony its subversive potential is the fact that, while an ironic
comment may also be closely related to dominant forms of speaking about an event, it
simultaneously goes beyond and subverts the very attitudes and opinions it quotes.
Irony can thus, encourage readers or viewers to become conscious of and to evaluate
what would otherwise be accepted without question” (El Refaie, 2005, p. 285). Like a
metaphor, irony entails mapping across two domains based on the “juxtaposition of
opposites” (Brown, 1977, p. 174).
2.3. Travelling Cartoons through Time, Space and Contexts
The general idea of texts “speaking” to and through each other existed long
before Kristeva's notion of intertextuality immerged in her seminal work Desire in
Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art (1980). Influenced by Ferdinand
de Saussure’s theories of semiology (1906) and Mikhail Bakhtin’s ideas of dialogism
(1975), Kristeva’s notion of intertextuality proposes that all signifying systems are a
11
product of previous signifying systems and that a text cannot exist alone as a selfcontained, enclosed whole, because the author of any text (visual or verbal) is also the
reader of other texts before s/he creates his own. According to Kristeva (1980), authors
do not create their texts from their own mind, but rather compile them from pre-existent
texts they have read. Thus, the text that any author creates is “a permutation of texts,
intertextuality in the space of a given text,” in which “several utterances, taken from other
texts, intersect and neutralize one another” (p. 36).
Similarly political cartoons mediate a constant interaction of different images,
ideas, texts, and modes. Even though the cartoon may be simple in design and contain
few elements, relationships among the parts (text, image, design) can evoke interest and
rich meanings as intertextuality may operate within the frame of a single image. Political
cartoons also uses symbols, imagery, stereotypes, and visuals often borrowed from
diverse times and places, and patched together in ever changing ways.
Political
cartoons can capture both context and relationships into a single visual “snapshot,”
which can “re‐contextualize events and evoke reference points in ways that a
photograph or even a film cannot” (Gombrich as cited in Bigi et al., 2011, p. 153). Thus,
cartoons can offer condensed and simplified portrayals of complex situations in order to
transfer their intended message to their audiences. Intertextuality may occur whenever
a cartoon is read in terms of — or through, against, alongside — another image or a
surrounding set of images and texts (article, headline, page design, and other images).
“Analysis of the meanings of pictures cannot be confined to what is within a frame
because the “inside” is always contaminated by the “outside” (Walker & Chaplin, 1994,
p. 140). The contents of the editorial page, its layout and how the political cartoon is
embedded into the page affects the way the political cartoon is interpreted.
Once
detached from the editorial page — from the social situation that originally produced
them — political cartoons lose an essential part of their message and meaning. As
Bernstein argued (1990), semantic shifts take place “according to recontextualizing
principles which selectively appropriate, relocate, refocus and relate to other discourses
to constitute its own order and orderings” (p. 184). To be able to “read” any given
political cartoon the reader needs to look to the interrelationship — similarities and
connections — with other texts/events/visuals through discourses and representations.
El Refaie (2003, pp. 76–77) notes that metaphors must be explored in their own specific
12
“socio-political contexts” if they are to be useful in gauging political attitudes and
responses to ongoing news events. This is why political cartoons should be studied with
an understanding of the culture including: history, religion, political affairs, and power
relations within a society. In other words, the reading of political cartoons and their
interpretation requires the reader to fill in and interpret not only the images and text
within the frame of the cartoon, but also within the frame of the page and the context
based on other relevant texts or images, encountered in prior experience or knowledge.
In my analysis of cartoons I study intertextuality at three different levels:
within the frame of the political cartoons binary oppositions or visual quoting;
across images on the editorial page, (pairing, sequencing, and clustering);
and
between the cartoon and the surrounding texts (anchoring, framing).
2.4. The Data
2.4.1.
The Internet as a Research Medium
The Internet, with the potential research modalities it provides, has become an
important form of communication6 in modern society.
I chose the Internet as my
research medium for several reasons. First of all, the advent of the Internet brought with
it a new concept of social interaction, changing and even revolutionizing the way we live
and communicate with others while establishing new kinds of relations of power between
participants (see: McKenna & Bargh, 1999; Baumann, 2010).
By eliminating
geographical barriers, the Internet altered the way in which we gather information and
construct knowledge (see Best & Krueger, 2004; Lusoli & Gibson, 2006). Access to
news and information is no longer the privilege of powerful institutions such as
newspapers and television channels that possessed the authority, or wealth, to acted as
6
According to Internet World Stats data updated in February 2012, there were an estimated
2,459,646,518 internet users worldwide, which represents approximately 30.2% of the world’s
population (http://www.howmanyarethere.org).
13
the “gatekeepers” of information, deciding and controlling what the public should know or
perceive. The extraordinary growth of the Internet and World Wide Web (Web) as the
operative medium empowered the users with easy-to-use Web publishing tools, and
increasingly powerful mobile devices that helped with the creation of online information
communities actively participating in the creation and dissemination of news and
information (see Garg & Telang, 2011).
Nowadays, a multitude of amateur online
journalists, activists, artists, cyber citizens, political interest groups, and so on, by means
of independent websites and countless weblogs (blogs), add a grassroots dimension to
the online media. On the other hand, people who have been targeted by news articles
are now able to respond online and also, post supplementary data providing context and
counterpoints. In societies undergoing a political transition such Turkey, where freedom
of speech is oppressed, online access to alternative media becomes important as they
offer information not available through mainstream media and provide a multimodal
alternative medium to “voice” opposition to the authorities. As a result “an increasing
number of researchers are relying on the Internet to facilitate studies of human attitudes,
preferences, and behavior” (Best & Krueger, 2004, p. 2).
Secondly, the Web offers interactive mechanisms such as forums, messaging,
e-mails, hyperlinks, banners, and so on, enabling a continuous exchange of data
through text, images, and videos directly uploaded to the Internet.
Hypertexts offer
authors of any text, endless series of imagined connections, verbal associations,
extending the reach of the author and the reader. In the age of digital media, “the
reader” is armed with easy-to-use Web publishing tools, always-on connections and
increasingly powerful mobile devices. Therefore, one becomes an active participant in
the creation and dissemination of news and information by means of hypertexts
(Smulyan, 1999). The reader of a hypertext can immediately be transported to another
web page with new or different information, by just a simple click of the mouse or a
simple touch on the screen. This non-linearity — ability to interact with what you want,
when you want — is one of the most dramatic aspects of the Internet as a medium.
“Hypertexts provide a means to express ourselves in ways that reflect more directly the
complexity of our thinking and the interrelatedness of ideas" (Reinking, 1994, p. 24).
14
In the virtual world there is a high level of intertextuality (Kristeva, 1980) and
interdiscursivity7 (Bauman, 2005) including various interactions and negotiations:
between texts and authors; within and between genres; and between different systems
of representation and narrative. This dynamic structure of the Internet enables a
constant decontextualization and recontextualization of information: (visual and verbal)
texts become appropriated and creatively and/or ideologically modified. Bloggers,
website administrators, cyber citizens, in other words any web user can collect “artwork”
— videos, images, symbols, stereotypes, designs, and texts — out of their original
context and insert them into a new set of contexts allowing unlimited and unregulated
networking possibilities. In this digital age, political cartoons are disseminated easily due
to these aspects of the Internet.
2.4.2.
The Corpus of Analysis
I purposely retrieved all the cartoons of my corpus via Internet as it provides a
major source of free, unfiltered expression for the cartooning industry.8 Alongside the
freedom of the cartoonist, Internet users have the freedom to entextualize these
cartoons in any way they want.
Some of the online cartoons had been previously
published in newspapers and later on taken out of their editorial context and
entextualized (Bauman & Briggs, 1990; Silverstein & Urban, 1996) by being inserted into
new semiotic contexts (e.g., blogs and websites) and by being recontextualized (i.e.,
giving it a new meaning as visual articles in their own right, as debate starters, as
propaganda material such online petitions, or political party advertisements.)
Entextualization refers to the ways in which discursive practice forms discrete “texts” that
can be lifted out of moments of production and recontextualized in new interactional
7
8
Interdiscursivity refers to how a text is constituted by a combination of other language
conventions (genres, discourses, and styles). Thus the difference between these two
concepts is that intertextuality refers to actual surface forms in a text, “borrowed‟ from other
texts; whereas interdiscursivity involves the whole language system referred to in a text”
(WU, 2010, p.97)
I am mainly interested in the cartoonists’ freedom to publish their work online without going
through the censor mechanisms of the press. Although the Internet is enabling people to
deeply engage with the world and communities around them, I am aware of the inequalities in
the digital word: many people can’t afford a home computer or the monthly payments that
accompany broadband service and many others do not have the skills for ‘social networking’
therefore they don’t have access to the Internet.
15
settings (see Agha, 2005, 2007; Bauman & Briggs, 1990; Briggs & Bauman, 1992;
Silverstein & Urban, 1996).
As I have mentioned before, a political cartoon on an
editorial page has strong connections with the articles, texts, images surrounding it. In
fact, political cartoons that are detached from their original context lose their essence
and gain new semiotic and interpretative potential. For that reason, in my analysis I paid
special attention not only to the context in which cartoons were created but also to the
new context in which they were reinserted. (See Appendix for different contexts and
forms where political cartoons are reinserted.)
When the medium of distribution of political cartoons shifts from newspapers to
the Internet, this affects interpretation of the language/image relation. The Internet is a
very resourceful medium and is inherently customized to perform with pull technologies:
Internet users have to type keywords related to the information they seek on search
engines and nothing reaches the user unless specifically requested. While collecting the
cartoons for my corpus, my aim was to search for the immediate imagery (cartoons) that
any Internet user could reach by a simple click.
With this in mind, I did not
systematically control cartoon selection per artist, per time period, or per news websites
but rather I carried a random search on the Google Images search engine and searched
for the following key words:
• “les caricatures politiques Turquie” (political cartoons, Turkey);
• “Turquie Union Européenne caricatures” (Turkey European Union, cartoons);
• “Non à la Turquie en Europe” (No to Turkey in Europe);
• “caricatures turcophobie” (cartoonsTurcophobia);
• “caricatures politiques islamophobie” (political cartoons islamophobia);
• “la menace turque caricatures” (Turkish threat cartoons);
• “la Turquie et la France caricatures” (Turkey and France caricatures);
• “les Turcs caricatures” (Turks, cartoons); and
• “la Turquie caricatures” (Turkey cartoons).
The selected key words retrieved generally images (posters, PDF files for
petitions and referendums) and political cartoons about Turkish accession to the EU. In
order to see whether there were “supportive” or “positive” imagery dispersed by the
Web, I also carried out another “counter search” with keywords:
16
• “Oui a la Turquie en Europe/UE, caricatures” (Yes for Turkey in Europe/EU);
• “Pour une Turquie en Europe, caricatures” (For Turkey in Europe,
caricatures); and
• “On veut Turquie dans l’UE, caricatures” (We want Turkey in Europe,
cartoons).
The results were surprising, as the positive change of keywords did not affect the
results. Most of the cartoons retrieved with “Non a la Turquie en Europe” search were
also retrieved by the “Oui à la Turquie en Europe” key words and I was not able to find
“supportive” cartoons with these searches.
At a third research level, I used only “Turquie en Europe” (Turkey in Europe) and
omitted the word “caricatures” and also “oui” and “non” from the keywords, in order to
see whether this new search also would give as many caricatures as the two previous
ones. The new results were surprisingly similar. Most of the cartoons that appeared in
the first group were also retrieved during the second search. This time not only more
cartoons appeared in my search results, but also lots of maps of Europe and
propaganda posters against Turkish membership appeared; there were also fewer
photos of politicians. The search results implied that cartoons were widely used on
different blogs and websites and they were an important part of the discourse on
Turkey’s EU accession.
In order to see whether accession processes of other EU candidates had the
same pattern or not, I carried out another search with the keywords “Greece en Europe.”
The results of this search were websites and images showing different maps of Europe.
“Grèce en UE” on the other hand retrieved only photos of politicians, meetings, and few
political cartoons.
I also conducted similar searches for Romania and Croatia with
similar results; political cartoons were scarcely retrieved unless I have added the
keyword “caricatures” to my search.
It is difficult to interpret these search results objectively because the Google
Image searches (as well as other search engines) retrieve images and links of different
webpages, but these links change in time because new websites are created every day
and added to the list.
Furthermore, “search engine optimization” of Google allows
websites and blogs to get to the top of the search engine results based on the fees they
17
pay. Due to this, the search results that appear on the screen linking us to different
websites where those images are published changes in time. But in general when I
compare the results with that of Greece and Cyprus I have observed that there were
more cartoons in the search for Turkey. Political cartoons retrieved in this search were
mostly published (recontextualized) on personal propaganda blogs, as statements,
social and satirical criticism.
Another striking result was that the Oui and Non key words did not have a
striking impact on the cartoons retrieved: there were not many supportive cartoons
retrieved with the “Oui à la Turquie en Europe”; and most of the cartoons that I retrieved
with the keywords “Non à la Turquie en Europe” also appeared when I used the keyword
Oui. This might be due to the fact that whether for or against, news articles, blogs, and
websites preferred to use political cartoons depicting the situation.
An important aspect of this re-use (recontextualization of imagery and text) is that
political cartoons posted on the Internet may have no clear “authorship” (crediting the
artist). The political cartoons collected from news websites or official comic sites, were
all signed by the artist, whereas political cartoons published on propaganda websites
and personal activist blogs did not “always” claim authorship and they were offered as
“rights free” by the cartoonists to public use. As discussed further in our analysis these
“no name, rights free cartoons” use a lot of historic stereotypes, reactivating the long lost
imagery of the “Terrible Turk.” When the website administrators or bloggers take these
cartoons out of their original context without reference to its origin, some erasure9 (Gal &
Irvine, 1995, p. 974) happens and I argue that the erasure of authorship construct these
cartoons as uncontested truth.
Although I paid special attention to the ways in which the cartoon interacted with
other parts of the webpage — title, design, surrounding articles and images — I
purposely did not consider the readers’ feedback sections/message boards, commenting
on the article or on the political cartoons’ message. Among the reasons for this omission
was my concern for authenticity and authorship in virtual communication. People surfing
9
Erasure: the process that the field of linguistic practices renders some persons, activities, or
sociolinguistic phenomena invisible.
18
on the net can actually browse an unlimited number of websites and reach vast amounts
of data while remaining anonymous. Through their avatars, internet users can enter
limitless new social spaces — chat rooms, discussion forums, message boards, e-mail,
twitter, and so on — where they can (re)negotiate their identity and claim multiple new
identities and perform different roles as they carefully construct how they represent
themselves to others. Considering Erving Goffman’s (1959) differentiation between a
person’s “front stage” and “back stage” performances. I posit that people perform an
online identity based on an optimal image of themselves and this performed identity
changes according to the context/content of the web page and also to the audience
users seek to reach.
Several cartoons of my corpus were retrieved from political
propaganda websites or anti-Turkish blogs. It is safe to argue that the participants of
these kinds of politically or ideologically engaged online communication websites are
likely to seek to interact with like-minded others, hearing the perspectives they wish to
hear, and avoiding exposure to alternatives (unless they are conducting research like
me!). The now growing body of literature on Internet communication demonstrates that
Internet users fragment into like-minded discussion groups (see Davis & Owens, 1998;
Selnow, 1998). Besides offering my subjective interpretation, I had no substantial tool to
evaluate whether these online participants were simply mirroring commonly held values
or whether they were putting forward biased or misleading facts. In addition, unlike in
Lee and Barton (2011), I could not engage in ethnography of reading cartoons since no
clear authorship of readers/commentators can be identified for reasons already
mentioned. Finally, a whole section devoted to an analysis of readers’ comment would
have exceeded the scope of my thesis. I am fully aware of the obvious limitations of my
methodological and theoretical choice to disregard e-comments.
Only cartoons published between 2001 and 2013 were selected as it
corresponds to two major “earthquakes” that affected the relationships between the EU
and Turkey. The first earthquake was provoked by the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) that
destabilized the post-World War II political order. After 1989, the tone of the negotiations
shifted as the EU was gradually transforming itself from an economic partnership (EEC)
to a cultural and political community (EU). At that time, Turkey’s Europeanness came to
be questioned; geographic and demographic arguments and human right issues were
commonly raised against Turkish membership. This is the period during which EU
19
authorities started to re-assess and downgrade the relative strategic and geo-political
“value” of Turkey for Europe, relegating Turkey to the margins of the “new” “united”
Europe.
The second earthquake came in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of 9/11
(September 11, 2001) that led the EU to reconsider its position in the new global security
environment. After 9/11, fear of Islam and Islamic terrorism grew among the citizens of
the EU. Islam became gradually associated with fundamentalism and terrorism which in
turn negatively impacted Turkey’s relations with the EU. Indeed, members of the EU
began to reconsider their partnership with Turkey within this new frame of
understanding.
As stated by Öner (2009): “Being a Turk was perceived as being
synonymous with being Muslim and being a Muslim was perceived as the opposite of
being European” (p. 248). (See also Rabasa, 2004, p. 181; EUMC Report, 2006;
Timothy & Katzenstein, 2006, p. 211; Nachmani, 2009, p. 88.) During this era Europe
questioned its own borders and identity; cultural and religious arguments were widely
used against Turkish membership. In addition, the political turmoil of 2011 — including
the crises in Iran, the Middle East, Syria, the Euro Zone and North Africa — increased
the politically constructed dichotomy between Islam and the West. Turkey was then
further perceived to be Eastern, and the cultural dichotomy between the EU and Turkey
became a major argument against inclusion.
Based on the criteria mentioned above, I selected 28 political cartoons “written”
in French and posted on the Internet as shown in the appendix. I then analyzed them
chronologically according to their first date of publication, keeping in mind the different
arguments used against Turkey’s accession to the EU. This temporal ordering enabled
me to observe the evolution of the arguments used against Turkey’s accession to the
EU, and the transformation of the relationships between these two geo-political and
economic entities.
Before turning to the analysis of my corpus, I would like to briefly discuss my
position as researcher. An important aspect of this research has to do with my own
identity as Turk and therefore, my subjectivity as a data collector and analyst. The role
of the researcher’s subjectivity has been theorized and deconstructed at length in
anthropological work. The insiderness of the researcher as a member of the community
20
s/he studies has proven to be both an advantage and an impediment. In the case of this
present work, my position as a researcher and a Turk has proven to be sometimes
unsettling. For instance, at the beginning of my investigations, I, as a Turk, had a hard
time to put in perspective the hate speech and highly derogatory representations of my
people and therefore, me that I found on the Internet. Rather than being crippled by my
discomfort, I used the latter as a productive stance to understand the roots and the
various expressions of such derogatory discourse.
The theoretical toolkit I use to
analyze cartoons has helped me deconstruct such discourse and in a way has
empowered me as a member of the stigmatized community under scrutiny in these
pages. Yet, rather than suppressing my subjectivity, I have worked toward making it
productive, that is, as a part of the analysis.
21
3.
Analysis
My analysis of political cartoons below show that arguments against Turkey’s
accession to the EU cover a wide range of themes, from economics to demographics, to
domestic political problems with democratization and human rights, to cultural
incompetency, and so on. The 2005 Standard Euro-barometer survey shows that one
out of two respondents is opposed to Turkey joining the EU; 54% think that the cultural
differences between the EU and Turkey are too many to allow for accession, although
55% also agree that Turkey “partly belongs to Europe by its geography” (Eurobarometer,
2005 as cited in Kylstad, 2010, p. 7). In other words, European citizen perceive Turkey
as being “too big, too poor and too different” (Verney, 2007; Redmond, 2007). Major EU
political actors bureaucrats and also the European media, regularly voice their principled
opposition against Turkey’s EU accession by means of four major arguments based on
geographical, demographic, cultural, and religious underpinnings (see Risse, 2012;
Kylstad, 2010; Kirişçi, 2008; Verney, 2007; Redmond, 2007).
I examine these arguments around two common metaphors found in political
cartoons: the road and container metaphors. My analysis complements that of
Schäffner, 1996; Drulák, 2006; Hülsse, 2004; and Tekin, 2010.
3.1. Road Metaphors: Turkey’s Long Journey to the EU
In our everyday life we usually talk about many things in terms of movements
such as time, life, change, our ideals, and so on (Lakoff & Johnson 1980; Lakoff 1993).
Road-metaphors depict the enlargement and accession processes of the EU as a
journey. In these political cartoons, the source domain of the journey — starting point,
direction, destinations, obstacles, turns, and an end — is used creatively to depict the
target domain of the EU accession process.
Metaphors conceptualizing European
integration project as a politically, economically, and socially challenging historic
22
“journey,” use source domains of destinations, stops, and obstacles to define and to
conceptualize the goals, achievements, and problems of the member states.
The
traveller of this metaphorical journey on the other hand represents the candidate state
(which is Turkey in my corpus). In this metaphorical construction, the traveller’s efforts
attest to the difficulty in accomplishing the goal of full membership. Furthermore, they
attest “the need for patience since it will take time and effort to reach a destination”
(Charteris-Black, 2004, p. 93).
In fact, the road/journey metaphors are commonly used in political discourse
(Schäffner, 1996). The Turkish accession process to the EU proves no exception to this
rule and it is often symbolized by road/journey metaphors describing the action of
moving (process of membership) towards a destination (the EU) with a special emphasis
on the speed (temporality) of the move and the means of transport (train, boat, or
donkey). Of the political cartoons analyzed in this section, several cartoons use the
road/journey metaphor to comment on the Turkey’s conditional accession process to the
EU; emphasizing its political (Turkey needs to fulfill Copenhagen criteria) and
geographic (Turkey is not in Europe) differences from Europe. Between 2001 and 2005
“Turkey’s long and difficult journey towards an EU membership” was a common
argument seen in many news articles, while the road/journey metaphors penetrated
many political debates about Turkey’s accession. (See Smith, 2005; Kervasdoué, 2005;
& Oakeshott, 2005.) For example, EU enlargement commissioner Olli Rehn’s comment
about Turkey’s possible membership (5/05/2008) is a good example: “Turkey’s
accession to the EU will be a long and sometimes difficult journey” during which Turkey
will have to transform itself to make fundamental freedoms prevail in all corners of the
country and in all walks of life.
23
Figure 3.1.
Izel Rosental, 2005
© Izel Rosental; used with permission.
Figure 3.1 is a cartoon by Izel Rosental, created for the invitation of the
“Cartooning for Peace” cartoon exhibition, which is a travelling exhibition of editorial
cartoons about relations between Turkey and the EU, which took place in Istanbul,
Brussels, and Paris in 2012.10 This cartoon uses the metaphor of the long road ahead of
Turkey in order to describe the long and difficult accession process of Turkey into the
EU. Turkey personified here by a train, is on a long curvy railroad, moving towards the
EU.
The “road/journey,” metaphor supplies a conceptual network for understanding
Turkey’s desire to join but also positions Turkey as an outsider, trying to come near. By
being on the road, Turkey is depicted as willing to reach the EU symbolized by a big
building at the end on the upper left corner of the frame: the huge EU flag (almost as big
as the building) positions the EU as powerful, superior, and as an ideal place. There are
many obstacles ahead: a river, a bridge, different tunnels, a hilly road with lots of curves
and sharp turns. This imagery is used to depict the political and bureaucratic conditions
that Turkey has to fulfill in order to become a full member and to emphasize the amount
of work, which still needs to be done before Turkey can be accepted as a full member.
10
Initiated by the French cartoonist Plantu, Cartooning for Peace, is an initiative born on 16
October 2006 at the UN headquarters in New York. A two-day conference organized by Kofi
Annan, the then Secretary General of the United Nations brought together the twelve bestknown political cartoonists in the world for "unlearning intolerance.”
24
Regardless, “if and when” Turkey has completed the necessary actions and fulfilled the
requirements, the EU members will decide whether or not Turkey fulfills the criteria for
membership. The road metaphor, which implies a movement ahead, also indexes
“temporality and speed,” therefore, the cartoon not only depicts Turkey’s accession as a
difficult process, but also as a faraway possibility. The title of the poster, anchors the
visual imagery and sets the conceptual background by underscoring verbally the
duration and the difficulty of the road ahead: “Une route longue et sinueuse: Les
relations entre la Turquie et l’UE à travers les dessins de presse” (A long winding road:
Turkey EU relations through cartoons). Hardships and obstacles on the road to the EU
are also emphasized by the metaphorical expressions of crossroads and traffic light as
illustrated by the following cartoon.
Figure 3.2.
Janusz Majewski (MAYK), 2008
© Janusz Majewski; used with permission
Figure 3.2 is another cartoon by Janusz Majewski using the road-metaphor, but
this time rather than depicting a whole journey the cartoon describes a crucial moment
during this process. Here Turkish citizens (we will discuss their depiction later) a
husband and a wife, are waiting to cross at a crosswalk. The metaphor of crosswalk
might be interpreted as indexing Turkey’s position at the crossroads of international
politics where Eastern and Western ways of life overlap. Crossroads is a powerful
rhetorical device which seems to offer two lines of reasoning: on the one hand, it points
out that Turkey has travelled a part of the path which implies taking active stance
towards attaining a set goal; on the other hand, it suggests that a decision should be
made as to which direction to take forward or backward, left or right. The red traffic light
25
at the end of the road is a metonymic representation of the EU as it iconizes its
institutional authority (Turks need permission to cross). It also indexes a physical and
symbolic boundary to an unknown “other” side.
The Turkish couple depicted here are not ordinary passengers as they have their
baggage with them, which might be interpreted as they are planning to stay at their
destination. The red Turkish flag on the baggage iconized the Turkish identity of the two
pedestrians. The woman’s burka (a strong symbol used by religious fundamentalists)
and the man’s fez (a traditional Ottoman hat) orient to the characters’ Muslim identity.
Their contrasting body postures with the woman standing with a heavy burden on her
shoulder and the man sitting by his luggage are meant to index genders’ inequalities in
the Islamic tradition and by extension in Turkey. Indeed, concerns about gender equality
and the rights of women in Turkey have been central to Turkey’s EU accession process.
Many Europeans consider that women in Turkey are deprived of their democratic
rights.11
Turkey was asked to end any kind of discrimination based on color, sex,
political opinion, philosophical belief, sexual orientation, or religion by the European
council (Council 2001, p. 19; 2003, p. 43; 2006, pp. 37-38; 2008, p. 8).
The caption under the cartoon provides the reader necessary contextual
information: “La candidature de la Turquie à l’entrée [sic] dans l’Union” (Turkey’s
candidacy to the European Union for admission). Without it, the cartoon’s intended
message may be lost, as the EU is not directly represented (no EU flag, no EU sign, nor
any other symbolism indicating the presence of the EU such as blue background or
twelve yellow stars, the signs or labels commonly used in cartoons).
11
Turkish women were granted the right to divorce in 1923 and to vote in 1934, exactly 10
years earlier than their French counterparts. The right to an abortion dates back to 1983.
Although Turkish women emancipated much earlier than European women, a large
discrepancy between formal rights and the social position of women in Turkish society
remains, especially under the Islamist Justice and Development Party‘s (AKP) “reign” (20022013).
26
Figure 3.3.
Slavomir Svitalsky, 2009
© Cartoon Movement/Svitalsky Bros; used with permission
Figure 3.3, a cartoon by the Czech cartoonist Slavomir Svitalsky is another
example of the road metaphor. This time Turkey’s road ahead is a running track and its
attempts to become an EU member are described as an unfair hurdle race between
candidate states. Turkey is embodied by an athlete, (see the flag on his chest) racing
against an unidentified opponent. The European Union representatives, (with their ties
and blue suits and the EU signs on their backs) are portrayed as twisting the rules of the
race by placing hurdles in front of the Turkish athlete and therefore enabling the other
athlete to run freely and win the competition.
The cartoon is a social criticism of the way in which member states “move goal
posts” in a concerted effort to impede Turkey’s accession to the EU. In fact the latter
has established a number of common and legitimate values and specific conditions upon
which stands the membership of each candidate country.
This conditionality is the
Union’s core strategy to induce non-member states to comply with its principles and
values. The early 2000s were the “golden age” of Turkish-EU relations with the EU using
conditionality — holding out the prospect of eventual membership — to encourage
domestic political reforms. Turkey was expected to fulfill the “Copenhagen criteria,”
which enshrined the values of human rights, democracy, the rule of law, and a
functioning market economy with institutional protection of democracy, minorities,
monetary union, and capacity to implement the EU laws and policies (Christiansen,
2009). At the time of the writing of this thesis (December 2013), no prospect of Turkey’s
27
EU accession is in sight despite the significant institutional changes made by the
successive Turkish governments in the last 13 years.
Another group of cartoons I would like to mention under the road-metaphors are
those depicting Turkish accession as a difficult and almost impossible journey.
Figure 3.4.
Plantu, 2005
© Plantu; used with permission
Plantu’s cartoon (Figure 3.4) published in 2005 in Le Vif/Express identifies two
major obstacles that derail Turkey’s accession talks: the Armenian genocide claims and
the Cyprus issue. The latter finds its origin in 1960 when a partnership between Turkish
Cypriots and their Greek counterparts was set up in accordance with the international
agreements that both partners signed as did the Turkish, Greek, and British
governments. However, just three years later (1963), Greek Cypriots violated the
founding agreements and the Constitution by ousting their Turkish counterparts from all
the organs of the new Republic. In 1974, Greece tried to annex the Island with a coup
attempt. Cypriot president, Archbishop Makarios III, was deposed and replaced by Nikos
Sampsona who was in favour of Enosis, the union of Cyprus with Greece. In retaliation,
the Turkish army invaded Cyprus and Turkish Cypriots set up their own Republic. The
Turkish-Greek relations and the Cyprus problem following the Turkish intervention of
1974 have had an important place throughout the evolution of the relations between
Turkey and the EU. The EU’s acceptance of the Republic of Cyprus as a member prior
28
to a settlement of the Cyprus question effectively killed the chances for any future intercommunal settlement. Greek Cypriots’ rejection of the Annan Plan initiated by the UN in
order to foster the reunification of Cyprus in 2004 didn’t come as a surprise. Turkey
found itself in a predicament as it was asking to become a member of the EU while also
technically occupying some of its territory (Northern Cyprus). Before being granted
membership to the EU, Turkey was expected to give up its position on the Cyprus issue
(Kösebalaban, 2007, p. 118).
The second obstacle pointed by Plantu is that of the Armenian genocide claims
for the Ottoman army’s killing of 1.5 million Armenians during World War I, and their
deportation between 1915 and 1917. Turkey has kept rejecting these claims on the basis
that the deaths of Armenians were not orchestrated by the government but were a
military response to those who cooperated with Turkey’s wartime enemy, Russia, and
plotted against the Turkish army. Opponents of Turkey’s EU accession, especially
France, have advocated for Turkey’s recognition of genocide as an accession criterion.
To these two obstacles one could add that of the Kurdish insurrection and of the
PKK’s separatist movement. Quite noticeably, cartoonists have rarely taken up these
issues for reasons that remain unclear.
In the cartoon above, Turkey and Turkish people are metonymically personified
as a man trying to cross the border (asking permission to enter) to visit EUROPE. The
figure of the Turkish traveller is quite ambivalent: his backpack indexing tourism and
leisure does not fit with his corporate suits and the files and briefcase he is holding. One
can hypothesize that the man here epitomizes the figure of the Turk be it tourist,
businessman, student, and so on. The European on the other hand is metonymically
personified as an immigration officer. He is portrayed as the sole authority that can allow
the Turkish man in. At the gate he informs the Turkish applicant that if he recognizes
Cyprus he will be granted entry: “Bon maintenant vous reconnaissez Chypre et vous
passez” (OK now you recognize Cyprus and you enter). To the man asking if it is the
only condition for entry, the officer responds yes: “Après c’est tout? — Oui c’est tout” (Is
that all? — Yes that’s all). Plantu’s framing of the scene offers the reader an overview of
the situation that highlights the immigration officer’s dishonesty. The labyrinth lying
ahead of the Turkish man is full of impasses and tricks. Even if he reaches the statue of
29
Genocide (another condition) before the exit, he will be sent back to the point of
departure as if this is a game with the sign: “Vous retournez à la case de depart”
(Return to the departure point). Additionally, a brick wall covers the exit to Europe
making the harsh journey worthless.
Figure 3.5.
Nicolas Vadot, 2004
Dessin de Vadot publié dans le Vif/L'Express (Belgique) du 17 décembre 2004 ©
www.nicolasvadot.com; used with permission.
The road/journey metaphor in Nicolas Vadot’s cartoon (Figure 3.5) is represented
as a maze or, visual illusion. The man wearing a red raincoat with a Turkish flag on his
back and carrying luggage is portrayed in his attempt to reach his loved one, Europe,
personified by the mythological Phoenician princess Europa. According to the myth she
was seduced by Zeus in the form of a Bull, and later on, gave her name to the whole
continent of Europe (www.cogwriter.com/europa.htm). The cartoon depicts her as
standing on a blue surface on top of a summit surrounded by stairs. She looks happy
and welcoming to the Turk with her arms wide open.
But this is just an illusion.
Although the Turkish traveller looks very close to his destination there is no real passage
or path that leads him to Europa. Therefore the whole scene is an optical illusion.
The cartoon reflects on the sincerity of the EU members in their willingness to
welcome Turkey.
Although the negotiations are not officially over after 50 years,
Turkey’s membership to the EU does not even look like a remote possibility. In fact,
when the original six western European states who had been devastated by World War
II founded the European Community for Coal and Steel in 1952, they wanted to defend
and protect themselves and lay the foundations of a strong economic and political union
among the peoples of Europe. Some members believed that this cooperation should be
30
no more than a fully developed common market with a few political social and cultural
decorations (Arnold, 2007, p. 107). The basic and legal principle to become a member
was “to be a European State” as it was determined in the Article 237. At the time, there
was a consensus about the general borders of Europe in the western minds. Therefore,
there was no need for a geographical definition of Europe by then, because the borders
of Europe were also considered as the borders of the EU. At these initial stages of the
European integration, the European Economic Community (EEC) was an economic
organization functioning as a free trade zone. Therefore, Turkish membership was not
considered controversial and member states were less concerned about granting Turkey
full membership, as it did not imply any political or cultural union. However, during the
long process of Turkey’s accession, the EU has gone through an unpreventable
transformation and has become a political community rather than a simple economic
union.
As stated by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) “a journey defines a path” (p. 91);
cartoons using road/journey metaphors implicitly construct the EU as the ideal final
destination candidate states thrive to reach by waiting for an authorization to enter
(Figures 2 and 4) or by acting upon admission (Figures 1 and 3). On this road, member
states gradually make necessary adjustments to be accepted. As stressed by Hülsse
(2006): “a path allows for gradual differences; it constructs a frontier zone rather than
clear border” (p. 412). The road/journey metaphors define the EU as an ideal and a
distant place to reach and also construct it as an exclusive space of privilege.
As
illustrated in the next section, cartoonists index this exclusiveness by representing the
EU as a house and fortress, or metonymically as a door and waiting room, among
others.
3.2. Container Metaphors: Turkey’s Knocking on the Door
Container-metaphors help demarcate the conceptual borders of Europe and to
define the EU as a state-like entity clearly differentiated from the outside world. The
“common house of Europe,” an expression coined by Gorbatshev and which featured
very prominently in European discourses (Chilton & Ilyin, 1993) is a very commonly used
metaphor to describe the EU. The EU is frequently presented as a space to enter and
31
Turkey is often depicted as entering, arriving, being admitted, or taken in. In fact, house
is one of the key container-metaphors in the European integration discourse (Chilton &
Ilyin, 1993; Schaffner, 1996; Musolff, 2004).
Through this metaphor, the EU is
constructed as an exclusive container to which access could be restricted or denied in
order to protect the in-group members. Depicting the EU behind closed doors and
Turkey as a visitor knocking on its door asking permission to enter or as patiently waiting
in the antechamber of the EU are common themes in the political cartoons of my corpus.
Container-metaphors conceptualize the member states as in-group members
and define candidate states as out-group members, portraying the EU as an entity
closed to outsiders, inward-oriented, and protectively separated from the rest of the
world. In fact, the symbolism of the door plays a key role in legitimizing the EU member
states’ refusal of Turkish accession. The depiction of the European Union as protected
behind closed doors, helps define Europe as an exclusive space and justifies its
restrictive policies towards out-group members such as Turkey.
Figure 3.6.
Niels Bobojesen, 2005
© Niels Bobojesen; used with permission
Figure 3.6 is a widely entextualized political cartoon on different European
websites. Google image search engine results indicate that it was used 63 times in
various blogs and websites. (See Appendix) In this cartoon, the Turk is standing in front
of a door, which metonymically represents the EU (circle of yellow stars and blue door).
By walking through this door the Turkish man (synecdoche for all Turks) would enter into
the EU. Although there is a big doormat with the Welcome sign on it, the door is locked
and has several keyholes on it. The Turkish representative is in a state of confusion, not
knowing what to do.
The symbolism of the key can imply the difference between
32
freedom and incarceration. Keys symbolize opening and closing powers: a key can be
used to lock someone in, depriving that person of his or her freedom or it can be used to
unlock the door and free whomever is inside. Keys also represent metaphysical powers,
knowledge, mystery, initiation, and curiosity.
The Turkish representative depicted in this cartoon holds a key in his hand and is
hoping to open the door in front of him. At first sight he looks as if he has some agency
in this process of membership. Although he seems to have a solution to his problem
(opening the door that leads to the EU) he has in fact no agency: he does not have all
the keys necessary to unlock this metaphorical door.
The keyholes on the other hand could be interpreted as indexing the different
conditions and expectations of each member country. The overall picture underscores
the conditionality of Turkey’s accession and, on an ideological level we might even say
the impossibility of it.
Although the cartoonist does not overtly use dehumanizing
elements to depict the Turk as inferior in this process of accession, he creates this effect
by using an incongruous perspective. The size of the door and the height of the Turkish
representative are incongruous. The Turk is depicted as a small man especially when
compared to the doormat and the keyholes; he can’t even reach the door handle. The
cartoon is also a good example of domestication, by which something complex, the EU
is shown in terms of something more immediate, a house. Again, we have a whole
chain of visual signs representing the concept of “Europe as a house”: The door
represents the EU member states’ resistance to Turkish accession and the imaginary
borders of the EU; the keyholes might be interpreted as the conditions that the Turkish
side has to fulfill, and the key represents the agency of the Turks in this process of never
ending accession.
33
Figure 3.7.
Ali Dilem, 2007
© Ali Dilem; used with permission
Ali Dilem created this cartoon (Figure 3.7) for the 50th anniversary of the Rome
Treaty. The idea of a door (or windows, for that matter) is inextricably linked to the idea
of a house.
The cartoon depicts two doors side-by-side probably in an apartment
building. On the left, the EU door is marked by musical notes and vector lines indicating
action and loud music on the EU side, while Turkey on the right (see Turkish flag) is
represented by a silent door. A Turkish man holding a grocery bag is about to open his
door and looks annoyed by the noise coming from his partying next-door neighbors. In
the middle, the big black sign on the wall reads as follows: “Nous fêtons une
anniversaire entre amis, veuillez nous excuser pour la gêne occasionnée” (We are
celebrating a birthday among friends, we apologize for the inconvenience).
This
excluding sign toward the next-door neighbor, foregrounds the otherness of the Turkish
and gives clues on how the country is perceived by the EU neighbors. The negative
representation of the Turks and Turkey (the Turkish Other) often comes in the form of
binary oppositions. A common theme in political cartoons depicting the Turkish
accession is to compare and contrast the positive traits attributed to the European self
with the negative traits of the Turk, to further accentuate the cultural clash and
underlying differences perceived by the EU members. As Tekin (2010) argues:
Turkey is often contrasted with Europe in order to be found undemocratic (as
opposed to the “democratic Europe”), intolerant and extremist (as opposed to the
“tolerant and moderate Europe”), backward and poor (as opposed to the
34
“developed and prosperous Europe”), or irrational and aggressive (as opposed to
the “rational and peaceful Europe”). (p. 165)
In this cartoon the EU defined as a party “entre amis” emotionalizes the Turkish
membership at a more intimate level and underscores the Otherness of Turkey by
depicting him as the “unwanted” out-group member further accentuating the underlying
differences. Constructing the EU as a close circle of friends projects Turkey’s
membership demand into a request to become a part of that intimate circle.
Figure 3.8.
Janusz Majewski, 2010
© Janusz Majewski; used with permission
The door metaphor in Majewski’s cartoon (Figure 3.8) is combined with the
notion of waiting. It depicts a Turkish man sleeping on a bench in front of the EU door.
Besides wearing a red fez with a crescent and a star (Turkish Flag) he is portrayed
sporting a thick black moustache, which is a typical stereotype of the Turk. The cartoon
uses negative predication by connecting Turks and Turkey to the historical image of the
Ottoman Empire. This rhetorical strategy assumes that the reader will transfer the
negative imagery of the Ottomans into the actual Turkish image.
In the waiting room, the sleeping Turkish representative indexes the passage of
time, ironically criticising the 50-year-long membership negotiations and the patience of
the Turkish side. This emphasis on time passing can be interpreted in two different
ways: 1) Turkey is not making the necessary moves and changes to convince the
members and therefore passively waits; and 2) Turkey is tired of knocking on the doors
of the EU and is waiting to be accepted.
The entextualization of this cartoon in different websites is worthy to note here
because it really shows how the meaning of a cartoon can change according to the
35
discursive context in which it is embedded. The cartoon and editorial article
accompanying it are recontextualized with different titles. The entextualization process
starts when the Turkish author/journalist Ahmet Altan publishes an editorial on
05.10.2010 in the Turkish daily Taraf under the title Avrupa (Europe). In this article he
criticizes Turkish politicians for their unsuccessful and inefficient efforts to become an
EU member. The original editorial article has no visual (http://www.taraf.com.tr/ahmetaltan/makale-avrupa.htm). Altan’s article is later translated and published alongside
Mayk’s cartoon by the international news website http://www.presseurop.eu. The latter
publishes online news in nine different languages (French, Italian, German, English,
Spanish, Portuguese, Polish, Czech, and Dutch). What is striking in this entextualization
process is that each translated version is published under a different title:
French: “TURQUIE: A Ankara aussi, on traîne des pieds” (In Ankara too they drag
their feet);
English: “EU ACCESSION: Turkey's elite is napping”;
Italian: “TURCHIA-UE: Ankara non ha fretta” (Turkey-EU: Ankara is in no hurry);
Czech: “Ankaře se do EU moc nechce” (Ankara wants the EU too);
German: “Wo kein Wille ist, ist auch kein Weg” (Where there's no will, there's also no
way);
Spanish: “Ankara también arrastra los pies” (Ankara also training his feet);
Dutch: “Politieke elite werkt toetreding tegen” (Political elite works against
membership);
Polish: “Między Scyllą a Charybdą” (Between Scylla and Charybdis); and
Portuguese: “Ancara arrasta os pés” (Ankara train his feet).
This type of entextualization I believe supplements different layers of meaning to the
message of the cartoon and the text accompanying it. It also underscores the
assumption that the target audience (viz. Europeans from different parts of Europe)
perceives the Turk in its historical and stereotypical image.
36
Figure 3.9.
Plantu, 2005
© Plantu; used with permission
Plantu’s cartoon here (Figure 3.9) published in Le Monde (13.10.2005) is about
the Turkish accession and illustrates an editorial article titled “La Turquie veut forger
avec l’UE une alliance des civilisations” (Turkey wants to create an alliance of
civilisations with the EU). Plantu is commenting here on the tardiness of the Turkish
accession process by using the door metaphor. The Turkish delegate, an ordinary
bureaucrat in a grey suite with a tie is waiting for the permission to enter and to be
accepted into the EU. The Turkish flag over his briefcase iconizes his nationality. He is
depicted with a moustache,12 a common stereotype used to depict Arabs, Muslims, and
Turks in the political cartoons. The Europeans on the other hand are depicted wearing
black suits, or tuxedos, and bowties. The room’s door does not have any labeling.
Plantu uses the perspective to position the readers with a higher angle looking
over the shoulders of the EU bureaucrats. So the reader’s gaze is directed towards the
Turkish man. There is strong symbolism and metonymic depictions (big spider web in
the form of the EU flag) emphasizing the passing of time and by extension the long
lasting character of the negotiations. The cat sitting next to the Turkish delegate also
indexes temporality: the delegate has spent enough time to befriend the cat.
The
speech balloon of the EU bureaucrat complements the idea of waiting with additional
information of 43 years: “Heu! Il y a ce monsieur … Il dit qu’il attend depuis 43 ans” (eh!
12
Growing a beard and a moustache is a well-established tradition in many Muslim societies.
The tradition of keeping a beard can often be traced back to the prophet Muhammad, as he
did not completely shave his beard, and so many of his followers also choose to grow facial
hair out of respect.
37
There is this man ... he said that he’s been waiting for 43 years). The use of the generic
category monsieur indexes that despite he’s been in the waiting room for 43 years
nobody knows who the person is. He is depicted as a visitor, or even an unknown guest
with no determined status. The speech balloon over him implies that he is singing or
murmuring a song to pass time. The musical notes might index optimism and positive
mood.
He does not seem to be annoyed by his waiting; this suggests Turkey’s
“optimistic approach” or maybe naivety regarding its membership application, despite
being against all the odds.
In Figures 3.10a and 3.10b below, the door-maze metaphor is used to index the
illusionary prospect of Turkish accession.
(a)
(b)
Plantu, 2009
© Plantu; used with permission
Emrah Arikan, 2013
© Emrah Arikan; used with permission
Figure 3.10. Door-maze metaphors by Plantu and Arikan
Plantu’s carton (Figure 3.10) sports the caption “Aujourd’hui la Turquie” (Turkey
today). The cartoon portrays a Turkish bureaucrat hopelessly trying to find his way into
the EU-maze in which doors do not lead anywhere. These 12 doors representing the EU
members are there to divert the Turkish representative from finding the correct path. In
fact there is no correct path. The maze symbolizes indecision, confusion, missteps,
feeling lost, or being misled. The cartoon positions the reader in a position of accomplice
to his illusion. Unlike the Turkish representative, the reader is aware that these doors
don’t lead anywhere. The metaphorical combination of the real and the imaginary shared
with the reader helps the cartoonist to create a sort of “inside joke” between himself and
his readers (Medhurst & DeSousa, 1982, p. 49). By positioning the reader as an
38
accomplice the cartoonist assumes that his message is intuitively obvious or that
readers already have the tools for interpreting and judging the intended meaning of the
cartoon. On the other hand this same effect of illusion can also be interpreted as the
cartoonist holding a mirror to the actual situation, in which Turkey looks as a “naïve
applicant” who does not accept “no” as an answer and keeps coming back knocking on
the EU’s doors.
The same door-maze metaphor used in Figure 3.10b by Turkish cartoonist
Emrah Arıkan (2013) illustrates the intertextual character of the representations of
Turkey’s accession to the EU. As the cartoons above demonstrate, the door metaphor
usually evokes an “entrance” or an “exit,” a new “challenge” or “opportunity” but it also
symbolizes protection for those who are behind it. In fact, after the creation of a common
single market and abolition of the internal borders of the EU with the enlargement
moves, member states grew concerns about the security and the safety of the union
(Maastricht treaty, 1991).
It has been claimed that the EU was evolving towards a fortress since the fall of
the Berlin Wall (Albrecht, 2002) and the metaphor of fortress of Europe became a useful
tool to describe the EU’s restrictive immigration policies and the policing of its imagined
external borders (Kofman & Sales, 1992).
Fortress of Europe was initially used to
describe the EC’s protectionist economic policy whose aim was to keep out competing
foreign goods and services (Islam, 1994, p. 37).
Before analyzing a few examples of political cartoons using the fortress of
Europe metaphor I would like to summarize the political context of this concept. When
EU member states started to reconstruct Europe from its ashes after World War I and II,
they needed a labor force to realize their industrial revolution. Countries like Germany
and France started to “import” temporary guest workers to work in the coal mines, steel
mills, and factories of Western Europe in order to satisfy labor shortages created by the
booming post-war European economy and related industrialization. “Temporary Guest
Workers” including thousands of Turkish immigrants took the jobs that no European
citizen would want and European workers didn’t feel threatened by these new comers for
about two decades. When European markets became to stagnate and the boom was
about to fade, problems emerged. Up until the 1970s’ oil crisis that damaged economies
39
of the world and created a recession period, Europeans believed that the migrant
workers they had imported decades earlier would go back to their own countries.
Importing countries such as the UK, France, and Germany perceived the immigration
process they initiated as something they could turn on and off when needed. Policy
makers didn’t expect this migration of workers to be permanent. When Europe emerged
as a multicultural continent, the EU member states started developing reactive policies
and restrictions in order to deal with what they have termed the “immigration problem.”
These new immigration policies led to serious unintended problems such as the
increasing costs of recruitment and administration, the new settlers’ socioeconomic
marginalization and the social distress caused by xenophobia (Dumbrava, 2008).
At the end of the Cold War, the notion of security underwent a transformation in
Europe and the discourse of immigration shifted towards an emphasis on security
(Ibrahim, 2005, p. 168). Parallel to this shift, French people witnessed the establishment
and settlement of a large Muslim population in France coming from former colonies such
as Algeria and from Turkey. These new immigrants became more and more visible in
France’s social fabric. Muslim and non-European immigrants became imagined as a
threat to the French “way of life” and as endangering France’s national unity just by
bringing in their differences and their own traditions (Freedman, 2004; Ibrahim, 2005).
The opposition of the French governments and public against Turkish accession to the
EU has been marred with unfortunate events, inappropriate diplomatic moves and
gestures, and strong accusations from both sides. One can point to three major factors
that fostered French people’s negative perception towards Turks: immigration,
multiculturalism, and fear of Islam (Islamophobia).
Indeed, Turkey’s membership became a focal point both in terms of the formation
of European identity and with respect to the role of Europe in today’s global relations.
Soon arguments based on cultural incompetency of the Turk with European culture and
identity began to emerge. Although not openly debated, there seems to be a consensus
among member states that European and Turkish cultures and values are fundamentally
different, and that the gap between the two is so great that they are incompatible. Such
arguments incorporate explicit references to the European history and Christian
heritage. As Renaud Girard wrote, “Europe was built on the dual heritage of Christianity
and Enlightenment. But Turkey was not” (LF, 27 Nov. 2002, p. 13). In this context, the
40
social construction of a European identity require the inclusion of the in-group members
(European-self) such as Central and Eastern European countries and exclusion of the
out-group members (non-European-others) such as Turkey. As the latter did not share
the European heritage stretching from Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire through
Christianity up to the Enlightenment, “questions of its geographic frontiers, past
memories, civilizational belongings, traditions and cultural, and religious differences
emerged as new themes in an old debate and set a new agenda for the redefinition of
European identity” (Tekin, 2008, p. 728). Such belief was fervently expressed by former
president Jacques Chirac who argued that in order to become a member of the EU
Turkey needed a “major cultural revolution” (Turkish Daily News, October 8, 2005a;
The Daily Telegraph, October 5, 2005).
The Turkish case becomes a tension point both in cultural and religious terms
because it rekindles the long dormant question for Europe about the ways in which
religion and politics should relate to each other. Turkey’s membership also exacerbates
another deep-seated fear, that Turkey’s Muslim population will bring a major Islamic
presence in Europe, which will dilute European cultural and religious distinctiveness
(Ayoob, 2004, para. 3). French historian and journalist Alexandre Adler best express the
concerns of Europeans about Turks’ Muslim identity: “If Turks would like to enter Europe
as a Muslim nation or with their Muslim identity, this would never take place” (as cited in
Çandar, 2006). Europeans have long feared the potential impact of a Muslim country on
the unification project as illustrated by former French president Valery Giscard d’Estaing
when he argued that Turkey’s accession would change the nature of the European
project (D’Estaing, 2004). French president Sarkozy was also among the first EU leaders
that openheartedly acknowledged this fact: “We have a problem of integration of
Muslims that raises the question of Islam in Europe” (Sarkozy, cited in Kylstad, 2010).
Thus, French people became anxious about how to preserve their national
identity in the face of such a multicultural society. Therefore, they constantly tried to
define the place of Islam and Muslims in France (Silverstein, 2004). Jean Marie Le Pen,
former leader of Front National claimed the possibility of “true Islamic invasion of
Europe” which will lead eventually to Turkey’s membership to the EU (cited in Zuquete,
2008, p. 331). The discourse on immigration in light of this fear of invasion and the
society’s reserved attitude towards diversity, reinforced the framing of Muslim
41
immigrants (Turks and others) as threats to French national identity — as the dangerous
enemy Other. The French government in order to justify their repressive and
exclusionary policies towards immigrants/Muslims framed the immigration as a threat for
their society: traditions, laws, and ways of life, were presumed to be under this threat.
The riots of an underclass youth shook France’s banlieues (inner cities) in 2005. The
outburst of violence registered throughout November 2005 and the measures taken after
these riots bear witness of the continuous crisis of French national identity and
multiculturalism. As Taguieff (1990) explains, there has been a transformation from
biological racism to a racism based on cultural differences in France (p. 117).
In this context of anxiety towards its post-colonial immigrants and in light of its
inability to address issues of multiculturalism, France came to question what French
identity really is within the context of European Union (Silverman, 1992). French have
been afraid to lose their national identity, their global political power: so Turkey’s
prospect membership fuelled their fears of losing their culture vis-à-vis immigrants and
especially Muslim immigrants in France.
Some of the cartoons reflect this perceived risks to the safety, to the economic
and social stability of the EU citizens by depicting the EU as a heavily guarded fortress,
an unreachable building with high walls and towers, which does not welcome people
from other countries (non-Europeans) seeking political asylum or simply looking for a
better life. Intended to “manage” migration, EU’s exclusionary immigration policies that
were presented as an antidote to racism, xenophobia, and a precondition for integration
and “social cohesion,” are highly depicted and satirized in political cartoons. The
cartoons below (Figures 3.11, 3.12, 3.13 and 3.14) use this metaphor of fortress and
depict the EU as an unreachable place protected against the invaders by high walls,
towers, and guarded gates.
42
Figure 3.11. Patrick Chapatte, 2009
© Chappatte/globecartoon.com; used with permission
Patrick Chapatte’s cartoon published in the Swiss Newspaper NZZ am Sonntag
in 2006 (Figure 3.11) reflects the anxiety of the EU member states vis-à-vis Turkish
immigrants/workers. The speech balloon of the EU official looking down at the Turkish
family says: “Je veux bien vous ouvrir la porte, si vous promettez de ne pas entrer” (I
don’t mind opening the door if you promise not to enter). This caption indexes the EU’s
own contradicting policies regarding Turkish accession. On one hand the EU member
states do not want to let Turkey in as a member. On the other hand they do not want to
let it go as they want Turkey to become a “privileged partner” on the grounds that Turkey
is not European and cannot meet the requirements of EU membership.
The demande d’emploi (job application) paper held by the standing Turkish man
indexes French people’s and more broadly Europeans’ fear about the impact of Turkish
immigrants on their national economies especially because of Turkey’s high rate of
population growth.13 Europeans not only fear that Turks will invade Europe and take
jobs away from its citizen but also work for lower wages and therefore lower the
standard of living that they have secured through their advantageous position in the EU
13
The Turkish population expected to reach 75 million by 2015, and this would make Turkey
the second largest member, representing twice the population of Germany and France
combined. Europeans’ demography-based fear has to do with the fact that political
representation and voting weight in the European Parliament are proportional to the
population of each member state. If admitted Turkey would be entitled to exercise an
inordinate amount of voting weight and therefore would be able to influence and in some
cases control, or determine the decision making mechanisms of E.U.
43
(İdiz, 2010).
Although free movement of labor is a defining characteristic of EU
integration and a right and privilege for EU residents:
Some member states like France, Germany and the Netherlands where
large numbers of Turkish immigrants reside, fear that the right of free
movement for Turkish citizens could pose major additional problems for
the national identity and social and cultural cohesion of the EU member
states, something that is outright undesirable to both their governments
and public opinion. (Anastasiadou, 2012, para. 5)
The frame and the perspective of Chapatte’s cartoon position the reader’s gaze
at the same level as the Turkish family standing at the gate. The reader looks up to the
EU representative. The height of the fortress walls indexes far-reaching immigration,
border control, and enforcement policies, rather than establishing a superiority/inferiority
axis.
Figure 3.12. Plantu, 2009
© Plantu; used with permission
At first sight, Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12 look similar as they both depict
immigrants at the gates of the fortress Europe. But Plantu’s cartoon frame (Figure 3.12),
positions the reader’s gaze at a high level, which enables him/her to look down the
impenetrable bastion. Plantu does not define the nationality of the immigrants waiting
outside the fortress. This may explain why this cartoon has been widely used on the
Internet, on various websites, and personal blogs discussing immigration issues. Worth
noticing is that the same cartoon used to depict Turkish immigrants on one personal blog
(see http://comeniusonexile.blogspot.ca/2010/06/blog-post.html) is used to describe the
situation of African immigrants on a different blog (http://carpediem-selim.blogspot.ca/
2008/06/union-europenne-et-migration-africaine.html). (See Appendix.)
44
Figure 3.13. NO AUTHOR
Retrieved from http://alpesmaritimes.mpf-paca.fr/archives-2008.htm
In Figure 3.13 the gates of the fortress synecdoche depict the EU. This cartoon
was published together with an editorial article under the title “M. Sarkozy ouvre deux
nouveaux chapitres de négociation pour l'adhésion de la Turquie” (Mr. Sarkozy opens
two new negotiating chapters for Turkey's accession). Although Nicolas Sarkozy was a
fervent opponent of the Turkish accession to the EU, he is here criticized for helping
Turkish negotiations. Any reader aware of Sarkozy’s immigration policies or his stance
against Turkish EU membership will be surprised to see him pulling a Trojan horse full of
Turks into the EU.
In fact, the close ties that Turkey and France had enjoyed for centuries — since
Ottoman times — took a real downturn under former President Nicolas Sarkozy, who
had voiced objections toward Turkey’s accession long before he was elected in May
2007.
The question of the place of Turkey became a focal point of many political
campaigns during the French Presidential election in 2007.
Nicolas Sarkozy
instrumentalized the Turkish problem in his presidential campaign and skilfully conflated
the problems of immigration, unemployment, loss of sovereignty, and integration of
Muslim minorities with Turkey’s prospect of EU membership. After his victory, Sarkozy’s
marked insistence to grant a “privileged partnership,” rather than full membership,
created tensions between France and Turkey, and also between Turkey and the EU.
Immediately after his accession to the Presidency of the French Republic, Sarkozy
openly expressed his policies and stance on Turkey’s accession in a televised debate:
Negotiations began in 1964. We are in 2007. The time has rather come
to tell the Turks whether we want them or if we do not want them. For me
45
actually, it is not a question of democracy, it is not at all a question of
Muslims, of Islam. It is to say that it’s Asia, it is not Europe. One must tell
clearly to this great people that they are meant to be the heart of the
Union of the Mediterranean but not the heart of the European Union.
(May 7, 2007, New York Times)
In another speech delivered in Nîmes, Sarkozy also argued that the EU should
maintain its Christian values and consequently this will close the doors for Turkey’s
dream of becoming a part in the EU (Garcia, 2011, p. 59). In his book Testimony,14
partially echoing the former French President Giscard d’Estaing, Sarkozy openheartedly
talked about his stance against Turkish accession once more and used geopolitical,
demographic, and cultural arguments to defend his stance and he invited other member
states to be honest about their political stance on the Turkish issue:
I oppose the views regarding the entry of Turkey to the EU. I fully
understand the strategic expectations. However, these expectations can
be fulfilled through a strategic partnership agreement. However, entry of
a country, whose 98% land is outside European continent, who will be the
most populous country of the Union in the coming 20 years, and
moreover whose culture mainly carries several aspects of Islam into the
EU, will create an overall transformation within the EU, thus will weaken
the initial idea of founding fathers of the EU in terms of a political union
eventually leading to a chaos … However, if we are late to tell the Turks
that they cannot be members; this will be a very impolite behavior.
(Sarkozy, 2006, p. 192)
Sarkozy’s comments reflect the first and most common argument against
Turkey’s accession to the EU reflected in the political cartoons related to Turkish
accession: the geographic argument. After the last enlargement15 process with the
participation of the Central and Eastern European countries, EU member states had to
re-define the borders of Europe, which created new challenges. Europeans began to
question the definition of Europe. They tried to answer questions such as “Where is
Europe? Where does it start? Where does it end?”
Borders are important defining
features in the construction of collective identities because they define territories within
which identities and power relations between in-group members and out-group members
14
15
English translation of his book Témoignage.
The EU had initially six core members, after two successive enlargements in 2004/2007 it
expanded to a total of 28 members.
46
are formed. People need borders (even symbolic) because they need order, control,
and protection in their daily lives. Borders also “determine sameness and difference and
act as a marker between ‘us’ and ‘them’” (O’Dowd, 2002, pp. 14-15). When the borders
of states change, they alter the balance of power and authority, they undermine habits
and cultural patterns, and they threaten identities and create a sense of unease and
insecurity (Anderson, 2006, pp. 189-191). Nowhere is this more apparent than in the
European Union whose borders move back and forth according to the historical and
political context.
I would like to discuss briefly the term Europe here because the definition and
the borders of Europe oscillate wherever and whenever economic, political, or cultural
differences manifest themselves and cause confrontations between different nations.
The term “Europe” is like a kaleidoscope: when Europeans are looking at it, they all see
something different.
For example, according to the late Pope John Paul II, Europe
included all Orthodox countries; according to political scientist Samuel P. Huntington
(1996) the eastern borders of Europe were somewhere in western Belarus and Ukraine.
For the ancient Persians, Europe was a territory separating them from Greece, for the
people of the Middle Ages Europe was virtually synonymous with Christendom. These
different “meanings of Europe are in fact, discourses of power on how to define and
classify Europe and how to determine its borders based on similarities and differences”
(Stråth, 2002 p. 388). In other words the fuzziness of these borders gave a great power
to the member states to argue for or against the membership of any applicant country
especially Turkey.
The most common present-day usage of the term “Europe” is shorthand for the
“European Union” since the largest part of this so-called continent is under the EU
jurisdiction. But I believe this association is faulty because Europe is neither solely a
concrete geographical location, nor a fixed culture, but it is an ideal place, a concept that
is discursively constructed. The EU-commissioner for enlargement, Olli Rehn, at the
World Economic Forum in Davos, asserted that the EU has essentially flexible borders:
“Europe has no borders to its East, and is therefore, not a geographical concept but a
philosophical [one]” (Wrangel, 2004, para. 4).
47
If we try to conceptualize Europe geographically, we can describe it as a
peninsula or a subcontinent, forming the most western part of Eurasia. If we look at its
actual borders, we see that Europe is bounded to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the
west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by the Mediterranean Sea, and, it seems that
geographically Europe has no defined “natural” Eastern border. The difficulty of defining
Europe geographically, culturally or politically comes from the fact that Europe is an
abstract social construct.
Europe’s borders have been discursively shaped and
reshaped through constant negotiation of who belongs and who does not. Indeed, the
imagined geographical borders of Europe are constructed in order to protect the Union’s
unity and the European identity, if such thing exists.
Europeans against Turkish membership, like Sarkozy above, argue that Turkey
is not part of Europe: its capital is not in Europe and 95% of its population is living
outside of Europe. The geographical arguments disregard the fact that Turkey has a
territory of 24,000 square kilometers in Europe, which is much larger than other
EU-members such as Cyprus, Malta, Luxemburg, and Slovenia and only marginally
smaller than the Baltic States, the Netherlands, and Belgium. Another contradiction that
the geographic arguments create is the fact that countries such as Cyprus and Malta in
the Mediterranean, or the French départements d’outre-mer of French Guyana,
Martinique, Reunion Island, and so on, are accepted as European and as part of the EU,
although they have nothing geographically common with Europe (Tarifa & Adams, 2008,
pp. 58-59).
Coming back to Figure 3.13, Sarkozy is portrayed as pulling the Trojan horse,
helped by German Prime Minister Merkel who is holding the EU gate open. The cartoon
deploys the domestication of the mythological story of Troy.
The story is about a
gigantic hollow wooden horse that the Greeks left at the gates of Troy as a feigned
sacrifice. Once the horse enters within the city walls, soldiers emerging from it opened
the gates of the city and allowed the Greek army to enter and to conquer the city. By
constructing this parallelism with the deceitful Greeks, the cartoonist depicts the Turks
as dishonest and dangerous people, who are trying to infiltrate the EU. In fact, the Turk
holding a Turkish flag and hiding in the wooden horse metonymically represents the
Turkish immigrants, trying to sneak in to the EU to find jobs and have a better life as the
illustrated in Figure 3.14.
48
The image of the EU as an entity closed to outsiders, inward-oriented, and
protectively separated was re-enforced by the repeated description EU as a “rich man's
club” of “privileged, highly affluent countries.”
Figure 3.14. © Bastion n°67 de Janvier 2003
No author
Figure 3.14 published in the Belgium magazine Bastion (no: 67 January 2003)
comes as a reaction to British Prime Minister David Cameron’s supporting speech about
Turkey’s accession to the EU. Here Cameron is portrayed as using a strikingly forthright
language to express his dismay at the French government’s efforts to block Turkey’s
accession as he accused the detractors of Turkey’s membership of playing on fears of
Islam — as he pledged to “pave the road from Ankara to Brussels.” The irony in the
cartoons is based on two contradictions. First, the British prime minister is depicted as a
Muslim fundamentalist: metonymic elements enhance his image as a spokesman for the
Turks by wearing a beard and a Turban (symbols of Islam — a typical stereotyping).
This depiction is in itself a contradiction, satirising Cameron for defending Turks and
Muslims at the expense of Europeans. Second, the cartoon uses domestication and
condensation and recalls the tale of Ali Baba and the 40 Thieves to depict the Turks.
While Cameroon speaks in front of the Cave of Ali Baba (the EU) a robbery occurs.
Turks — depicted like thieves — are about to steal the riches. This depiction played on
very strong negative representations of Turks concealing their true intention to exploit
49
the EU funds and thus abuse the goodwill of EU citizens. As Tekin (2010) underscores
the image of the dishonest Turk appears to be a very persistent historical stereotype of
the Turkish other in French imaginary (p. 163). The interdiscursive reference to Ali Baba
helps shape the figure of the Turks as Muslim. In order to comprehend the argument of
the figurative comparison and the humor of the metaphor, the reader must understand
the structure of the cartoon, be familiar with the political context and the literary allusion
the cartoonist establishes. What the reader may infer from the cartoon (Turks stealing
the goods of the EU) is in contradiction with David Cameron’s statement. The cartoon
plays on this contradiction to construct its main argument: Turks are greedy thieves and
although they have nothing in common with Europeans they still want to be in Europe,
because they want to take advantage of its wealth. This general argument is supported
by different metonymic elements reviving the historical image of the Turk: they are all
dressed as bearded fundamentalists, wearing turbans and jubbahs.
The imagery of the cave (another container metaphor) used for Europe has many
symbolical implications. The magic cave of the thieves requires a password (“open
sesame”), and only those who know it can enter the cave. The big rocky door protecting
the cave shows that the accession to the EU is conditional and controlled.
All the cartoons I have analyzed in this section ( to the exception of Figure 3.13
which is published with no signature) were cartoons signed by famous European
cartoonists that I define as “authored” cartoons as opposed to the “generic” cartoons I
will analyze in the following section. I use the term generic because they have noauthorship — the artists did not sign the cartoons — and they are offered as “Rights
free” for public use.
3.3. Entextualization of “Generic” Cartoons
Another striking pattern in my corpus is the observable difference between the
entextualization rates of authored and Rights free “generic” cartoons. These cartoons
(Figures 3.24 to 3.29) have a higher frequency of re-usage as they are entextualized in
many different ways such as: statements, identity pictures on personal blogs, answers in
discussion forums, propaganda material in political propaganda campaigns, and so on.
50
In contrast, the authored cartoons are much more limited in their diffusion/distribution on
the Internet. They are mostly re-used on posters, editorial pages in newspapers or
websites, in special cartoon directories and search engines, or personal web pages of
the cartoonists.
The
generic
cartoons
of
my
corpus
were
retrieved
from
Bergolix
(http://bergolix.wordpress.com), a website promoting royalty free anti-Islamist cartoons in
different languages and versions to be used in different countries as propaganda
material. All the cartoons belong to Steph Bergol, yet none of them carry his signature.
Bergolix also provides special webpage addresses for different countries16 and also
special sections such as Barbu17 or Mahomet.18
Bergolix’ cartoons generally depict Muslims as a homogenous mass with no
distinction of their ethnicity, nationality and also without taking into account the place of
religion in their lives, totally disregarding secular Muslims. The same cartoon can easily
be used to depict a Turk or an Arab interchangeably. The site defines itself as Les
dessins islamo-vigilants de Bergolix (Muslim-vigilant cartoons of Bergolix). The
conditions for the usage of the cartoons on the website are defined in the A Propos
section informing the visitors about the purpose of the site: Images libres de droits.
Faites-les circuler pour éveiller les consciences aux dangers de l´Islam pour nos
démocraties. (Royalty free images. Disseminate them to raise awareness about the
dangers of Islam for our democracies.). But the little explanation added to this statement
contradicts the content of the website and its motto: « Seule restriction: pas d’utilisation
par des organisations, mouvements, personnes… incitant à la haine raciale! » (Only
restriction: not to be used by organizations, movements, people ... to incite racial
hatred!).
16
17
18
http://bergolix.wordpress.com/category/france/
http://bergolix.wordpress.com/category/barbu/page/2/
http://bergolix.wordpress.com/category/mahomet/
51
Bergolix also provides mirror websites19 that the visitor can connect to with a
simple click.20
Figure 3.15 and Figure 3.16 below are published under the “Coup de pied au cul
et retour au pays” (Kick in the ass and return to the home country) section of the
Bergolix cartoon collection.
Figure 3.15. Bergolix (Steph Bergol)
© Images created as “Rights Free”
Figure 3.15 is one of the most entextualized cartoons, offered on Bergolix.
Google image search shows that it was reused 620 times (29.06.2013) on different
websites in different countries to depict Muslims of different nationalities, including Turks
(see Appendix A for different entextualization processes). The cartoon is based on a
defender-aggressor scenario that portrays a beautiful female warrior kicking a Mullah out
of Europe, addressing the perceived dichotomy between Western and Eastern cultures,
between Christian Europe and Muslim (Turks).
By mobilizing religious metaphors,
historical stereotypes, and dehumanizing depictions while using opposition, condensation, domestication, and dehumanization techniques, the cartoonist categorizes the Turk
as the morally devoid non-European Other and the European-self as morally superior.
The cartoon’s message is based on the binary opposition: Turks vs. Europeans.
As stated by Jakobsen (1998) binary oppositions are one of the main discourses to
19
20
A Web site that is a replica of an already existing site, used to reduce network or improve the
availability of the original site. Mirror sites are useful when the original site generates too
much traffic for a single server to support.
stephbergol.ifrance.com; stephbergol.occidentalis.com; coranix.org/stephbergol;
asticoter.free.fr/dessins, and islam-stop.skynetblogs.be
52
constitute social differentiation as hierarchy and domination. The framing, the colors
used to depict each character, the cartographic metaphors, and stereotypical depictions
and imagery are all supporting tools to create this dichotomy. A female warrior, dressed
as a crusader carrying a shield with a blue cross on it and wearing a helmet, personifies
Europe. These Judeo-Christian motives and symbolism are used to incite the resilience
of old-age notions and stereotypes with respect to cultural diversity. Therefore, the
cartoon argues that the resistance to the Turkish EU accession is justified, prompting the
reader to think of this “kick” as the defense of Christian and European values against a
putative Muslim invader.
When we look at the cartographic metaphors depicted by the map over which
Princess Europa stands, we see that Europe is depicted as union with no national
borders (i.e., green), whereas Turkey is represented by the red Turkish flag in order to
emphasize where the borders of Europe end; implying the geographical otherness of
Turkey. The ethnic and racial dichotomy is furthered by the way the two characters are
described. Europe is personified as a young, strong, beautiful, blond, blue-eyed woman,
dressed in white, indexing purity and innocence. In contrast, Turkey is personified as a
stupefied, ugly, powerless pig,21 with dark complexion, and a dark beard. The action of
kicking indexes the power and the authority of the EU in deciding who qualifies as
European and who does not, and who is staying and who has to go. The pig-mullah is
depicted wearing Islamic garments including a jubbah, turban, and ottoman slippers that
are salient symbols of male Muslim identity and also closely associated with Islamic
terrorists and terrorism. On the other hand the half-pig-half-human Turkish-mullah in the
cartoon drops his Quran with the impact of the kick he receives. This falling Quran might
imply that all Turks are perceived to live under the domination of Islam. Overall, this
cartoon manipulates these visual cues and stereotypes denoting Muslim identity and
portrays Islam as the primary identity of Turkey, therefore, generating the equation
Turk=Muslim=Fundamentalist in Europeans’ consciousness. The cartoonist expects the
reader to come to the conclusion that the European warrior is morally justified in her
actions against the Turk after interpreting all these symbols and stereotypes.
21
In Christianity and many other traditions the pig is the symbol of all the sins of the flesh
including sloth, selfishness, ignorance, lust, greed, and gluttony. It was also considered as a
dirty animal as he wallows in the mud. Islamic and Mosaic laws forbid the consumption of
pork (http://ww2.netnitco.net/~legend01/pig.htm).
53
The symbolism of the cartoon is usually enhanced in blogs thanks to an
explanatory text or statement posted along with the picture.
For example on this
personal blog http://durotrigan.blogspot.ca/2010/06/german-jews-get-stoned.html the
cartoon is published with the following text criticizing fundamentalist Muslims who
harassed a Jewish dance group in Germany: “We peoples in Europe have had enough
of this barbarism. Here is a message in cartoon form, for all who continue to believe that
the teachings of a seventh-century fanatic should determine or inform how people live.”
The blog owner’s description of the Turk anchors the message of the cartoon: Turks are
barbaric fundamentalists and Europeans (“we”) are at the end of their tolerance and
patience e.g. had enough towards Islam and Turks. Turkey is depicted as a backward
nation, still living with the dogmas of the Middle Ages (teachings of a seventh-century
fanatic), which refer to the prophet Mohammed. The text itself reflects the fears of
Europeans about losing their European values or their ways of life, if Turkey joins the EU
(“determines or inform how people live”).
54
(a)
(b)
Bergolix, 2004
Bergolix, 2004
PDF version with three centering design choice
(c)
(d)
Bergolix, 2009
Bergolix, 2009
Figure 3.16. Bergolix (Steph Bergol)
© Images created as “Rights Free”
The above cartoon (Figure 3.16) and its versions a, b, c, d, have been
entextualized about 1,100 times (Google Image Search, June 2013). They are offered as
ready to use propaganda material on the Bergolix website with various ready-to-print
PDF versions positioning the cartoon at different parts of the page (top, middle, or
bottom). Different versions of the foot kicking (socks sporting different flags) are offered
on the site, so that people from various parts of Europe can recontextualize the cartoon
according to their propaganda needs. More over the webpage also provides different
versions that show how the cartoon could be used by inserting real photos of Islamic
figures. (See Figure 3.15c; for more examples visit http://bergolix.wordpress.com/
2007/03/06/coup-de-pied-au-cul-et-retour-au-pays/)
55
The cartoon depicts a mullah being kicked and almost flying in the air. The same
imagery and tools are used here as in the previous cartoon. In addition to his Islamic
garments, the mullah drops his scimitar, — an Islamic sword, that iconizes Islamic
violence and terror—. This cartoon first published on Bergolix in 2004, was reused in
2009 with a promotional text related to the Swiss’ reaction to Islam.22 Figure 3.16d
appears with the title “Suisses et Européens disent NON aux minarets” (Swiss and
Europeans say NO to minarets). In this version, the sword has a different shape, and is
covered with blood. The road sign with a Swiss flag over the green label reads “DAR [ul]
ISLAM” (House of Islam). The foot that kicks the mullah has a sock with an EU flag. As
it is, the cartoon depicts Muslims in general as a threat to Europe. But when it is
recontextualized on different blogs the mullah depicted in the cartoon can represent
different Muslim ethnicities. For example, next to a petition demand against Turkey’s
accession to the EU, the mullah is perceived easily as a bloody handed and dangerous
Turkish fundamentalist. (See Appendix A for different recontextualizations of the same
cartoon.)
22
http://bergolix.wordpress.com/2009/12/07/suisses-et-europeens-disent-non-aux-minarets/
56
(a)
(b)
Bergolix, 2004
Bergolix, 2007
La Turquie est la bienvenue en Europe !…
(c)
Turquie en Europe = le loup dans la bergerie.
(d)
Bergolix, 2011
Front National, 2009
NON à l’islam en Europe!
Figure 3.17. Bergolix (Steph Bergol)
© Images created as “Rights Free”
Figure 3.17 is an example of the dehumanization technique used in cartoons
where humans are represented in animal forms (teriomorphic). This cartoon (Figure
3.17a) was first published on Bergolix in 2004 under the “Non a la Turquie en Europe”
(No to Turkey in Europe) section with the caption “La Turquie est la bienvenue en
Europe !…” (Turkey is welcome in Europe). In 2007, the same cartoon (Figure 3.17b) is
reused with the following caption: “Turquie en Europe = le loup dans la bergerie” (Turkey
in Europe = wolf in sheepfold).23 Again in 2009, (Figure 3.17c) it becomes a propaganda
23
http://bergolix.wordpress.com/2007/01/08/non-a-la-turquie-en-europe/
57
poster24 for le Front National (Figure 3.17c), and in 2011 it (Figure 3.17c) is republished
on Bergolix under the Non à l’Islam en Europe (No to Islam en Europe) section.25
The cartoon depicts a meeting in the EU: the representatives of Belgium, Turkey,
and France are sitting at a desk.
a. The sheep represent the Europeans (Belgians and French in this
frame);
b. The Wolf represents the Turkish people and Turkey’s accession
process; and
c. The sheepfold represents the EU.
These are important and recurrent imagery used in Christian culture and Bible
symbolism. Of all the domesticated animals, sheep are the most defenseless as they
are utterly hopeless against predators such as wolves. The cartoonist uses this
domestication method to depict the Self as innocent/naive and the Turk as the evil
aggressor. This sheep and wolf imagery has been used in many tales and fables of
Aesop (e.g., Red Riding Hood, The Three Little Pigs, among others). By mobilizing
these cultural and religious codes and symbols, the cartoonist plays on cultural imagery
and collective memory and portrays the Turk as a dangerous, precarious, unethical, and
dishonest member candidate.
Besides this basic dehumanizing metaphor, the cartoonist also uses Islamic
cues. With its Turban and Islamic dress (Jubbah), as in the previous cartoons, the wolf
is depicted as a fundamentalist Muslim character. The clothes of the sheep (western tie,
suit, and white shirt) create a contrast with the wolf’s Islamic dress. The description of
the Turkish representative in purely Islamic garments and accessories is an
understatement; a conscious choice to equate the Islamic character of Turkey with
fundamentalism, which sets it apart from the other EU members. The threat Turkey
represents to Europe is depicted by the wolf’s smile and its sharp teeth covered with
blood. Contrasting with the smile on its face are the wolf’s big and hairy paws on the
negotiation table. The sheep on the other hand sport forced grins on their face indexing
their tension in the presence of the wolf. Yet they are hiding their anxiety and pretend to
24
25
http://www.voxfnredekker.com/archives/2009/02/27/12739206.html
http://bergolix.wordpress.com/2011/09/05/non-a-lislam-en-europe/
58
be happy in his presence. The movement vectors around the Belgian sheep show its
anxiety. Turks, like the wolves in a sheepfold are depicted as untrustworthy animal, as
they hide their real intentions: “eating Europe alive.”
Figure 3.17b was published in 2011 on Bergolix under the Non-à l’Islam en
Europe section.
The striking difference is the Arabic text in front of the Turkish
representative. Worth mentioning here is that Turks use the Latin alphabet and cannot
read Arabic letters. The sign in front of the Turkish representative wolf is an Arabic
prayer called Kelime-i Şehadet26 (the word of confession of [God's] One-ness as
opposed to the Trinity concept of Christianity27) which is the essence of the whole of
Islamic belief system and is used as the initiation prayer for anybody to accept Islam.
This way of identifying the Turkish representative shows a shift in the perception of the
Turk as a Muslim fundamentalist who is willing to spread Islam. Google image search
results indicate that this version has been recontextualized on 92 different websites (see
Appendix).
Figure 3.17c is the propaganda poster used during the Non à la Turquie en
Europe campaign by the National Front Party in France. The poster that was re-used 75
different times (Google Image Search, 30.06.2013) positions the cartoon (Figure 3.16)
as the main visual. The paragraph below the visual offers two contradictory statements,
one from Jacques Chirac — a strong supporter of Turkey’s adhesion — and the other
from Turkey’s Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan. Chirac’s statement is a defense of
unity in diversity embracing different religions as a cultural richness: “Les racines de
l’Europe sont autant musulmanes que chrétiennes” (The roots of Europe are as Muslim
as they are Christian). Erdogan’s statement is an excerpt of a political speech he made
when he was the mayor of Istanbul. Erdogan at the beginning of his political career was
quoting a poem by Ziya Gökalp (1876–1924),28 in order to motivate his audience to take
26
27
28
The prayers translation: “I bear witness that there is no deity [god, ilāh in Arabic] but the One
and Only God [Allāh in Arabic]; no-one is to be worshipped but God [Allāh] alone and I bear
witness that Muhammad is God's servant and messenger [to mankind].
(http://www.ismailmohr.de/shahada.html)
Doctrine of Trinity defines God as three divine entities: the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the
Holy Spirit; “one God in three persons.”
Ziya Gökalp was a Kurdish sociologist, writer, poet, and political activist. As a sociologist, he
was influential in the overhaul of religious perceptions and evolving of Turkish nationalism.
59
action against seculars and to vote for his party to make Turkey an Islamic country.29
"Nos mosquées sont nos casernes, nos dômes nos casques, les minarets sont nos
baïonnettes et les croyants sont nos soldats” (The mosques are our barracks, the domes
our helmets, the minarets our bayonets, and the faithful our soldiers).
By putting
conflicting ideas together (unity in diversity and Turks as fundamentalist Muslims) the
text anchors the cultural/religious dichotomy and the perceived threat that is reflected in
the cartoon. The final paragraphe reads as a warning to take action: “Demain, la
Turquie, [sera] la première puissance politique de ‘notre’ Europe, contre la volonté des
peuples!” (Tomorrow, Turkey [will be] the leading force of ‘our’ Europe, against the will of
the people).
The sheep and wolf image is entextualized as a visual statement, almost as the
headline or the slogan of the poster: Turkey is the wolf in the Sheepfold! The
recontextualization process of the cartoon does not end here. On the blog of Yann
Redekker, a member of the National Front Party, the propaganda poster itself goes
through another recontextualization process and appears as the visual of an article
published in 2009, which discusses the costs of Turkey’s membership for the EU.
Moreover, in 2010 on a Palestinian forum page the same cartoon was used to depict
ISLAM in general. The way in which this cartoon has been entextualized in different
forms and on various webpages, shows how the image of the Turk has evolved from the
representation of a non-European threat, to the representation of a fundamentalist one
underscoring the Muslim traits rather than Turkish ethnicity.
3.4. Islamophobic Cartoons
Another important group under the generic cartoons I would like to discuss are
cartoons reflecting Europeans’ anxiety about the presence of a Muslim country in the
EU. This anxiety was fed by a series of events such as: the rise of Islamic terror —
29
Erdogan was given a ten-month prison sentence (from 24 March 1999 to 27 July 1999) for
reciting this poem in Siirt in December 1997, which, under article 312/2 of the Turkish penal
code was regarded as an “incitement to commit an offense and incitement to religious or
racial hatred.” (Zaman Daily, 22 April 1998). After his conviction, Erdogan was forced to give
up his mayoral position. The conviction also stipulated a political ban, which prevented him
from participating in parliamentary elections. He completed his sentence on 24 July 1999.
60
Iranian hostage situation, the World Trade Center bombings (9/11), the rise of Al Qaida
and the Muslim Brothers, and by the spread of fundamentalist Islam in formerly more
secular Islamic countries (European Monitoring on Racism and Xenophobia, 2002). This
fear of Islam or Islamophobia denotes acts of intolerance, unfounded fear, discrimination
and racism against Islam and Muslims in general and mobilizes different presumptions
such as “Islam is incompatible with Western values and modernity” and also widely
accepted stereotypes “Islam is an inferior and violent political ideology.” Studies on the
topic show the increased and wide spread acts of discrimination against Muslims, how
Islamophobia has been “normalized” in the EU (European Monitoring on Racism and
Xenophobia, 2006).
Opponents of Turkey’s accession believe that once a member of the EU, Turkey
“would act as a conduit for Islamic extremists to enter Europe” (Tarifa & Adams, 2007,
p. 67). The strongest opposing EU member countries to Turkey’s accession all have
substantial Turkish and Muslim immigrants (e.g., Germany, France, and Austria). Saz
(2011) argues that the ways in which Europeans perceive Turks and Turkey are closely
related to the negative social images associated with working class Turkish immigrants.
I show below that stereotypes about Turks have been in circulation long before the 20th
century.
(Erensu & Adanalı, pp. 62-63, parenthesis and italics added). As illustrated by
the cartoons above, the condensation of Islamic symbols and imagery are used to
represent the Islamic way of life as the core of Turkish society and to underscore its
despotism and backwardness. Turks are assumed to be under the domination of a
fundamentalist Islam. “This mis-recognition is developed by stereotyping (Turkey equals
Islam), homogenization (Islam is monolithic), polarizing through binary oppositions
(Islamic Turkey is despotic [vs. modern Europe])”
3.4.1.
Flag Metaphors
The spreading fear of an Islamist threat influences the way Turks are perceived
in general: Turks are simply defined in terms of their religion as a group in a Muslim
mass. As already mentioned, Turkey’s EU accession has been perceived as Muslims’
invasion of Europe. This fear of Islam and Islamic violence taking over the European
61
way of life is reflected in some of the political cartoons through flag metaphors (Figure
3.17-3.19), creatively combining the Turkish (Muslim) and EU flags. These cartoons
depict Turkey as a religiously fanatical or extremist country and Turks as people inclined
to intolerance and to violence.
The crescent-star, ancient celestial symbol in the worship of sun, moon, and the
stars, has become an internationally recognized symbol of the Islamic faith. It is used on
a variety of Muslim countries’ flags such as Pakistan, Algeria, and Turkey. Historians
trace the origin of the crescent on flags back to 1453 when the Turks took
Constantinople and adopted the city’s flag, which featured a crescent moon. (See more
at www.islam.about.com) Therefore, the Turkish flag is an important and highly
entextualized visual in political cartoons as it provides great symbolism to depict the
Turks as part of a Muslim mass.
Figure 3.18. Cox & Forkum, 2007
Images created as “Rights Free”
Figure 3.18 is a cartoon from Cox and Forkum’s royalty free political cartoons
collection (2007). It has been re-published 565 times on different websites (Google
Image Search, 01.07.2013). It is based on a visual metaphor, which provides “a fusion
of elements from two separate areas into one bounded entity” (Carroll, 1996, p. 810).
The graphic animation of the crescent with sharp teeth is a metaphor of personification
(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).
The cartoon’s central visual, the animated Turkish flag
symbolically depicts the Turkish state as the dangerous enemy other, underscoring the
perceived cultural-religious threat posed by the Turkish accession.
The crescent-like monster with sharp teeth is about to devour the little star-like
Turkey. Such fusion between the written text “Islamism” and the graphic animation of
62
the crescent is called “homospatiality” (Lim, 2004), that is, two different semiotic modes
co-occurring in one spatially bonded homogenous entity. The symbolism of the labels
on the crescent ISLAMISM and on the star TURKEY and the relative size and
positioning of the latter within the frame, emphasize the “perceived” fundamentalist
Muslim identity of Turkish people: they are first Muslims then Turks.
(a)
(b)
Bergolix, 2007
Flag of French Islamic Republic: Francistan.
Bergolix, 2008
Flag of Belgian Islamic Republic: Belgistan
(c)
(d)
Bergolix, 2008
Flag of Italian Islamic Republic: Italistan
Bergolix, 2008
Flag of Eurabia
Figure 3.19. Bergolix (Steph Bergol)
Images created as “Rights Free”
This (2004) Bergolix cartoon (Figure 3.19) has been entextualized about 560
times on different websites (Google Images Search, 03.07.2013). It represents a
snapshot of what seems to be a protest by Muslims as shown by the woman wearing a
headscarf and carrying a flag. The latter is a graphic fusion of the French flag and the
63
crescent and star (which might represent several different Muslim countries that have
these symbols on their flags, including Turkey).
In 2007, the cartoon was published under the title “Drapeau de la République
Islamique Française" (Flag of French Islamic Republic): Francistan (Figure 3.19a). In
2008, it was re-used to depict the rise of Islam) in Belgium under the title “Drapeau de la
République Islamique Belge" (Flag of Belgian Islamic Republic): Belgistan (Figure
3.19b). The same year an Italian version came out: “Drapeau de la République
Islamique Italienne" (Flag of Italian Islamic Republic): Italistan (Figure 3.19c). The fourth
version of the flag incorporates the general fear about the presence of Muslims in the EU
and uses the concept of EURABIA (Carr, 2006) in its title: “Drapeau de l’Union Islamique
Européenne” (Flag of Islamic European Union): Eurabia (Figure 3.19d). This version
uses the blue and yellow colors of the EU flag but instead of 12 stars, we only see the
crescent and the star implying that once in the EU, Turkey will take over. This cartoon
functions as a strong discriminative tool as it projects Muslims as homogenous out-group
and does not differentiate between different Muslim nationalities. Generic cartoons such
as that of Bergolix are created to describe any Muslim group and ethnicity; they are
easily transformed for different target audiences. This underscores the role of the
context for political cartoons. The interpretation of the cartoon does not rely only on what
the reader sees in the single frame, but also, the context and content of the page in
which they are recontextualized contribute to it.
Another trend in the political cartoons depicting Turkey’s EU accession is the
symbolism of the fusing flags. In fact such fusion has been officially used by the Turkish
government as illustrated below by the Turkish Ministry of EU’s flag/logo that creatively
combines the Turkish Flag with the EU flag.
64
(a)
(b)
Logo of Turkish Ministry for EU Affairs
Figure 3.20. Hasan Bleibel, 2010
© Hasan Bleibel; Used with permission
Such fusion that, in this context, has positive connotations for Turkish people has
been entextualized to depict Europeans’ anxieties about a possible Turkish accession.
Many have claimed such as in Hasan Bleibel’s (2010) (Figure 3.20b) that the accession
of Turkey will increase Muslim influence in the EU especially under the Islamist Justice
and Development Party’s (AKP) rule.
Figure 3.21 is a double frame cartoon from Bergolix.
(a)
(b)
Moderated Eurabia
Fundamentalist Eurabia
Figure 3.21. Bergolix (Steph Bergol)
Images created as “Rights Free”
The first frame portrays the moderate Eurabia with the Turkish flag’s crescent
and star in the middle of the 12 stars; the second frame is the fundamentalist Eurabia
version and depicts the crescent as encompassing the circle of twelve stars.
The
original EU flag consists of 12 golden stars in a circle on a reflex blue background that
65
symbolizes the West (http://www.crwflags.com). The size and the position of the
crescent on these two versions reflect the way in which the Europeans perceive the
Islamic threat. Similar cartoons and visuals using the flag symbolism of the EU are also
widely available on the web (see Google Image Search with tag words: Turkey's EU
accession, flags).
Now in the light of the analyzed cartoons, I would like to discuss the construction
of the image of the Turk as opposed to that of the European in the political cartoons of
my corpus.
3.5. Turks vs. Europeans
My analysis of cartoons has shown that until 2001 the problems regarding the
Copenhagen criteria, the anti-democratic and militarist past of Turkey, and its abusive
human rights record were the main problematic issues in EU-Turkey relations. Neither
Turkey’s nor Europe’s identities were even remotely at stake during the debates over
Turkey’s association to the EEC. After this date however, Europe’s attention “shifted
towards the Islamic character of Turkey” (Erensu & Adanalı, 2004), mostly highlighting
the dichotomy between Turkey and Europe based on questions of identity, borders, and
religious-cultural differences. Before going any further, I would like to introduce the
historical and political background of this era in order to better understand this shift.
As already alluded to, the rise of Islamophobia in Europe had a major impact on
the way Turks were perceived. In the post-9/11 era, there was an environment of fear
and angst in Europe. The continuous combats against terrorism in Afghanistan, Iraq,
Pakistan, Yemen, and Lebanon contributed to the rise of Islamophobia.
The nuclear threat of Iran, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the 2003
Istanbul bombings, 2004 Madrid train bombings, the 2005 London bombings and the European contention about headscarves, the construction of
mosques and the radical reactions on the Mohammed caricature conflict,
further enhanced the Islamophobic stance in Europe and helped the rise
of Turcophobia. (Saz, 2011, p. 481)
66
These negative images of Islam have spilled over to Turks and in consequence also
over to the discourse of Turkey’s EU accession.
Turkish EU membership was discursively articulated as a security concern. With
Turkey inside Europe, its member states would neighbor the Middle East and its political
problems, such as the current situation in Iraq, Syria, and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
The fear of extending Europe’s borders is reflected in Germany’s Prime Minister Angela
Merkel’s comments in which she reminds her EU partners that Turkey’s admission would
bring further Islamists and Al-Qaeda members into the EU, conveniently forgetting
thereby that Islamist cells from which many of September 11 hijackers originated were
already housed in Hamburg and other European cities (Benhabib & Isiksel, 2006, p.
221).
Making their way into Europe and being part of Europe have been Turkish
people’s constant objective throughout their history. During the 19th century, Turkish
intellectuals’ dominant belief was that Westernization and de-orientalization was the only
way for Turkish people to be part of the West and to protect their national sovereignty
(Kösebalaban, 2008). When the multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire was transformed into the
nation state of the modern Turkish Republic, Turkish national identity underwent big
changes. “Elites were reshuffled both within and across identity divides, and the contact
with Europeans increased and changed over time” (Kylstad, 2010, p. 31). The Turkish
elites forced a movement of modernization. They believed that in order to be accepted
by the West/Europe, Turks had to depart from their traditional oriental past and Islamic
identity. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938) the founder of the
Turkish Republic, Turks tried to establish Western values and diminish the Ottoman
Empire’s Islamic socio-politico cultural legacy. Modern Turkish state-builders of the time
believed that if they could create a secular and modern state out of the patrimonial
Ottoman heritage, Turkey would become an “equal” member of the European
international society.
Unfortunately, this ideal of westernization was a process imposed from above: a
top-down reform movement and not a popular movement supported by the masses.
Therefore Turkish people failed to completely internalize these reforms as an integral
part of their identity. For instance, some Turks still favoured closer links with the Muslim
67
world preserving their Islamic identity. The reform movements divided the country
between two political forces: those who believed that Turkey was a part of Europe and
European tradition and those who have more traditional views about Turkey's identity
(Burak, 2010). This dichotomy between seculars and Islamists increased even more
after the electoral victory of The Justice and Development Party (AKP) that seized power
in 2002.30
Turks’ dual Muslim/Secular identity is reflected and satirized in most of the
cartoons of my corpus, with a special emphasis on their Muslim characteristics. I
observed that Turkish men and women are almost always portrayed as fundamentally
different from Europeans through binary oppositions. Turkey’s inferiority, ignorance, and
greediness are indexed through physical deformations and perceptual incongruities: as
already mentioned, Turkish characters are usually portrayed as small and extremely
naïve people. These binary oppositions establish power relations between the two
peoples, connoting one side positively and the other negatively (Derrida, 1972).
In fact, the prospect of Turkish accession forces the EU members to define what
it means to be secular and how religion relates to European identity. The Turkish case
is therefore, controversial in cultural and religious terms because it requires the potential
accession of a Muslim-majority country to an arguably, at least historically, Christian
Europe. Although the religious difference is an important factor and forces the member
states to review and renegotiate their own approaches to religion and to religious minorities it is not the only factor that has caused the rejection of the Turkish membership. As
Hurd (2010) underscores, the real problem the member states are trying to overcome
here is whether the member states should “define their European identity, and therefore,
its external and internal boundaries by the common heritage of Christianity and Western
civilization or by its modern secular values of liberalism, universal human rights, political
democracy and tolerant and inclusive multiculturalism” (Hurd, 2010, p. 186).
European governments assumed that the characteristics of strong national ideals
could easily be transferred to the cultural identity of Europe without taking into consider30
AKP is a market-oriented fundamentalist party with ideological roots in the Turkish Islamist
movement and a strong political following in Turkey's religiously conservative/fundamentalist
and newly affluent middle class.
68
ation the overlap between national and European identity. The EU representatives and
leaders believed that a European identity can be constructed as the sum of specific
norms, characteristics, values, and narratives to which people relate in one way or
another (Delanty, 1995; Stråth, 2002; Delanty & Rumford, 2005). Europe’s history is the
combination of its national histories and interactions between diverse nations. As Weiler
(1999) argues, there is no sign that the European Union has made any head-way in
creating an historical identity among the people of its member states (p. 581).
Habermas refers to the global societies that can no longer afford to solve their problems
on a nation-by-nation basis as the "post-national constellation" (1998). The EU is a great
example of it. Thomas Darnstädt (2011) in the German newspaper Der Spiegel explains
the EU’s post-national status as follows:
There is a common belief that the world's societies of the 21st century will
be completely mixed up, and while traditional identities will remain in
place, they will lose their influence and a shared European identity will
develop in tandem with national identities of the member states. (2011
February, 12, para 10)
In fact within the interplay of ever-changing social and political contents
European identity is socially and discursively constructed (Stråth & Wodak, 2009, pp.
15–16). As Stråth (2002) explains, European identity is a concept used to construct an
imagined community and feelings of cohesion and holism while giving the impression
that all individuals are equal in this imagined community. I would like to underline the
fact that the “European” identity I am seeking to define and understand here is that of the
European Union. I use the word identity here as the political and civic identity of the EU
members. As already mentioned above, the terms European Union and Europe have
become not just metonyms, but synonyms for each other. When speaking of “European
identity” we need to determine what exactly our perceptions are, as each of these words
“Europe” and “identity” taken individually may be ambiguous and confusing. Checkel
and Katzenstein (2009) define this imagined common European identity as: “shared
representations of a collective self as reflected in public debate, political symbols,
collective memories, and elite competition for power” (p. 4).
The European search for a new collective identity of a “united Europe in diversity”
emerged as an increasingly influential factor in the enlargement decisions of the EU
69
towards Central and Eastern European Countries, Balkans and specifically Turkey, since
the early 1990s. Europeans had fervent debates about how to define what “European”
means and whether, or not, and how a European identity should be constructed (see
Neumann & Welsh, 1991; Neumann, 1999; Sjursen, 2002; Sedelmeier, 2003). As Risse
(2010) explains; “[O]nce citizens start feeling loyal to their group and their collective
identity, this loyalty becomes the source for social mobilization, collective action, and
support for institutions such as the European Union” (p. 22). However, for this loyalty to
work positively for the integration of the EU, the collective European identity should be
positively constructed based on feelings of belonging, shared values, and memories.
Yet EU citizens did not have strong emotional ties with the institutions and representatives of the EU. It was impossible to found this European identity upon the cultural
and linguistic homogenization of its citizens.
In a similar manner European identity
cannot claim to be based upon common past and clear-cut geographical or cultural
boundaries. In addition, in order to act in unity Europe has to “invent ‘a common political
culture’, deriving from a European ‘constitutional patriotism’ based on the idea that
citizenship does not originate in national background but in rights” (Habermas as cited in
Der Spiegel online International 12/02/2011).
Although they have their internal identity conflicts European men and women are
generally portrayed positively as a modern and homogenous group. Men tend to be
depicted as bureaucrats in black suits and ties carrying a briefcase and wearing glasses
or are personified by political leaders such as Nicolas Sarkozy or James Cameron (see
above). This imagery contrasts with the representations of the Turk to which I now turn.
3.5.1.
Turkish Men
Historical images, myths, and stereotypes about the terrible Turk are revived with
Turkish character sporting historical headdresses and Ottoman costumes in order to
index the Turkish danger to the EU. Fez (an Ottoman hat made of red felt, with a tassel
attached to the top), turban (the Islamic head wrap used by the Sultan and the nobility
was the main indicator of rank in Ottoman society), and jubbah (an ankle length over
garment) are the most entextualized Turkish identity markers I have observed in my
corpus.
70
Figure 3.22. Cristina Sampaio, 2006
© Christina Sampaio; used with permission
Cristina Sampaio’s cartoon (Figure 3.22) is based on the binary opposition of the
backward Turk vs. the modern European can also be interpreted as depicting the dual
Turkish identity mentioned above. Turkey’s aspirations to become an EU member are
iconized by the reflection in the mirror of a white-collar man wearing a blue suit with a
red tie and holding an EU flag. The mirror represents the cultural divide between the EU
and Turkey, underscoring mostly the cultural contrast between the Turkish man and his
European reflection. Described as aspiring to be a European, the Turk is also portrayed
as being too naïve to see his own reality: he is different and culturally incompatible with
the European way of life.
Figure 3.23. Helder Oliviera, 2011
© Helder Oliviera; used with permission
Portuguese cartoonist Helder Oliviera in depicts the Turk with Ottoman/Islamic
symbols and stereotypes (Figure 3.23). The mosque and the minarets in the background
71
index Turkey’s Muslim character.
The cartoon emphasizes the conditionality of the
Turkish membership by the metaphor of “the stones in the shoe” which indicates that
while trying to join the European Union, Turkey must solve some internal and external
problems.
If they are not solved, they will impede Turkey’s accession process as
“stones in a shoe” would impede someone’s walk.
The inscriptions on the stones
Armenia, Cyprus, and Kurds, represent the problems (as discussed in previous sections)
Turkey has to resolve and their exaggerated size underscores the importance of these
issues in the accession talks.
3.5.2.
Turkish Women
Turkish women are also depicted with special emphasis on their Muslim identity
and their assumed ignorance.
I observed that these cartoons often offer a liberal-
feminist critique of Muslim society in general by mobilizing the prevailing stereotypes of
Turkish (Muslim) women. In most of the cartoons Turkish people are depicted by male
figures. Turkish women on the other hand are rarely depicted as having agency and they
rarely utter anything intelligent. Indeed, they are mainly represented standing behind
their men as passive, uneducated, and secondary characters oppressed by their
husbands and families. They also tend to be portrayed as hyper-religious (wearing
Islamic garments that cover their bodies completely and their faces such as “burqa”,
“niqab,” or “veil,” etc.) which makes them the object of jokes in political cartoons (see
Figure 3.2, Figure 3.11, and Figure 3.19).
Although Islam is predominant in Turkey, the Islamic way of dressing, as
depicted in the cartoons of my corpus, has long been abandoned in favour of Western
attire thanks to a series of laws. The 1925 Hat Law replaced fez and turban by western
style hats. The Law Relating to Prohibited Garments of 1934 replaced religion-based
clothing such as the veil, niqab, chador, or jubbah, and so on, by western style suits,
neckties, hats, and dresses (www.mideastweb.org). Up until the rule of the Justice and
Development Party (AKP, 2002–2013), Turkish women wearing the headscarf were
forbidden from attending schools and universities, from working in government offices,
and from getting a passport with their heads covered. Under the Islamization process of
the AKP there has been a transformation in the dress code and since in 2011 the
ancient laws were abolished in favour of Islamic dress code, and women (in schools and
72
public services) are now allowed to wear the hijab. This transformation is reflected in the
political cartoons.
Figure 3.24. Plantu, 2005
© Plantu; used with permission
In Figure 3.24 Plantu depicts French society’s perception of Muslim women by
constructing a binary opposition where each party is defined against the other.
Synecdochially, the woman on the left indexes modernity whereas the woman wearing a
niqab and standing in a cage is implicitly pictured as backward, dogmatic, and
oppressed. The French woman’s question: (“C’est nouveau!? C’est quoi ce truc?” — Is
this new? What is this thing?), indicates the distance between the two cultures. The use
of the indefinite linguistic form “c’est” and its semantic corollary “ce truc” (this thing) tend
to deprive the Muslim woman from her agency. The Muslim woman’s answer “C’est ma
religion!” (It is my religion!) uttered within the cage indexes the repressive character of
Islam. Plantu’s bearded mouse31 on the right side could be interpreted as indexing the
Islam’s rooting in France.
Another widely used construction in political cartoons is the Superiority-Inferiority
axis along which Turkish identity is represented. As Elias (1994) explains, members of
groups often think of themselves in human terms as better than the Others’ and seem to
31
The mouse is Plantu’s trademark as it appears in all his cartoons.
73
establish boundaries between groups by stigmatizing outsiders (p. xv). The cartoon
below is an example of this superiority-inferiority axis construction.
Figure 3.25. Plantu, 2005
© Plantu; used with permission
Plantu’s editorial cartoon (Figure 3.25) illustrated the editorial titled: “Europe pour
ou contre la Turquie” (Europe: for or against Turkey) (Le Monde editorial page, 9
November 2002). In an interview two days earlier, Valerie Giscard d’Estaing, one of the
first French presidents to take a strong political stance against Turkey’s EU bid, had
commented on Turkey’s adhesion to the EU by reviving the old controversy about its
Europeanness. His remarks fuelled the then debates on the EU’s constitutional treaty,
the European identity, and the geographic borders of Europe.
The political common place evoked in this cartoon is the process of Turkey’s
membership and the cultural arguments against it. The cartoon is based on a binary
opposition: Turkish people (on the right side of the frame) vs. France’s and the EU’s
institutions. Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, dressed as a nobleman, almost like a king,
portrays France, metonymically. This temporal displacement is a condensation method
and creates an historical allusion to the glorious days of the French Empire (la reine des
nations). D’Estaing’s features such as his head are disproportionate compared to the
rest of his body and to the other characters depicted in the cartoon. The great divide
74
between (European) bureaucrats and (Turkish) people is made obvious here with the
latter waiting anxiously for the former’s decision. D’Estaing’s relative size and positioning
within the frame indexes the leadership role France wants to hold in the EU enlargement
process.
Turks and Turkey on the other hand are portrayed not as full-fledged individuals
but as a “mass.” As for the displacement, there is a distortion of the perspective as well:
French/Europeans are standing at a higher position imposing their authority on the Turks
who are standing at a lower position, implicating the unequal socio-political dynamics
between the two entities. The disproportionality between the former French President
and the Turkish people, and the positioning of the two groups create an incongruity by
perspective and could be interpreted as indexing French people’s feeling of superiority
toward Turks summed up by the caption: “Ils ne nous ressemblent pas” (They don’t look
like us). Tekin (2010, p. 165) sums up this unequal dynamics as follows: “The negativity
attached to Turkey coupled with positive European-self representation further generates
hierarchical power relations which construct the superiority of the European Self and the
inferiority of the Turkish Other.” Unlike in the other cartoons of our corpus this one does
not equate Turk with Muslim. Plantu’s mouse depicts Nasreddin Hodja, Turkey's (and
perhaps all of Islam's) best-known humorist-trickster and philosopher. The character’s
turban and his way of riding his donkey backwards iconize Turkey’s historical ties with its
Ottoman precedent.
75
Figure 3.26. Avin Nono, 2010
© Nono; Used with permission
Among the many features I have observed in my analysis, the red fez is the most
commonly used icon to index Turkish people as illustrated in Figure 3.2; Figure 3.7;
Figure 3.8; Figure 3.22; Figure 3.23, and Figure 3.26. In light of these observations I
wish to address now the question of why Turks have been insistently represented by
their historical Ottoman image. To what extent such historical imagery hasn’t been
purposely chosen to undermine the similarities between Europeans and Turks?
3.6. Entextualization of the Historical Stereotypes and
Symbolism of the Red Fez
The understanding of the image of “the Turk” in political cartoons is impossible
without the knowledge of the circumstances or conditions that were shaping European
visions at the time when this stereotypical image was constructed or invented. During
this half-century long accession process, there were strong opposition against the
Turkish membership. As mentioned earlier, the opposition in France was even stronger
since the presidency of Nicolas Sarkozy who instrumentalized the Turkish problem in his
presidential campaign by skilfully conflating the problems of immigration, unemployment,
loss of sovereignty, and integration of Muslim minorities with the Turkey’s prospect of EU
membership.
Turkey’s accession talks and its future membership was strongly
politicized and transformed into a European problem during the heated debates
preceding the referendum on the European Constitution in 2005 (Visier, 2009; Insel,
76
2012).
The negative image of the Turks was used “as an argument and as a
propaganda tool to convince the electorate to vote against its membership as with
nationalist political parties such as De Villiers” Mouvement pour la France (MPF); Le
Pen’s Front National (FN); and Megret’s Mouvement National Républicain (MNR). Voting
against the constitution became for some French nonistes (i.e., those who voted no to
the EU) a means of expressing their opposition to Turkey’s membership. The “Turkish
case” enabled French politicians to kill two birds with one stone: French people said no
to Turkey and no to the ratification.
When the three nationalist parties launched an anti-Turkish propaganda
campaign “Non a la Turquie en France” they disseminated anti-Turkish propaganda
brochures, posters, and petitions exploiting immigration issues together with Turkish
prospect membership.
The imagery, the stereotypes, and the slogans used in this
propaganda discourse remained active even after the campaign ended. This imagery
was mobilized whenever there was a new discussion about Turkey’s accession or it’s
Europeanness. After the EU’s Eastern enlargement, EU members’ Euroscepticism and
the malaise Français kept escalating.32 Political cartoons along with the propaganda
materials of that time reflect these tendencies. They draw upon long-standing dualities
by which the West defines the East and the Turkish-other as alien to its culture and way
of life. I show below that such misrepresentations of Turkey are informed by historical
prejudices and disappointments still pervasive in contemporary political discourse
against the Turks.
32
French declinism: the sentiment of politically, culturally, and economically decaying France
(see LeGoff, 2005).
77
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.27. Posters by Nissarebela.com
© Nissarbela.com
Figure 3.27a and Figure 3.27b are posters retrieved from the Nissa Rebela
webpage (an identitarian extreme-right political movement based in Nice since 2005).
These posters were distributed and published as part of the “Non à la Turquie en
Europe” campaign. Our analysis focuses here on the three dates that accompany the
campaign’s slogan: “1543, 1571, 2009… No to Turkey in Europe.”
The dates, 1543 (Siege of Nice) and 1571 (Battle of Lepanto) represent two
victories that stopped Ottoman expansion in Europe and in the Mediterranean Sea base.
The year 2009 is the date when the European commission blocked the opening of the
negotiating chapters with Turkey. These three dates put together constructs the year
2009 as an important landmark in Europe’s battle against Turkish invaders. The three
dots after 2009 indicate that this war is not over yet.
With the inscription of these dates and the “call to action against the enemy”
message, readers are prompted to activate their collective memory. The poster evokes
old prejudices and also plays on Europeans’ contemporary fears about Turkey already
discussed. These posters show how the imagery and stereotypes emphasizing the
otherness of the Turk are fundamental for the rejection of Turkish membership because
they create the preconditions necessary to political action. This conscious intertwining of
the past and the present and the reiteration of the barbaric and backward Ottoman
78
image to portray the Turk makes me question the influence of history in the formation of
the stereotypical representations of Turkey in French imagery.
3.7. Topos of Turkish Fear:
The Image of “The Terrible Turk”
The long history of encounters between Western civilizations and the Ottoman
Empire has produced an archive of imagery full of stereotypes and metaphors, which
have consistently portrayed the Turk in largely negative ways. The image of Turks “as
barbaric warriors” began to form in Europeans’ minds during the 4th century when,
under their leader Attila, they attacked European states, terrorised Central Europe and
populations in some parts of Western Europe, including France (Aksu, 2012). Later on
Turks converted to Islam during the first half of the 10th century and an ongoing
competition and conflict between Christian Europe and Muslim Ottomans begun.
During the Ottoman Empire’s rule (1299–1923), the relations between Europe
and Turks became highly politicized.
In the 16th century, the Ottoman Turks were
spreading the Turkish fear as they advanced in the Balkans and invaded Hungary,
Romania, Moldavia, and Crimea. Turks were not only invading Christian lands, but were
also spreading their religion and converting “Christians,” leading to the hatred between
the two religions and a form of Turcophobia from the 15th century to the end of the 17th
century. The unstoppable Ottoman expansion towards the West33 fuelled distrust and
fear among Christians and contributed to the construction of “the terrible Turk” that has
since then prevailed in the discourse of Europe (Meserve, 2008).
The expanding
Ottoman Empire was a major threat to the hegemony of Christian Europe. For instance,
Pope Nicholas V issued an edict calling for a crusade and condemning the Ottoman
sultan as “a son of Satan” (Freely, the Grand Turk, 2009).
The conqueror of
Constantinople, Sultan Mehmet II, was demonized as “a venomous dragon whose
bloodthirsty hordes threatened Christendom” (ibid., p. 3). Europeans feared that the
ongoing Ottoman victories would collapse the political and social infrastructure of the
33
The fall of Christian territories such as Constantinople (1453), Belgrade (1521), Rhodes
(1522), Buda (1541), and Cyprus (1571) into the hands of Muslim-Ottomans; and the Siege
of Vienna (1529) and Malta (1565).
79
West and would cause the downfall of Christendom. Christopher Marlowe’s observation
in Tamburlaine (1587) depicts this fear of the mighty Ottoman Army:
As Now shalt thou feel the force of Turkish arms,
Which lately made all Europe quake for fear.
This fear of the terrible Turk was depicted largely in the gravures of the
propaganda pamphlets of the period. Cartoons with an editorial nature emerged as part
of the Protestant Reformation under Martin Luther (1483–1546) in order to mobilize the
support of both the working class and the peasantry to ensure his reform’s success.
With the help of the “printing press” the topic of the "Turkish menace" founded its way
into the political discourse of the 16th century, via political propaganda tracts and leaflets
that illustrated cruel Turks as the imminent and dangerous enemies of Europe’s social,
political, and religious order. These pamphlets using a combination of pictures and text
were published and disseminated all over Europe to unite European kingdoms and
mobilize masses against Ottomans (Konrad, 2010). The woodcut gravures from the
16th century below are good examples of the historical prejudices of the era by depicting
the Turkish soldier as a torturer: he takes good people of Christian faith captive and he
impales their babies. Ottomans were considered as members of this “mass of invading
Muslim-Arab tribes.” The concepts of “Turk” and “Muslim” became to mean the “opposite
of Christian.
As Norman Fairclough observes, the media texts and images have a
cumulative effect, working through “particular ways of handling causality and agency”
and “particular ways of positioning the reader” (Fairclough, 1989, p. 54).
80
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 3.28. Depictions of the Ottomans in History (16-18 Centuries)
The terrifying mounted Turkish warrior with an elaborate turban and enormous
moustache and waving the crescent flag, or wielding a pike, was a standard way of
describing the Turk. When comparing representations of Ottoman Turks in these
historical propaganda material with that of today’s Turks, I observe that codes and
symbols are widely shared. The very first pamphlet printed in Europe was indeed a
piece of anti-Turkish propaganda produced nineteen months after Turks took over
Constantinople. Scenes of murder, rape, destruction, arson, plunder, and desecration of
churches were used to index Turkish cruelty and the Turks as monstrous, ferocious, evil
looking bearded men.
3.8. Topos of European Superiority:
Ottomans as the “Sick Man of Europe”34
While Europeans admired the Ottoman Empire’s magnificent court, wealth,
power, and its imperial majesty they feared its military prowess and its unstoppable
expansion. The defeat of the “invincible” Ottoman army at the gates of Vienna (1863)
marked the inevitable decline of the Ottoman Empire and turned Europeans’ admiration
to that of contempt: the Terrible Turk was transformed into a sick, non-European Muslim
man with no culture. As Leitsch explains (1983), “no longer were the Christians terrified
34
The sick man label is attributed to Russian Czar Nicholas I in his description of the Ottoman
Empire in the mid-19th century.
81
by real or imagined attacks by the huge and efficient war machinery of the Ottoman
Empire” (p. 38). During this decline, Balkan nations asked for greater freedom and
representation within the Empire and violent insurrections against the Ottoman army and
authority started. As a result, the Ottomans were drawn into bloody and inconclusive
battles and became demonized again by Europeans as "bloodthirsty Turks" invoking old
stereotypes formed during the crusades. In this nationalistic mosaic of 19th century
Europe, the Ottomans struggled to maintain their multi-religious, multi-ethnic, multinational Empire. The burden of keeping a large standing army and modernizing it in the
face of perpetual foreign threats required continued borrowing, and soon the bankrupt
Ottoman state was nicknamed the “[S]ick man of Europe” (Baram & Carrol, 2002, p. 5).
In this era of decline, the construction of the Turk in European minds shifted. The
omnipresent topos of fear was replaced by that of superiority.
Christian elites in Europe came to regard their own faith as their main link
to Europe. They believed that being a Christian made them a partner in
the European civilization and conferred automatically upon them a
“superior” status compared to that of their “underdeveloped” Muslim
others. (Karpat, 2001, p 12)
Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1842–1918) who governed the Empire with an iron fist for
33 years kept everyone — both his advocates and opponents — in fear to the extent that
he got the reputation of being one of the most tyrannical Sultans of the Empire. He was
nicknamed The Red Sultan/Le Sultan Rouge because of his policies against minority
groups such as Armenians. The Red Sultan was highly criticized in the political cartoons
of the era that depicted him as a bloodthirsty criminal or as a butcher with bloody hands.
His reign went down in the history of the Ottoman Empire as years of zulüm — horror
and autocratic dictatorship — (Georgeon, 2003).
82
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 3.29. Different depictions of the Red Sultan
Abdul Hamid posters and cartoons also used the Sultan’s character and
physiognomy to depict Turks and the Empire itself as desperate, powerless and
incompetent. The cover of the French magazine Le Petit Journal (May 2nd, 1909, Paris)
depicts Sultan Abdul Hamid II in a state of despair as parts of the Ottoman Empire were
snatched from beneath his feet by Bulgaria and Austria. Such representations were
never homologous as they were subject to a range of changes across time. In other
words, the image of the Turk in history fluctuated with the changes in historical context
and according to the interests of the Western world. This historical imagery might have
contributed to the construction of a cultural borderline between the European-self and
the Ottoman-other, between West and East, and between Christians and Muslims.
Ottomans’ conquest of Istanbul in 1453 developed not only a geographical but also
cultural dichotomy between the enlightened Christian West and the backward Ottomans.
Finally at the end of a bloody revolution against the Sultan, Ottoman Turks
founded the Turkish Republic, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (1923).
After this date, the fearful image of the Turk faded gradually, but negative
representations remained alive in Europeans’ collective memory, as this thesis has
demonstrated.
83
4.
Conclusions
Although they occupy only a small portion of editorial page some scholars see
cartoons as an important medium for the formation of public opinion on salient social
issues and as an integral part of the media discourse on salient social issues (Everette,
1974; Vinson, 1967). Cartoons may be positioned as journalism, artistic expression,
entertaining satire, and political and historical record. They are seen as "both opinionmolding and opinion-reflecting" (Caswell, 2004, p. 14), and they provide subtle
frameworks within which to examine the life and political processes of a nation
(DeSousa & Medhurst, 1982). Political cartoons offer sensitively exaggerated portions
of reality in order to transform complex issues and events into quickly understandable
visual commentary or criticism. Regardless of their spatial limitations they entertain
while framing social issues and political events and topics. They also reduce aggression
by offering a “vent mechanism” to the public to manifest their frustrations and deceptions
about social and political issues.
When we examine the visual representations of Turkey and Turkish people within
the context of EU membership process in the European media, especially in political
cartoons, we observe that Turkey is constructed as distant and different from the EU
(cultural and geographical distance and difference) by the recontextualization of negative
historical images and topoi.
Regardless of their stance — whether they oppose or
support Turkish accession to the EU — political cartoonists tend to construct the figure
of the Turk by collapsing time and decontextualizing identity: they frame the Turks as the
direct descendants of the Ottomans. Present-day Turks are portrayed as having the
same basic characteristics as their ancestors’ and are consistently depicted through the
recontextualization of historical stereotypes of the Ottomans. These decontextualized
stereotypes position the Turk into a larger framework of the world history full of battles,
conquests and stories of fear and terror. Europeans’ contemporary fears are rooted in a
long history of representations of Turks as bloody warriors and invaders. I concur that
such images provide an efficient rhetoric tool to construct Turks as essentially
84
incompatible with European identity and culture. By inscribing Turkey’s EU membership
within Ottomans’ history, political cartoons not only reify Turkish identity as nonEuropean and Muslim but also frame modern Turkey as a static nation unable to change
and adapt to its time. The homogenization process that constructs Turkish people as a
homogenous Muslim mass — in metaphoric terms without being discriminatory or racist
— gradually contributes to the formation of a greater political anti-Turkish discourse.
Little effort has been made to present a nuanced understanding of the diversity of
Turkish culture, not mentioning Turks’ varied political and religious orientations.
Metonymic tools and imagery such as the red fez considered as a folkloric costume in
Turkey, draws readers’ attention to the differences between Turks and Europeans. This
iconic image is used as a sensory icon that transfers covertly all the negative imagery
and prejudices about the Turk into the actual situation, consciously constructing the Turk
as the Other of Europe.
I showed how the Internet makes the dissemination of political cartoons very
different from other media of communication. The medium's interactivity is tailored to the
convenience of viewers who have the flexibility to join or leave any forum, chat group, or
newsgroup at will and to copy and paste whatever verbal and visual text they want and
like on their personal space. Due to this easy process, after their publication and
dissemination on Internet news web sites, political cartoons are recontextualized on
different blogs by their readers reaching different levels of society in totally different
contexts. Sometimes they are simply copied and pasted to add humour to a blog or to
provide visual support to a comment or text. Other times, they appear as personal
statements (i.e., answer to a question on a forum, as a reaction to an online statement),
or as identity icons (i.e., published as the identity picture of a forum participant or identity
picture of a personal blog). They can also be translated and adapted to different contexts. This “unusual” recontextualization, these images and stereotypes emphasizing
the non-Europeanness of the Turk, are fundamental for the rejection of Turkish EU
membership because they create the preconditions necessary to political action.
To my knowledge the impact of cartoons on public opinion has not been studied
extensively and as Coupe (1969) argues cartoons cannot change attitudes or beliefs
because their impact and understanding can differ from one individual to another. As
85
Therborn (1995) suggests, “identity is operative only dialectically, i.e., in connection with
its opposite, otherness” and “that there is a primacy of otherness over sameness in the
making of identity” (p. 229). I showed how cartoons, depicting racial and ethnic
characteristics or using stereotypes to base their arguments on assumed physical
characteristics or alleged religious practices, become particularly effective and difficult to
combat as they tend to be considered as reflecting reality shared by society. I believe
that the subjective reconceptualization of reality offered to us by powerful social groups
is likely to be perceived as “objective” or as “true” when they achieve collective consent.
As Katz and Braly (1933) explain "Stereotyped pictures of racial and national groups can
arise only so long as individuals accept consciously or unconsciously the group fallacy
attitude toward place of birth and skin color” (pp. 288-289). This system includes beliefs
and perceptions about out-group members concerning those properties of human beings
that may vary across nations, such as appearance, language, clothing, habits,
psychological traits, attitudes, values, and so on. I hope to have shown that considering
intertextuality as an integral part of the semiotic analysis of cartoons provides better
ways to trace and understand why certain stereotypical images based on historical
evidence or popular myth, resurface, circulate, and are recontextualized repeatedly. The
ethnic stereotypes that people retrieve from their collective memories are important
clues to explain a group’s socio-historical existence and its relations with others.
I do not defend that political cartoons directly contribute to the construction of this
alterity or to the formation of public opinion. Rather they have a normalizing and
legitimizing effect: they enable stereotypical ways of thinking to become systematized
and form a repertoire of imagery. So often repeated and recontextualized, stereotypical
even discriminatory depictions begin to be perceived as “objective” or “commonsensical”
knowledge (Morey & Yaqin, 2011). As Norman Fairclough observes, the media texts
and images have a cumulative effect, working through “particular ways of handling
causality and agency and particular ways of positioning the reader” (1989, p. 54). What
people see or hear in the media shape the production and maintenance of public
discourses that affects our daily lives and influences how we perceive things happening
around us by establishing what are considered as “positive” or “negative,” “good” or
“bad” and by establishing who belong with us and who does not. I hope to have shown
that political cartoons deserve far more attention than they have had until now.
86
References
Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. (2013, March 10). France-Turkey relations.
Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France%E2%80%93Turkey_relations
Additional Protocol to the Association Agreement, 23 November 1970, OJ EC No. C
113/17, 24.12.1973.
Agenda (2000). For a stronger and wider union. Luxembourg: Office for the Official
Publications of the European Communities.
Aksu, K. (2012). Turkey–EU Relations: Power, Politics and the Future. Cambridge
Scholars Publishing.
Amossy, R., & Herschberg, P. A. (2007). Stéréotypes et clichés. Paris: Armand Colin.
Anastasiadou, M. (2012). Turkey’s accession to the European Union: Dilemma and
objectives. Retrieved from http://www.ekem.gr
Anderson, B. (2006) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of
Nationalism. New York: Verso.
Arnold, H. (2007). Political Arguments against Turkey’s Accession to the European
Union. Retrieved from : http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/ipg/ipg-20073/09_arnold_us.pdf
Ayoob, M. (2004). Turkeys multiple paradoxes. Orbis, 48(3) 451-463. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1016/j.orbis.2004.04.002
Bernard, A. (2012, May, 7). Quotes from, and about Nicolas Sarkozy. The New York
Times. Retrieved from
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/07/world/europe/07francequotes.html?_r=0
Benhabib, S., & Isiksel, T. (2006). Ancient battles, new prejudices and the future
perspectives: Turkey and the EU. Constellations, 13(2), 218-222.
Best, S. J., & Krueger, B.S.(2004). Internet data collection. California: Sage Publications.
Blommaert, Jan. (2005). Discourse. Key Topics in Sociolinguistics. Cambridge University
Press. Retrieved 23 December 2013, from http://www.myilibrary.com?ID=43125
Bostdorff, D. M. (1987). Making light of James Watt: A Burkean approach to the form
and attitude of political cartoons. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 73(1), 43–59.
87
Bakhtin, M. M. M.M. Bakhtin (1981). The Dialogic Imagination, Four Essays. Austin:
University of Texas Press.
Baumann, M. (2010). Pew Report: Internet to Revolutionize Social Interaction.
Information Today, 27(9), 16.
Bauman, R., & Briggs, C.L. (1990). Poetics and performance as critical perspectives on
language and social life. Annual Review of Anthropology 19(1), 59-88.
Bigi, A., Plangger, K., Bovera, M., & Campbell, C.L. (2011). When satire is serious: How
political cartoons impact a country’s brand. Journal of Public Affairs, 11(3), 148–
55. doi: 10.1002/pa.403
Briggs, C. L., & Bauman, R. (1992). Genre, intertextuality and social power. Journal of
Linguistic Anthropology 2(2): 131–72. doi: 10.1525/jlin.1992.2.2.131
Brown, R. H. (1977). A poetic for sociology: Toward a logic of discovery for the human
sciences. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Burçoğlu, N. K. (1999). The image of Turk in Europe from 11th to 20th century as
represented in literary and visual sources. Marmara Journal of European
Studies, 7(2), 187 – 201.
Burçoğlu, N. K. (2007). From vision to reality: A socio-cultural critique of Turkey’s
accession process. In E. Lagro & K. E. Jorgensen (Eds.), Turkey and the
European Union-prospects for a difficult encounter (pp. 147-168). Great Britain:
Palgrave Macmillan.
*Burke, K. (1969). A rhetoric of motives. Berkeley: University of California Press.
*Burke, K. (1984). Permanence and change: An anatomy of purpose. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Byrnes, T. A., & Katzenstein, P. J. (2006). Religion in an Expanding Europe. Cambridge
University Press. Retrieved 28 march 2013, from
http://www.myilibrary.com?ID=45859
Carr, M. (2006). You are now entering Eurabia. Race & Class, 48(1), 1-22. doi:
10.1177/0306396806066636
Casanova, J. (2006). The Long, difficult and tortuous journey of Turkey into Europe and
the dilemmas of European civilization. Constellations, (13)2, 234–247. doi:
10.1111/j.1351-0487.2006.00453.x
Chalániová, D. (2013): “Turn the Other Greek. How the Eurozone Crisis Changes
the Image of Greeks and What Do Visual Representations of Greeks Tell us
about European Identity,” in Perspectives 2013/1. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/2120254/2013
88
Charteris-Black, J. (2004). Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis.
Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Checkel, J, T. & Katzenstein, P.T. (Eds). (2009). European Identity. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Chilton, P., & Ilyin, M.(1993). Metaphor in political discourse: the case of the “common
European house”, in: Discourse & Society 4(1), 7-31.
Commission of the European Communities (4 March 1998). European strategy for
Turkey: the Commission's initial operational proposals. Communication from the
Commission to the Council. COM (98) 124 final, [EU Commission — COM
Document]. Retrieved from http://aei.pitt.edu/id/eprint/4356
Commission of the European Communities (1998). Regular report on Turkey’s progress
toward Accession. Retrieved from
http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/archives/pdf/key_documents/1998/turkey_en.pdf
Commission of the European Communities (2002, 9 October). Regular report on
Turkey’s progress towards accession, SEC (2002) 1412, Brussels. Retrieved
from:
http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/archives/pdf/key_documents/2002/tu_en.pdf
Commission of the European Communities (1989, 20 December). The Commission
Opinion on Turkey’s request for Accession to the Community. SEC (89) 2290
final/2. Retrieved from: http://aei.pitt.edu/id/eprint/4475
Coupe, W. A. (1969). Observations on a Theory of Political Caricature. Comparative
Studies in Society and History, 11(1), 79–95. Retrieved from:
http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/stable/178289
Çakırman, A. (2001). From tyranny to despotism: The enlightenment's unenlightened
image of the Turks. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 36 (3), 49–68.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/stable/259479
Çandar, C. (2006). Reflections from Paris: Rising Worries on Turkey’s EU Prospects,
New Anatolian , 3 April 2006. Çandar reported on a dialogue forum
organized by the Abant Platform in Paris held 31 March through 1 April 2006.
D’Estaing, V. G. (2004, November 25) A better bridge to Turkey. Financial Times.
Retrieved from: http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/5b422f66-3e86-11d9-a9d700000e2511c8.html#axzz2pNcpNaSl
Dahlman, C. (2004). Turkey’s accession to the European Union: The geopolitics of
enlargement. Eurasian Geography and Economics, 45 (8), 553-574.
Darnstädt, T. Schult, C., & Zuber, H. (2011 February, 12). Citizens of the EU: How to
forge a common European identity. Der Spiegel retrieved from:
http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/citizens-of-the-eu-how-to-forge-acommon-european-identity-a-800775.html
89
Davis, R., & Owen, D. M. (1998). New media and American politics. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Delanty, G. (1995). Inventing Europe: Idea, identity, reality. London: Macmillan.
Delanty, G. (2003). Is there a European identity? Global dialogue,5(3–4), 1-12.
Delanty, G. (2005). What does it mean to be a “European”? Innovation: The European
Journal Of Social Sciences, 18(1), 11-22. doi: 10.1080/1351161042000334763
Delanty, G., & Rumford, C. (2005). Rethinking Europe: Social theory and the
implications of Europeanization. New York: Routledge.
Derrida, J. (1972). Positions : Entretiens avec Henri Ronse, Julia Kristeva, Jean-Louis
Houdebine, Guy Scarpetta. Paris : Les Éditions de Minuit.
D’Estaing, V. G. (2004, 25 November). A Better European Bridge to Turkey. Financial
Times. Retrieved from: http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/5b422f66-3e86-11d9-a9d700000e2511c8.html#axzz1Kg5Sgtlt
Dumbrava, C. (2008). Labor immigration policy in Europe. Retrieved from:
http://migrationeducation.de/fileadmin/uploads/Costica_Dumbrava_neu.pdf.
Drulák, P. (2004). Metaphors Europe lives by: Language and institutional change of the
European Union. EUI Working Papers, SPS No. 2004/15, Florence: European
University Institute.
Drulák, P. (2006). Motion, container and equilibrium: Metaphors in the discourse about
European integration. European Journal of International Relations, 12(4), 499.
Elias, N. (1994). Introduction: A theoretical essay on established and outsider relations
in N. Elias and J/L. Scotson (Eds) The established and the outsider: A
sociological enquiry into community problems. London: Sage Publications.
* El Refaie, E. (2003). Understanding visual metaphor: The example of newspaper
cartoons, Visual Communication, 2(1), 75–95.
doi:10.1177/1470357203002001755
El Refaie, E. (2004). Our purebred ethnic compatriots: irony in newspaper journalism.
Journal of Pragmatics, 37, 781–797. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/10.1016/j.pragma.2004.10.017
El Refaie, E. (2009a). Metaphor in political cartoons: Exploring audience responses, in
C. Forceville and E. Urios-Aparisi (Eds.), Multimodal Metaphor, Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter.
El Refaie, E. (2009b). Multiliteracies: How readers interpret political cartoons, Visual
Communication, 8(2), 181–205. doi: 10.1177/1470357209102113
90
El Refaie, E., & Horschelmann, K. (2010). Young people's readings of a political cartoon
and the concept of multimodal literacy. Discourse: Studies In The Cultural Politics
Of Education, 31(2), 195-207. doi: 10.1080/01596301003679719
Eurobarometer (2005). EU Commission, Flash EB 171, The European Constitution.
Post- referendum survey in France, Fieldwork 30-31 May 2005, Brussels:
Eurobarometer.
Eurobarometer (2005) EB 63 (Standard). Public Opinion in the EU. Fieldwork May-June
2005. Brussels: Eurobarometer.
Eurobarometer (2005) EB 63.4 (Standard). Public Opinion in the EU. National Report
France. Spring 2005. Brussels: Eurobarometer
Europe: A case of enlargement fatigue; Charlemagne. (2006, May 13). The Economist,
379, p. 48. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/docview/224014776?accountid=1380
0
European Commission. (2010). Accession Criteria. Retrieved from
http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/enlargement_process/accession_process/criteri
a/index_en.htm
European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (2006). Perceptions of
discrimination and islamophobia: Voices from members of Muslim communities
in the European Union. Retrieved from:
http://www.oicun.org/uploads/files/articles/Perceptions_EN.pdf
Everette, D. E. (1974). The regeneration of political cartooning. Journalism Quarterly,
51, 664-69.
Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. New York:Longman.
Fernando, M. L. (2004). The avowal and disavowal of difference in France.
Anthropological Quarterly, 77(4), 835-843.
Fligstein, N. (2008). Euroclash: The EU, European Identity and the Future of Europe.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Freedman, J. (2004). Immigration and insecurity in France. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
Freely, J. (2009). The grand turk: Sultan Mehmet II — conqueror of Constantinople,
master of an empire and lord of two seas. New York: I.B. Tauris.
Furetière, A. (1978). Le dictionnaire universel d’Antoine Furetière, vol. 1, s.v.
“despotiquement.”
Fukuyama, F. (2012, January). The Challenges for European Identity. The Global
Journal, 9. Retrieved from http://theglobaljournal.net/article/view/469/
91
Gal, S., & Irvine, J. (1995). The boundaries of languages and disciplines: How
ideologies construct difference. Social Research, 62(4): 967–1001.
Garg, R., & Telang, R. (2011). To Be or Not To Be Linked on LinkedIn: Job Search
Using Online Social Networks. Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/abstract=1813532
Garcia, L. B. (2011). European Political Elites’ Discourses on the Accession of Turkey to
the EU: Discussing Europe through Turkish Spectacles? European Perspectives,
3 (2-5), 53-73.
Georgeon, F. (2003). Abdulhamid II: Le sultan calife [Abdulhamid II: The caliph sultan]
Paris: Fayard.
Gerhards, J. & Hans, S. (2011). Why not Turkey? Attitudes towards Turkish membership
in the EU among citizens in 27 European countries. Journal of Common Market
Studies, 49(4), 741-766.
Goldstein, R. J. (1998). Fighting French censorship, 1815-1881. The French Review,
71(5), 785-796. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/398913
Goffman, D. (2002). Ottoman Empire and early modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Retrieved from
http://lib.myilibrary.com.proxy.lib.sfu.ca?ID=15181
Goffman, E. (1959). The Presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Doubleday.
Greenberg, J. (2002). Framing and temporality in political cartoons: A critical analysis of
visual news discourse. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 39 (2),
181–198. doi:
Harris, A. C. (1995). Just a caricature…: A semiotic analysis and retrospective of
American political cartoons. In Semiotics Semiotic Society of America, pp 188197. doi: 10.5840/cpsem199530
Harrison, Paul (1981). The cartoon: Communication to the quick. Sage Publication Inc.
Beverly Hills, CA
Hoffman, W. (1957). Caricature from Leonardo to Picasso. New York: Crown Publishers.
Hoff, S. (1976). Editorial and political cartooning. New York: Stravon Educational Press.
Hülsse, R. H. (2006). Imagine the EU: The metaphorical construction of a supranationalist identity. Journal of International Relations & Development, 9(4), 396421.
Huntington, S. P. (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.
New York: Simon & Schuster.
Hume, C. (1998, April 4). Knocking long and hard on Europe’s door. The Guardian ISSN
0261-3077 p. 14.
92
Hurd, E. S. (2010). What is Driving the European Debate about Turkey? Insight Turkey,
12(1): 185-203.
Rabasa, A. (2004). The Muslim World After 9/11. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
Rainer, R. H. (2006). Imagine the EU: the metaphorical construction of a supranationalist identity. Journal of International Relations & Development, 9(4), 396421.
Ibrahim, M. (2005). The Securitization of Migration: A Racial Discourse 1. International
Migration, 43 (5), pp. 163–187.
Iedema, R. (2003). Multimodality, resemiotization: extending the analysis of discourse as
multi-semiotic practice, Visual Communication 2(1), pp 29–57.
Inalcık, H. (1994). An economic and social history of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1600.
Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Ingram, A. (2009). English literature on the Ottoman Turks in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. Durham Theses, Durham University. Retrieved from:
http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/86/1/full_thesis.pdf
Insel, A. (2012). Boosting negotiations with Turkey: What can France do? Global Turkey
in Europe, 4 [policy brief]. Retrieved from http://ipc.sabanciuniv.edu/en/wpcontent/uploads/2012/11/GTE_Policy_Briefs_04.pdf
Islam, S. (1994). Fortress Europe. Index on Censorship, 23(3): 37-43.
Jewitt, C. (2004). Multimodality and new communication technologies. In P. Levine & R.
Scollon (Eds.), Discourse & technology: Multimodal discourse analysis (pp. 184
195). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Kervasdoué, C. (2005, October 10). Le long chemin de la Turquie vers l'UE . Retrieved
from http://www.franceculture.fr/emission-le-long-chemin-de-la-turquie-vers-l-ue2005-10-03.html
Kaiser, T. (2000). The evil empire? The debate on Turkish despotism in eighteenthcentury French political culture. The Journal of Modern History, 72 (1) pp. 6-34.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/315928
Karpat, H. K. (2001). The politicization of Islam: Reconstructing identity,state, faith and
community in the late Ottoman state. Oxford University Press: New York.
Katz, D., & Braly, K. (1933). Racial stereotypes in one hundred college students.
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28, 280-290.
Katz, D., & Braly, K. (1935). Racial prejudice and racial stereotypes. Journal of
Abnormal and Social Psychology, 30, 175-193.
93
Kirişçi, K. (2008). Is Turkey too Big, too Poor and too Different for the European Union?
In c. Tmmerman, D. Rochtus and S. Mels (Eds.), European and Turkish Voices
in Favor and Against Turkish Accession to the European Union ( pp. 127-138),
Brussels, Belgium: P.I.E. Peter Lang.
Kofman, E., & Sales, R. (1992). Towards Fortress Europe? Women’s Studies Int. Forum,
15(1): 29-39.
Konrad, F. (2010). From the "Turkish Menace" to Exoticism and Orientalism: Islam as
Antithesis of Europe. in European History Online (EGO), published by the
Institute of European History (IEG), Retrieved from: http://www.iegego.eu/konradf-2010-en URN: urn:nbn:de:0159-2011020147
Kösebalaban, H. (2008). Torn Identities and Foreign Policy: The Case of Turkey and
Japan, Insight Turkey, 10(1), 29-25.
Kösebalaban, H. (2007). The permanent “other”: Turkey and the question of European
identity. Mediterranean Quarterly, 18(4), 87-111.
Kress, G. (2004) Reading images: Multimodality, representation and new media.
Information Design Journal, 12 (2): 110-110.
Kress, G., Jewitt, C. Ogborn, J. & Tsatsarelis, C. (2001). Multimodal teaching and
learning. The rhetorics of the science classroom London: Continuum.
Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal discourse: The modes and the media
of contemporary communications. NY: Oxford University Press.
Kristeva, J. (1980). Desire in language: A semiotic approach to literature and art. New
York: Columbia University Press.
Kubicek, P. (2005). Turkish accession to the European Union: Challenges and
opportunities, World Affairs, 168(2), 67-78. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20672734.
Kylstad, I. (2010). Turkey and the EU: A “new” European identity in the making? LEQS
Paper No. 27/2010. Retrieved from:
http://www.lse.ac.uk/europeanInstitute/LEQS/LEQSPaper27.pdf
Lakoff, G. (1991). Metaphor in politics: An open letter to the Internet. Retrieved from
http://internettrash.com/users/ballenger/clMetaphor%20in%20Politics.htm
Lakoff, G. (1993). Contemporary theory of metaphor. In Andrew Orthony (Ed.) Metaphor
and Thought, 205-251 2nd. Ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
94
Lee, C. M., & Barton, D. (2011). Constructing glocal identities through multilingual writing
practices on Flickr.com. International Multilingual Research Journal, 5(1), 1-20.
doi:10.1080/19313152.2011.541331
LeGoff, J.P. (2005). Le malaise français dans le miroir de l’Europe. 136 (4), p. 44.
Lemke, J.L. (1998). Multiplying meaning: Visual and verbal semiotics in scientific Text.
In J. R. Martin & R. Veel (Eds.), Reading Science (pp.87-113). London:
Routledge.
Lemke, J.L. (2007). Visual and verbal resources for evaluative meaning in political
cartoons. Retrieved from http://wwwpersonal.umich.edu/~jaylemke/papers/polcart.htm.
LeRoy M.C. (1970). Political cartoons: “Ink blots” of the editorial page. Journal of
Popular Culture, 4(1), 39–45. Doi: 10.1111/j.0022-3840.1970.0401_39.x
Lewis, B. (1953). Europe and the Turks: The civilization of the Ottoman Empire. History
Today, 3(10). Retrieved from http://www.historytoday.com/bernard-lewis/europeand-turks-civilization-ottoman-empire
Lee, C. B. (2003). A Semiotic Analysis of Political Cartoons.
http://www.cs.ucsd.edu/users/goguen/courses/271sp03/spapers/cartoons/Cartoo
ns.htm
Lusoli, W., Ward, S., & Gibson, R. (2006). (Re) connecting politics? Parliament, the
public and the Internet. Parliamentary Affairs, 59 (1), 24–42.
Mazid, Bahaa-Eddin M. (2008). Cowboy and misanthrope: a critical (discourse) analysis
of Bush and bin Laden cartoons. Discourse & Communication, 2(4): 443-457.
Doi :10.1177/1750481308095939
Marley, C., & Mello, W. B. (1995). The Thomas/Hill confrontation makes it to the cartoon
page: A content analysis of political cartoons. Mass Communication and Society
Division, Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication,
Washington, DC. Maas.
Mayer, F., & J. Palmowski (2004). European Identities and the EU: The Ties that Bind
the Peoples of Europe. Journal of Common Market Studies, 42(3), pp. 573-598
McKenna, K. Y. A., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). Causes and Consequences of Social
Interaction on the Internet: A Conceptual Framework. Media Psychology, 1(3),
pp. 249-269.
* Medhurst, M. J., &. DeSousa, M. A. (1981). Political cartoons as rhetorical form: A
taxonomy of graphic discourse. Communication Monographs, 48, 197-236.
* Medhurst, M. J., & DeSousa, M. A. (1982). The editorial cartoon as visual rhetoric: Rethinking boss tweed. Journal of Visual Verbal Language, 2, 43-52.
95
* Medhurst, M. J., & DeSousa, M. A. (1982). Political cartoons and American culture:
Significant symbols of campaign 1980. Studies in Visual Communication, 8(1),
84-97.
Meyer, J.C. (2000). Humor as a double-edged sword: Four functions of humor in
communication. Communication Theory 10(3): 310–31.
Meserve, M. (2008). Empires of Islam in Renaissance historical thought. Harvard
University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA.
Morey, P., & Yaqin, A. (2011). Framing Muslims: Stereotyping and Representation After
9/1. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. [E-book] Doi:
10.4159/harvard.9780674061149
Morris, R. (1991). Cultural analysis through semiotics: Len Norris' cartoons on official
bilingualism. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 28(2), 225.
Doi: 10.1111/j.1755-618X.1991.tb00153.x
*Morris, R. (1993). Visual rhetoric in political cartoons: A structuralist
approach. Metaphor & Symbolic Activity, 8(3), 195. doi:
10.1207/s15327868ms0803_5
Musolff, A. (2000), Political Imagery of Europe: A House Without Exit Doors? Journal of
Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 21 (3), 216-229.
Musolff, A. (2004). Metaphor and political discourse. Analogic reasoning in debates
about Europe. NY: Palgrave.
Nachmani, A. (2009). Europe and its Muslim minorities: Aspects of conflict, attempts at
accord. Brighton [England]: Sussex Academic Press.
Neumann, I.B. (1999). Uses of the Other–the East in European Identity Formation,
University of Michigan Press, Minneapolis.
Neumann, I. B., & Welsh, Jennifer M. (1991). The other in European self-definition: A
critical addendum to the literature on international society. Review of
International Studies 17(4) 327-346.
Oakeshott, I. (2005, October 4). Turkey sets out on long road to EU. Retrieved from
http://www.questia.com/library/1G1-137107988/turkey-sets-out-on-long-road-toeu-membership
O’Dowd, L. (2002). The changing significance of European borders. Regional &
Federal Studies, 12(4), 13-36.
96
Öner, S. (2009). The Rise of Extreme-Right in Europe: The Cases of Germany and
Austria and The Question of Turkey’s Membership to the EU. Retrieved from
http://euroacademia.eu/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/
Selcen_%C3%96ner_The_Rise_of_Extreme_Right_in_Europe_New_Other%E2
%80%99s_of_Europe_and_The_Question_of_Turkey%E2%80%99s_Membershi
p_to_the_EU1.pdf
Press, C. (1981). The political cartoon. Rutherford [N.J.]: Fairleigh Dickinson University
Press.
Redmond, J. (2007). Turkey and the European Union: troubled European or European
trouble? In International Affairs, 83(2), 305-317.
Reinking, D. (1994). Reading and writing with computers: Literacy research in a posttypographic world. In K.A. Hinchman, D.J. Leu, & C.K. Kinzer, (Eds.),
Perspectives on literacy research and practice (pp. 17-33). Chicago, IL: National
Reading Conference.
Riffaterre, M. (1994). Intertextuality vs. hypertextuality. New Literary History, 25(4), 779788.
Risse, T. (2010). A community of Europeans? Transnational identities and public
spheres. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Risse, T. (2012). Identity matters: Exploring the ambivalence of EU foreign policy.
Global Policy, 3, 87–95. Doi: 10.1111/1758-5899.12019
Sarkozy, N. (2006). Testimony: France, Europe and the world in 21st century.
[Translated by Philip Gordon]. UK: Harriman House Publishing.
Sarkozy, N. (2007). A conversation with French interior minister, Nicolas Sarkozy’,
interviewed by Charlie Rose. Retrieved from:
http://www.charlierose.com/view/interview/8593
Sarkozy, N. (2007, February 7). Discours de Nicolas Sarkozy [Discourse of Nicolas
Sarkozy]. Retrieved from
www.sarkozy.fr/download/?mode=press&filename=7fevrier2007_Toulon_Discour
sNS.pdf
Samson, A. C., & Huber, O. (2007). The interaction of cartoonist’s gender and formal
features of cartoons. Humor: International Journal of Humor research, 20(1), 1–
25. Doi: 10.1515/HUMOR.2007.001
Saz, G. (2011). Turkophobia and rising Islamophobia in Europe: A quantification for the
negative spillovers on the EU membership quest of Turkey. European Journal of
Social Sciences 19 (4). 479-491.
Schaefer, S. Austin, G., & and Parker, K. (2005). Turks in Europe: Why we are afraid?
London: The Foreign Policy Centre.
97
Schäffner, C. (1996). Building a European House? Or at two speeds into a dead end?
Metaphors in the Debate on the United Europe. in Musolff, A, Schäffner ,C and
Townson, M. (eds) Conceiving of Europe: Diversity in unity. Brookfield USA:
Dartmouth.
Sedelmeier, U. (2003). EU Enlargement, Identity and the Analysis of European Foreign
Policy: Identity Formation Through Policy Practice. Robert Schuman Centre for
Advanced Studies No. 2003/13. Retrieved from:
http://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/1855/03_13.pdf?sequence=1
Selnow, G. (1998). Electronic whistle-stops: The impact of the Internet on American
politics. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Silverman, M. (1992). Deconstructing the nation: immigration, racism, and citizenship in
modern France. London; New York: Routledge.
Silverstein, P. (2004). Algeria in France: Transpolitics, race, nation. Bloomington:
University of Indiana Press.
Silverstein, M., & Urban, G. (1996). Natural histories of discourse. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Sjursen, H. (2006). Questioning EU enlargement: Europe in search of identity. Taylor &
Francis.[e-book]. Retrieved from <http://lib.myilibrary.com?ID=73163>
Sjursen, H. (2002). Why expand? The question of legitimacy and justification in the EU's
enlargement policy. Journal of Common Market Studies, 40 (3) pp. 491-513.
Smulyan, S. (1999). Everyone a reviewer? Problems and possibilities in hypertext
scholarship. American Quarterly, 51(2), pp. 263-267.
A severe crise d'identité — France and the EU to come. (2005, May 28). The Economist,
375, 26-29. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/224001152?accountid=13800
Smith, J. (2005, October 5), Warning of long road ahead as Turkey-EU talks start . The
Irish Times, Retrieved from http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-24810920.html
Stråth, B. (2002). A European identity: To the historical limits of a concept. European
Journal of Social Theory, 5(4), 387-401. doi: 10.1177/136843102760513965
Stromer-Galley, J. (2003). Diversity of political conversation on the Internet: Users'
perspectives. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 8(3).0-0. doi:
10.1111/j.1083-6101.2003.tb00215.x
Taguieff, P. (2001). The force of prejudice: On racism and its doubles. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press.
98
Tarifa, F., & Adams, B. (2007). Who’s the sick man of Europe? A wavering EU should
let Turkey In. Mediterranean Quarterly, 18(1), 52-74. doi: 10.1215/104745522006-034
Tekin, B. C. (2010). Representations and othering in discourse: The construction of
Turkey in the EU context. John Benjamins Publishing Company. [E-book]
Retrieved 13 June 2013, from <http://lib.myilibrary.com?
Tekin, B. C. (2008). The construction of Turkey's possible EU membership in French
political discourse. Discourse Society 19(6): 727-763. doi:
10.1177/0957926508095891
Tsakona, V. (2009). Language and image interaction in cartoons: Towards a multimodal
theory of humor. Journal of Pragmatics, 41(6): 1171–1188.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2008.12.003
Turkey’s EU Bid: Resistance is on the rise (2004, February 9). Business Week.
Van den Broek, H. (1993, June, 4). Europe revisited: The new Europe and the lessons
of history. [Speech/93/68, Tilburg University Seminar].
Van den Broek, H. (1993, May 27). Turkey and the European Community in an age of
transition. [Speech/93/63, Foreign Policy Institute, Ankara].
Valery Giscard D’Estaing (2004, November 25). A better European bridge to Turkey.
Financial Times.
Verney, J. (2007). The Dynamics of EU accession: Turkish travails in a comparative
perspective. Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans, 9(3), 307-322.
Visier, C. (2009). La Turquie: objet de politisation, instrument de politisation. [Turkey:
object of politicization, instrument of politicization]. European Journal of Turkish
Studies, 9. Retrieved from http://ejts.revues.org/index3709.html
Walker, J.,& Chaplin, S. (1997). Visual Culture: An Introduction. Manchester, UK:
Manchester University Press.
Weiler, J.H.H. (1999). The Constitution of Europe: “Do the New Clothes Have An
Emperor?” and Other Essays on European Integration. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Wrangel, C. (2010). Europe as an Advanced Point? European Identity and Its Limits
Retrieved from: http://thatsnotit.wordpress.com/2010/07/21/europe-as-anadvanced-point/
Usher, R. (1997, November 25). The eternal candidate: after two new setbacks, Turkey
shows it is getting fed up with forever knocking on Europe's door. Time, p. 34.
Zuquete, J. P. (2008). The European Extreme-Right and Islam: New Directions? Journal
of Political Ideologies,13(3): 321–344.
99
Zürcher, E. J., & Van der Linden, H. (2004). The European Union, Turkey and Islam.
Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
“The Limits of Europe.” (2001, May 19). The Economist. Retrieved from
http://www.economist.com/node/622829
“France and the EU: A severe crise d'identité.” (2005. May 26). The Economist.
Retrieved from http://www.economist.com/node/4008583
100
Appendix:
Entextualization of the cartoons
* Translations (except French texts) are carried out with Google Translate web tool.
Figure 3.1
IZEL ROSENTAL (2005)
Stable URL
http://rodrik.typepad.com/dani_rodriks_weblog/WindowsLiveWriter/image_4.png
http://www.cartooningforpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/TV_mailing-FR.jpg
See also:
http://rodrik.typepad.com/dani_rodriks_weblog/2007/06/sunday-cartoons.html
Figure 3.2
JANUSZ KAJEWSKI (MAYK 2008)
Stable URL
http://www.turquieeuropeenne.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L240xH240/gif_turquie_passage-ddf21.png
See also
http://www.turquieeuropeenne.eu/turquie-ue-a-gros-traits.html
http://www.vivamafarka.com/forum/index.php?topic=14476.0
Italian forum website.
http://www.larbi.org/post/2008/11/Stereotypes-dans-les-manuels-scolaires
Article analysing stereotypes used in school materials.
http://www.piklive.com/?q=site:www.larbi.org
http://www.dardania.biz/vb/upload/showthread.php?t=24100&page=5&ckattempt=1
Albanian discussion forum.
Figure 3.3
SLAVOMIR SVITALSKY (2010) Just one more hurdle!
CARTOON MOVEMENT. Richard & Slavomir Svitalsky (Czech Republic).
Stable URL
http://www.cartoonmovement.com/depot/cartoons/2010/12/IJiR3YtoTFKJfsrhk_2DEw.jpg
See also
http://akademikperspektif.com/2011/05/06/karikaturlerle-avrupa-birligi-ve-turkiye/
A website for EU cartoons about Turkey.
http://gruphaber.blogspot.ca/2012/03/slayt-izle-hafta-sonu-karikaturler.html
Personal blog in Turkish the cartoon is posted among other cartoons about Turkey’s EU accession.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/vjmovement/3983561122/in/pool-vjmovement/
The VJ Movement is an online international news organization where video journalists, cartoonists and
members cooperate to provide you with international news coverage. The cartoon is posted among other
political cartoons.
101
Figure 3.4
PLANTU (7 Octobre 2005)
Stable URL
http://www.cvce.eu/obj/cartoon_by_plantu_on_the_issue_of_turkey_s_accession_to_the_eu_7_october_2005en-fa3acf9f-ce61-4c96-ae96-c9c99b58f960.html
The website of CVCE/The AAEC is a center for interdisciplinary research and documentation on the process of
European integration. Plantu’s cartoon is posted on 7 October 2005 under the title: cartoon by Plantu on the
issue of Turkey’s accession to the EU.
Figure 3.5
NICOLAS VADOT (2005)
Stable URL
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/THCUfh71EuY/ULExKJHjCOI/AAAAAAAASF4/rz9qrLV9KBs/s320/nicolas.+vadot.+belgium.jpg
See also
http://cartooncolors.blogspot.ca/2012/12/karikaturlerle-turkiye-ab-iliskileri.html
A special blog for cartoons. The cartoon is posted with an article explaining Cartooning for Peace exhibition
which is designed by the French cartoonist Plantu. Cartooning for Peace is an initiative born on 16 October
2006 at UN headquarters in New York. Organized by Kofi Annan, then Secretary General of the UN, a two-day
conference brings together 12 designers release the most renowned in the world for "unlearning intolerance."
Figure 3.6
NIELS BOBOJESEN (2005)
Stable URL
http://bojesen.eu/filer/Hovedside-02-10-05-RGB.jpg
See also
http://www.yildizagd.com/dosya/enson.pdf
Turkish website. The cartoon is published with an editorial article titled: Reality of the EU.
http://forum.arabictrader.com/t114256.html
Arabic web forum. The cartoon is published with an editorial article titled: Europe and the inevitable pruning.
http://arirusila.wordpress.com/2010/04/
Personal blog about Middle East and Balkans. The cartoon is published with an editorial article titled: Turkey’s
EU hopes-is there any?
http://noticiasdesdeturquia.blogspot.ca/2008_12_01_archive.html
Personal blog in Spanish. The article titled: True age of Turkey.
http://kemaltopalomer.blogspot.ca/
Personal blog (2011). The cartoon is published with an editorial article titled: Turkey EU relations on the foreign
policy alternatives paradigm.
http://www.gazzettadisanta.eu/articoli/ri_130524.html
(2012) Italian internet magazine. The cartoon is published with an editorial article titled: European citizenship.
2013 is the European Year of Citizens.
http://editorial-cartoon.eu/theeu/politics/
Website for Niels Bobojesen cartoons.
http://www.qdrmagazine.it/interna.aspx?autore=1212
(26/06/2012) Italian news website. The cartoon is published with an editorial article titled: Dear Europe, it's time
to grow by Thomas Nannicini.
http://eurologus.444.hu/2013/02/25/fogunk-torokot/
Hungarian news website. The cartoon is published with an editorial article titled: We are going to Turks? by
Gunther Oettinger.
102
http://www.qdrmagazine.it/chi-siamo.aspx
(2012) Website for Italian reformists. The cartoon accompanies an editorial article titled: Another Europe is
possible by Marco Esposito.
http://maeglika.blog.is/blog/maeglika/image/860841/
Personal Icelandic blog. The article is published on the Welcome Page. No article.
http://www.oureuropeancultures.com/1/previous/2.html
(29/01/2013) Personal blog about EU. The cartoon is published with the title: In need for clarity no article.
http://turkiye-ab.blogspot.ca/2009/05/avrupa-birligi-turkiye-karikaturleri.html
Website for EU cartoons.
Figure 3.7
ALI DILEM (2007)
Stable URL
http://www.lequichote.info/IMG/jpg/TRAITEROME-25-03-07a.jpg
http://www.lequichote.info/local/cache-vignettes/L300xH278/TRAITEROME-25-03-07amin-7ba68.jpg
See also
http://www.lequichote.info/?IMAGINAIRES-D-EUROPE (2008)
The cartoon accompanies an editorial article titled: Imaginary of Europe.
http://www.tv5.org/cms/chaine-francophone/Informations/Les_diaporamas/p-1918L_Europe_vue_par_les_autres.htm
TV5 webpage titled: Europe in drawings.
Figure 3.8
JANUSZ KAJEWSKI (MAYK 2010)
Stable URL
This cartoon is used in http://www.presseurop.eu/
http://www.presseurop.eu/files/images/article/MAYK_Turquie.jpg?1286796737
News website in 10 different languages accompanying the translation of an article by the Turkish journalist
Ahmet Altan published in Turkish Daily Taraf in 2010.
http://www.presseurop.eu/fr/content/article/357421-ankara-aussi-traine-des-pieds
French version. Title of the article: “A Ankara aussi, on traîne des pieds” [Ankara also is dragging its feet].
http://www.presseurop.eu/cs/content/article/357801-ankare-se-do-eu-moc-nechce
2010. Check version. Title of the article: “Ankaře se do EU moc nechce” [Ankara too wants the EU].
http://www.presseurop.eu/de/content/article/358071-wo-kein-wille-ist-ist-auch-kein-weg
German version. Title of the article: “Wo kein Wille ist, ist auch kein Weg” [Where there is no will, there's no
way].
http://www.presseurop.eu/en/content/article/357821-turkeys-elite-napping
English version. Title of the article: Turkey's elite is napping.
http://www.presseurop.eu/es/content/article/358171-ankara-tambien-arrastra-los-pies
Spanish version. Title of the article: “Ankara también arrastra los pies” [Ankara also shuffling].
http://www.presseurop.eu/it/content/article/357951-ankara-non-ha-fretta
Italian version. Title of the article: “Ankara non ha fretta” [Ankara is in no hurry].
http://www.presseurop.eu/nl/content/article/357931-politieke-elite-werkt-toetreding-tegen
Dutch version. The title of the article: “Politieke elite werkt toetreding tegen” [Political elite works against the
membership].
http://www.presseurop.eu/pl/content/article/358161-miedzy-scylla-charybda
Polish version. The title of the article: “Między Scyllą a Charybdą” [Between Scylla and Charybdis].
103
http://www.presseurop.eu/pt/content/article/357861-ancara-arrasta-os-pes
Portuguese version. The title of the article: “Ancara arrasta os pés” [Ankara shuffles].
http://www.presseurop.eu/ro/content/article/358011-si-ankara-trage-de-timp
Romanian version. The title of the article: “Şi Ankara trage de timp. . .” [ Ankara stalling ...].
http://sabernews.com/shownews.php?idnews=12612
2013 Persian website. The title reads as: Turkey is keeping pace with the West in order to change the rules of
Islamic law in the West, is still seen as "slaves" can be seen.
http://www.haberskop.com/haber_detay.asp?haberID=1597
2013 Turkish news website. The title of the article: “AB krizinin Türkiye’ye açtığı kapı” [The door that The EU
Crisis has opened]. The article discusses the Gezi Park Protests in Turkey and the effects of the brutal police
intervention on the TR–EU relations.
http://cartonespoliticosinternacionales.blogspot.ca/2013/02/diez-anos-del-cierre-euskaldunon.html
Personal blog in Spanish. The cartoon is published among other visuals.
Figure 3.9
PLANTU (2005)
Stable URL
http://lelivrescolaire.fr/upload/emilie_bret/p16k4s5nnut241cn9unjs0dkct1.jpg
Stable URL: Le Monde
http://static.canalblog.com/storagev1/adamkesher.canalblog.com/images/Monde_fusions1.jpg
See also
http://agenda.turquievision.com/2012/09/14/663/plantu-turquie-bd-site-13-10-2005/
The cartoon is published together with the excerpt from Le Monde page where it was actually published.
http://agenda.turquiavisao.com/2012/10/22/as-relacoes-entre-a-turquia-e-a-ue-em-desenhos-animados/plantuturquie-bd-site-13-10-2005/
(2012) Portuguese website advertising Cartooning for Peace cartoon exhibition.
http://lelivrescolaire.fr/4310/2_La_construction_europeenne_des_annees_1950_auxannees_2000.html#Docum
ent=16804
An educational website about European Union. The article is used as a visual accompanying a text with the
title: European integration (1950-2000).
http://www.ataturquie.asso.fr/static.php?op=olusum_2005&npds=1
The cartoon is used as the cover picture of the magazine Olusum-Genese No 96-97.
Figure 3.10
PLANTU (2009)
Stable URL
http://a401.idata.over-blog.com/500x376/3/46/43/71/Frederick/2010-06/Dessins-humoristiques-Europe-26-062010/plantu_aujourdhui_la_turquie.jpg
See also
http://motione.over-blog.com/article-union-europeenne-quelques-dessins-humoristiques-52999976.html
Figure 3.10a EMRAH ARIKAN (2013)
Stable URL
http://www.toonpool.com/user/7048/files/turkey_and_eu_1926575.jpg
104
Figure 3.11
PATRICK CHAPATTE (2006)
Stable URL
http://cap2002fhg.unblog.fr/files/2009/01/entreturquieue.jpg
http://cap2002fhg.unblog.fr/2009/01/15/turquie-union-europeenne/
See also
http://disciplines.ac-bordeaux.fr/histoiregeo/uploads/pages/304/file/Une%20candidature%20d%E2%80%99adh%C3%A9sion%20%C3%A0%20l%E2%
80%99Union%20Europ%C3%A9enne%20RFauthoux%20NBordatto.pdf
The cartoon is used as a visual in a presentation discussing EU enlargement.
http://espacehgfauthoux.e-monsite.com/medias/files/lecon-n-9-realites-et-limites-de-la-puissance-de-l-ue.pdf
The cartoon is used as a visual in a presentation discussing the limits and power of the EU.
http://www.rojbas.org/2013/05/27/union-europeenne-le-processus-dadhesion-de-la-turquie-dans-limpasse/
Kurdish website. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article written in French with the title: “Union
européenne : le processus d’adhésion de la Turquie dans l’impasse” [European Union: The process of Turkey's
accession stalled].
http://www.armenews.com/article.php3?id_article=89988
Armenian news website, 2013. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a short article titled: European Union the
process of Turkey’s accession is stalled.
http://cap2002fhg.unblog.fr/2009/01/15/turquie-union-europeenne/
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted with the caption: The entry of Turkey into the European Union.
Figure 3.12
PLANTU (2009)
193 different websites.
Stable URL
http://marielcaelestia.unblog.fr/files/2009/05/europeimmigration71698eed3d.gif
http://africamix.blog.lemonde.fr/files/2008/10/forteresse.1224701021.thumbnail.JPG
See also
http://africamix.blog.lemonde.fr/page/23/
(2008) Personal news blog. The cartoon is used to depict the African immigrants dilemma in France as the
visual of an article titled: “Une Europe de plus en plus forteresse” [A Europe becoming more and more like a
fortress].
http://www.annabaa.org/nbanews/2010/12/082.htm
Arabic website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an Editorial article discussing EU’s immigration policies
with the title: Europe closes its doors in front of immigrants.
http://ouvalacgt.over-blog.com/article-23635742.html
2008 Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article discussing immigration and the
problems of the asylum seekers with the title: The case against the host service for asylum seekers.
http://www.theprisma.co.uk/2011/05/15/%E2%80%9Canti-frontex-days%E2%80%9D-conscience-andimmigration/
Online newspaper. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article discussing Polish Immigrants’ problems with
the title: Anti-Frontex Days: Conscience and immigration.
http://florlecam.com/ULB/
Belgian news website created by the final year students of Journalism at the Free University of Brussels. The
cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: “Europe Ouvre-toi” [Europe open your doors].
105
http://argumentosptapias.blogspot.ca/2012_04_01_archive.html
Spanish website. An article about EU integration with the title: Difficult relocation of a misplaced Europe (II):
Fear rages.
http://www.paperblog.fr/2033316/164-dick-annegarn-patera/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is used as one of the visuals of a blog entry discussing illegal immigration
under the title: Dick Annegarn ‘Patera’ which is a song composed by Dick Annegarn depicting the desperation
of men to escape poverty.
http://lhistgeobox.blogspot.ca/2009/06/164-dick-annegarn-patera.html
Another blog posting the same article above.
http://agirlsbusiness.wordpress.com/page/3/
2011 Personal blog entry. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: Should they stay or should
they go?
http://rusf49.over-blog.com/
Personal blog. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article discussing illegal immigration: Mory Camara to
continue the fight!
http://icidansmesmontagnes.blog50.com/archive/2009/11/index.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry with the title: Schengen: thousands of deaths
at the gates of Europe.
http://www.blogapares.com/tag/parti-nazi-grece-dettes-publiques/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry discussing Greece’s immigration
policies with the title: “La Grèce bafoue les droits des migrants, avec l’accord de l’Europe” [Greece violates the
rights of migrants, with the agreement of Europe].
http://carnouxprogres.wordpress.com/category/societe/page/6/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry with the title: “Sécurité, immigration
et précarité” [Security, immigration and insecurity].
http://carnetnoirs.canalblog.com/albums/caricatures/photos/46170780-europe_immigration_71698.html
2009 Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted with caption Black books of closed centers.
http://longrunnerseconomics.wordpress.com/2011/06/30/il-sistema-di-immigrazione-a-punti-come-incentivoall%E2%80%99integrazione-sociale/
Italian website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article discussing Italian Immigration policies. The title of
the article is: The immigration system in the points as an incentive to the social.
http://redinvestigadoresmigracion.blogspot.ca/
Spanish personal blog about immigration. The cartoon is used as the identity picture of the blogger.
http://www.afsp.info/congres2011/sectionsthematiques/st47/st47.html
Website for the AFCP congress page. The cartoon is used as the visual of a presentation.
http://comeniusonexile.blogspot.ca/2010/06/blog-post.html
Personal blog. The article is posted as the visual of a presentation about the causes of migration. The caption
over the cartoon reads as: The causes of the migrations in France.
http://endirect2babylone.wordpress.com/ personal blog
The cartoon is posted as a part of book review article with the title: "TOMORROW EMPIRE": DAVID ENGELS
ON THE FATE OF THE EUROPEAN UNION.
http://www.citizen-nantes.com/article-28149542.html
2009 news blog in French. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: The right to asylum in danger.
106
Figure 3.13
No author
Stable URL
http://alpesmaritimes.mpf-paca.fr/images/chevalbis.jpg
The cartoon is used on the political website of Mouvement Pour la France Party.
http://absurdus.joueb.com/news/negociations-d-adhesion-entre-la-turquie-et-l-europe
http://ann.over-blog.com/blog-contact.php?ref=1194741
Figure 3.14
© Bastion n°67 de Janvier 2003
Stable URL
http://www.fnb.to/images/turquie.jpg
http://www.fnb.to/FNB/Article/Bastion_67/Turquie.htm
The official website of the Le Bastion journal. The cartoon is published as the visual of an article titled: No to the
membership of Turkey to the EU.
http://www.contre-info.com/category/mondialisme/page/2
News website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: “Le gouvernement français veut accélérer le
processus d’entrée de la Turquie dans l’Union européenne” [French government wants to accelerate Turkey’s
accession to the EU].
http://ndpiledefrance.hautetfort.com/archive/2013/02/13/le-gouvernement-francais-veut-accelerer-le-processusd-entre.html
Propaganda website for Nouvelle Droite Populaire political movement. The same article above is posted with
the same cartoon as its visual.
http://france.libre1.overblog.com/l-islam-prend-racine
(2013) Personal blog. The cartoon is used as one of the visuals for a blog entry titled: Islam takes root.
http://www.fnb.to/FNB/Article/Bastion_66/Dossier%20Turquie.htm
Belgian political website for Le Front Nouveau de Belgique. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a section
titled: Turkish File.
http://generationbethune.wordpress.com/2013/02/20/la-france-leve-son-veto-pour-ladhesion-de-la-turquie-leseuropeens-vont-mettre-la-main-a-la-poche/
Personal news blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: Article title France lifts its veto on
Turkey’s "PRE-ACCESSION": Europeans to put their hands into their pockets.
http://bb-boy61.skyrock.com/405948483-ah-turki-turki-mon-bo-pays.html
Personal blog.The cartoon is used as a text.
http://hikoum.wordpress.com/2009/12/28/la-Turquie-une-affaire-qui-avance/
Personal blog. The cartoon accompanies an article titled: "La Turquie, une affaire qui avance!" [Turkey, a
growing business!].
http://hayworld.skyrock.com/7.html
Anti-Turkish Armenian site, defending so called Armenian genocide. The cartoon is used as a visual
accompanying an article with the title “6 bonnes raison de dire NON” [6 good reasons to say NO].
http://infognomonpolitics.blogspot.ca/2012_01_01_archive.html#.UlnsrFBtjkc
Greek news website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an editorial by Jean Marcou.
http://www.altermedia.info/france-belgique/communiqu/larrogance-turque-na-pas-sa-place-en-europe-barronsla-route-a-la-colonisation-islamo-turque_28901.html
The cartoon accompany a press release from Carl Lang, the President of Parti de la France.
http://www.turquieeuropeenne.eu/pitie-arretez-de-nous-parler-de-la-turquie.html
http://jeanluchau.blogspot.ca/2012/04/le-financement-de-lelargissement-de-lue.html
personal blog of Jean-Luc Hau. The cartoon is used as one of the visuals of a blog entry titled: The financing of
the enlargement of the EU - The new instrument of pre-accession assistance.
107
Figure 3.15
Bergolix 2004
Stable URL
http://bergolix.wordpress.com/2007/03/06/coup-de-pied-au-cul-et-retour-au-pays/
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_i2ew_zny5x4/tcg9mnab-ji/aaaaaaaaahi/i1npsxq4hye/s1600/mohamed41.jpg
http://ss30.livejournal.com/141041.html
(7 /10/2013) Russian blog. The cartoon is used to depict Muslims in Norway. It is published with the title:
Norwegians anonymous threatening to burn all the mosques in the country.
http://plancksconstant.org/blog1/2013/05/suspend_muslim_immigration_muslim_military_service.html
(2013) Personal blog. The carton is published with an article titled: Suspend Muslim Immigration, Muslim
Military service, and Building of Mosques.
http://www.skelbiu.ie/puikus-vaistai-nuo-smegenu-plovimo/
Lithuanian personal blog. The cartoon is published as a visual.
http://murtadinkafirun.forumotion.net/t15939-seruan-ramadan-bg-norwegia-kami-ingin-negara-terpisah
(2010) Indonesian anti-Islamist forum. The cartoon is published as a blog entry with a subtitle: Jesus raised the
dead. Turn off the life of Muhammad.
http://www.burbuja.info/inmobiliaria/temas-calientes/477536-israel-seis-dias-de-ejemplo-a-seguir-leccion-almundo-3.html
Spanish anti-islamist blog. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry which reads as: If a country as
small as Israel could crush the Muslim enemy like an ant bitch in less than six days, we joined - Spain, France,
UK, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Australia - we could do it again. Let us stop laughing!.
http://politruk.pl/iskra/
(2012) Polish personal blog. The cartoon is published with a caption that reads: No to the Islamization of
Europe.
http://dontyoubelievethehype.com/2012/12/wo-liegt-mittelerde/
(2012) German, personal blog. The cartoon is used as a blog entry under the title: Where is Middle Earth!
http://vk.com/club24806788
(2013) Russian forum. The cartoon is used as a statement by a participant with a nickname Black circle rus!.
http://svyatorus.com/politika/page/5/
Russian forum. The cartoon used as the visual of a bloggers comment: ANONYMOUS Norwegians
thunderstorm burn all mosques there.
http://vk.com/wall-33006328_369297
(2013) Russian forum. The cartoon used as the visual of a bloggers comment with a caption that reads: Two
steps from hell: Norwegian pirate.
http://keyboard09.livejournal.com/745682.html
(2012) Russian personal blog. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry with the title: European
intellectuals against Europe.
http://www.francepresseinfos.com/2012/12/leurope-sislamise-linsu-de-son-plein-gre.html
French news website. The cartoon is used at the end of an article titled: Europe being Islamized without the
knowledge of his own volition. The cartoon has a caption: The only choice.
http://ozziesaffa.blogspot.ca/2011/03/germany-hits-back-after-turkish-pm.html
(2011) The cartoon is used as the visual of an blog entry with the title: Germany hits back after Turkish PM tells
immigrants to resist assimilation.
http://www.funnyjunk.com/NSFW/funny-pictures/4944512/
(2013) Website to share funny pictures and videos. The cartoon is used as a part of a statement “It is not racist
to hate your **** religion and the nut jobs who follow it. Muslims will be removed if they keep playing race cards.
Yea, and the whole Muslim gangs raping our kids will get you castrated. Enjoy your stay in Europe, it won't
last.”
108
http://www.funnyjunk.com/Remove+kebab/funny-pictures/4925171/
is another entry from the same website above it is used under the caption: Remove the kebab.
http://www.sodahead.com/united-states/mosque-inside-pentagon-sharia-slowly-creeps-into-us/question3189701/?link=ibaf&q=&esrc=s
(2012) American Anti-Islamist web forum. The cartoon is used as a statement.
http://www.igrzyskasmiercitrylogia.fora.pl/zycie,68/multikulturalizm,1612-60.html
Polish blog.
http://www.wykop.pl/ludzie/LionK/
Polish web forum. The cartoon is used as a statement.
http://archive.4plebs.org/pol/search/image/WTaJxcnLltplatIgRL1IDw/
Discussion forum. The cartoon is used as a statement.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ydVuUO7AR48&list=LLdz40hjoSWpkND7nd3mO8Lg&index=13
The cartoon is used as the identity picture of a video uploader. The title of the video is: Leaving Radical
Libertarianism.
http://www.news-myanmar.com/2012/08/blog-post_8735.html
Burmese news website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article.
http://www.informacje.kolobrzeg.pl/kultura/item/2553-ka%C5%BCdy-inny-wszyscy-r%C3%B3wni
Polish website. The cartoon is used as the visual of a comment made in a discussion.
http://www.usmessageboard.com/religion-and-ethics/239681-islam-is-a-horrible-ideology-for-human-rights4.html
Anti-Islamist website. The cartoon is used as the visual of a commentary.
http://tomsk.fm/watch/237958
(2013) Russian discussion forum. The cartoon is used as a statement.
http://www.barenakedislam.com/2012/03/12/eu-give-me-your-tired-your-poor-your-huddled-masses-yearningto-breathe-free/
Anti-islamist website. The cartoon is one of the visuals used with an article titled: Just don’t give me your
huddled masses of Muslim parasites yearning to suck on the government teat.
http://www.forocoches.com/foro/showthread.php?t=2923366&page=2
(2012) An anti-Islamist web forum. The cartoon is used as a statement in a discussion by four different
participants.
http://budha2.blog.bg/drugi/2013/11/20/isliamyt-e-koz-v-rycete-na-iudeite-sreshtu-hristiianite-i-ci.1208958
Bulgarian blog. The cartoon is used at the end of a blog entry.
http://www.pittsreport.com/2011/05/world-dutch-court-refuses-to-dismiss-hate-speech-trial-tens-of-thousandsof-muslims-invading-europe/
(2011) Anti-Islamist website. The cartoon accompanies an article titled: FRENCH BAGHEAD doesn’t feel safe
in France, but does in the UK.
http://www.spr.ru/novosti/2013-05/evropeytsi-boyatsya-rasprostraneniya-idey-islama.html
(2013) Russian news site. The cartoon is used as the visual to a commentary responding to an article titled:
Europeans fear the spread of ideas of Islam.
http://imhoclub.lv/ru/material/islamofobija-v-evrope?act=expand
Russian news site. The cartoon is the main visual of an editorial article titled: Islam(ophobia) in Europe Myths
and Realities.
http://www.de-stek.info/forum2/index.php?topic=7510.0
Dutch web forum. The cartoon is used as a commentary statement to an article titled: Islam collaborates in
Europe.
http://fireheadsblog.blogspot.ca/2012_03_01_archive.html
(2012) Portuguese blog. The cartoon is published following a discussion about Islam legalizing pedophilia.
109
http://1389blog.com/2013/04/22/letter-writers-comment-on-boston-marathon-bombing-city-lockdown-andterrorist-blowback/
(2013) An anti-jihad webpage. Discussing Boston Marathon bombings. The cartoon is used as a commentary
of the blogger.
http://anticain.blogspot.ca/
American blog. The cartoon is used as a visual on its own.
http://www.rusimperia.info/news/id16687.html
Russian news site. The article is used with an article titled: Europeans Islamists expelled from their countries.
http://chan4chan.com/archive/tags/muslim
Chan4Chan is an image hosting site. It automatically mirrors pictures from various specific sites, and lets
visitors submit images from the web. The cartoon is published under Europa Quran section.
https://sites.google.com/site/seourpicz/1/arts-and-entertainment/gb/10/pig-cartoon-page-16
Another image hosting site. The cartoon is listed under pig cartoon section. Image caption: stubble jumping
redneck: Europa Kicks Butt!
http://twicsy.com/i/XmGEVc
Website for Twitter pictures.
https://plus.google.com/103507808574566952462/posts
Personal Gmail page. The picture is used as a posting.
http://www.stvarnost.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=6&t=8530
(2013) Discussion forum. The cartoon is published as a personal comment under the caption: How to deal with
the Turks and other nimoids.
http://nr-info.blogspot.ca/2011_08_01_archive.html(2013)
Russian blog. The cartoon is published with a caption: Problem of Islamization.
http://bajurtov.wordpress.com/tag/yihadismo/
Spanish website with the: Jewish Homeland. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: ATTACK IN
SWEDEN, OTHER "NOTICE" OF "RELIGION OF PEACE" published in 2010.
https://bajurtov.wordpress.com/2011/10/22/
Same website as above. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: VIDEO OF A COUPLE THAT
WAS ATTACKED BY MUSLIMS IN FRANCE 4.
http://bajurtov.wordpress.com/2012/11/18/
Same website as above. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: THE EUROPEAN UNION
RESPONDS TO HAMAS.
http://bajurtov.wordpress.com/2013/04/09/mondo-musulmano-vinetas/
Same Spanish website. The cartoon is used in used among other anti-islamist cartoons and images in 2013.
http://bajurtov.wordpress.com/category/humor/page/2/
Same Spanish website. The cartoon is used in used among other anti-islamist cartoons and images in 2013.
http://draco703.blogspot.ca/2011_09_01_archive.html
(2011) Spanish anti-islamist blog. The cartoon is used with a short text titled: Swiss Muslims demand that cross
national flag is removed.
http://nnm.me/blogs/shamba/page43/
Russian website. The cartoon is used to illustrate an article titled: Discussing the presence of Muslims in
Austria.
http://m.forocoches.com/foro/showthread.php?t=2879018&page=13
Spanish discussion forum. Discussion topic is the rape of a local woman by a Nigerian immigrant. The cartoon
is used as a posting by a commentator.
http://glamrap.pl/component/content/article/15359-teledysk-ymcyk-noworoczny-kac
Polish website for rap culture and Nazi supporters in Poland. The cartoon is as a comment.
110
http://francaisdefrance.wordpress.com/2010/10/03/
French blog. The cartoon is used as the visual of a news article about a criminal Algerian in France.
http://francaisdefrance.wordpress.com/tag/histoire/
16/10/2011. French blog. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: “Islamisation: pauvres enfants
Irlandais…” [Islamization; poor Irish kids].
http://mitrokhin.blogspot.ca/2012/09/ogni-giorno-migliaia-di-cristiani.html
Italian personal blog. The cartoon is used as the visual of a text explaining how Muslims slaughter innocent
Christians in Pakistan.
http://partyflock.nl/topic/1093359/page/4
Dutch forum page. The cartoon is used as an entry for the discussion topic: Draw Mohammed Day.
I http://net4game.com/topic/194330-islam-najwi%C4%99ksza-zaraza-nowego-%C5%9Bwiata/
(2011) Polish forum. The cartoon is published as a commentary under the discussion topic: Islam is the
greatest plague of the new world.
http://www.stormfront.org/forum/t844305-35/
(2012) The webmasters define their site as A website for White Nationalists who support values and heritage
the new, embattled White minority! And the cartoon is used as a posting by a visitor.
http://www.stormfront.org/forum/t791050-3/
(2011) The same site. The cartoon is used as a posting by a visitor.
http://narodowerogozno.wordpress.com/category/uncategorized/page/2/
(2013) Polish forum by Catholics supporting Nazi ideals.
http://france.eternelle.over-blog.com/article-comment-asservir-un-peuple-sur-la-terre-de-ses-ancetres-en-leculpabilisant-121370694.html
French blog. The cartoon is published with the caption: “degage!” [get lost].
http://cmex.km.ua/prikolnye-karikatury-17-01-2013.html
Russian cartoon website.
http://crusadeofthe21stcentury.blogspot.ca/2010/09/obama-new-neonaziislam-alliance.html
(2010) Spanish anti-Islamist blog. The cartoon is published under the title: Obama's new Neo-Nazi/Islam
Alliance together with other images satirizing Obama.
http://ibelieveinsyria-sanningenomislam.blogspot.ca/2010/07/what-does-world-islam-mean.html
Anti-Islamist blog. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry debating the dangers of Islam.
http://archive.foolz.us/a/thread/69667479/
Discussion forum page. The cartoon is used as the visual of a commentary.
http://www.sadistic.pl/szwecja-w-ogniu-vt200649,45.htm
Polish website.
http://vikingkitties.blogspot.ca/2010/07/saturday-pix_10.html
(2010) Personal blog. Cartoon is used among other visuals as a posting.
http://forum.hegnar.no/thread.asp?id=2126065
Norwegian forum. A participant uses the cartoon with a commentary that reads as follows: My hopes, my
dreams and greatest desires are described very well by the following illustration.
http://stalowemiasto.pl/forum/forum.php?str=1&mode=pokaz_posty&m=&id=729712
Polish forum. One participant posts the cartoon as a comment.
http://radekblazek.blog.idnes.cz/c/342589/Muslimove-rezou-lidem-hlavy-A-Evropska-unie-reguluje-bazeny.html
(2013) blog of Radek Blazek. The cartoon is the visual of an article with the title: Muslims cut people's heads.
http://malabashir1.blogspot.ca/
Persian blog. The cartoon is used among many other anti-Islamist cartoons. The Mullah head is replaced by a
public figure’s picture unknown to me.
http://hardcorowo.pl/11680_Stop_islamizacji_Europy.html
Polish blog. The cartoon is used as a commentary post under the caption: Stop Islamization of Europe.
111
http://www.chamsko.pl/39589/Stop_islamizacji_europy!
Polish blog. The cartoon is used as a commentary post under the caption: Stop Islamization of Europe.
http://webdiscover.ru/171412.html
Russian blog. The blogger uses the caption for the cartoon: Instead of a thousand words.
http://lukaszmojsiejczuk.soup.io/
Polish blog. The cartoon is used with a comment: "I'm busy. And you're ugly. Have a nice day!"
http://gladio.blogspot.ca/2012/10/fora-da-europa-o-que-nao-e-da-europa.html
(2012) Portuguese blog. The cartoon is published under the title: OUT OF EUROPE WHAT IS NOT EUROPE.
http://www.yaplakal.com/forum1/st/50/topic641602.html
Russian discussion forum. The cartoon is used as a commentary statement.
http://xnovo.wordpress.com/
Spanish blog. The cartoon is used as a visual on its own.
http://209.157.64.201/focus/f-news/2628152/posts
(2010) Discussion forum. The cartoon is used as a commentary.
http://krisak-site.ucoz.ru/news/2011-03-03
(2011) Russian news site. The cartoon accompanies an article with the title: Norway expels Chechen "writers.”
http://www.photoblog.pl/antikorper/152784279/islamizacja-europy.html
(2012) Russian blog. The cartoon accompanies an article titled: The Islamization of Europe.
http://parseundparse.wordpress.com/category/turkentum/
A website in German by exiled Iranians. The cartoon used under the title: Turkish Cultural Associations: Crime
and forced prostitution instead of international culture.
http://www.dutch.faithfreedom.org/forum/viewtopic.php?f=30&t=12336&start=225
A Dutch webpage describing itself as Movement of ex-Muslims, their sympathizers and humanists. The cartoon
is published with a sub text: Let our Dutch values retained and not squander the immigrant occupation.
http://vk.com/public33068921; http://vk.com/wall-42839401?offset=20; http://vk.com/ostgoth;
http://vk.com/id183172731; http://vk.com/id131766831; http://vk.com/club35627395;
http://vk.com/id205034604; http://vk.com/id126264047
Polish social networking site has several entries of different participants. The cartoon is used in personal pages
of different participants as a statement against the Islamization of Europe.
http://russkiy-kot.blogspot.ca/2013/06/blog-post_5.html
(2013) Russian blog. The cartoon is published under the title: Lessons of Tolerance: A compilation of good
news from abroad.
http://www.chamsko.eu/5925/STOP_ISLAMIZACJI_EUROPY.html
blog. The cartoon is published under the title: Strop Islamization of Europe.
http://eticha.dk/news/kvinder-soges/
Danish news blog. The cartoon is published with an article defending the rights of Muslim women by Danish
feminists.
https://twitter.com/no_correcto/status/339670867812429825
Spanish Twitter message using the cartoon.
http://www.obrazki.jeja.pl/tag,religia,2
Polish humour site. The cartoon is published under the title: Meanwhile in Europe.
http://vierte-reich.livejournal.com/16872.html
Ukrainian news site. The cartoon is used next to an article debating the construction of Ar-Rahma mosque in
Kiev.
http://demotivation.me/ehvwgdou1mlzpic.html#.Ur4fWvRDvoE
Russian discussion website. The cartoon is used as a commentary.
http://red-whitefun.livejournal.com/20137.html
Russian news site. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article.
112
http://megashara.com/blogs/post/1517/polozhenie_russkih_v_dagestane_uhod_rossii_s_kavkaza.html
Russian discussion forum. The cartoon used as a statement.
http://capcourageux.skyrock.com/tags/a5FrneosCDf-juifs.html
(2012) Personal blog in French.
https://plus.google.com/116457332452469661057/about
Google plus personal page Hubert Maulhofer. The cartoon is used as his Identity Picture on his page.
https://soundcloud.com/stefani-krontoft
(2013) Social networking site. Stefani Krontoft uses the cartoon as his Identity Picture.
http://forum.nie.com.pl/showthread.php?t=1646&page=187
(2012) Polish discussion forum. The cartoon is used as a statement.
http://zapytaj.onet.pl/Category/014,004/2,24660716,Co_zrobic_z_muzulmanami_w_Europie.html
Polish social networking site. The cartoon is used as a statement.
http://www.azbestus.cz/co-mi-vadi/nabozenstvi/islamizace-sveta/negativa/?more=511
(2013) Anti-Islamist website. The cartoon is published among other visuals.
http://www.nordisk.nu/gallery/index.php?n=12989
Swedish website. The cartoon is published with the subtitle: kick out the jam! Europe kicks Muhammad.
http://txt.drevle.com/mirrors/drevlepravoslavie-2012.10.23/data/t00500000405.html
Russian discussion forum. The cartoon is used as a statement.
http://ramrock.wordpress.com/2010/11/09/la-colonizacion-de-europa/
Personal blog in Spanish. The cartoon is published as a visual of an article titled: Colonization of Europe.
http://www.politikforen.net/showthread.php?107533-Der-T%C3%BCrke-und-Moslem-Kenan-Kolat-suchtStreit/page4
Discussion forum in German. The cartoon is published as an answer to an article titled: The Turk and Muslim
Kenan Kolat searches dispute.
http://lilithdoll.blogspot.ca/2010/11/niqabitch.html
(2010) Personal blog. The cartoon is used as a statement on the page.
http://actionsita.wordpress.com/page/15/
(2010) Cartoon is used as an answer to David Cameron’s supporting statements for Turkey’s EU accession.
http://www.lesfrontaliers.lu/thread/224620/vote-fn-why
French social networking and discussion webpage. The cartoon is used as an answer to a discussion about
Front National Party’s immigration policies.
http://blog.i.ua/user/3070396/566560/
Russian blog. Cartoon is posted as a propaganda material.
http://mesgrainsdesel.canalblog.com/archives/p140-10.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is used as a visual on the page discussing the place of Islam in la place
des in France.
http://www.alteundneuezeiten.de/39994.html
Personal blog in German. The cartoon is published with the caption: The passage of Europe a text discussing
why they don’t want Turks in Germany.
http://dneprovskij.livejournal.com/262568.html
Russian news blog. The article is used as a part of a commentary of one reader.
http://www.pi-news.net/2010/05/werke-zum-wir-zeichnen-mohammed-tag/
German news blog, the cartoon is used as one of the visuals with an article discussing the problem of
integration of Islam in Europe.
http://4freedoms.com/group/sweden?commentId=3766518%3AComment%3A117254&xg_source=activity
Swedish discussion forum webpage. The cartoon is used as a commentary statement.
113
http://www.tradicaoemfococomroma.com/2011_03_01_archive.html
Portuguese catholic news page. The cartoon is used as a commentary posted by a reader commenting on an
article with a caption: Europe is the Church!
http://ocruzadomissionario.blogspot.ca/2010/10/marx-e-maome-duas-porcarias-de-satanas.html
Portuguese blog. The cartoon is used with an article titled: Marx and Muhammad: Two filth of Satan.
http://www.vigrid.net/eurabia.htm
(2011) Norwegian news blog. The cartoon is published with a caption: Vigrid's role in the fight against Eurabia.
http://memebee.com/vancouver/viewtopic.php?f=2&t=42779&start=30
(2013) Canadian discussion forum. The cartoon is used by a commentator as an answer to a comment
published with the title: Whites now minority in London England.
http://www.nordisk.nu/archive/index.php/t-59777.html
Swedish website. The cartoon is used as an answer to a news article with the title: Muslim feast was celebrated
on the Swedish preschool.
http://kwejk.pl/obrazek/1843367
Polish discussion forum. The cartoon is used as a statement.
http://www.politikarena.net/showthread.php?t=19968&page=9
(2009) Political discussion forum in German. The cartoon is used several times on different postings.
http://www.partisansmarine.com/t15635-aujourd-hui-meme-l-armee-pue
Marine Le Pen’s website. The cartoon is used as commentary statements in the discussion forum.
http://fareus.wordpress.com/tag/pi/
German news website. The cartoon is used as a visual on the page.
http://skvernotvor4e.dreamwidth.org/tag/%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BC
Russian news blog. The cartoon is used as a visual of a blog entry with the title: Access to the film "Innocence
of Muslims" blocked in St. Petersburg.
http://www.mmdiesein.de/MM/2011/03/die-debatte-ist-lahm/
German News blog. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry titled: The debate "is lame.”
Figure 3.15a Bergolix (2010)
Stable URL
http://www.fairfaxunderground.com/forum/file.php?40,file=98430,filename=europa_page.jpg
http://www.loonwatch.com/2010/07/sioa-is-an-anti-muslim-hate-group/
Figure 3.16
Bergolix (2004)
Figure 3.16a Bergolix (2004)
Figure 3.16b Bergolix (2007)
Figure 3.16c Bergolix (2009)
Stable URL
http://bergolix.files.wordpress.com/2007/03/piedocul_print1.gif?w=415&h=358
This cartoon was first published in 2004 on Bergolix with supplements in order to show how it could be used at
different parts of the page, and also with different stock versions in order to define the nationality of the
Europeans kicking the Mullah. The same year Steph Bergol added this new version with a little change. In this
version the scimitar (Islamic sword) has changed position and it is covered with blood. And there is a sign next
to him that reads as Dar-ul Islam (door to Islam). The website also offered the same cartoon by placing different
public figures faces as seen below. The cartoon depicts the despotic Turkish Prime Minister, leader of the ruling
Islamist Political Party AKP.
114
Stable URL
http://bergolix.files.wordpress.com/2007/03/piedocul.gif?w=420&h=378
In 2007 this version with a green background was added to Bergolix.wordpress.com page under the title: “Coup
de pied au cul et retour au pays” [Kick in the ass and return to the country].
See also
http://bergolix.wordpress.com/2007/03/06/coup-de-pied-au-cul-et-retour-au-pays/
Stable URL
http://bergolix.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/piedocul600suisse_europe.png?w=600&h=400
In 2009, this new version of the cartoon appeared on the website under the title: “Suisses et Européens disent
NON aux minarets” [Swiss and Europeans say no to the minarets]. See
http://bergolix.wordpress.com/2009/12/07/suisses-et-europeens-disent-non-aux-minarets/
See also these websites in which these versions are used
http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=fa6_1231179139&comments=1
The cartoon is used as the identity picture of one of the readers in the comments section of the news webpage.
http://www.barenakedislam.com/2013/07/27/italy-moroccan-muslims-rob-a-church-then-defecate-and-urinateon-its-altar/
An anti-Islamist webpage using the motto It isn’t Islamophobia, when they are actually killing you. The cartoon
is used as one of the visuals of an article titled: ITALY: Moroccan Muslims rob a church, then defecate and
urinate on its altar.
http://www.barenakedislam.com/2012/08/page/8/
The same website as above, the cartoon is the visual of an article titled: GREEK PURGE! Thousands of illegal
(mostly Muslim) aliens rounded up and readied for deportation.
http://hagga.ru/forum/11-19-38
Russian forum page. The cartoon is posted as a statement by one of the participants.
http://www.yaplakal.com/forum3/topic554942.html
Russian forum webpage. The cartoon is posted as a statement by one of the participants.
http://www.forocoches.com/foro/showthread.php?t=2362787&page=2
Spanish forum webpage. The cartoon is posted as a statement by one of the participants.
https://skvitts.wordpress.com/2012/10/01/
Swedish blog with the motto: A show of justice. The cartoon is posted as one of the visuals of a blog article
titled: IKEA, Islam and reflections.
http://www.the666.com/eng310.htm
Anti-Islamist blog. The cartoon is used as one of the visuals of the page warning its readers against the
dangers of Islam.
http://gheyzhakekoli.blogspot.ca/
Persian website. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: New Year's Prayer in front of the
people not God!
https://plus.google.com/108716434791237728129/photos
Google Plus personal page. The cartoon is used as their identity picture.
http://tundratabloids.com/2013/09/turk-desire-for-eu-membership-loses-steam-new-direction-is-eastward-notwestward.html
Finnish anti-Islamist page in English. The cartoon is posted with an article titled: Turkey: Domestic goals shift
away from EU accession.
http://tundratabloids.com/2012/10/day-17-of-the-obligatory-publishing-of-a-picture-of-mohamed.html
Finnish anti-Islamist page in English. The cartoon is posted with an article titled: DAY 17 OF THE
OBLIGATORY PUBLISHING OF A PICTURE OF MOHAMED……….
115
http://tundratabloids.com/2010/10/evil-has-landed-turk-pm-erdogan-lands.html
Another entry in 2010 from the same website above. This time the cartoon is used as the visual of an article
titled: THE EVIL HAS LANDED: TURK PM ERDOGAN LANDS ON FINNISH SOIL…….
http://my.opera.com/antiislamwebsite/albums/showpic.dml?album=9563362&picture=130635472
Anti-islamist webpage by Imran Firasat. Firasat is an actual Spanish citizen is the creator of the mock movie
"The Innocent Prophet." He is facing charges of deportation to his native country Pakistan, where he faces the
death penalty. The cartoon is posted with a caption that reads: Muhammad will not be allowed to capture the
western land, culture, tradition and values. Kick Muhammad out of western world.
http://flickrhivemind.net/Tags/antiislamcartoons/Timeline
Personal anti-Islam blog. The cartoon is posted under the ‘World without Islam’ section.
http://www.ronorp.net/zuerich/forum/forum-archiv/everything-under-the-sun.13/burkaverbot.60520?page=10&hash=7c20c7f4e51ce7312aa172fce515ea6a
(2010) German discussion forum. The cartoon is posted as a part of a comment.
https://iranholland.wordpress.com/author/sashty/page/3/
Persian blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Worst nightmare prophets and saints!
http://www.sodahead.com/united-states/tennessee-imam-jews-and-christians-filthy/question3779842/?page=1&postId=111558278#post_111558278
An online community that features a combination of content creation and redistribution, providing an outlet for
people to ask questions, post breaking news of the day, and share his/her opinions on issues. The cartoon is
posted as comment to an article titled: Tennessee Imam: Jews And Christians Filthy.
http://www.sodahead.com/united-states/non-muslims-cant-use-the-word-allah-is-that-fair/question4004259/?link=ibaf&q=&esrc=s
Another posting on the same website mentioned above. The cartoon is posted as a comment to an article
criticising the ban of the word Allah to be used by non-Muslim communities in Malaysia.
http://www.sodahead.com/united-states/fbi-spying-in-mosques-is-this-discrimination-or-a-logicalprecaution/question-287243/?page=7&link=ibaf&q=&esrc=s
Another posting on the same website, this time the cartoon is posted as a commentary to an question posted
by the webmaster: Is the FBI spying on Muslims in their Mosques a logical precaution or just discrimination of
Muslims?
http://www.sodahead.com/united-states/pakistan-is-deporting-400000-afghan-muslim-refugees-and-nobodysays-a-word/question-2782609/?link=ibaf&q=&esrc=s
The same website. This time the cartoon is the visual of a posting that reads as: Pakistan is deporting 400,000
Afghan Muslim refugees and nobody says a word?
https://volksbetrugpunktnet.wordpress.com/2012/10/page/27/
German news blog. The cartoon is posted as a reaction to an article titled: Muslim patients threaten hospital
staff.
https://vk.com/wall-35730816?own=1; http://vk.com/angola; http://vk.com/id177650161; http://vk.com/wall29369324_2520806?&offset=20; http://vk.com/id187624942; http://vk.com/club49162065;
http://vk.com/club49162065
Russian social networking site has several entries of different participants. The cartoon is used in personal
pages of different participants as a statement or against the Islamization of Europe as their identity picture.
http://malaysia-tanpa-islam.blogspot.ca/2012/01/karikatur-malaysia-terbaru-nabi.html
Malay blog. The cartoon is posted among other anti-Islam cartoons.
http://photos.sulekha.com/albums/members/bilingual/slideshow/194432.htm
Indian internet and multi-utility website. The cartoon is posted in the photos section.
http://creative.sulekha.com/long-term-re-structuring-needed-from-ground-up-illegal-racist-and-fascist-settlersruining-many-nations_370080_blog
The same site uses the cartoon as the visual of two news articles: Long-Term Re-Structuring Needed From
Ground Up - Illegal Racist And Fascist Settlers Ruining Many Nations! And An Open Challenge To All
Terrorists and Wannabe Terrorists (no dates of publication is indicated).
116
http://francaisdefrance.wordpress.com/2011/10/13/le-forcene-de-forsane-alizza-recidive/
The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry discussing the 'Sharia' promoter group, Forsane Alizza
seeking to establish [strict implementation of] Sharia in W. Europe titled: Le forcené de Forsane Alizza récidive!
[The pounding of Forsane Alizza recidivism!].
http://www.erepublik.com/zh/article/propast-turske--2187487/1/20
Bosnian news blog. The cartoon is posted with a caption that reads: “This picture says more than a thousand
words” following a blog entry titled: Collapse of Turkey?
http://massageplanet.net/forum/showthread.php?70280-PLEASE-SPONSOR-ME-FOR-HUNTINGTONSFUND-RASIER-)/page4
A discussing forum. The cartoon is posted as a commentary to the discussion title: Please sponsor me for
Huntington’s fund Raiser. The cartoon is posted with the caption: Take a walk! And DON'T LET THE DOOR
HIT YOU ON THE WAY OUT! (Warning the website contains adult/sexual content.)
http://www.bloggen.be/tafelspringer/archief.php?ID=812789
Personal blog in Dutch. The cartoon is posted as a blog entry as the visual of an article titled: Islamization and
Interests.
http://forums.canadiancontent.net/international-politics/110029-chavez-defeats-wallstreet-again.html
Canadian political discussion forum online. The cartoon is posted as an answer to other commentators.
http://situsantiislamindonesia.wordpress.com/kartun-nabi-muhammad/
Indonaisian anti-Islam website. The cartoon is posted among others under the Prophet Mohammad section.
http://saintespritdeverite.e-monsite.com/pages/dossier-islam/muhammad-vu-par-l-islam.html
Anti-Islam website in French. The cartoon is posted at the end of a long article citing sins of the Prophet
Muhammad.
http://www.myjulia.ru/post/414792/
Personal blog in Russian. The cartoon is posted as a part of a blog entry.
http://www.godlikeproductions.com/forum1/message1106311/pg1
A discussion website about religion and God. The cartoon is posted as a statement in a discussion.
http://stop-islam.ucoz.com/photo/karikatury/8
Russian anti-Islam website. The cartoon is posted under the photo album section with the title: European
tolerance: the flip side.
http://jihadimalmo.blogspot.ca/2010_03_01_archive.html
Swedish blog that specializes in the areas of Islamism, terrorism, and anti-Semitism. Offering a vast archive of
over 3,000 articles (search engine located at the top of the page). The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog
entry titled: Saudi sponsors Islamist offensive in the Balkans.
http://lecanarddechaineblog.wordpress.com/category/humour-et-parodie/page/5/
French blog. The cartoon is posted among other Bergolix cartoons.
http://sheikyermami.com/islam-will-dominate-france-and-england-andy-the-zebiba-boyz-perform-outside-thefrench-embassy-in-londonistan/
(2013) An anti-jihadist news blog casting light on the nature of jihad as well as the various manifestations of
Islam the dangers of Islam. The cartoon is used as a statement after a blog entry titled: Islam Will Dominate
France and England.
http://perigoislamico.blogspot.ca/2012_05_01_archive.html
Portuguese blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: Muslim leader recorded to promote
FGM (Female Genital Mutilation).
http://koptisch.wordpress.com/2010/10/
German website. The cartoon is published as the visual of an article titled: Muslim enrichment to mess.
http://bruessel.net/?cat=1
(2009) German news website with a slogan: Eurabia - Political chants - Political Expressions. The cartoon is
posted as the visual of an article titled: You can shove your Koran up … German publisher drops novel over
fears of Muslim backlash.
117
http://france-sacree.blogspot.ca/2009/04/humour-insolite.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted among other anti-Islam cartoons.
http://www.siwel.info/Taddart-Oufella-Les-citoyens-reclament-le-depart-de-l-imam-en-poste-dans-leurvillage_a5462.html
French online news site. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: Citizens demand the departure
of Imam stationed in their village.
http://dudleysdiary.blogspot.ca/2008_03_01_archive.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Looks Like Somebody Needs Cultural
Diversity Training . . .
http://www.chemin-de-memoire-parachutistes.org/t6984p15-defile-armee-algerienne-14-juillet-2011-2012
French forum. The cartoon is posted by a participant with the caption: Réveillez-vous les amis, ont continué
lamentablement à se faire B;;;;R PAR LES BEDOUINS //////MB.[Wake up friends we are being, continued to be
miserably F;;;;; by Bedouins]
http://benillouche.blogspot.ca/2012/04/egypte-rien-ne-va-plus-par-zvi-mazel.html
French news website Jacques BENILLOUCHE, a freelance journalist based in Israel. The site includes the
analysis on Israel, Judaism, the Franco-Israeli politics and the Middle East. The cartoon is used as one of the
visuals for an article titled: EGYPT: Nothing works.
http://www.yanndarc.com/50-categorie-416280.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a poem satirizing Muslims.
http://politic-vision.space-blogs.net/blog-note/178300/l-imam.html
Personal news blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of the same poem above, satirizing Muslims, the title
of the section is: IMAM.
http://www.tribunejuive.info/international/la-chute-de-morsi-trois-enseignements
Personal blog in French by Jacques Benillouche. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry in 2013
with the title: “La chute de Morsi: Trois enseignements” [The fall of Morsi: Three lessons].
http://syriastartimes.com/417#.Ur9dLfRDvoE
Syrian news website. The cartoon is published under the section title: Main> Comics> to those who demand
freedom.
http://resistencialibia.info/?p=6283
News website on Libya in Portuguese. The cartoon is published as the visual of an article titled: Ten reasons
why imperialism must defeat Syria.
http://egyoffline.com/?m=201212&paged=8
News website in Arabic. The cartoon is the visual of an article.
http://www.wykop.pl/link/1768706/uczestnicy-muzulmanskiego-patrolu-w-londynie-skazani-na-wiezienie/
Polish website. The cartoon is posted as a commentary to an article titled: Muslim Patrol' jailed for harassing
couple holding hands and men drinking in a bid to enforce Sharia law in East London.
http://youngimmigrants.blogspot.ca/2012/02/blog-post_6195.html
Arabic website. The cartoon is used as a visual to an article.
http://el-alimoche.blogspot.ca/2010_12_01_archive.html
Personal blog in Spanish. The cartoon is posted at the end of a blog entry about Muslims.
http://biglicknews.blogspot.ca/2011/02/us-must-be-removed-from-islamic-world.html
Personal blog (USA). The cartoon is used after a declaration by the blog owner which reads as: Islam must be
removed from Christian world: David C Beach. And the caption below the cartoon reads as: Screw you!
https://plus.google.com/115836915908408847959/posts
Personal page of Google Plus. The cartoon is used as a statement.
http://www.informarexresistere.fr/2012/08/30/lesercito-siriano-libero-fsa-sponsorizzato-dalla-turchia-propendead-instaurare-un-califfato-islamico-e-non-la-democrazia-in-siria/
Italian news website. The cartoon is the main visual of an article with the title: The Free Syrian Army (FSA),
sponsored by Turkey inclined to establish an Islamic Caliphate and Democracy in Syria.
118
http://themuslimissue.wordpress.com/2013/07/23/muslims-in-second-largest-group-of-illegal-immigrants-innew-york/
American blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: Muslims in “second largest group of
illegal immigrants” in New York.
http://parti-de-la-france.forumactif.org/t1100-la-france-ne-sera-jamais-terre-dislam
Forum website of the Partie de la France de Normandie. The cartoon is used as an identity picture by one of
the participants.
http://www.pvr-zone.ca/accommodements.htm
Personal blog in French. The cartoon appears on a black background as the opening page of the blog with a
caption: Reasonable accommodation and below the cartoon there is a link that reads as: If you are not happy
with this then click here.
http://www.libertyvox.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?f=5&t=5&p=165405
French forum website. The discussion starts with a sentence: "L'islam est une religion de paix, d'amour et de
tolérance. Quiconque soutiendra le contraire, sera puni de mort!" [Islam is a religion of peace, love and
tolerance. Anyone supports the contrary, be put to death!] The cartoon is then posted as the visual of a text
discussing the terror of Islam.
http://einarlunga.wordpress.com/2011/07/24/en-norsk-samfunnstragedie-en-gal-manns-verk-eller-begge-delertanker-omkring-bakgrunnen-for-og-arsakssammenhengene-til-bombeanslaget-i-oslo-sentrum-ogskytemassakeren-pa-utoya-22-juli-2011-under/
Personal blog in Norwegian. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Wolves in Sheep's
Clothing.
http://heilgapormindthegap.blogspot.ca/2012/06/al-jazeera.html
Personal news blog in Greek. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry titled: Miserable propaganda of
Al-Jazeera and the representative of Egyptian immigrants in our country.
http://bajurtov.wordpress.com/2013/02/19/
Spanish website with the: Jewish Homeland. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: The 'Dhimmi'
David Cameron is upset that "racist threats" stopped the construction of a mosque in Chipping Norton, his
hometown.
http://www.libertyvox.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?f=5&t=548&start=690
A discussion forum online in French. The cartoon is posted as a statement to a discussion on RACISME
ANTIBLANC & ANTIFRANCE.
http://traqueotomia.blogspot.ca/2011_07_01_archive.html
Personal blog in Spanish. The cartoon is posted with a blog entry titled: SAY MUSLIMS ARE RACIST?
http://francaisdefrance.wordpress.com/tag/cavaliers-de-la-liberte/
French website uses the cartoon as the visual of an article. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry
discussing Forsane Alizza ('Sharia' promoter group, seeking to establish [strict implementation of] Sharia in W.
Europe) with the title: Goodbye, Forsane Alizza! The "riders of hate" are soon off!
http://saberpoint.blogspot.ca/2006_03_01_archive.html
Personal news blog in Spanish. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Cinnamon [a
conservative San Francisco columnist] Gets Her First Death Threat.
http://boltonbnp.blogspot.ca/2012/04/go-greece-rounding-up-and-deporting.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: GO GREECE! Rounding up and deporting
illegal aliens, the majority: Muslims.
http://www.theodoresworld.net/terrorists/
Personal blog in English. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Iran Makes More Threats.
http://francisf.canalblog.com/archives/2006/02/09/1345755.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is used as a visual to the main message of the blogger: For my moslem
readers in Europe. My Europe, you love her or you go away !!!
119
http://draco703.blogspot.ca/2006_02_01_archive.html
Personal blog in Spanish The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: The Islamic Board requests
Zapatero the cathedral of Cordoba is open to Muslim worship.
http://atheistakan.blogspot.ca/2010_12_01_archive.html
Persian website of the Iranian Kurdish Atheist Society (IKAS or Atheistakan). The cartoon is used with the
caption: This is what we need to do with the Muslims!
http://vahidfathi77.blogspot.ca/2013/01/blog-post_1959.html
A personal blog in Persian supporting the Iranian and Syrian Coalition for Khameini’s Hague Trial. The cartoon
is posted as the visual of a blog entry.
http://www.forumfr.com/sujet23725-pourquoi-l-islam-a-des-chances-de-triompher.html
A personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as a statement against Jihad in the comments section of a
blog entry discussing the violence of Islam.
http://ripostelaique.com/valls-annonce-quil-va-exclure-plusieurs-imams-radicaux-les-islamistes-tremblent.html
News website in French. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: [Manuel] Valls annonce qu’il va
exclure plusieurs imams radicaux: les islamistes tremblent.[ Valls said he would exclude several radical imams:
Islamists tremble.]
http://sinpelospuntocom.blogspot.ca/
Personal blog in Spanish. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: What Muslims do not
understand.
http://www.eco-chemins.ch/liens.html
A personal blog on ecology and environmental issues. The blogger shares important web links with his readers.
The cartoon appears as the visual of the weather forecast link
http://www.landi.ch/fra/0804_niederschlagsradar.asp although it has nothing to do with the topic.
http://infos.fncv.com/tag/S%C3%A9curit%C3%A9/page/2
Website for volunteers in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: Security - Terrorism: A
radical Islamist Tunisian advocating Jihad expelled from France.
http://angelforisrael.wordpress.com/2013/10/12/obama-administration-proposes-2300-page-new-constitution/
A Jewish activist website with the motto: taking back America. The cartoon is used as one of the main visuals
of the page.
http://sandagira.blogspot.ca/2011_02_01_archive.html
A personal blog in Tamil or Sinhala. The cartoon is posted as a visual of a blog entry.
http://outroslusofonos.blogs.sapo.pt/2008/07/?page=2
Personal blog in Portuguese. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry in 2008 with the title: Finished
well, Fatima returned in the arms of an Italian mother. At the end of the article the cartoon is posted with a
special caption in red that reads as: Catch the camels and go home, Arab, Europe does not need you.
http://laurentgbagbo.wordpress.com/page/6/
A personal news blog about Ivory Cost in French. The cartoon is posted with the caption: “Degage!” [Get lost]
at the end of a blog entry about Libya and Kaddafi.
http://alwaie.com/News/Details.aspx?News_ID=1895
Personal news blog in Arabic. The cartoon is the visual of an article titled: Yemeni writer reveals the
interdependence of political tyranny and religious tyranny.
http://perigoislamico.blogspot.ca/2011_02_01_archive.html
Personal blog in Portuguese. The cartoon is posted as a solution to Islamophobia.
http://inbijbelsperspectief.weebly.com/de-islam-in-europa-godsdienst-van-terreur-en-dood.html
Dutch website (Biblical Perspective). The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry discussing the dangers
of political Islam in Europe.
120
http://www.postedeveille.ca/2012/09/le-canada-ferme-son-ambassade-en-iran-et-expulse-les-diplomatesiraniens-du-canada.html
Canadian blog. The cartoon is the visual of an article titled: Canada closed its embassy in Iran and expelled
Iranian diplomats from Canada.
http://club.doctissimo.fr/nidhogg/ghgfhg-418583/photos.html
A personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted in the Photos section.
http://tclehner.wordpress.com/tag/diversity/
Personal blog (USA). The cartoon is posted at the conclusion section of a blog entry discussing the evils of
Islam in the USA with a caption: Kick Islam out!
http://mufaker.org/?p=7813
Personal blog in Arabic. The cartoon is used as the identity picture of a commentator.
http://www.iranglobal.info/node/2824
Iran Global website is an electronic journal that covers news and publishes analytic articles for Iranian people.
The cartoon is posted under the caption: The dog owner knows the Islamic Republic.
http://vapsid.weebly.com/votildeitlus-euroopa-eest.html#.UsCKavRDvoE
Estonian website. The cartoon is posted as one of the main visuals of the page on the right side of the page.
http://friendfeed.com/bolbol1/likes; http://friendfeed.com/andisheh1/comments
Persian social networking page. The cartoon is a post by several members of the site.
http://ejbron.wordpress.com/2013/04/15/emmet-scott-mohammedanisme-is-het-oergif-in-europas-aderen/
Dutch website. The cartoon is posted next to a commentary responding to an article titled: Islam is the poison in
Europe's veins.
http://departmentoffreespeech.net/wordpress/?page_id=329
Australian blog encouraging Australians to take control of their political environments. The cartoon is posted on
the Images section among other anti-Islam jokes and visuals.
https://www.facebook.com/pages/LEuropa-%C3%A8-cristiana-non-musulmana/142983399070459
Facebook page in Italian with the motto: Europe is Christian, not Muslim. The cartoon is used as the Identity
picture of this community.
https://www.facebook.com/serdar.eh2
Another Facebook page. The cartoon is used as the Identity picture of the owner.
https://www.facebook.com/pages/Anti-Islamic-Jokes/149509355089532?sk=photos
Largest collection of Anti-Islamic Jokes on Facebook. The cartoon is posted among other anti-Islam jokes.
https://www.facebook.com/pages/Anti-Islamic-Jokes/149509355089532?ref=share
The same page as above. But in this version the cartoon is used as the identity Picture of the group supporting
the page.
https://www.facebook.com/ommateljahl
The cartoon is posted as the identity picture of a Facebook member.
https://m.facebook.com/kcha.tarane?v=feed&filter=13&_rdr
Facebook page in Persian. The cartoon is posted as a Facebook entry in the Photos section.
http://uniscontreennadha.blogspot.ca/2012/09/qui-tue-le-commandant-massoud.html
Tunisian personal blog in French created to oppose the Islamist Tunisian Political Party "Ennahdha." The
cartoon is used as a message to the party’s leader Rached Ghannouchi.
http://muslim-murtad.blogspot.ca/2012_12_11_archive.html
Indonesian website against Islamic fundamentalism defending that “Muslims are the first victims of Islam ... and
liberate them from his religion is the best thing we can do" (Ernest Renan). The cartoon is used by one of the
members in a posting in which he explains how he became anti-Islamist.
http://diskusijos.patriotai.lt/viewtopic.php?f=32&t=2678
Lithuanian website. The cartoon is posted. But it is not possible to see it unless one becomes a member of the
group.
121
http://2ch-b.ru/2013/12/23/nu-tak-che-tam-s-kavkazom-iaschitaiu-etot-huj-voobsche-ohuel-net-on59437850.html
Russian discussion forum. The cartoon is posted as a commentary.
http://ipv6.elakiri.com/forum/member.php?tab=friends&u=30488&pp=10&page=3
Sri Lankan online community. The cartoon is used as a vignette on a page.
http://awans-memoire-et-vigilance.skynetblogs.be/archive/2009/02/16/crise-bancaire.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as a part of a blog entry.
http://www.nordisk.nu/gallery/index.php?n=7306
Swedish forum page. The cartoon is posted in the Photos section.
http://www.politikarena.net/showthread.php?t=15330
German discussion forum. The cartoon is used as the Identity picture of a participant.
http://www.ankawa.com/forum/index.php?topic=278795.0
A discussion forum in Arabic. The cartoon is used as a commentary by a participant.
http://ramrock.wordpress.com/2010/08/01/el-islam-como-religion-las-sectas/islamkk13/
Personal blog in Spanish. The cartoon is used as a visual on a page.
http://peterpansparadijs.blogspot.ca/2012_01_01_archive.html
Personal blog in Dutch. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry titled: Disturbance.
http://forum.magicmaman.com/votrevie/Maisonetquotidien/trouver-smeily-grand-sujet-3677614-1.htm
Discussion forum in French. The cartoon is posted as a commentary by a participant.
http://junkererwin.wordpress.com/2010/05/08/atterrissage-d%E2%80%99urgence-a-cause-d%E2%80%99uneburqa/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted with a blog entry discussing the ban on burqa.
http://paloque.wordpress.com/2013/07/11/232/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry.
http://www.webnews.de/680707/letzte-chance-vertan
German news website. The cartoon is used as an identity picture by a reader commenting.
http://nemesisnecro.skyrock.com/2338168305-MESSAGE-DESTINER-AU-BOUKAKE-traduction-branleurequipe-de-lacoste.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry.
http://tatyana-phoenix.livejournal.com/71255.html
Personal blog in Russian. The cartoon is used as an Identity picture by a reader commenting on illegal
immigration.
Figure 3.17
Bergolix (2007/01): La Turquie est la bienvenue en Europe !…
Stable URL
http://bergolix.files.wordpress.com/2007/01/loupturc3_print.gif?w=400&h=216
See also
http://twicsy.com/u/Lilounat/skip/10
Figure 3.17a Bergolix (2007/01): Loup Turc
Turquie en Europe = le loup dans la bergerie.
Stable URL
http://bergolix.files.wordpress.com/2007/01/loupturc3.jpg?w=400&h=232
122
http://www.dreuz.info/2013/12/droit-au-logement-les-immigres-clandestins-vont-pouvoir-lexiger-merci-cecileduflot/
News website in French. The cartoon is posted as a visual for an article titled: Right of accommodation: illegal
immigrants will be able to require one, thank you Cécile Duflot –.
http://www.lesobservateurs.ch/2013/12/08/droit-au-logement-les-immigres-clandestins-vont-pouvoir-lexigermerci-cecile-duflot/
The same article posted on the previous website is published on this news website with the same imagery.
http://coranix.org/106/106n50.htm
French website. The cartoon is posted as a visual.
http://maxpark.com/community/4391/content/1892014
Personal blog in Russian. The cartoon is posted with a blog entry titled: That's why Obama is coming.
http://volnodum.livejournal.com/649884.html?thread=9332892&
Personal blog in Russian. The cartoon is posted among other visuals under the title Offending religious
feelings.
http://vk.com/wall-15755094_2971042?&offset=80
Russian social networking site has several entries of different participants. The cartoon is used in personal
pages of different participants as a statement or against the Islamization of Europe as their identity picture.
http://koptisch.wordpress.com/2012/10/20/
News blog for the Copts [the native Christians of Egypt]. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry titled:
Scratches On The Christian Image Of The Nation.
http://iranpoliticsclub.net/cartoons/steph-bergol1/
Iranian news and social networking website. The cartoons of Bergolix (Steph Bergol) are posted in English.
http://jean-marielebraud.hautetfort.com/archive/2013/week50/index.html
The website of Jean Marie Lebraud. The cartoon is posted as one of the visuals for his blog entry.
http://legauloisdechaine.blog.lemonde.fr/2013/07/03/traite-avec-les-americains-puce-rfid-vaccinations-etsurveillance-mondiale-danger/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is used as a visual on the page discussing the side effects of a flu
vaccination.
http://vk.com/club3767135; http://vk.com/club49162065
Russian social networking site. The cartoon is used on the Armenian Hate page ANTI-TURKEY created by
Armenians. The page is full of sexual images and hate messages.
Figure 3.17b Bergolix (2011/9): France Belgique Europe tremblent devant Islam!
Stable URL
http://bergolix.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/france_belgique_europe_tremblent_devant_islam.png?w=400&h=232
Russian anti-Turkish site.
http://vk.com/club3767135
http://francaisdefrance.wordpress.com/tag/etat-major-general-de-larmee-de-terre/
(2011) Caption: La "donne" va changer….[The "we" will change ....]
http://france-sacree.blogspot.ca/2009/04/humour-insolite.html
Another page where most of our Bergolix cartoons are exposed too.
http://fr.altermedia.info/general/erdogan-a-paris-prone-lintegration-se-prononce-contre-lassimilation_28817.html
(2010) An article about erdogan.
http://www.brukselhaber.be/go.php?go=3170898&do=details&return=summary&pg=1
Turkish website.
http://snesup.caen.free.fr/spip.php?rubrique32
Université de Caen. The cartoon of the wolf is used without its turban.
123
Figure 3.17c Front National (2009)
Stable URL
http://bergolix.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/france_belgique_europe_tremblent_devant_islam.png?w=400&h=232
See also
http://www.voxfnredekker.com/archives/2013/10/21/28261023.html
Political blog de Yann Redekker member of the National Front Party. The poster is used as the visual of an
article titled: EU will reopen accession negotiations with Turkey.
Figure 3.17d Le partie de la France (2011)
Stable URL
http://idata.over-blog.com/2/94/47/61/turquie.jpg
http://pdf95.over-blog.com/article-l-islam-et-l-occident-42513172.html
Figure 3.18
COX & FORKUM (2010)
Stable URL
http://www.armenews.com/IMG/arton87307-441x336.gif
http://img687.imageshack.us/img687/940/islamismeturquie.gif
http://jssnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/islamismeturquie.gif
This cartoon satirizes the Turkish flag and criticizes the Islamization of Turkey. Yet it is used to depict other
Muslim countries and Muslims in general.
See also
http://mbrindleydesign.blogspot.ca/2010/11/headliners.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as an anti-Turkish propaganda visual.
http://www.theapricity.com/forum/showthread.php?46838-Anatolian-Turks-amp-Turkey/page9
A discussion forum online. The cartoon posted as a response to a comment published by the webmaster.
http://www.antinews.gr/2011/09/13/121933/
Greek news website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: Turkey loses in Aegean and
Mediterranean?
http://antinomica.blogspot.ca/2013/06/turkey-builds-super-mosque-in-maryland.html
Personal blog from USA. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry depicting the dangers of the Islamist
AKP party, and spread of Islamism in Turkey.
http://hakimiyetimilliye.org/2012/02/aydinlar-ocagindan-cemaate-turkiyede-duzenin-hegemonya-arayisi-fatihyasli/
Turkish news website. Uses the cartoon as the visual of an article discussing the Islamization of Turkey.
http://www.picstopin.com/520/18-november-2011-the-dangers-ofallah/http:%7C%7Cactforamerica*files*wordpress*com%7C2011%7C11%7Cturkey_islamism*gif/
An image provider website posted this cartoon under the title: 18 November 2011 The Dangers Of Allah
Picture.
http://www.pi-news.net/2011/07/re-islamisierung-der-turkei-auf-vollen-touren/
German news website. The cartoon is posted as the main visual of an article with the title: Re-Islamization of
Turkey in full swing.
http://vk.com/event52539792
Russian social networking site. The cartoon is used on the special page dedicated to the Society of AzerbaijaniJewish friendship (OAED). The cartoon is posted as a response to a Turkish commentator defending Ataturk
and his reforms.
124
http://www.euroislam.pl/index.php/2013/05/dlaczego-jestem-przeciwna-islamistom-w-europie/
Polish news website. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: Why I am against the Islamists in
Europe.
http://www.euroislam.pl/index.php/2011/08/turcja-wciaz-blizej-islamizmu/
Polish new website. The cartoon is the visual of an article titled: Turkey still closer to Islamism.
http://www.euroislam.pl/index.php/2012/11/turcja-nie-jest-rozwiazaniem-problemow-europy/
The same website as above uses the same cartoon for another article published one year later. The title is:
Turkey is not a solution to Europe's problems.
http://www.sodahead.com/united-states/obama-preparing-for-islamists-sharia-in-middle-east/question1564129/?link=ibaf&q=&esrc=s
An online community that features a combination of content creation and redistribution, providing an outlet for
people to ask questions, post breaking news of the day, and share his/her opinions on issues. The cartoon is
posted as comment to an article titled: Obama preparing for Islamists, sharia in Middle East.
http://www.sodahead.com/united-states/why-did-the-veterans-today-become-a-nest-of-anti-semites-911conspiracy-theorists-and-other-bigot/question-1706713/?link=ibaf&q=&esrc=s
The same website as above. The cartoon is used as the identity picture of a participant in a discussion.
http://joshuapundit.blogspot.ca/2011/02/turkeys-erdogan-purges-military.html
Personal blog against Islamist Jihad. The article is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Turkish PM
Erdogan Consolidates His Islamist Regime By Purging The Military.
http://francaisdefrance.wordpress.com/2009/12/15/
French website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article about the protest at the Embassy of France in
Turkey following the publication of a portrait representing Nicolas Sarkozy, in the guise of Adolf Hitler. The
article’s title is: Turkey: The Vatan newspaper lectured by France. And for good reason.
http://townhall.com/political-cartoons/coxforkum/2007/07/23/18602
Town hall Magazine is an online monthly conservative magazine. The cartoon is posted in the cartoons section.
http://fa.merc.ir/View/tabid/127/ArticleId/944/.aspx
Persian news website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an editorial titled: Turkish Islamist militants and
government failure.
http://www.armenews.com/article.php3?id_article=87307
Armenian news website in French. The cartoon is used as the visual of an editorial article titled: Majority of the
Germans opposed to the accession of Turkey into the EU (survey).
http://wwwpopblogger.blogspot.ca/2011/09/islamization-of-turkey-iii.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: The Islamization of Turkey III.
http://www.diplomat.am/publ/region/8
Armenian news website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an editorial article titled: RADICAL Islam's cloud
boomerang, criticising Turkish Islamists’ dream of becoming a leader of the Arab and the Islamic world.
http://wowturkey.com/forum/viewtopic.php?p=1657193
Turkish discussion forum. The cartoon is posted with the caption: Europe’s perception of Turkey.
http://thefederalist-gary.blogspot.ca/2012/07/islamists-keep-turkish-woman-off-bus.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as one of the visuals of a blog entry titled: Islamists keep Turkish woman
off a bus.
http://mangoditreviso.blogspot.ca/2010/09/turchia-vincono-gli-islamisti-e-la.html
Personal blog in Italian. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Turkey, the Islamists won and
the press was wrong [in their forecast].
http://www.jewishpolicycenter.org/blog/2010/10/turkey-then-and-now
The website of The Jewish Policy Center, a non-profit organization. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an
article debating the Islamization of Turkey by the Islamist ruling party. The title of the article is: Turkey then and
now.
125
http://lukaslhotan.blog.idnes.cz/c/228210/Bude-jednou-z-brnenskeho-Petrova-mesita.html
Personal blog in Czech. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry discussing the Intolerance of the
Turkish Islamist and the Muslim population in Czech Republic.
https://www.awsatnews.net/?m=201312&paged=4
Personal blog in Spanish. The cartoon is the visual of an article titled: The ultra-Islam, like all extremes,
democracy is eaten, as in the flag of Turkey.
http://rksmb.org/archive.php?MyYear=2008&MyMonth=03
Russian website. The webmasters define themselves as the semi-official newspaper for the Revolutionary
Communist Youth League. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: Communists Turkey - on the
trial of the ruling party.
http://beforeitsnews.com/eu/2013/10/islam-has-always-produced-islamists-wahhabis-2538386.html
News website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: Islam Has Always Produced Islamists &
Wahhabis.
http://beforeitsnews.com/opinion-conservative/2013/12/congress-to-ankara-no-china-interoperability-with-usmoney-2770832.html
The same website uses the cartoon two months later as the visual of another article about Turkey. The title of
the article is: Congress to Ankara: No China interoperability with US money.
http://beforeitsnews.com/opinion-conservative/2013/05/the-islamization-of-turkey-rabia-kazan-2654532.html
The same site uses the cartoon for another news visual titled: The Islamization Of Turkey-Rabia Kazan.
http://xesemesa.blogspot.ca/2011_11_01_archive.html
News website in Greek. The cartoon is used as the visual of a news article titled: Does Turkey really want to
join the EU?
http://helleniclegion.blogspot.ca/2011_08_14_archive.html
Personal news blog in Greek. The cartoon posted as the visual of an article titled: Turkey loses in Aegean and
Mediterranean?
http://sultanknish.blogspot.ca/2010/06/how-european-tolerance-islamized-turkey.html
Personal blog by Daniel Greenfield. The cartoon is used as one of the visuals of his article titled: How
European tolerance Islamized Turkey.
http://www.womenagainstshariah.com/2010/02/government-sponsored-terror-squad.html
An activist blog for Women Against Sariah group trying to prevent and outlaw the imposition of Sariah law in the
United States. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: Government sponsored terror Squad
killing Assyrians, other minorities in Turkey.
http://ivan-2-google.blogspot.ca/2009_01_01_archive.html
Personal news blog in Greek. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: Turkey-Terrorists and
Deep State.
http://docstalk.blogspot.ca/2011/12/education-jihad-comes-to-america-via.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: EDUCATION JIHAD Comes to America
via Turkish Gulen Charter Schools Funded by YOU!
http://www.barenakedislam.com/2013/11/01/kemal-ataturk-founder-of-modern-secular-turkey-is-rolling-in-hisgrave-at-news-that-the-ban-on-islamic-headgear-in-public-has-now-been-lifted/
An anti-Islam blog using the motto It isn’t Islamophobia, when they are actually killing you. The cartoon is used
as one of the visuals of an article titled: Kemal Ataturk, founder of modern, secular Turkey is rolling in his grave,
at news that the ban on Islamic headgear in public has now been lifted.
http://theboldcorsicanflame.wordpress.com/2010/11/20/
Personal news blog. The cartoon is used as one of the visuals of an article titled: Letter of a Turkish girl afraid
of Islam and the US support Islamist get in her country.
http://marialeroux1.clicforum.fr/t109-PREPARER-LA-SOCIETE-DU-FUTUR-PARTIE-2-P-1.htm
A discussion forum online. The cartoon is posted by a participant as the visual of his comment referring to an
article we mentioned above with the title: EDUCATION JIHAD COMES TO AMERICA VIA TURKISH GULEN
CHARTER SCHOOLS FUNDED BY YOU!
126
http://rzymski-katolik.blogspot.ca/2012_04_02_archive.html#
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as a visual of a blog entry titled: The dialogue with Islam.
http://news.ge/ge/search/index?q=%E1%83%97%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%
83%97%E1%83%98&c-search=&date-range-from=&date-range-to=&per_page=650
Georgian news website. The cartoon is used several times on different articles.
http://www.funnyjunk.com/Got+this+request+at+work+yesterday/funny-pictures/4835427/
The cartoon is posted by a participant with the caption: Someone might take this the wrong way.
http://lithosfotos.blogspot.ca/2012_10_03_archive.html
Personal news blog in Greek. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: Turkey to Iraq: "You cannot
throw us out!"
http://www.frie-ytringer.com/2011/01/19/den-islamske-tsunami/
Norwegian news blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: The Islamic tsunami.
http://elladanea.gr/%CE%BF%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%8D%CF%80%CF%81%CE%B9%
CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%80%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BD-%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84/
Greek news website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: Turkish Cypriots reject the
counterproposal Anastasiadis. There is a fair solution to the arrogance of the Ottoman Turks, take the decision.
http://ed-hleias.blogspot.ca/2013/06/blog-post_28.html
Greek news blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: OSO WANT OUR cursing the Turks.
http://www.pittsreport.com/2013/10/politics-republicans-are-pulling-a-putin-and-spanking-obama/
English news website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: Following the suicidal path taken by
deposed Egyptian dictator, Mohamed Morsi, Turkish PM Recep Erdogan lifts the decades-old ban on hijab
(head bags).
http://www.aljaml.com/
Arabic news website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: Two myths about Turkish
Secularism.
http://ivan-2-google.blogspot.ca/2008_12_22_archive.html
Personal news blog in Greek. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: Balkans and Islamic Turkey.
http://theenglishdefenceleagueextra.blogspot.ca/2010/09/trotskyist-islamophilia-madness-of-swps.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Trotskyist Islamophilia: The Madness of
the SWP’s Love of Islam.
http://midnightwatcher.wordpress.com/2012/06/10/
News blog. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: Turkey: New Law Requires Islamic Prayer
Rooms In All Shopping Malls, Movie Theaters, And Other Public Spaces.
http://www.pdfcentre.fr/index-3.html
Partie de La France (Party of France) website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article about Tunisia
although the cartoon depicts the Turkish flag. The title of the article is: In Tunisia, the priority is the proliferation
of mosques.
http://blogs.eliamep.gr/gkonstan/to-anadiomeno-islamiko-kefaleo-stin-tourkia-%E2%80%93-o-rolos-toukinimatos-tou-f-gkioulen/
Personal news blog by George Constantinides. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled as: The
emerging Islamic capital in Turkey - the role of movement by F. Gulen.
http://www.turquieeuropeenne.eu/petite-histoire-de-la-reislamisation-de-la-turquie.html
Turkish website supporting the EU accession of Turkey. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled:
Little History of the re-Islamization of Turkey.
127
https://plus.google.com/105915312808173035110/posts
Google Plus personal page. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a news article the page owner linked in a
posting.
Figure 3.19
Bergolix (2007/10): Drapeau de la république islamique Française
(Francistan)
Bergolix (2013/03): ‘Une deuxième mère de soldat français assassiné par
Merah, impose son voile’
Bergolix (2013/03): La comédienne Sophie Guillemin s’est convertie à
l’Islam… Depuis, elle galère!
Stable URL
http://bergolix.files.wordpress.com/2007/10/drapisla.jpg?w=450&h=405
http://winkabarkyaw2.blogspot.ca/2011/11/blog-post_17.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry discussing Islamization of France.
http://charles34.canalblog.com/ http://winkabarkyaw2.blogspot.ca/2011/11/blog-post_17.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as a statement alongside with other cartoons from www.bergolix.com.
http://francaisdefrance.wordpress.com/tag/le-prefet-moutouh/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: The "Council of French
Muslims Free" will see the light ...
http://francaisdefrance.wordpress.com/category/voile/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Green is green ... Christmas
Ma mère favor of the burqa.
http://francaisdefrance.wordpress.com/2010/05/04/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: The true face of Latifa "scarf"
Ibn Ziaten.
http://francaisdefrance.wordpress.com/tag/le-prefet-moutouh/
The "Council of French Muslims Free" will see the light.
https://francaisdefrance.wordpress.com/2011/01/17/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Net, clear and free of burrs.
http://therese-zrihen-dvir.over-blog.com/article-l-egorgement-des-chretiens-suite-107499157.html
http://symbolic-mirage.blogspot.ca/2013/07/back-when-france-was-cool.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Back when France was Cool.
http://www.hgsavinagiac.com/article-interdiction-du-voile-a-l-ecole-en-france-entre-1989-et-2004-retour-surimages-voile-islamique-integral-et-burqa-debat-geopolitique-3eme-article-53752615.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: PROHIBITION OF THE VEIL IN
SCHOOLS IN FRANCE BETWEEN 1989 AND 2004. BACK TO IMAGES: ISLAMIC VEIL AND INTEGRAL
BURQA, DEBATE GEOPOLITIQUE (3rd article).
http://www.fdesouche.com/tag/alain-gresh
Personal blog of François Desouche or is a news review blog supporting French nationalism. The cartoon is the
visual of an article titled: The economic crisis is increasing Islamophobia.
http://www.debriefing.org/28630.html
News website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: Egypt: Obama's impeachment, which
defends the veil, the betrayal of Hillary Clinton, who wears it.
http://national-communisme-brigade-13.hautetfort.com/archives/2009/05/index-2.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: “TOUT RACISME MIS A PART, C'EST
D'UN COURANT RELIGIEUX DONT IL EST QUESTION” [Besides all racism the question is of a the actual
religious movement].
128
http://therese-zrihen-dvir.over-blog.com/article-l-egorgement-des-chretiens-suite-107499157.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: L'égorgement des chrétiens
(suite)[The slaughter of Christians (continued)].
http://www.shalom-israel.info/?tag=2012&paged=5
Jewish website in French publishes the same article (above) The slaughter of Christians (continued) with the
same visuals.
http://www.barenakedislam.com/2012/page/135/
An anti-Islam blog using the motto: It isn’t Islamophobia, when they are actually killing you. The cartoon is used
as one of the visuals of an article titled: The French Jihad has begun. First they came for the Jews…
http://www.frontpress.ro/2011/03/numarul-real-al-musulmanilor-din-franta-studiu.html
Romanian news website. The article is used as the visual of an article titled: The actual number of Muslims in
France – study.
http://laconnectrice.wordpress.com/tag/khimar/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Le Nouvel Observateur does
not want Muslim women to emancipate the Islamic veil.
http://incarnation.blogspirit.com/archive/2009/12/index.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: After the parliamentary
mission, after the Swiss vote, nothing will be as before.
http://ripostelaique.com/La-loyaute-des-Francais-musulmans.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: The loyalty of French
Muslims mythologized by an Islamic website oumma.com
http://ripostelaique.com/Graulhet-le-fascisme-vert-est-a-l.html
The same blog uses the same cartoon for a different article titled: “Graulhet: le fascisme vert est à l’oeuvre
dans votre commune, M. le maire” [Graulhet: green fascism is at work in your town, the mayor].
http://alwtogether.com/always-together/ru/politicru/%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B5-%D0%BD%D0%B5-%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC/
Russian-American Community website, in Russian. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled:
France: Islamic future is not far off?
http://zoonpolitikon2.blogspot.ca/2010/01/pourquoi-je-suis-francais-gen-maurice.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Why am I French?
http://iranian.com/posts/view/post/23940
An Iranian website in English bringing light to human right violations and Iranian civilians unjustly imprisoned by
the Islamic Republic of Iran regime. The cartoon is used a statement with the caption: Mad as heck.
http://topwar.ru/24736-franciya-islamskoe-buduschee-ne-za-gorami.html
Russian news blog. The cartoon is used as the visual of an entry titled: France: Islamic future is not far off?
http://www.bloggen.be/nojihad/archief.php?ID=715106
Belgian news website in Dutch. The cartoon is the visual of an article titled: Pupil furious after criticizing Al
Qaeda.
http://renaissance44.hautetfort.com/archives/tag/justice/index-1.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry titled: France: Terror in the bakery.
https://vk.com/wall-53161342?own=1
Social networking site, personal page. The cartoon is used as a part of a comment posted.
http://vk.com/wall-36576923?own=1
Same website as above. The cartoon is used as a part of a comment posted.
129
http://thebodyoftruth.wordpress.com/2012/09/10/veil-wearing-muslim-woman-faces-penalty-for-biting-frenchpoliceman/
Georgian website in English. The Body of Truth is a on-line organization opposed to Islamic Conquest, Sharia
law, The Islamization of countries and its encroachment on Western Values, Freedom of speech, Culture. The
cartoon is used as the visual of a news article titled: Veil Wearing Muslim Woman Faces Penalty for Biting
French Policeman.
http://thebodyoftruth.wordpress.com/2012/08/24/france-seeks-to-reclaim-islamic-no-go-zones-for-non-muslims/
The same website uses the same cartoon for another article titled: France Seeks to Reclaim Islamic ‘No-Go’
Zones For non-Muslims.
http://www.pittsreport.com/2011/11/sequestered-cuts-will-decimate-the-department-of-defense/
English news website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: WOO HOO! Yet ANOTHER antiMuslim attack on a French mosque.
http://www.coranix.org/110/110_2.htm
Anti-Islam website uses the cartoon among other Bergolix flag cartoons as a visual while defending the
dangers of Quran (Holy book of Muslim faith).
http://upplysningscentralen.wordpress.com/2013/04/page/2/
Personal anti-Islam blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Why are French Jews
leaving France?
http://www.euroislam.pl/index.php/2011/04/przywodcy-religijni-przeciwko-debacie-o-swieckosci-panstwa/
Polish news website. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: The religious leaders against a
debate on secularism.
http://necyklopedie.wikia.com/wiki/Francie
Czech Wiki page. The cartoon is one of the main visuals posted on this site with a caption: French pride and
patriotism.
http://dorajaron.blogspot.ca/2012_10_21_archive.html
Personal blog in Spanish. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry titled: USA: The Rise of Anti-Islam
campaign.
http://www.jaffnamuslim.com/2012/02/blog-post_4649.html
Indonesian website in Tamil. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: France opens its first
Muslim maiyawati.
http://www.subito-invenio.org/wordpress/?p=1096
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Atmosphere of civil war.
http://www.la-meilleure.com/nous-avouons-la-france-raciste-naime-pas-taubira-a-cause-de-nous/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as visual with no text.
Figure 3.19a Bergolix (2011/11): Drapeau de la République Islamique Belge (Belgistan)
Stable URL
http://www.frontpress.ro/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/belgia-islamista-FRONTPRESS-350x315.jpg
See also
http://jssnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/republique-islamique-de-belgique.jpg
http://lesalonbeige.blogs.com/my_weblog/2011/11/-liris-et-le-croissant-ou-bruxelles-la-musulmane.html
Belgian secular-Catholic website. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: “The Iris and The
Crescent” or the Muslim Bruxelles.
http://midnightwatcher.wordpress.com/2012/05/09/belgium-authorities-cope-to-struggle-with-muslim-crimewave/
Personal news blog against radical Islam. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: Belgium:
Authorities Cope To Struggle With Muslim Crime Wave.
130
http://gilles-lussier.over-blog.com/article-isre-112255903.html
Personal blog In French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry titled: Holland considers the foreign
vote "for 2013" He should look in Belgium, he might change his mind?
http://justice.skynetblogs.be/archives/2012/07/index-2.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry titled: ISLAM AND DEMOGRAPHY
IN EUROPE.
http://extremecentre.org/2010/01/page/3/
A website describing themselves as being against, fascism, communism, anti-Americanism, anti-Semitism,
racism, bureaucracy, totalitarianism and Islamofascism. The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled:
Questions of Allah one: the lost territories of the Kingdom of Belgium.
http://sitamnesty.wordpress.com/2013/01/13/invitation-a-la-conversion-a-lislam-au-roi-des-belges/
The website for SITA (Sensibilisation à l'Islam Tous Azimut). The cartoon is posted as the visual of a letter to
the King of Belgium. The article titled: Invitation to conversion to Islam to the King of the Belgians.
http://renaissance44.hautetfort.com/archive/2008/05/29/belgique-a-schaerbeek-un-exorcisme-islamique-vireau-meurtre.html
Personal blog. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry titled: Belgium: At Schaerbeek an Islamic
exorcism turns to murder.
http://renaissance44.hautetfort.com/index-6.html
The same blog as above. The same cartoon is used for another blog entry titled: Belgium / Brussels: Rape in
full train ... Nobody interfered.
http://necyklopedie.wikia.com/wiki/Belgie
Wikipage in Czech language describing Belgium. The cartoon is used as one of the main visual on the page.
The caption under the cartoon reads as: Belgian pride and patriotism.
Figure 3.19b Bergolix (2008/02): Drapeau de la République Islamique Italienne (Italistan)
Stable URL
http://bergolix.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/drapeau_italie_islam1.jpg?w=450&h=405
Figure 3.19c Bergolix (2008/09): Drapeau de l’Union Islamique Européenne (Eurabia)
Stable URL
http://bergolix.files.wordpress.com/2008/09/drapeau_eurabia_europe_islamique.jpg?w=450&h=405
See also
http://jean-marielebraud.hautetfort.com/archive/2013/12/21/temp-fd7455454055f153e9b5c18668e74abe5252564.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is used as the visual of a blog entry: The Mokhtar Awards: "The invasion
hidden from us.”
http://www.barenakedislam.com/2011/page/86/
The cartoon is used as the visual of an article titled: NORWAY: Oslo shooter predicted, “Europe soon will burn
once again.”
http://www.citoyens-et-francais.fr/article-l-ambassadeur-de-france-a-alger-andre-parant-l-a-declare-200-000visas-pour-l-annee-2012-108282233.html
Personal news review blog. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: The Ambassador of France
in Algiers, André Parant *, stated: "200,000 visas for the year 2012.”
http://3reglescitoyen.over-blog.com/article-principaute-islamique-en-europe-60210167.html
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of a blog entry: Islamic principality in Europe.
131
http://www.europe-israel.org/2012/01/la-marche-inexorable-de-leurope-soumise-versl%E2%80%99islamisation/
Personal blog in French. The cartoon is posted as the visual of an article titled: The inexorable march of Europe
subjected to Islamization.
Figure 3.20
HASAN BLEIBEL (2010): La Turquie, candidate à un fauteuil au premier rang
Stable URL : http://www.presseurop.eu/files/images/article/BLEIBEL_turkey_0.jpg?1285688043
http://www.presseurop.eu/fr/content/article/348361-la-turquie-candidate-un-fauteuil-au-premier-rang
Figure 3.21
Bergolix (2008/09): Eurabia modérée ou Eurabia intégriste?
Stable URL
http://www.logoeps.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/avrupa-birligi-bakanligi-logo.jpg
http://bergolix.files.wordpress.com/2008/09/drapeau_eurabia_moderee_europe_islam.gif?w=250&h=175
Figure 3.22
CRISTINA SAMPAIO (2006): The two Turkey
Stable URL
http://www.cristinasampaio.com/eng/portfolio_eng/pf2006_eng/06d_turkey_eng.html
http://www.cristinasampaio.com/ximages/img_portfolio/06_img_pf/06_turkey-eu.gif
Figure 3.23
HELDER OLIVIERA (2011/8): The relations with their neighbors Armenia and
Cyprus and the internal issue with the Kurd population are the stones in the
Turkish shoe.
Stable URL
http://konstriktor.net/blog/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/oturko_1.jpg
See also
http://www.gamekult.com/blog/guephy/?page=3&blogcategoryid=18099
Figure 3.24
PLANTU (2009) present Islam as a double prison for women, through the
burqa event. Note the small bearded mouse.
Stable URL
http://extremecentre.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/plantu-burqa.jpg
http://www.tv5.org/cms/userdata/c_bloc/44/44811/44811_vignette_plantu-burqa-ok.jpg
See also
http://yahel.wordpress.com/2009/07/15/
“Nueva moda? No ! Es mi Religión” [New fashion? No! It is my Religion.]
http://laicite-moderne.blogspot.ca/2012_10_01_archive.html
"La voix de la République."[The voice of the republic]
http://laiciteetsociete.hautetfort.com/archive/2012/10/22/la-voix-de-la-republique.html
"La voix de la République"
http://www.islamla.com/topic2570-30.html
"A propos du voile islamique".
http://www.defence.pk/forums/middle-east-africa/123873-civil-conflict-syria-news-discussions-445.html
Civil Conflict in Syria: News & Discussion.
132
http://ripostelaique.com/Burqa-la-liberte-disqualifiee-Une.html
"Burqa: la liberté disqualifiée".
http://extremecentre.org/2009/07/06/burqa-plantu-plante-le-decor/
"Burqa: Plantu plante le décor".
http://mesgrainsdesel.canalblog.com/archives/2010/12/23/19951317.html
"Et comme l’a montré Plantu dès le début, les Français n’aiment pas le changement… !"
http://argoul.com/2013/01/18/la-charia-a-bon-dos/burqa-par-plantu/
Figure 3.25
PLANTU, le Monde, 09 November 2002. Plantu’s cartoon of who had spoken
against the accession of Turkey into the EU is represented against the
Turkish people
Stable URL
http://idata.over-blog.com/0/40/66/71/premiere/plantuturquie.jpg
See also
http://www.zamanfrance.fr/article/lislam-lobsession-plantu-5338.html
"L'islam, l'obsession de Plantu (Plantu présente l'islam comme une double prison pour la femme, à travers la
burqa, manifestation "naturelle" de cette religion. Notez la petite souris barbue.)."
http://elblogdeireneflores.blogspot.ca/2010_04_01_archive.html
Spanish blog entry using Plantu’s cartoon in French on a Spanish page.
http://tribouilloyterminales.over-blog.com/article-29722531.html
"Jusqu'où ouvrir l'U.E. à de nouveaux entrants ?"
http://actu-28.skyrock.com/
"L' adhésion de la Turquie au sein de l'Union Européenne."
http://jacobhistgeo.over-blog.com/article-12859035.html
Cartoon analysis.
http://www.bleublancturc.com/News/Pourquoi_gifler_les_Turcs.htm
"Pourquoi gifler les Turcs ? - L'Express du 14/11/2002 par Bernard Guetta."
http://www.lyc-monnet-montpellier.ac-montpellier.fr/bcdiweb/doc/Lesenjeuxeurop%C3%A9ensdepuis89.pdf
"question des limites de l’Europe et de l’identité européenne."
Figure 3.26
AVIN NONO 2010
Stable URL
http://www.letelegramme.fr/ar/imgproxy.php/PhotoIntuitions/2010/11/10/1110574_8533943-nono101120101110-t103a.jpg?article=20101110-1001110574&aaaammjj=20101110
See also
http://www.letelegramme.fr/ig/generales/france-monde/monde/ue-les-negociations-d-adhesion-de-la-turquiepietinent-10-11-2010-1110574.php
Figure 3.27
CHARLIE HEBDO Luz/Biard (2005/05)
Stable URL
http://www.bedetheque.com/cache/thb_couv/UnTurcEstEntreDansLeurope1_11052005.jpg
See also
http://www.auracan.com/RDP/2005/05/CharlieHebdo673.html
http://www.bedetheque.com/serie-11593-BD-Un-turc-est-entre-dans-l-Europe.html
133
http://melart.over-blog.com/article-festival-de-bd-a-gourette-113962553.html
Figure 3.28
Depictions of the Ottomans in History (16-18 Centuries)
Figure 3.29a This poster for NISAAREBELA
Stable URL
http://www.nissarebela.com/wp-content/uploads/images/actions/europe_turquie_fly.jpg
Figure 3.29b
Stable URL
http://www.nissarebela.com/wp-content/uploads/images/actions/europe_turquie_pic2.jp 23/05/09
134
Senem Oz