Middle East Christians by American Lebanese Awareness Association

The Middle East Christians: THE UNTOLD STORY Their Heritage Their Aspirations Their Survival

Ramsay F. Dass, MD President, American Middle East Christians Congress

The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights* PREAMBLE Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge:

Article 1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

Article 18. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.

*This charter was signed by all members of the United Nations.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

 Preface………………………………………………………………………………6  About the Editor and Author, Ramsay F. Dass, MD……………………..14 President of the American Middle East Christians Congress

The Middle East Heritage  Chapter One: Christianity in General………………….……………..….…...20        

The Origins of Middle East Christianity…………..………….……....21 Christianity (Arabic: „al-masihiyya‟ or „an-nasraniyya).....…..…...24 Eastern Christians or “Arab Americans” by Toni Freij………...…29 What is the origin and history of Christians in the Middle East?.…………………………………………………………………..………34 Arab Christian and Arab Muslim: Invested in Brotherhood by Fr. Labib Kobti…………………………………………..….……...…...37 The Christian Presence in the Middle East Witness and Mission………………………………………………………………………..42 The Eastern Rite Church by Fr. William Saunders...………….…63 Rites of the Eastern Catholic Church………..……………………….71

 Chapter Two: The Antiochian Christian Heritage…………………...……73     

Church of Antioch………………………………………………….………74 Ignatius IV (Hazim) of Antioch…………………………………….…....79 His Eminence Metropolitan PHILIP (Saliba)………………….……86 History of the Archdiocese…………………………….………………...90 Archdiocese Directory………………………………………………....….96

 Chapter Three: The Arab Christian Heritage…………………………....101  Arab Christians: An Introduction by Dr. Walid Phares………..102  Arab Christians…………………………………………………………....106  Arab Christian Heritage: Vital Presence of Arab Christians among Moslem Arabs by Dr. Wajih Saadeh……………………...109  The Christian Arab Heritage by Dr. Fr. Labib Kobti………….....112  The Arabic Christian Literature by Dr. George Khoury…..……116  Chapter Four: The Armenian Heritage………………………….……..….121  The Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church by Hratch Tchilingirian……………………………………………………………..….122  Biography of Archbishop Khajag Barsamian……………….…....132

 Armenian Patriarchs of Jerusalem……………………………….....137  The Armenian Orthodox Patriarchate……………………...…..…..143 

Chapter Five: The Assyrian Heritage…………………………………..145  Brief History of Assyrians by Peter BetBasoo…………………...146  The Assyrian Church of the East……………………………………154  His Holiness Mar Dinkha IV…………………………………….…….158

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Chapter Six: The Chaldean Heritage…………………………………..160  The Chaldean Catholic Church……………………………………...161  Chaldean Americans by Mary C. Sengstock………………….…163

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Chapter Seven: The Coptic Heritage……………………………….….172  The Christian Coptic Orthodox Church of Egypt…………….….173  The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria………….…………..180  Coptic Orthodox Churches in United States of America……. 184  The Office of Ecumenical Affairs……………………………………195  His Holiness Pope Shenouda III…………………………………….196

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Chapter Eight: The Evangelical Christian Heritage……….……….199  Middle Eastern Presbyterians in the United States……………200  History of the National Evangelical Church of Beirut………….201  The Reformed Churches in Iraq…………………………………….203  Middle East Reformed Fellowship……………………….………….207  Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and The Holy Land..211

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Chapter Nine: The Maronite Heritage……………………….………...213  The Maronite Church…………………………………….……………..214  Maronite Rite……………………………………………………………...219  Maronite Church……………………………………………...……….…224  History of the Maronite Patriarchate………………………..……...226  Patriarch Mar Nasrallah Boutros Cardinal Sfeir………….….…242

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Chapter Ten: The Melkite Heritage…………………….………….…...245  A Short History of the Melkite Church…………………………..…246  The History of Melkites………………………………………………...249  Gregory III Latham, Patriarch of Antioch………………………....259  Melkite Greek Catholic Church…………………………….……..…262  The Church in Modern Times………………………………..….…...266

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Chapter Eleven: The Syriac Catholic Heritage………………...…...270  The Syrian Catholic Church…………………………...……………..271  Syrian Catholic Church of Antioch…………………….…………...274  History of the Syriac Catholic Church “at a glance”…………..275  The Syriac Catholic Church…………………………....…………….277

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Chapter Twelve: The Syriac Orthodox Heritage………………...…283  History of the Syriac Orthodox Church…………………….……...284  Archdiocese—Metropolitan Mor Cyril Aphrem Karim………...287  The Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch…………..…….…291  HH Patriarch Mor Ignatios Zakka I Iwas……………………….…293  The Syriac Orthdox Church, World Wide List………………...…295

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Chapter Thirteen: Prominent Church Leadership…………..……...298  His Eminence Stephanos II Cardinal Ghattas…………..……....299  His Eminence Ignace Moussa I Cardinal Daoud………….…....300  His Eminence Emmanuel III Cardinal Delly………………….…..302  His Eminence Gabriel Cardinal Zubeir Wako…………………....303  Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, H.B. Fouad Twal….……………..307  His Eminence Nasrallah Pierre Cardinal Sfeir…………………..308  Reverend Dr. Fahed Abu-Akel, General Moderator of the Presbyterian Church………………………………………………….....309

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Chapter Fourteen: Prominent Middle East Christiam Organizations…………………...310  The Holy Land Christian Ecumenical Foundation (HCEF)…..311  Ecumenical Liberation Theology Center, Jerusalem…..……...312  American Middle East Christians Congress……………………..314

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Chapter Fifteen: The Church and Islam………………………..………315  The Church and Islam. "La Civiltà Cattolica" Breaks the Ceasefire by Sandro Magister; Christians in Islamic Countries by Giuseppe De Rosa S.I…………………….………………………...316  The Catholic-Muslim Forum, The Vatican, In Our Opinion by Ramsay F. Dass, MD…………………………………………………....323  Reaching Across the Religious Divide by David Willey……….325  Christians in Egypt. The Humiliation Continues: An interview with Youssef Sidhom, director of “Watani………328

Please visit us at www.middleeastchristian.org. 5

Preface For many years, I have been contemplating to write or publish a book in a very simplistic way to explain the heritage, theology, and liturgy of the American Middle East Christians from the dawn of civilization to the Christianization of the Middle East and their future. As of today, there is no collective information regarding all the Middle East Christians, but a wealth of information regarding their sub-sects individually. Throughout my conversations with my fellow political, religious and social leaders, there was a vacuum to rudimentary information or lack of public awareness regarding the Middle East Christiansâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; heritage, their numbers, and their aspirations. This was a more complex and complicated project than I anticipated. At the outset, I am not a historian, nor am I an authority on the sources and contents of these topics. Nevertheless, I chose a collection of these articles from various resources that originate in the Middle East and around the world that I find useful and informative, educational, and resourceful to the readers. Many of these articles have multiple sources and authors that discuss an issue, history, or the aspiration of their own prospective heritage. This information encompasses the Middle East Christian communities that are present in the Middle East or Arab world, diaspora, with a special emphasis on the American Middle East Christian communities. The Middle East Christian communities are a heterogeneous group in their origin, evangelization, culture, and in their assembly. For instance, the Coptics are mostly based in Egypt; Maronites in Lebanon; Antiochians in Syria; Chaldeans in Iraq; Arab Christians in Jordan. PRE-CHRISTIANITY ERA The Middle East Christian communities are descendents of what is known as the cradle of civilizations. Their heritage is well documented in the archives of history and in the Holy Bible. The Egyptian, the Babylonian, Chaldean, Assyrian, Syriac, and Arabic Christians achievements are well known. They are the descendents of those who built the pyramids and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and drafted the first civilized legal code. They were also famous for their astronomy and science. Their early contributions to humanity and civilization have enriched the Greek, Roman, and Arabic civilizations that followed. THE ISLAMIC ERA As a result of the emergence of Islam and their conquest of the Middle East and northern Africa, Islamic religion and its laws became the laws of the land. The relationship between the Christian and Muslim communities and their leadership waxed and waned depending on the whims of the Muslim rulers. In the early Islamic eras, the Muslim rulers and caliphs sought the Christian communities to promote science, literature, humanity and to translate to Arabic books from Roman and Greek philosophy. Christians were also advisors and counselors to the caliphs. This relationship gradually dwindled, and the Christian communities were subjected to bigotry, hatred, forced

conversion and persecution. In spite of all adversaries, the Middle East Christians were successful in keeping their distinct language, culture, and heritage while adapting to their new environment. This era has been very difficult for their coexistence, survival, preserve their heritage, safeguard their faith, have freedom of religion and protection of their house of worship, maintain their civic rights, liberties, and social status. THE NEW ARAB WORLD The Arab World as we know it now has undergone dramatic and radical changes after the fall of the Ottoman Empire and colonization by the western European powers. With the subsequent emergence of a new brand of Arab patriotism and nationalism, the majority of the Arab world Christians have joined their fellow countrymen in this surge of nationalism and patriotism in resisting the western colonization and its philosophy and have contributed to the new era of political and cultural Arab world. The colonization of the Arab world and northern Africa by the Western European powers while implementing the colonial power by imposing regimes and rulers, creating artificial countries, abusing the natural wealth, creating social injustice, and suppressing civil liberty. Such a hostile environment created a new outlook of Islam and a breeding source of radicalization in some parts of the Middle East. This new environment has led to ethnic and religious cleansing that targeted the Middle East Christians for the failures of their rulers and as a revolt against the western colonial powers. This ethnic and religious cleansing was under the excuse of â&#x20AC;&#x2022;Christianâ&#x20AC;&#x2013; commonality as a religion of the western colonizations and the Middle East Christians. The fact is that the Middle East Christiansâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; ethnicity, Christian faith, and heritage are totally different in its origin and culture. The Middle East Christians are nationalistic and patriotic to their motherland. They stood side by side throughout history with their fellow countrymen against invaders, including the Crusaders. These hostile acts throughout history toward the ethnic Christian communities have led to acts of genocide to the Armenians in the early 20th century, the Assyrians in Simmele, Iraq in 1933, and other minor collective or individual acts. These led to total extinction of Christianity in countries, such as Saudi Arabia and in the Arab Peninsula, where the Christian numbers have dwindled to be marginalized in the Holy Land. In the other Middle East countries, the fate of Christianity has come under attack either by the ruling leaders, their surrogate, zealous religious organizations or fundamentalism. In countries, such as Lebanon, the Maronite Christians, whose rights are protected by the constitution, were subjected to many armed conflicts in order to preserve their rights, which have been challenged from time to time, and where the presidency of Lebanon has been assigned to a Maronite Christian (this is the only Middle East country where a Christian can be elected a president). In countries where there is a large presence of Middle East Christians, they have enjoyed an uneven and unpredictable degree of freedom of religion, worship, or social, political, and community status. However, in Iraq, the Chaldo-Assyrian-Syriac Christians are the ethnic inhabitants of

over 4,000 years and are an integral part of the Iraqi society. Unfortunately, the situation has changed completely with invasion and occupation of Iraq in 2003. The Iraqi Christian community, in particular, was singled out by the radical fundamentalists that led to mass exodus and forced emigration (over 50% of the Christians), kidnapping, killing of their religious leaders, and destruction of their churches. There was nothing unusual about the persecution of the Iraqi Christians. Such acts have occurred from time to time. The fundamentalist plan to ethnically cleanse Iraq of its nearly 2,000 yearold Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriac and Armenian Christian communities is reaching fruition. In Saudi Arabia, the government bans churches, public Christian worship, the Bible, and the sale of Christmas cards. Furthermore, Saudi Arabia announced that only Muslims could be citizens. (Anthony Browne, The Spectator UK, Church of Martyrs) The Copts of Egypt make up half the Christians in the Middle East, the cradle of Christianity. They inhabited the land before the Islamic conquest, and still make up a fifth of the population. By law they are banned from being president of the Islamic Republic of Egypt or attending Al Azhar University, and severely restricted from joining the police and army. By practice they are banned from holding any high political or commercial position. Under the 19th-century Hamayouni decrees, Copts must get permission from the president to build or repair churches—but he usually refuses. Mosques face no such controls. (Anthony Browne, The Spectator UK, Church of Martyrs)* THE WESTERN WORLD’S ATTITUDE TOWARD MIDDLE EAST CHRISTIANS What has added to this tragedy is the past attitude of the western world leadership, who profess to be Christians in their personal faith while leading secular democratic systems in their countries. They directly or indirectly have turned a blind eye and even sometimes became hostile, to the Middle East Christian communities‘ through acts of appeasement of the Middle East rulers, compounded by their potential military, industrial, business, and political relationships. The non-governmental western world organizations and human rights organizations, whether they were religious-, social-, civic-, or political-oriented and whether they were aware or oblivious to the plight of the Middle East Christians, have not fared better in their relationships or support to the Middle East Christians. In western world countries, Christianity has been ridiculed, including the Bible, in their televisions, radios, and social programs, while they cannot ridicule any other religion out of fear of backlash. Such organizations include the British Broadcasting Channel (BBC), which is funded by the government. The guilt-ridden west is ignoring the plight of the people because of their religion, which means that the Middle East Christians receive a lack of sympathy. The World Evangelical Alliance wrote in its report to the United Nations Human Rights Commission in 2004 that Christians are ―the largest single group in the world which is being denied human rights on the basis of their faith.‖ On the face of it, the idea of Christians facing serious persecution seems as far-fetched as a carpenter saving humanity. Christianity is the world‘s most followed religion, with

over two billion believers, and by far its most powerful. It is the most popular faith in six of the seven continents, and in both of the world‘s two biggest economies, the U.S. and Europe. Seven of the G8 richest industrial nations are majority Christian, as are four out of five permanent members of the UN Security Council. The cheek-turners control the vast majority of the world‘s weapons of mass destruction. (Anthony Browne, The Spectator UK, Church of Martyrs)* There is no Christian country that says, ―We are Christians and will help the Middle East Christians.‖ As Anthony Browne wrote, ―As a liberal democrat atheist, I believe all persecuted people should be helped equally, irrespective of their religion. But the guilt-ridden west is ignoring people because of their religion. If non-Christians like me can sense the nonsense, how does it make Christians feel? And how are they going to react? The Christophobes worried about rising Christian fundamentalism in Britain should understand that it is a reaction to our double standards. And as long as double standards exist, Christian fundamentalism will grow.‖ (Anthony Browne, The Spectator UK, Church of Martyrs)* In the last part of the 20th Century, there was a new wave of religious, moral, political, social, and community awakening toward the minorities‘ and ethnics‘ persecution around the world and especially in the Middle East, whether they were Christians or Muslims. This has benefited the Christian community. Such movements have been supported by His Holiness Pope John Paul II, who brought the political, religious, and social issues related to Middle East and Middle East Christians into the open through his visits to the Middle East, meetings with world leaders, interfaith meetings, or support for organizations that dealt with these issues, such as Holy Land Christian Ecumenical Foundation, which is working very hard to stabilize the population of the Holy Land and interfaith meetings. He was followed by His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI, who continued to bring these issues to the open, and other ecumenical, political, and social organizations. His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI has exhibited an intellectual understanding of the plight of the Middle East Christians and has professed this publicly, privately, and assertively, through his public sermons, whether in the Vatican or other places, through his actions, including, but not limited to, the elevation of Chaldean Patriarch Emmanuel Delly III (Iraq) to the College of Cardinals, meetings with King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia during his visit to the Vatican, the Iraqi Prime Minister and others, or through correspondence with the 138 Muslim and religious leaders, including His Royal Highness Jordanian Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad bin Talal, where he encouraged religious leaders of other faiths not to yield to negative pressure, but must affirm the values of mutual respect, solidarity, and peace. He also emphasized that the life of every human being is sacred, both for the Christians and for the Muslims. He further reiterated that in acting together in the service of fundamental moral values, such common ground will allow us to base dialogue on effective respect for the dignity of every human person, on objective knowledge of the religion of the other, on the sharing of religious experience and, finally,

on common commitment to promoting mutual respect and acceptance among the younger generation. The Pope is confident is confident that, once this is achieved, it will be possible to cooperate in a productive way in the areas of culture and society, and for the promotion of justice and peace in society and throughout the world.** IN AMERICA In America, the post-September 11th era has created a new challenge and dilemma for the Middle East Christians in America and in the Middle East. Prior to September 11th, the Middle East Christian communities actively and passively integrated with American society at-large since their first wave of large immigration to the U.S. in the nineteenth century. Their assimilation in the American political, social, legal, artistic and scientific society is well documented. They even supported non-Christian Middle East organizations on par with their relationship with their similar relationships in the Middle East. The majority of the American Middle East immigrants are Christians (totaling 77% of the Middle East communities spread all over the United States, but mostly in New York, Michigan, Illinois, and California, as per the U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000, Arab American Institute, Zogby International Polling and Marketing Firm). The challenge in America is how to preserve their heritage as Christians while advocating for their religious and civic rights in the Middle East without causing friction with other Middle East non-Christian organizations that are being supported directly and indirectly by the Arab/Muslim Middle East and non-Middle East governments. It has been observed lately that the tragedy that has befallen upon the Middle East Christians has become critical and in some regions catastrophic, that a sizeable portion of American Middle East Christian organizations have become more assertive and more forceful in bringing these issues into the open—at all national and international, political, religious, social, and media levels. Since 9/11, the political, religious, and social aspects of the Middle East and Arab world‘s images have been shattered. The Arab world/Muslim world‘s political and religious leadership have taken steps to remedy this problem by developing continuous interfaith and inter-culture seminars, conferences, and dialogues. These were specifically aimed toward the western world, such as the one held in Madrid, Spain in July 2008 under the auspices of King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia and other acts, including Muslim scholars‘ letters to Pope Benedict XVI or the Archbishop of Canterbury. Such conferences also were held in the Middle East, where some Middle East Christian religious leaders that are sympathetic to the Middle East rulers were invited to show solidarity and public support for those rulers in spite of the adversity their followers are enduring. Throughout all these meetings or contacts, no political, community, or civic Middle East Christian community organizations or leadership were invited in order to minimize in public the plights or the presence of the Middle East Christians in the Middle East. Some Arab/Muslim governmental leadership does not even acknowledge the presence or the rights of the ethnic Middle East Christians in the Middle East.

It is the duty of the western world religious leadership to invite and involve Middle East Christian community organizations that advance the civic and civil rights of the Christians and safeguard their freedom of religion and freedom of worship independent of the religious hierarchy leadership in the Middle East. Such independent Middle East Christian organizations can be more effective in advancing such causes without the restraint and pressure that many Middle East religious leaders must endure to protect their institutes in the Arab world. ACTS TO PRESERVE THE MIDDLE EAST CHRISTIANS’ RIGHTS Throughout the centuries, history has recalled that the inter-fight between the different sects of the Middle East Christians and within their own sects had led to their own downfall. This inter-sect rivalry was cultivated by their adversaries and their downfalls. That is also true due to the early division and rivalry of the church leadership between the Byzantine and Roman Churches that led to the fall of the Byzantine Church and Constantinople and occupation by Islamic forces of one of the holiest and earliest Christian sites. Throughout history, there were only few Christian leaders in the Middle East that revolted against the injustice that has been imposed on them. But for the majority of the church leadership, and sadly to say, they developed a co-existent policy that often acquiesced to the whims and wishes of the Muslim rulers. This led to the gradual dwindling of the Christians in numbers and in their churches. The commonality between all the Middle East Christian communities‘ persecution is that they are Christians, whether they are Copts, Chaldeans, Assyrians, Armenians, etc. This common denominator should be a source for uniting the Middle East Christian communities to act together with a new voice, to create a lobbying or political pact and to coordinate with other like-minded non-Middle East Christian organizations to advance their causes. The other two predominant religions‘ followers of Islam and Judaism, whether in the Middle East or in diaspora and especially in the United States, have well recognized, centralized local and national religious, political, and social organizations to speak on their behalf, at the political, interfaith, and inter-heritage levels and whenever is subjected to negative issues. These organizations are proactive and ready to respond. These organizations have been supported politically and financially directly and indirectly by the Arab/Muslim world countries and by the State of Israel. The Middle East Christian communities, which have been besieged by all the divisions between the inter-religious and inter-culture rivalry, have not been able to unite or develop similar organizations on par with their fellow Muslim and Jewish groups. We are at a disadvantage of not having Christian countries to support the Middle East Christian organizations politically, financially, or through public relations. In order to remedy this problem and avoid the mistakes of the past, there should be two distinct organizations: one to represent the church to continue its rituals, liturgy, and

tradition; the other should be independent, composed of laypeople to advance the political, cultural, civic and civil rights of the Middle East Christian community irrespective of their ethnicity or country of origin. These two organizations should coordinate with each other, cooperate with each other, and not interfere with each other. Each group should understand its obligation to the other. This may be difficult, as we have learned from the past that each group wishes to dominate the other as it was in the Middle East. But now we are in a new era, and if we do not learn from our past history, we will be condemned to repeat the same mistakes. In Michigan, which has one of the largest congregations of Middle East communities, and the majority of them are Christians of various churches and denominations and cultures, such a movement of the Christian laypeople came together with the blessing of the religious leadership and created a national organization, the American Middle East Christians Congress. With the support of the community, this congress achieved its goals in advancing the civic and civil liberties and informing the public at-large of the heritage of the Middle East Christians. On the state level, local chapters to a main national organization should be created for better communication between the state and national organizations. At the same time, national religious leadership organizations must be created independently of the laypeople organization to coordinate their religious sub-sects of Christianity, such as a national religious organization for Copts, Maronites, Syriacs, Assyrians, Arab Christians, etc. Such organizations should have a liaison officer to coordinate with the other sub-sects in order to have one central office to be proactive if and when an adversary has befallen upon the Middle East Christians in America or in diaspora. There are other organizations, such as the Holy Land Christian Ecumencial Foundation (HCEF), which is a tax-exempt, non-profit 501(c)3 organization committed to improving the lives of Christians in the Holy Land through building bonds of solidarity between Christians in the United States and Christians in the Holy Land. It has two goals: two inform Americans about the Christians in the Holy Land, and to provide humanitarian assistance for the needy in the land where Jesus Christ was born, preached, died and rose again (www.hcef.org). I am very grateful and proud to acknowledge the sacrifices that our Middle East Christian forefathers endured over the past centuries in order to preserve whatever is left of our culture, heritage, and Christian liturgy. In final analysis, there are two points-of-view. One point-of-view thinks that Christianity will disappear from the Middle East sooner or later due to the negative prevailing condition. The other point-of-view, which I share, believes that Christianity in the Middle East will survive for the following reasons: 1) it is in the interest in the Muslim and Arab world leaders and their communities to create a better atmosphere for the survival of

Middle Eastern Christianity in their own interest for a better image; 2) the Middle East Christian communities are well-cultured, well-educated and are an integral part of the Middle East and can help and advance the Middle East countries, as they have done in the past; 3) the Middle East Christian communities in the United States and in diaspora, irrespective of present division, have a political, social, and commercial influence to direct the political thinking in their adoptive country; 4) there is a new era of thinking and acting toward the Christian Middle East communities, whether through the Vatican, the elected conservative religious heads of western countries, or the western religious organizations toward the Christians. It is the responsibility of the Middle East Christians to protect, preserve, and advance the aspirations of the Middle East Christians. What is Bethlehem without the Christians, and what is the Holy Land and the Middle East without Christianity? This book is the first of its kind as basic encyclopedic information about the originality of the various Middle East Christians since the dawn of Christianity in order to have a better understanding of the rich heritage of the Christians of the Middle East and their contributions to civilization and humanity. Ramsay F. Dass, MD

*Anthony Browne is Europe correspondent of the Times and The Spectator UK **Part of the letter from Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone, Vatican Secretary of State, addressed to His Royal Highness Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad bin Talal of the Royal Palace in Amman, Jordan on November 19, 2007

About the Editor

Ramsay F. Dass, MD was born in Iraq. Completed his medical training in India, England and the United States. Dr. Dass is an accomplished physician, philanthropist, humanitarian, and community activist. Having graduated in 1971 with an M.D. medical degree. He attended London School of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. He was appointed medical director to Corftin hospital and clinic (private), London, England from 19741980, in addition to his private practice at Harley Street in London, England. Dr. Dass was a medical consultant, advisor and member of many medical, community and charitable organizations in England, including being a member of British Medical Association. Dr. Dass is the President of the American Middle East Christians Congress, President and CEO of Detroit Hope Hospital in Detroit, Michigan, Medical Director and Practicing Physician at Oak Park Medical Clinic in Oak Park, Michigan, Director of the Iraqi American Endowment Center. Dr. Dass is a President or board member of many political, humanitarian, community, and faith based organizations, including but not limited to Interfaith organizations, BRIDGES, Arab-American and Chaldean Forum, ACCESS, CIAM, Arab American Medical Association, Michigan State and Medical Society, and Oakland County Medical Society. Dr. Dass was appointed by former Michigan Governor John Engler as a member of the Governorâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s Arab American Advisory Board. Dr. Dass has led or been a member of many humanitarian missions to the third world countries, especially to the countries that have been afflicted by war, hunger and poverty by providing food, medicine and auxiliary services. Dr. Dass has been active in promoting civil, civic, religious liberty and humanitarian causes in the American political arena and abroad by discussing these issues with the Presidents of the United States of America and their administrations, members of the Congress, and Presidents or officials of foreign countries.

Rfdass@aol.com

Personal photograph taken of Holy Father Pope Benedict XVI by Dr. Dass celebrating Mass at Nationals Park in Washington, D.C. on April 17, 2008 by special invitation from His Eminence Cardinal Donald W. Wuerl, Archbishop of Washington, D.C.

Dr. Dass presented His Holiness Pope Shenouda III, 117th Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark, a booklet regarding the American Middle East Christians Congress.

Dr. Dass, President of American Middle Eastern Christians Congress, presenting His Excellency Amr Moussa, Secretary-General of the League of Arab States, with the American Middle East Christians Congress booklet during his visit to Michigan

Dr. Ramsay and Mrs. Natalie Dass with former President of Lebanon Amine Gemayel the only Middle Eastern Christian president in the Arab world, and his wife

President Bill Clinton meets Ramsay F. Dass, MD in the Oval Office in 1996.

Dr. Ramsay and Mrs. Natalie Dass meet President George W. Bush.

Ramsay F. Dass, MD with Cardinal Jean-Louis Tauran, President, Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, at the Catholic-Muslim Forum at The Vatican on November 6, 2008

Ramsay F. Dass, MD with Chaldean Archbishop Louis Sako of Kirkuk, Iraq at the Catholic-Muslim Forum at The Vatican on November 6, 2008

Ramsay F. Dass, MD with His Excellency Albert E. Yelda, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of Iraq to the Holy See in the Iraqi Embassay to discuss issues related to the Iraqi Christian community on November 5, 2008 while attending the Catholic-Muslim Forum at The Vatican

Ramsay F. Dass, MD with Monsignor Pier Luigi Celata, Arcivescovo tit. di Doclea Sergretario del Pontificio Consiglio per il Dialogo Inter-Religioso and Professor Lamin Sanneh, Commandeur de Lâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Ordre National du Lion and D. Willis James Professor of Missions & World Christianity, Professor of History at Yale University and Member of the Catholic Delegation to the the Catholic-Muslim Forum at The Vatican

Chapter One:

Middle Eastern Christianity in General

The Origins of Middle Eastern Christianity By Dr. George Khoury 1- Introduction: The Christian church was born in Palestine at a time when the Roman Empire was in its youth and when Palestine had been incorporated into an empire. Palestine was governed in the first century by a Roman procurator who in turn was countable to the legate of the Roman procurator province of Syria. Jerusalem had the apostle James "the Minorâ&#x20AC;&#x2013; as first bishop, and while not much is known about the life and career of the other apostles, Peter, after the Council Jerusalem (Acts: 10, 15; Gal: 2:11), apparently went to Antioch in order to confirm the nascent church there. Soon after, the Christian faith spread to Ephesus, Edessa (today's Urfa), Alexandria, and Rome. It was natural, therefore, that the teaching and the worship of Christ spread first in his homeland, i.e., in Palestine, and extended slowly to the neighboring countries. The Acts of the Apostles gives us a vivid account of the progress of the faith and its success Judaea, Samaria, and Galilee. This progress was slow, and the Gospel seems to have had more effect in the hellenized, maritime cities than inland. The Acts of the Apostles informs us that the mission of the Apostle Philip took him to the pagan cities along the Mediterranean shore. He proclaimed Christ in Caesarea and Lydda, and it was near Gaza that he baptized a Jewish proselyte of Ethiopian origin Acts 8:27). Peter, we are also informed, followed Philip to these areas; first to Samaria, then to Caesarea, Gaza, and Lydda. Anyway, we see Christians living on the shore of Palestine at the end of the second century.

2- Paul Apostle to the Nations Paul became the great missionary to the Gentiles. He was by no means the only such missionary, but we hear more of him than of any of the other apostles. Through him the faith was proclaimed and planted in several cities in present-day Turkey and in Greece. There were, however, communities of Christians which had arisen quite independently of Paul, notably in Antioch and in Rome. We also know that the faith had an early spread among the Syriac-speaking peoples in Syria and Mesopotamia. As for Arabia, which became a Roman province in A.D. 106, it probably received the Christian faith from Palestine, Syria, and Iraq. In the land of Saba â&#x20AC;&#x201C;present day Yemen- once the hub of Arabian civilization, it had arrived from Abyssinia and for a time during the preceding century had been the religion of the state, until the country was overrun by the Persians.

3- The Ghassanids The Ghassanids were the first to convert to Christianity. Nestorian Christianity came early to Hira, where a monastery was built in A.D. 410.A bishop is recorded in the same year. Al-Mundhir III (d. 554) was a pagan though he had a Christian wife some of the notables were Christians. Bishops are recorded in Uman in 424 and in the district of Bahrain in 575. When the Persians conquered South Arabia they favored the Nestorians and there was a bishop of Sanaa as late as 800. From these borders Christianity filtered through into the interior. There were bishops in Aila, Duma, and Taima', and most of the tribes of the North had some knowledge of the faith.

4- Christian Egypt How Christianity infiltrated Egypt is not clear. The church in Alexandria traditionally been ascribed to Evangelist Mark, once a traveling companion of Paul declared by early report -though this not historically a sue thing-to have been Peter in Rome and to have written down the memories constituting the body of the teaching of that Apostle, which we have as Gospel of Mark. It seems though up until the third century it had meager Christian population despite the presence of many Christian communities. However, at the Synod of Alexandria (320-321) which convened in order to condemn Arius, there was already a thriving church with an imposing ecclesiastical hierarchy. The historian Duchesne states in his 'Early History of The Christian Church, vol. II, pp.385-386. Since the fourth century Egypt was the sanctuary of orthodoxy and the classic ground of confessors of faith.. It was also the fatherland of the monks. To the revered name of Athanasius were united in pious stories the names of Antony and Pacomius, of the two Macarii, of Ammon, and those of many other personages in whom piety soon embodied the ideal of Christian heroes.

5- Antioch and Edessa Antioch, whose Christian beginnings date from the first century (Acts11:1921), became at the end of the third century an important Christian center. In fact, as early as the second century it considered the Apostle Peter to have been its first bishop. One can hardly exaggerate the importance of Antioch for the ancient Eastern Church. Because of its privileged position, given its biblical connections with the early Jerusalem community, and especially with the Apostles Peter, Paul, and Barnabas, Antioch early on raised the claim of teaching and leading the other churches. The region of Edessa, in Northern Syria, already teemed with Christians at the end of the second century. In fact, Christianity became the state religion around the year 200, and while, according to Hitti, Antioch rose to a position of 22

leadership in the Greek speaking part of Syria, Edessa was getting a corresponding position in the Aramaic (i.e., Syriac) speaking world. This city was the earliest seat of Christianity in Mesopotamia. It was also the cradle of Syriac literature. The chief versions of the Syriac Bible were probably made there in the second century. The school of Edessa was founded by Saint Ephrem (320-373).Around the year 489 the emperor Zenon closed the school of Edessa and its students fled to Persia where they founded instead the school of Nisibis which became a Nestorian center.

6- Arius and Nestorius In the fourth and fifth centuries Christological controversies split Syrian Christianity into a number of divisions. Arianism taught that God is without beginning but that the Son had a beginning and is not a part of God. The council of Nicaea rejected and condemned Arianism in 325. As to the relation of the divine to the human in Jesus, Apollinaris, a friend of Athanasius, maintained that in Jesus the Logos was the rational element. That position left the divine nature complete but made Christ less human, for a human being, it was held, had body, soul, and reason. The Ecumenical Council of Constantinople condemned in 381 the views of Apollinaris and maintained that in Jesus both the divine and the human natures were complete. In 431the Council of Ephesus rejected the views of Nestorius who preferred for Mary the title Mother of Christ to the term Mother of God. And in 451 the Council of Chalcedon adopted a creed which was influenced by the Tome of Pope Leo, a document prepared by the then bishop of Rome. The creed of Chalcedon declared Christ to be "perfect in Godhead and perfect in manhood, truly God and truly man, of rational soul and body. "Thus the distinctive views ascribed to Apollinaris, Eutyches, and Nestorius were condemned. The decisions of Chalcedon did not produce peace in the church and among the contending parties. On the one hand most of the members of what was to become the Catholic Church, East and West, adhered to them, as did the Greek-speaking majority in the East who looked to the Bishop Constantinopleas representing the teaching of Chalcedon. There were on the other hand, elements in the East who either rejected Roman rule or were restless under it as symbolized by Constantinople. Most of these professed their adherence to the decisions reached in Nicaca in 325 but rejected the definition in the creed of Chalcedon of the relation of the divine and human in Christ. Since they stressed the divine in Christ, those who adhered to Chalcedonian Christology labeled their opponents monophysites (of the one nature), with the implication that they regarded Christ as wholly divine and not human. The dissenters from Chalcedon repudiated the term monophysite, insisting that they recognized both the divine a human in Christ but maintaining that the relationship was not as described in Chalcedon. These passionate controversies among the Eastern Churches created continuing strife, thus weakening them and making easy the spread and triumph of Islam seventh century.

Christianity Arabic: 'al-masihiyya or 'an-nasrﾄ］iyya Hebrew: netsrut

Third largest religion in the Middle East/ North Africa, second to Islam and Alevism. The many Christian churches in the region have between 14 and 20 million adherents. These figures are uncertain for a number of reasons. In some countries, the religion of expatriates is generally not included in official figures or statistics. In other countries, the Christian minority is represented with smaller figures than foreign estimates and/or the statistics of the churches themselves. The figures to the left, indicating 19 million as of 2005 are fair estimates, but cannot be verified. In the case of Iraq, with the present Muslim Religious Cleansing of Iraq, the estimates now go as low as 600,000 remaining Christians. Christianity started as a Messianic orientation in Judaism, which in this encyclopedia is called Jesus-Judaism. It was around 100 CE that the differences between the JesusJews and Jews who did not accept and believe the stories about Jesus became so grave that a reconciliation was no longer possible. From this time on, the supporters of Jesus formed their own fully independent religious groups and developed theologies and organizations independent of Judaism and Jewish leaders. Christianity is a religion based upon the belief that the Bible contains a divine message and that Jesus (who died between 25 and 40 CE) represents a new orientation in the relationship between man and God. There are differences on how the different churches of the Middle East and North Africa see this message, how they transmit it, and also how they define Jesus. But in general, the similarities outnumber the differences.

MYTHS and THEOLOGY All Middle Eastern Churches employ a common approach to Christianity's extraordinary metanarrative, sometimes referred to in religious or literary analysis as its mythical dimensions. These dimensions are presented at three levels: 1) The personalities and the stories of Judaism before Jesus (Old Testament); 2) Jesus, the disciples and the first apostles (New Testament); 3) The personalities of each church and their stories, down through the centuries. Within the latter level, which often has been central in forming unique identities for the different churches, stories about martyrs and saints are often found. Central to first 2 levels of metanarratives or myths is the notion that there is only one god, and that man is offered eternal life in Paradise after death, or they will be sentenced to harsh punishment. As Christianity understands it, the Old Testament contains the promise of Jesus as the Messiah. This creates a great divide between Christians and Jews; the two groups

could be seen as defining themselves belonging to two different religious perspectives within the same history. The actual understanding of the role of the Messiah himself was, however, different for Christianity. The Jews considered the Messiah as a political liberator of Israel, while Christians understood Jesus to be a spiritual liberator of humankind in a far broader sense. But in both religions, Messiah represented an end of the unjust world. As the Christians saw it, Jesus' main task was to prepare for the forthcoming apocalypse and the end of Satan's influence in the world. One book in the New Testament tells about this, Revelation. It has many similarities with the apocalyptic books of the Old Testament, but also with some of the literature in the gospels, It both threatens the unbelievers and the lukewarm, and gives promises to the many who believe. But as the decades passed, and the promise of the end of the world was not fulfilled, one might have expected that Christians would reject the idea of a link between Jesus and the end of the world. This really never happened; instead the idea of a new world order was developed to explain the delay of the parousia, or return of Jesus: With Jesus, a new relationship between humanity and God had been established, and Christians could use this as a basis for living in the secular world. While living an earthly life, they were saved and purified through their trust in Jesus' claim on that life. But even today, Christians expect that the end of the world remains an ever-present prospect. When this final event arrives, God will judge every human being, and his or her destiny in the hereafter will be determined. The unjust will burn in hell, while the just will experience eternal bliss in paradise. Central to the message of Jesus is love, along with forgiveness and openness towards other human beings. While Judaism at the time of Jesus was predominantly a closed religion, the message of Jesus was by many understood to imply that every human being could become a Christian â&#x20AC;&#x201C; through the prospect of conversion and faith alone. The gospels are far less detailed about regulations on morality and life than the Jewish Law. Among other things, the dietary regulations are here abolished. The third group of metanarravies and myths belong to the period when Christianity had established itself as a religion. It was often in the clash with kings and rulers, as well as with other religions (especially Islam) that many Christians faced persecution, and had to stand up for their beliefs. These stories, true or not, gave the churches both strength and identity, but also cultic centres that were built around places central to each personality. There are also many myths about ascetics, men or women who devoted themselves entirely to Christianity, and sometimes moved to inhospitable places, like the desert, yet who still managed to survive.

RITUALS In most of the churches in North Africa and the Middle East, many rituals are performed by the clergy for the benefit of all members of the congregation. In many cases, it is expected that a membership attend the churches and cathedrals to participate in these rituals, but there are also some central everyday rituals that are performed for the benefit of members who are not present. The totality of rituals are both too complex and time consuming for each individual to perform. It is, therefore, necessary to have a clergy who perform all obligations and do it correctly. The adherents participate with money, gifts and, sometimes, voluntary work. Some rituals are however central and cannot be effective unless the believer participates. These include acts like baptism, confirmation, marriage and the Eucharist. It is sometimes also expected that that certain worship services have obligatory attendance. Important feasts among the Orthodox Christians are: Easter (celebrated at other times than in western Christianity, starting in April or May); Christmas (December 25); Theophany (January 19); Great Lent (fast, starting in February or March). Confession, fasting, prayer, self denial, obedience, righteous deeds and visits to holy places are other rituals, and they are often performed on an individual basis. In ones personal religious life, these can often be of more importance to the believer than the big feasts.

ORGANIZATION The organization of the churches in the Middle East and North Africa is strictly hierarchical, and there is little congregational democracy. The existing leaders are effectively in charge of appointing new leaders. Most of the independent churches are headed by a patriarch, who has a small group of bishops below him, who then again have a group of priests below them. Connected to some of the churches, there are also monasteries which enjoy a certain amount of independence, but are still subject to the authority of the highest leaders. Even the local Catholic churches have a great deal of independence, and cannot be defined as controlled by the pope in Rome. The relationship between the pope and these churches is more symbolic than factual, but the Vatican has the ability to exercise influence through communication channels.

HOLY PLACES There are many holy places for Christianity in the Middle East. The most important place is Jerusalem, where a church has been erected over the place claimed to be the crucifixion and burial place of Jesus. In Bethlehem a church has been constructed over the place where Jesus is believed to have been born. Nazareth has several sites that remember the life and works of Jesus. Syria has many cult centres for lesser known personalities, but in Damascus there are places that are visited and revered as sites from the life of St. Paul. Egypt has a rich tradition of its own, and there are places that commemorate the stay of Jesus and his family in Egypt.

HISTORY This is only a brief treatment, more details being listed under each of the different church traditions/denominations. 1st century CE: Spreading of the Jesus-orientation in Jewish communities, also called Jesus-Judaism, that ultimately developed into churches as part of what came to be an independent religion. It is possible that groups like the Essenes and others may have had both positive and negative influences in this development. Around 100: The Jesus-Jews break free from other Jews, and start developing their own emphases and structure. 2nd century: The spread of the new religion continues. At this period of time, the congregations are weak but have much contact with each other. The main centres at this period of time are in Syria and northern Egypt. 2nd and 3rd centuries: Strong growth in North Africa, but also inside the Roman Empire. 312: The Roman Emperor Constantine becomes a Christian, resulting in Christianity developing into the state religion of the empire. 5th century: A great schism between the churches over a central issue: Was Jesus of two natures, a human and a divine, or did he just have one nature? At the Council of Chalcedon in 451, the western churches came to decide that Jesus had two â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; natures, but combined in the same person. Many Eastern Churches do not accept this, and new and independent church bodies with no relationship to the Western Church results. 7th century: Muslim rulers take control of the Middle East and North Africa. This results in a centuries long relationship that would alternate between mild and strong persecution on the one hand, and fruitful coexistence on the other hand. Many Christians would over the next couple of centuries convert to Islam.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Formation of the Christian Byzantine Empire, which comes to cover most of modern Turkey, Greece and parts of lands further west in Europe. This develops into an important centre for the development of eastern Orthodox Christianity. The empire would remain large for more than 700 years, until it was defeated by the Ottomans. 12th and 13th centuries: The Christian Crusades in the lands around Jerusalem involve new contacts between Eastern Churches and the Catholic Church of Rome. In some areas (especially around modern Lebanon), Christian countries are established, while in other areas hostility between eastern Christians and the Crusaders results. 15th to 18th centuries: A well-conducted campaign from the Catholic Church towards Eastern Churches, encourages some to rejoin the Catholic Church. But they were allowed to keep their identity, organization, special rites, and a liturgy performed in their own traditional languages. None of the churches were forced to introduce celibacy for its clergy against its own will. 19th century: Heavy and brutal actions from Muslims against Christians in the Ottoman Empire result in a great exodus of Christians from the region. â&#x20AC;&#x201D; Start of colonization in Algeria, Tunisia and Mauritania brings large quantities of Christian Europeans into the region. For a period deep into the 20th century, Christianity becomes the politically dominant (if not largest) religion for this region. There was minimal persecution from the Christian side, and very few conversions from Islam to Christianity. Early 20th century: Morocco and Libya are colonized, and experience a large immigration of European Christians. The same religious development takes place here, as had been characteristic of the other North African countries earlier. Around 1960: With the fall of the North African colonies, most Christians with European origin in North Africa return to their families' original home countries. Only a few Christians remain. By: Tore Kjeilen ÂŠ Copyright 1996-2008 LookLex Ltd. All rights reserved SOURCE: http://i-cias.com/e.o/christianity.htm

Eastern Christians or “ARAB AMERICANS” By Toni Freij At the end of the 19th century in 1880 A.D., the USA opened the door to immigration from the Middle East. Most of the immigrants from the Middle East were Christians from Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine. Historical documents show that their main reason for leaving their home countries were persecution and massacre by the Ottoman Empire against Christians in its territories, which at that time included Lebanon and Syria. These massacres started in 1870 A.D. and the result was the killing of a large number of the Christian population in those countries. A large number of Christians left these lands in order to escape the religious persecution and intolerance, and came to America. The first immigrant to arrive in the USA from Lebanon was a Christian Tanyous El-Bashaalani, who arrived in Boston, MA in 1874 A.D. In addition to Christians, there was a small number of Druze and Muslims who left Lebanon and Syria in order to escape the mandatory participation in the Ottoman Imperial army. Together these immigrants formed the first generation of people to emigrate from the Middle East. The second wave of immigration took place from the 2nd World War. Most of these immigrants were Christians from Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Iraq, and Lebanon. The reasons from their immigration were similar to those of the first generation of immigrants; persecution and oppression because they were Christians. The third wave of immigration started approximately twenty years ago. Most of these people were from Lebanon, Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen. The reasons these people chose to immigrate ranged from political and religious persecution to economic factors. Another factor was that the USA opened to the door wider to those seeking political asylum, due to the influence of the Communist system and ideology on the daily life of people in the Middle East. The population statistics that have been published by the Arab-American Institute in Washington D.C. say that the total population of Americans descended from immigrants from Arabic-speaking countries is 2.5 to 3 million*, and the percentage of Christians among them is 80%. Now we should ask ourselves a very important question: Who are the Arab Americans? Is it true that just because a group of people speak the same Language that they automatically share the same origin, roots, culture and ethnicity? Let‘s study the following example: some West African countries such as Senegal, Cameroon, Ivory Coast, etc. share the common use of the French language, and the French culture has a great influence on their cultures. To this day, French is the official language of these nations, and French currency is in use there, and some other French traditions are retained. Does this mean that they are French? Of course not. They are Black Africans and the French are white Europeans. Therefore the Term ―Arab-Americans‖ is incorrect, especially when applied to the Christians who emigrated from what are generally called the ―Arab Countries.‖

The following reasons explain clearly that the term Arab American is not correct: 1The presence of the language factor (Arabic) among Arabic speaking countries does not prevent significant differences in the traditions and cultures of these countries. Even on the linguistic level, the differences in the Arabic dialects sometimes causes difficulty for ordinary citizens in these countries to understand another Arabic speaker using a different dialect. 2The presence of local and tribal trends in each area of the Arab countries. This cannot be ignored. 3The racial/ ethnic factor which represents one of the important factors, especially for the Christians of the region. The Christians who live today in the Arab countries are racially and ethnically different from their fellow Muslim citizens in the same countries. Historical documents show that there are no true Arab Christians. The true Arab Christians who used to inhabit some of the Arabian Peninsula in the areas of Najran Mecca, El-Madina and some areas of Yemen were annihilated by the Muslim armies during the Islamic invasions in the 7th century and those who were left alive were forced to convert to Islam. 4Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s Christians who live in the so-called Arab countries are in fact its indigenous inhabitants of their countries and history proves this. Although they speak Arabic and no longer speak their original language, they are ethnically and racially different from the Arab Muslim citizens of their country (who are of mixed blood). The reason for this phenomenon of preserving their racial purity is due to the fact that Islamic laws permit a male Muslim to marry Christian women on the condition that their children are raised Muslim. On the other hand, a Muslim woman is permitted to marry a Christian man only if he converts to Islam first, and of course their children would be raised Muslim. It should be noted that any Muslim who converts to Christianity must be killed according to the Shareâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;a (the Islamic law). Therefore, one can see from all directions now how the number of Muslims grew steadily over time. Hence, we can see how the population of Christians of the East who are the indigenous peoples of their countries were reduced due to the factors mentioned above as well as other very important factors such as severe persecution, torture, economic and civil restrictions which would automatically be lifted if a person chose to convert to Islam. Often, the choice was given to convert or to be killed. The final result of their policies, as we know, is that the Christians of the Middle East were once in the majority but now are in the minority in their ancestral lands. Who Are The Eastern Christians In The Arabic-Speaking Countries: 1- The Lebanese Christians are the indigenous people of Lebanon (Phoenicia) and are the Phoenicians and Aramaens. Their languages, descended from Phoenicians, were written in cuneiform. Their civilization existed before that of the Arabs by hundreds of years. The Phoenicians were highly skilled seafarers and very important in world trade in ancient times. 2- The Copts, the Christians of Egypt, are the indigenous inhabitants and direct descendants of the Ancient Egyptians, the Pharaohs. Their civilization and Hieroglyphic writing amaze all the world up to the present time. Their civilization developed thousands of years before the Arabs started to form tribes.

3- The Syrian Christians are the indigenous people of Syria. Their languages were Syriac and Aramaic, which is the language that the Lord Jesus Christ spoke. 4- The Palestinian Christians are Hamites in their origin. They inhabited the land of Palestine hundreds of years before Abraham, the father of Isaac and Ishmael. Therefore, Palestinians were present in Palestine hundreds of years before the Arabs. 5- The Christians of Iraq are the Assyrians and Chaldeans. They are the indigenous inhabitants of Mesopotamia. Their civilizations are among the oldest civilizations on earth. 6- The Christians of Jordan are descendants of Canaanite tribes, who inhabited the eastern part of Palestine. They lived in their land hundreds of years before the formation of the Arabic tribes in the Arabian Peninsula. 7- The Christians and Animists in Southern Sudan are true black Africans. They lived in Sudan hundreds of years before the existence of Arabs. Now, if the historical facts show that today‘s Christians of the East are the indigenous inhabitants of their lands, the question that should be asked is this: How can a group of Eastern Christians deny true ethnic and racial roots and call themselves ―Arab-Americans‖? How can the Eastern Christians identify themselves with the Arab-Muslims who invaded their home lands, killed their grandparents and raped their grandmothers, eliminated their languages and civilizations, destroyed their churches and treated them as lower class citizens ―Ahl el-themaa.‖ To date, Christians are not allowed to worship or preach freely, and it is impossible to build a church in some Arab-countries, such as Saudi Arabia, and very difficult to do so in others. It is so sad to see that Eastern Christians who live in the USA and the West have not educated the Western population of their forgotten true history or educated their children who were born in the West about their true history and identity. They haven‘t been taking advantage of the democracy and freedom of expressions to participate in organization which support the human rights and freedom of religion in the Arab countries. Participation in such human rights organizations can play a major role in supporting the Christians who still live in the Middle East. How Did The Plan Of Forcing The Arab Muslim Identity On The Eastern Christians Begin? During the Arab-Israeli war, especially in the year 1973, Saudi Arabia and the oil rich states of the Persian Gulf started to promote and financially support a very organized plan behind closed doors to collect all immigrants from all the Arab countries under one umbrella called the Arab American Organization. The purpose of this block is to politically force power on the USA and Western governments to promote their agenda and act as a counter to the Israeli lobby. The second and hidden agenda is to spread Islam and its teaching in the USA and Western world under the umbrella of freedom of religion that is present in the Western world. And in fact, the oil money has started to flow into the pockets of a few so-called ―Arab Americans.‖ In the year 1980, the ―American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee‖ or ADC was formed by the LebaneseAmerican former Senator James Abourezk. Also, the oil money of Saudi Arabia and other Gulf States has succeeded in buying the conscience of many such as James

Zogby (president of the Arab-American Institute) and Albert Mekhiber and many others. It was very well planned by these Muslim countries to use Eastern Christians on the surface to execute their plans to collect all the Eastern Christians under the ―ArabAmerican‖ umbrella using those few individuals to influence the USA and Western governments to respond to their demands. In this way, the Muslim Arab countries can gain some legal accesses to their demands. In addition, they can promote their hidden and important goal, which is to spread Islam in the USA and the West by all means; and many articles have been written and published, and numerous interviews have been done to defend Islam by these individuals. As an example, the weekly TV show ―The Capital View‖ on the Arabic Cable-TV, hosted by James Zoghby and others. Nowadays, the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee (ADC) tries to give legitimacy to its work by saying that its members are thirty thousand. Even if this number is accurate, it represents only 10% of the total number of so called ―Arab Americans,‖ which is three million. Of this 3 million, 80% (eighty percent) are Christians. This will lead us to ask some important questions: Is this organization honest and not biased in its agenda? Does it represent all those Arab-Americans, and does it reflect the concern and needs of the entire Arab-American population, or only those of a few? Let‘s ask the ADC and other Arab-American Organizations the following questions: 1Where are their actions on the problem of containing occupation of Lebanon by Syria? Lebanon, the country which was a good model for all countries in the Middle East in terms of peace, freedom of religion and expression, is on its way to becoming an Islamized State. 2Where are their actions on the frequent attacks on the Copts in Egypt by the Muslim extremists and the Egyptian government denying their basic right in equality with their fellow Muslim citizens? 3Where are their actions on the human rights of the Christian Palestinians in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, where Muslim extremists are forcing them to leave their land? All this was from financial support of the oil money of Saudi Arabia, Gulf States, and Iran. These extremist groups have destroyed and forcibly closed many churches in the Gaza strip so that now only four churches are left, while there were more than fifty churches 10 years ago. 4Where are their actions in defending and condemning the ethnic cleansing of Assyrians and Chaldeans from Iraq? 5Where are their actions and defense of the people of Southern Sudan? They are suffering one of the most sever plans of starvation and ethnic cleansing in modern history with the purpose of forcing them to embrace Islam. The fact is that the ADC and other Arab Organizations are busy executing the agenda that has been put behind the walls by Muslim countries. We see that the ADC is very active in defending the rights of the Muslims in Bosnia Herzegovina and the rights of Muslims everywhere. The ADC forgets that it is an Arabic Organization and that the country of Bosnia Herzegovina is a European country that does not share a border with an Arab country and is not a member of the Arab League. We must in truth, that the Eastern Christians in the USA and the West, must recognize

the tactics and the danger of these types of organizations, such as the ADC who are supported by known Arab-Muslim countries that are known for hate of Christianity. Therefore, all Eastern Christians must reject the terminology of ―Arab Americans‖ when it refers to them, because in truth the term is an insult and injustice to the rights of their parents, grandparents and ancestors who suffered and continue to suffer severe persecution from the Arab-Muslim governments up to present time. In addition, using the term ―Arab-Americans‖ is a crime of denying and not giving the true origin and roots of Eastern Christians to the new generations who were born in the USA and the West and who deserve to know the truth about their heritage and history. We must educate the children of immigrants of Eastern Christians with the truth about the history, culture, and languages of their ancestors and how these things were abolished from the world map. Eastern Christians must oppose and boycott the Arabic-Muslim Media in the USA and the West, and must expose their wicked agenda to the public. In Summary Christians from Arab-speaking countries should be called ―Eastern Christians.‖ It is the right Biblical terminology, or by terms such as Lebanese-Americans, Coptic/ Egyptian- Americans, Palestinian Americans, etc or just Americans period, rather than identifying with the Arab-Muslims who persecuted and killed our ancestors and abolished our original cultures and languages. The Eastern Christians must recognize that the name ―Arab‖ given to Christians is a new hidden method by the Anti-Christian groups to abolish the identity of the Eastern Christians. We must act as Eastern Christians and unite our efforts, educating our children and people of the USA and the West about the suffering and discrimination that the Christians face every day in the lands in the Middle East, especially in the Arabic-speaking countries. In this regard, we must appreciate and encourage the effort of ―The Eastern Committee in the USA,‖ which was founded in 1992 and represents a coalition of Lebanese, Coptic, and Assyrian organizations in the USA and the West. Therefore, we must call all Eastern Christian communities of Assyrians, Chaldeans, Copts, Jordanians, Lebanese, Palestinians, Sudanese and Syrians to join and support ―The Eastern Committee in the USA‖ to represent their concerns and to liberate ourselves from false Arabic-Muslim identity.

*Editor’s Note: The numbers are now believed to be between 5-6.5 million Middle East/Arabic-speaking immigrants in the United States. 78% are Middle East Christians.

What is the origin and history of Christians in the Middle East? ď&#x201A;ˇ

"...overwhelming majority of Middle East Christians came from nationalities which did not convert to Islam after the Arab conquest of the seventh century. "

What is the situation of Christians in the Middle East today? ď&#x201A;ˇ

Types of Persecutions: There are various types of persecutions of Christians in the Middle East. We can sort them in two: a) Religious persecution of individuals (human rights abuse): This persecution is conducted against individuals because of their religious affiliation, individuals are punished for displaying crosses or stars of David, jailed for praying in public, and in some cases punished by death, for not complying with the religious tenants. Converts to Christianity are sentenced to death. b) Political oppression of religious communities (ethno-religious cleansing): In this case, ruling regimes are oppressing entire religious communities on political, security, and economic levels. The objectives of such oppression is to reduce the influence of the Christian communities, and in certain cases, to reduce it physically. The ethno-religious cleansing of Christian peoples in the Middle East alternate between military suppression and political oppression. Moreover para-military fundamentalist groups are conducting pogroms against the Christians, which includes burning Churches and assassinating civilians. The stated objective of the ruling regime is to Arabise and Islamize the Christian. Religious persecution of Christians in the Middle East has reached extreme forms of human degradation. The authors of persecution: a. The religious persecution and oppression is normally conducted by one religious group against other religious group: for Christians, this case has been the case. Of course, persecution can also conducted by members of one particular group against other members of the same religious group on the basis of religious fundamentalism . b. Persecution of ethno-religious groups, the Mideast Christians in particular, is conducted by legal governments (Egypt, Iran, Lebanon, Syria, Sudan) or by organizations (National Islamic Front in Sudan, Front Islamique de Salut, the Hizbollah of Lebanon, etc.)

How many Christians remain in the Middle East? ď&#x201A;ˇ

a. The largest Christian community of the Middle East is found in Egypt, which has ten to twelve million Copts. This Christian group comprises 1/5 to 1/6 of the country's population. Egypt is also a major recipient of U.S. foreign aid, despite blatant violations of religious freedom which occurs weekly in this country. b. The Southern Sudanese are about six million. Christians are the largest monotheist group. c. The Christians of Lebanon: about 1.5 million still reside there and more than 6 million live in the diaspora, including about a quarter of that number in the United States. Among the Lebanese Christians, the largest group is the Maronites, which are Catholics which follow Rome. Other smaller religious entities include the Melkites and Orthodox Christians. d. The Assyro-Chaldeans: Around one million in Iraq with large concentrations in the Kurdish zone. e. The Christians of Syria: About 1.2 million including Aramaics, Armenians, Melkites and Orthodox. f. There are small but significant Christian communities in other countries such as Iran, Jordan, Israel, and less significant in Turkey, Algeria. By law there are no Christians in Saudi Arabia.

What has been the situation for Christians in Israel/Palestine? ď&#x201A;ˇ

In the last census conducted by the British mandatory authorities in 1947, there were 28,000 Christians in Jerusalem. The census conducted by Israel in 1967 (after the Six Day War) showed just 11,000 Christians remaining in the city. This means that some 17,000 Christians (or 61%) left during the days of King Hussein's rule over Jerusalem. Their place was filled by Muslim Arabs from Hebron. During the British mandate period, Bethlehem had a Christian majority of 80%. Today, under Palestinian rule, it has a Muslim majority of 80%. Few Christians remain in the Palestinian-controlled parts of the West Bank. Those who can - emigrate, and there will soon be virtually no Christians in the Palestinian Authority controlled areas. The Palestinian Authority is trying to conceal the fact of massive Christian emigration from areas under its control. - Middle East Digest - Nov/Dec 1997

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Time magazine (April 23, 1990): "After years of relative harmony, friction between Christians and their fellow-Arabs [in the disputed territories] has intensified sharply with the rise of Muslim fundamentalism." (Time went on to cite various examples of Muslims pressuring Christian Arabs). The Jerusalem Post (May 2, 1991): "Muslim activists have been trying to convert Bethlehem, home of some of Christianity's holiest sites and once predominantly Christian, into a Muslim town. In contrast to the world-wide fuss over the purchase of a hostel in Jerusalem's 'Christian Quarter' by Jews, this steady and often violent encroachment has met with a thunderous silence in the Christian world. The pattern of increased violence has been unmistakable. Last December 21, a school for nuns was torched. During the first week in March, there was an attempt to break through the wall of the Carmelite monastery, followed by a break-in at a Christian school. On March 3 vandals desecrated Bethlehem's Greek Orthodox cemetery, removing crosses and disinterring and mutilating corpses ..." La Terra Sancta (A Vatican publication, dated 1991): "The Christians are abandoning the Middle East ... [although] the Jewish presence has alarmed the Arabs ... more than anything else, the commercial, cultural and technological contacts of recent years have caused a confrontation between Western civilization and Middle Eastern culture, or, as is commonly known, Islamic culture against Judeo-Christian." The Jerusalem Post (May 6, 1994): In April 1994, Israel's Hebrew press reported that Christian Arabs had accused activists of Arafat's Fatah faction of the PLO of harassing Franciscan nuns in the Aida convent near Bethlehem. One nun described as a "reign of terror" the behaviour of the activists, who allegedly regularly invaded the convent, vandalized graves, destroyed equipment and painted graffiti. CNN (December 20, 1995): "Today, Bethlehem is a predominantly Muslim town. At Friday prayers, they spill into Manger Square [the traditional site of Jesus' birth], so crowded are the mosques. Christians complain they're publicly harassed and harangued for their faith. The Christian cemetery has been desecrated and vandalized ... this Christian boy said the Muslims are fascists, bad people. Muslim families of 10 and 12 children leave smaller Christian families awash in an Islamic sea, afraid they will be overwhelmed by the refugee camps and Muslim villages around Bethlehem. Many of the town's Christians are afraid to talk openly now." The Times (London, December 22, 1997): "Life in [PA-ruled] Bethlehem has become insufferable for many members of the dwindling Christian minority. Increasing Muslim-Christian tensions have left some Christians reluctant to celebrate Christmas in the town at the heart of the story of Christ's birth".

SOURCE: http://www.peacefaq.com/christians.html

Arab Christian and Arab Muslim: Invested in brotherhood. By Fr. Labib Kobti (Arab Roman Catholic Priest) October 1999 In my article I shall address the following: 1) Harmony between Christians and Muslims 2) What did Arab Christians give to Arabs? 3) Our responsibility together 4) The Responsibility of Muslims toward Christians 1) Harmony between Christians and Muslims A friend, like a brother of mine, Issam Nashashibi, wrote me a letter from which I will quote: "As a child and early teen in Jerusalem, I grew up in a family who celebrated Christmas, Easter, and the two Muslim Holidays, Eid el-Fitr and Eid el-Adha. The family got together on those occasions. We, as children, had the greatest time"..."I never felt any difference between me and my cousins, the Abu-Dayyehs. We are one family; we shared the good and the bad times then, as we do now. I did not hear of differences between Christians and Muslims until I left Jerusalem. I know there are no differences. The proof is my formative years in Jerusalem"...."These Jerusalem experiences make it difficult for me to believe anyone who mentions differences between Muslims and Christians. To me, people who talk about these differences do not know what I know. In reality, the differences are imaginary. These alien images were planted by parties who want to keep us apart so they can remain in charge of our destiny..." In fact, we have been Arabs for about 6,000 years. We have been Arab Christians for 2,000 years. We have been Arab Muslims for about 1,500 years. Our community as Arabs is older than our different religious communities. We have proven that being an Arab is more important than being either Christian or Muslim, when we fought together against colonialism, and when we built our various countries. The colonialism of the past, as well as the present occupation do not differentiate between us. They see us as merely Lebanese, Iraqis, Palestinians, Syrians, Egyptians... all suffering the same fate under the same circumstances. Some countries do not want any harmony between Arab Muslims and Arab Christians. We have to be aware of that. We should put our hand together to fight against that. Let me tell you about the beautiful harmony we do have in our home countries, despite the up and downs.

The Arab Christians are the minority; the Arab Muslims are the majority. Arab Christians were the first to build schools, universities, hospitals, and other humanitarian organizations. The majority of our Arab Muslims used to study in these schools and do so today, as well Some schools have more than 70% Muslim students. That same percentage is at the Christian Bethlehem and Bir-Zeit Universities. A high percentage of Muslims are at the Jesuit University and the American University of Beirut, as well. The Arab-Christian investment in their home country serves everyone, not just Christians. The relief services of Christian institutions serve everyone equally. If some Arab Muslims suffer economic hardship, it is not because of any actions on the part of their Arab-Christian brethren. It is because of the economic situation in Palestine, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Lebanon. This economic hardship is affecting everyone, because of certain discriminatory laws like the one of the state of Israel against all nonJews (Note: These laws never refer to "Arabs"), and because of the difficult situations in the other countries where resources are minimal. And, as usual, the majority suffers more than the minority. Christians are less than 2% in the Holy Land, while the majority is their Muslim bloodbrothers. On this difficult economic situation, we as Arab Muslims and Christians are living and suffering the same. Some Arab Christians as well some Arab Muslims are rich, very rich sometimes, and they unfortunately forget their other brothers and sisters be they Muslims or Christians. The European countries and the USA, who are not always obviously Christian countries at all, have a separation between State and religion. These countries, far from being Christian like in their behavior at times, have only interest in their own wealth and the rights of their own people. They do not look at us equally as Arabs and they do not help the Arab Christians. On the contrary, with their propaganda, they nourished divisions between Christians and Christians, and between Christians and Muslims. Every single Arabic City or Village where Muslims and Christians have lived together for centuries have a common heritage, same food, same way of dressing, same folklore and same traditions. The Israelis, for example, who came from here and there, do not have any common heritage in the cities that they created in Palestine or the settlements that they built. The Christians and Muslims have a common history that we have to carry from generation to generation and for centuries to come, as our forefathers have done. Harmony between Christians and Muslims could become an example to the Jews who are living now with us. It would help in the future to build trust and cooperation on the land that belonged to our common prophets.

2) What did Arab Christians give to Arabs? I do not minimize the great merits that Islam gave to the Arabs. On the contrary, it requires volumes to address the subject. But as I represent the Arab Christian perspective, I need to write about the merits of the Arab Christian. Many times these merits are ignored or forgotten by our beloved Muslim sisters and brothers. History and scholars acknowledge the merits of the Arab Christians, especially on these issues, among many others: a) Al-Mualakat: The Arab-Christian poets like Umru al Qais, Bin Yagoth,Yazid Ben Abdel Madan,Hthala Al Tai', Hatem Al Tai',Al Hareth Bin Abbad,Adi Ben Yazid,Zuhair Ben Abi Sulma, Al Nabiga Al Thoubiani,Antara Al Absi and many others, just to mention some were Christians and many had their poems between the Mualakat in Mecca. These Mualakat were important documents at that time that showed the greatness of the Arabic language before Islam. The Mualakat influenced a lot of Muslim scholars and still speak to them today. b) The Holy Koran was written with the Arab characters which were created by the Arab Christians of Hira (See Arabiyya, C. Rabin, in Encyclopedie de l'Islam, 2nd Edition, Leyde et Paris, 1960, pp.579a-622b), (See also The History of Arabs before Islam, Jawd Ali, Vol. 8, pp.178-179; vol. 9, p. 689). c) Many Arab Christians were scholars and served as ministers at the first Muslim Caliphates. "The Christian Arabs of Gassanids in Syria and Montherits in Iraq came from the largest Arab tribe of Qahtan, and are related to the Arab tribes of Aws and Kazraj. As ancient Semites, they were translators, men of medicine and sciences and great scholars, to whom Muawya Ibn Abu Suffian, builder of the Umayyad Empire, entrusted the administration of the state and enrichment of its culture and learning process. On the shoulder of those Christians, Muawyah, this king and Caliph and his successors, built the foundation of the Arab Golden Age which reached its zenith in the days of the Abbasid Caliph AI-Ma'moun 813-833." Jarir, and Al Akhtal, the famous poets with Al Farazdaq who enriched the Arabic Poetry during the Ummaiads era. d) The Arab Christians were the first to translate into Arabic a lot of books of philosophy, geography, medicine and history from Aramaic-Syriac, Greek and Latin. On this they were the bridge between the East and the West at that time, which helped the Arabs to build their own culture that would become the Golden Arab Age at the time of Al Mamoun. e) They worked the first Arabic Grammars f) They fought with their bloodbrothers the Muslims against the Christian Byzantines as well against the Persians, the Crusaders. Issa Al Awam who was a brigade leader with

Sallaheddine against the Crusaders while some Muslim Kings were supporting them. The Arab Palestinian women of Al Jalil used to warn Salaheddine of the crusader troops by lighting candles at night from their windows. g) They stood with their bloodbrothers and sisters, the Arab Muslims, against the Turks,(the Nationalist leaders that were hung by the Turks in 1916, were both Christians and Muslims) the French and the English. They built with them the national Arab countries. And they still stand with them to build the future of Palestine. 3) Our responsibility together Brotherhood between Arab Christians and Arab Muslims is the most important investment in our future together. Irrespective of the name you use for the Eternal One, be it God, Allah, Hashem, Adonai or other; we have been enjoined by that power to live together. There is a reason for this. It is to bear witness, to love each other and to show that religion is a way to meet, to share, to love and to cooperate, and NOT to hate and destroy each other. Patriarch Michel Sabbah has commented, in one of his talks some years ago: "We are called to love each other. We should educate ourselves to love. From the churches, mosques and synagogues, the same exhortation should be proclaimed: Christians, love your Muslim and Jewish brothers; Muslims love your Christian and Jewish brothers; Jews love your Muslim and Christian brothers..." The blood of all our martyrs, Arab Christians and Arab Muslims, is mixed in the same soil. No one can separate the blood of those who died for a just cause: the Arab Cause. Shall we institute this brotherhood as a prophetic sign for a better future, or shall we permit "outside fingers" to destroy our unity? What will the future bring if we really love each other and build each other? Why do we allow fanaticism or exclusivism to take hold when we all know from experience that this is not the way, this is not what God wants of us? This exclusionist fanaticism is the will of only a small minority, and that "outside finger" is eager to help promote this, in order that it may tell the outside world that Christians are persecuted by the Muslim majority, and that therefore we, the government of the world, are the only power needed to bring harmony and to defend the human rights of others. We all know that this is a big lie. Others want only our resources and look to their own interests and do not care for a single innocent child among us.

4) The Responsibility of Muslims toward Christians Arab Christians as a minority expect from their Arab Muslims as a majority a lot, just as Arab Muslims expect a lot from their blood brothers and sisters, the Arab Christians. Let us open a dialogue. a) Arab Christians want to be recognized as bloodbrothers and sisters. In fact a lot of Arab Christian family names are the same as the Arab Muslim ones, which means that we were brothers, sisters and cousins. b) Arab Christians need to be recognized as contributors to the Arabic history, language,litterature, grammar, nations etc. c) The decrease of Christian presence in the Middle East and especially in the Holy Land should be stopped. Several analysts predict that 25 years from now there will be no Christians living in the Holy Land. What is the Holy Land without Christians? What is the Middle East without Christians? Bothers and sisters should never leave each other. We were put together by God in the same land. We need to stay together so as to respect the will of Allah. The Arab Christian presence should become an Arab and Muslim "RESPONSIBILITY." Arabs and Muslims should help Arab Christians to stay in Middle East and the Holy Land. They should stand with them. We do not need any protectorate. History has shown that protectorates do not help, but create divisions. We have the ability to protect ourselves, if we believe that we are in reality, brothers and sisters, equal in rights and in duties in our home countries. Therefore, opportunities for serving any kind of government or civil administration should be based, not on religion, but on the ability of the person to serve his country. These opportunities should be equal and just, where everybody feels himself at home. And Muslims should trust their Arab-Christian brothers and sisters. With them, they have lived a history of trust and harmony, where Arab Christians showed their great love to their land, heritage, tradition, history and people. This is where, together, they served with loyalty and were faithful to the principles of sharing, cooperating and sacrifice.

The Christian Presence in the Middle East Witness and Mission Part I Collegial Pastoral letter of the Catholic Patriarchs of the Middle East to their Faithful in their different countries of residence Signed by: Stephanos Ghattas 1, Patriarch of Alexandria of Catholic Copts, Maximos V Hakim, Patriarch of Antioch and all the East, of Alexandria and Jerusalem, Mar Ignace Antoine II Hayek, Antiochian Patriarch of the Syrian Catholics, Mar Nasrallah-Pierre Sfeir, Patriarch of Maronite Antioch and all the East, Mar Raphail 1st Bidawid, Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans, Jean-Pierre XVIII Kasparian, Patriarch of the Armenian Catholics, Michel Sabbah, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem Greetings and Thanksgiving 1. The greeting of the apostle introduces this collegial pastoral Letter, fruit of the 2nd symposium of our Council held in Cairo 17-22 February, 1992, where we were the guests of H.B. Patriarch Stephanos II Ghattas, Patriarch of Alexandria of the Catholic Copts. In addressing this greeting to you, we give thanks to God always for all of you remembering you in our prayers unceasingly calling to mind your work of faith and labor of love and endurance in hope of our Lord Jesus Christ (1 Thess 1:2-3). 2. We direct ourselves to you, brothers Catholic sons and daughters, who live in our beloved East and in the ancient Arab lands. Through you, we wish also to direct ourselves to all our Christian brothers and sisters in the region, to all those who believe in God, to all our compatriots, and all persons of good will, for ever and ever (cf. I Cor 15:28). Experience and reflection 3. The grace of faith shone for the first time in our East, and from there spread to the ends of the inhabited earth, This grace gave rise to a rich and enduring experience of faith and civilization in our countries and our societies. By our constant prayer and meditation, we wish so to foster it that it continues to open up its pathway through everrenewed conditions. We, therefore, beseech the grace of the Holy Spirit, who guides us to the fullness of truth who teaches us everything and reminds us of all that our Lord and Master, Jesus Christ, told us (cf. Jn 14:26:16:13). We ask this same Spirit "to remain with you, and be in you" (Jn 14:17). The subject of our 2nd Symposium was the meaning of our Christian presence in our societies, and the way in which we give our Christian witness . In this pastoral letter, we wish to share our reflections and our views with you, so that together we might seek the will of God for us, and respond to the appeals of the societies to which we belong. This Pastoral Letter is a continuation of the

dialogue we established with you in our 1st Message following our 1st Symposium in Lebanon (24 August1991). I. New Facts and changes A. In the world Unity and communications 4. The continuing development of the means of communication has brought a compact unity to the world of today. Our universe has come to resemble a global village, the extremes of which have met, and each of its parts has an influence on the others within the whole of the body of mankind. Thus, it is no longer possible for a human group to live on the margin of history as a neutral observer of what occurs around it. The solidarity of mankind in good times and bad is one of the great signs of the times which overshadows the life of the world today. This requires us to cast a glance, however fleeting and partial, at what is happening all around us, and within our Churches. Our Christian presence in the East is determined by this context and directed by it. Changes and conflicts 5. Over the last years a new situation has been developing on the international level. Important changes have taken place, and it is not clear yet what their out come will be. These changes are occurring constantly and have repercussions in all parts of the world. They lead States and societies to review their plans and the positions they have adopted. In the midst of all these changes old conflicts give way to new ones, within the context of a different geographical and political restructuring. This gives rise to the many questions that trouble the international community and sharpen its ability to handle conflicts in a way that serves the good of mankind, peace, tranquility and stability. While awaiting the realization of the hopes of the human family, however, some societies continue to suffer the effects of the changes caused by these conflicts, with all the destruction and hatred that this entails. As the world advances towards the longed-for stability, mankind is tormented by overwhelming ambitions, and more than at any other time the future of the world is brought into question by serious hazards. The new world order 6. In our first message we referred to what has come to be known as "the new world order". Although still beyond our grasp, the family of nations is seeking to establish it. If, by this order, we are to understand a climate of peace and relaxation which would allow the world to come to grips with the many unsolved problems with which it is faced for the good of the whole of mankind, this would present a new hope for humanity as it stands on the threshold of the third millennium of our era. If, however, it means that private forces are to monopolize the future of the universe and manipulate it in their own interests and selfish purposes, this would raise serious doubts about the future condition of mankind. The matter is still under study, and definitive judgment would be

premature at this point. We certainly hope that in the end it will be the common good that triumph us for all, and that the foundations of justice, peace and development for all men and women will be firmly established. North and South 7. Unforeseen and significant new events have taken place in important areas of our planet. Notwithstanding the conflicts and trials that accompany them, we hope they will be beneficial for the peoples involved. However, these facts should not lead us to overlook one of the important questions raised throughout the world by the situation of the Third World, and by relations between the North and South: between an advanced, industrialized North and a poor, developing South. The following question must be asked: how will the new world order tackle this tragic situation? Will a positive interaction be established between North and South? Will this interaction take into account the aspirations and problems of the peoples of the South? Will an effort be made to satisfy the real needs for cultural, economical and social development in this suffering part of the world, while respecting its character, its aspirations, its outlook and its hopes? Will the Third World be given a real chance to make itself heard, and determine for it self the role it will play in the general evolution? Or will it continue to lag behind the rest of mankind in the process of development? There are many fundamental, urgent and vital questions to be answered. Coexistence 8. At the heart of this situation we find the great challenge faced by the modern world: the question of coexistence between the different human families. It would not be an exaggeration to maintain that all the problems that have afflicted our times have grown out of this fundamental question, or are extensions of it. A feature of the modern world is an awareness of the distinctive nature and authenticity of different peoples and social categories. It is at times difficult to reconcile this awareness with the demands of peace and good neighborliness, both within a single country and between countries and regions. It is also the cause of a lack of transparency in human relations, provoking crises which frequently become bloody conflicts. The contemporary world must respond to the following urgent question: How to live together in mutual respect and peace, while taking into account the pluralism characteristic of today's world? How can the pluralism which has so often been used as an excuse for misunderstandings and bloody struggles be transformed into a call for communication and complementarily? Can the logic of "Either Me or Him" be replaced by the logic of "You and Me"? This is the kind of question we must face up to. B. In Our Arab World An essential partner 9. Not withstanding the variety of its regions, of its socio-political regimes, of its peoples, its minorities and orientations, the Arab world constitutes a characteristic geographical

and cultural unity. This world of ours does not stand at the margin of the diverse new phenomena which are springing up around it, It constitutes rather, an important part of them, constantly interacting with them at all levels and in all areas, and experiencing all the positive and negative consequences they produce. It can justly be claimed that the Arab world is an essential and influential partner in the interplay of the variables, new facts, conflicts and challenges of modern times. All this is due to its geographical position, its cultural bonds with the rest of the world, the wealth of its natural resources (principally oil), and the political problems which affect it, and which are of concern to the whole world. All this means that the Arab world is of particular importance in the context of world conflict, and gives it a special responsibility in the search for peace and international stability. This explains why our region has become a crucible of international conflict -as we declared in the message we issued after our first Symposium- conflicts which exhaust our peoples and disturb the peace of the world. The gestation of a civilization 10. The Arab world is part of the Third World. This implies a difficult gestation as regards its civilization. It is a world in search of itself, trying to shape its existence and find a place for itself in the world of today. That would allow it to be a positive element in the evolution of a world civilization and the consolidating of peace, playing the part that corresponds to the authenticity of its identity and the characteristics of its inheritance. The search has to thread a path through deep social, geopolitical, economic and cultural changes, beset by innumerable internal and external differences. As a result, this difficult gestation experiences its ups and downs, makes progress and suffers setbacks. As it undergoes this historic trial, the Arab world feels that cannot recognize itself in the images the world applies to it. This has repercussions on its relations with the rest of the world and its outlook, creating tensions which are difficult to overcome. Continues part II The Christian Presence in the Middle East Witness and Mission Collegial pastoral letter of the Catholic Patriarchs of the Middle East to their Faithful in their different countries of residence 11. The problems involved in this gestation are many, and overlapping. We mention a number of them, but the list is not exhaustive: heritage and modernity, political stability, political and social regimes, socio-economic development, unity in diversity, protected from divisions and disintegration, public freedoms, including religious freedom and freedom of conscience, the problems of justice, peace and the rights of the human being, including those of women, the position of minorities and respect for their diversity, and the relationship with a pluralistic world in rapid evolution. The Arab lives in the midst of these problems, and seeks his identity as a response to his memories of the past and the questions posed by the future. A deciding moment is open to him, and he will decide on his fate and his future, only in so far as he is fully aware of the challenges and their intricate make-up, and is in control of the situation. He also

requires wisdom, discernment and patience to tackle these problems in a way that serves the good of all those who live in this sensitive part of the world. Current problems 12. A part from all this, the Arab word is faced by grave problems which have played a vital role in the changes it has under gone and still influence nature of these problems and the multitude of partners involved can only, it must be said, complicate them even further. In the fore front of these problems is the Palestinian question. It has had a deep influence on the contemporary history of the region and has stirred the Arab conscience. It will continue to be an essential part of its trial as long as the Palestinian people are the victim of injustice and oppression. As regards the Lebanese question, there is an uneasy truce after all the sufferings and misfortune inflicted on all the sides involved, first of all on the Lebanese and the Palestinians. Add to this all the lesser and greater wars that have taken place, and will continue to take place in different Arab countries, giving rise to suffering, misfortune and destruction. In particular, we would like to mention the tragedy of the people of Iraq, who are waiting to overcome the state of isolation and blockade imposed on them, and participate once again in the life of the Arab world and that of the family of nations. We say this as the international community and all the parties involved are considering how to deal with these problems and solve them in their discussions. We pray that the initiatives undertaken in this regard may be a genuine, serious opportunity for finding a just, lasting and global solution for these different problems, and lead to the establishment of an equitable order, which guarantees dignity and freedom to all, and reinforces a new and positive set of regional and international relations for the good of all the peoples of the region without exception. C. In our Churches Living 13. Our Churches are not isolated islands or foreign bodies living on the margin of history. They are living Churches fully engaged in the whirlwind of world and regional events. They are affected by them, but in turn have the ability to act on them. Our Christian communities are a yeast which has its place in the human dough (cf. Mtt 13:33). They are engaged in a permanent interaction with their Lord, with one another and with their environment: with their Lord, in order by the light of faith to discover his will for them; with one another, in order to find in their thought, their spirituality, their heritage and their recent experiences, the seeds of their vocation and renewal; with their respective societies, in order to hear their appeals, their suffering and their needs. By means of all this, our Churches recover their distinct character, their particular contribution and their authenticity characterized by antiquity and constant renewal. We are at a decisive turning point, overwhelmed by events, changes and challenges at three levels -the world, regional and local- and our Churches pause to reflect and meditate on the renewal of their fidelity to God and man. We look back and give thanks 14. In this regard we can but give thanks to God for the signs of the Spirit revealed in the life of our AI-Bushra Churches and their earthly progress. The Holy Spirit dwells in

our Churches. He acts in them and renews their youthfulness. For the spirit makes all things new (Rev. 21:15). It is this spirit which gives us peace of heart and the courage to -continue along our way with you, full] of confidence, however many difficulties there may be, however daunting the challenges. In our Churches today we are witnesses to a vast movement of serious, responsible, creative reflection, aimed at shaping our ecclesial, social identity as believers, hic et nunc (here and now). This reflection is common to all the Christian Churches and the socio-cultural] categories of which they are composed, and in spite of the different starting points, it brings them together in the heart of the same ecclesia] crucible. This movement finds that reflection alone does not suffice. It must be put into action in the different areas, such as liturgical life, social action, commitment in the diverse forms of public life, a growing participation of the laity in Church life, maturity of faith in the diverse sectors of the Christian people, the growth in vocations to the priesthood and the religious life, and other expressions of the calling to the service of mission. The varied seeds of renewal which have begun to sprout in our Churches are a promising sign of their vitality and a pledge for the future. Some questions 15. The seeds of renewal are accompanied by a number of difficulties and problems. We must reflect upon these if we are to face up to them. As we contemplate the future, we are not unaware of the concern and fear which overshadow us, both you and us, in the challenges and demands of this turning point of history in which we live. As we examine our position, we see ourselves as a ship making headway through the storms. This awakens fears for the present and for the future, for ourselves, our existence, our authenticity and our identity, accompanied by the discouragement and despair that such fears can arouse. The many serious difficulties faced by our Christian communities at every moment of their daily life are never absent from our minds. These difficulties are not unrelated to the tensions which spring up for one reason or another in each individual Church, or because of the divisions and separation between the different Churches in the East, or our relations with others, which are of ten not subject to the spirit of fraternity and respect, and also by the precarious nature of our life in this region. All this gives rise to a number of disturbing questions. It causes us to live in a state of permanent tension undoubtedly one of the reasons leading some of us to emigrate. And the phenomenon of emigration continues to be an open wound that limits our vitality and even raises a question mark over our very existence and our witness. We launch an appeal. 16. Nonetheless, we should all remember that our faith in Jesus Christ is an element of considerable spiritual energy which has accompanied us in the past and brought us through the most difficult historical transformations. This same energy accompanies us now and in the future, giving us confidence in ourselves and serenity as we move ahead. It is Christ himself who accompanies us amidst the waves and the storms. He tells us, "Why are you afraid, 0 you of little faith" (Mt 8:26). Our faith is a liberating force, that sets us free from the paralyzing fear caused by our difficulties. Our Churches are Easter Churches, and tension is one dimension of an existence which involves death and resurrection.

Hence, we appeal to all the faith ful in our countries, inviting them to reflection and action, whatever the difficulties. Rooted in Christ, their Churches and their societies, and moving forward in faith and joy, let them always remember "that the sufferings of this present time are as nothing compared with the glory to bc revealed for us" (Rom 8:1 8). II. Presence of faith and prayer Presence 17. After reviewing with you the world, regional and ecclesial conditions in which we live, we should now like to endeavor to define in the light of our faith, some of the characteristics of our vocation and our mission. We have chosen '1presence" as a fact of faith which accompanies our reflection, gives unity to its different aspects and defines its overall orientation. Presence means that in the midst of the society in which we live we are a sign of God's presence in our world. That invites us to be "with" "in" "for" and not "against" "outside" or "on the margin" of the society in which we live. This is an essential demand of our faith, our vocation and our mission. Presence is situated between two opposing pitfalls: "marginalization" and "dissoluflon11. Bach is a mortal illness. Marginalization nullifies our mission and dissolution produces the same effect as regards our identity since authentic presence is a guarantee for both, mission and identity. Presence deepens our faithfulness to God, to ourselves and to the society God has given us as the theatre of our earthly progress. The Christian Presence in the MIDDLE EAST Witness and Mission Collegial pastoral letter of the Catholic Patriarchs of the Middle East to their Faithful in their different countries of residence Presence of mission and witness 18. Our Christian presence is not a presence for our own sake alone. Christ did not found his Church in its own service, but that it might be a confessing Church with a mission, the same mission as that of her founder and Master. The failure to live the spirit of mission and witness in our lives as Christians and our ecclesiastical progress would constitute a renunciation of our selves and of the mission to which the Savior has called us. The Church will be the true Church of Christ in so far as she is a sign of the saving love or the Father for mankind, by the grace Of Christ and the power of the Holy Spirit. Christ defined the sense of our presence when he said, â&#x20AC;&#x2022;You will be my witnesses" (Acts 1:8). And the Apostles responded to this call, "of this we are all witnesses" (Acts 2:32). His Holiness Pope John Paul 11 has described this form of Christian and ecclesiastical life: " The witness of a Christian life is the first and irreplaceable form of mission: Christ whose mission we continue is the "witness" par excellence (Rev 1:5; 3:14) and the model of all Christian witness... Christians and Christian communities are very much part of the life of their respective nations and can be a sign of the Gospel in their fidelity to their native land, people and national culture while always preserving the freedom brought by Christ (Encyclical letter "Redemptoris Missio", 42-43). Witness to the evangelical beatitudes is the first path of the Gospels to the heart of man and his conscience. If in the past the Christian communities in the East

have turned in on themselves because of the constraints of the historical conditions, and lost the sense of mission and witness, content merely with the effort to survive, today they are called to free themselves from the after-effects of the past in order to incorporate a sense to open which witness brings person of mission into their lives, themselves up to the world surrounds them and bear to the buried treasure that joy to their hearts, as it joy to the heart of every (cf. Mt 13:44 46). Light, salt and leaven 19. The teaching of our Lord and Savior calls us to such a manner of witness when he calls us to be light: "You are the light of the world. A city set on a mountain cannot be hidden. Nor do they light a lamp and then put it under a bushel basket; it is set on a lampstand where it gives light to all in the house. Just so your light must shine before others that they may see your good deeds and glorify your heavenly Father" (My 5:1416) And salt: You are the salt of the earth. But if salt loses its taste with what can it be seasoned? It is no longer good for anything but to be thrown out and trampled underfoot" (Mt 5:13). And leaven: The kingdom of heaven is like yeast that a woman took and mixed with three measures of wheat flour until the whole batch was leavened (Mt 13:33). If the light is removed from the house, it loses the sense of its existence. If the salt is separated from the food it is useless. If the leaven is removed from the dough, it hardens and decays. When we are no longer light, salt and leaven, we become an inert, solid entity, a dead weight for ourselves and our society. "Do not be afraid, little flock" 20. The Gospel words we have quoted contain a great message of joy for the Christians in the East. If we read them in the light of our AI-Bushra condition as a minority in our societies, they are capable of transforming that condition. The sociological fact which weighs upon our psychology, the way in which we look upon the other, and the other looks upon us, is transformed into an element of witness and mission lived in joy and faith. The light in the house might be weak, but it gives light to the whole house. Salt is a minor element in food, but it flavors all of it. The leaven is a tiny proportion of the dough, but it causes it to rise, preparing it to become bread. We recall what we told you in our first message, â&#x20AC;&#x2022;The Church is not measured in numbers. She does not depend on statistics but on the awareness which her sons and daughters have of their own vocation and mission. The time has come for us to transform this quantitative factor into a qualitative element. Spiritual energy must take the place of the weight of numbers. In this way we must free ourselves from everything that our historical condition as a minority may have produced as deadly psychological and social after-effects as a temptation to turn in on ourselves as lack of self-confidence and trust in society as a persecution complex marginalization and dissolution. "Do not be afraid little flock" (Lk 12:32). The first Christians who came to life in our countries were but a small minority, but they were marked by the vitality of the new man, by their enthusiasm and joy. Everyone looked on them with admiration and wonder, They enjoyed favor with all the people (Acts 2:47). The idea that people have of us depends, in one way or another, on

the quality and intensity of our presence, not on the greater or lesser number of our communities. A Personal faith 21. Our Christian presence is intimately connected to the quality of our faith, to its depth and intensity. Faith is a gift from God granted to us in Jesus Christ. The Lord entrusted this precious deposit to his Apostles, who in turn handed it on to their successors. The succeeding generations of Christians have handed on this deposit without stain or reproach" (~1'iin 6:~4). This they have done not with standing the risks, the historic changes and difficulties. We can but give thanks to God for the courage, the perseverance, the patience and wisdom shown by our Churches in the Middle East, enabling them to safeguard the deposit which has come down to us as a living thing. Succeeding gene rations have also enriched this deposit with their thought, their heritage, their culture and way of life, their witness and, in many cases, their martyrdom. There can be no doubt that modern challenges and the profound changes taking place around us are calling on us to renew our fidelity to our faith. What we have received from our fathers must be transformed into a conscious, free, responsive and active acceptance. We observe that faith today faces real challenges in the important changes being effected in traditional social structures. These structures no longer contribute as they did in the past to the preservation and strengthening of our faith. Faith which is merely an inheritance, and is not transformed in to a deep personal conviction, is not enough to meet the challenges of the present day. It is, rather, personal faith blossoming in the Church which will make it into a living community. Hence, its existence is no longer related to ephemeral, changing social arrangements, but to divine love which brings us together in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit. Formation in the Faith 22. To move from a faith which is a mere inheritance to that of a personal commitment depends, to a certain extent, on the deepening of faith through formation. Ignorance or superficiality in matters of faith can lead to its loss. This is particularly true as regards to the deep changes in the life styles of our modern-day societies. Even here in the East, we are experiencing radical changes in the traditional climate which in the past helped to safeguard and strengthen our faith. For the believer, not to know his faith means not to know himself. When the believer does not know himself, he loses his identity, his vocation and his mission. Likewise, the community of the faithful loses its authenticity and becomes a social body deprived of its living interaction with its divine roots. In this regard, those initiatives dedicated to deepening religious knowledge, awareness of the Church and spiritual experiences in adults, both within ordinary institutions and in specialized centers, are worthy or every praise. We appeal for these efforts to be continued and intensified, and for them to be provided with the necessary human and material means. This will contribute to the formation of a new generation of faithful who can grasp the meaning of their belonging to Christ, to their Church and to their society. In this way, too, their understanding of their faith will include all aspects of their public and personal lives, enriching and vivifying them.

The Christian Presence in the Middle East - Witness and Mission Collegial Pastoral letter of the Catholic Patriarchs of the Middle East to their Faithful in their different countries of Residence Stephanos II Ghattas, Patriarch of Alexandria of the Catholic Copts; Maximos V Hakim, Patriarch of Antioch and all the East, of Alexandria and Jerusalem; Mar Ignace Antoine II Hayek, Antiochian Patriarch of the Syrian Catholics; Mar Nasrallah-Pierre Sfeir,Maronite Patriarch of Antioch and all the East; Mar Raphail 1st Bidawid, Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans; Jean-Pierre XVIII Kasparian, Patriarch of the Armenian Catholics; Michel Sabbah, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem Religious Education 23. Religious education continues to be an essential requirement if the believer is to become aware of his Christian identity, his ecclesial belonging and his mission in society, and develop the seeds of faith sown in him by God by the grace of baptism. It is no exaggeration to say that, in one way or another, the authentic face of the believer and the vitality of the community of believers depend on the quality of religious education received in the Church. For the believer this education is both a right and a duty. The Church must therefore provide favorable conditions, effective instruments and continuity for this education, enabling it to recover its importance in the life of the Church in our countries. Whether at home, at school or in the parish, it is within this educational triad that the believer will find the growth and maturity for all areas of his Christian life. It is vital for religious education to continue to be one of the essential tasks of our Churches and institutions. Only thus will faith become " living explicit and active (Decree on the Pastoral Office of Bishops in the Church, n.14) in the life of believers and of the Christian community. It is only right that we should publicly express our esteem and affection for all those who dedicate themselves to this noble task: priests, religious men and women, and laity. Our Churches value highly your efforts and invite you to continue to respond to the demands of such an elevated mission by pursuing your preparation at the dogmatic, pedagogical and spiritual levels. Presence and prayer 24. The man of the East is a man of prayer. In good days and bad, he stands before God in a continuous dialogue which glorifies God, purifies the heart and renews one's existence. There can be no doubt that the spiritual, liturgical and Eucharistic life is one of the most obvious features of the history of our beloved East. The East, in the words of Pope Pius XI speaking of Islam, is â&#x20AC;&#x2022;The East which prays". It is well known that in our Churches liturgical prayer has always been the living setting within which succeeding generations have transmitted the deposit of faith. It is here that our Churches have formed and developed the faith in the hearts of the faithful. On the other hand, prayer in its different forms is the preeminent aspect of Christian presence. If it is associated with social commitment, nourishing it and being nourished by it, it expresses the true image of the believer, who is spiritually charged in the presence of his Lord, and finds the

energy needed for action and commitment in the different areas of life. Our land is the land of the historical dialogue between God and mankind. This dialogue is continued and renewed through every community in dialogue with its Lord. From the clear waters of this dialogue it draws its strength and spiritual identity. At this point, we cannot overlook the wave of prayer spreading throughout the Church. This revival has deep roots within our ancient spiritual patrimony, and we are called upon to give them greater life, make them more active. The phenomenon to which we have referred has given birth to many prayer groups within our Churches. We wish to encourage them to draw on our own spiritual heritage, and actively to participate in the life of the Church and her spiritual renewal. Anchoretism and penance 25. The feature that corresponds to the presence of prayer in our Eastern patrimony is the presence of anchoretism, expressed in the different forms of monastic life, and in the asceticism practiced by the ordinary faithful. This type of Christian life, moreover, flourished and developed in the East. It continues to be an outstanding witness to the vitality of the Christian faith in our lands and throughout the world. In Arab history, the monasteries have constituted a specific reference point for the recognition of Christianity, as witnessed to by the ancient Arab literature. At present, the trials which beset our peoples from all sides recall that life is a spiritual combat which elevates the soul, purifying it by giving the courage to meet all difficulties. Asceticism enables the believer to contemplate creation and history with a spirit freed from all passion. It helps him to make his presence in the world of today positive and effective. Hence, we are called on to encourage the anchorite life in our Churches, as the vanguard of the Christian presence and of the Gospel witness in our countries. It likewise demands from us that we adopt the basic Gospel values represented by the anchorite life, living in accordance with these values, which support us in our earthly progress and make our presence a living sign of the Kingdom . III. An Incarnate presence Christ Incarnate 26. The Incarnation is at the heart of our Christian faith: He came down from heaven and by the power of the Holy Spirit he was born of the Virgin Mary and became man (Symbol of Faith). John expresses this divine fact in his Gospel when he says, â&#x20AC;&#x2022;In the beginning was the Word and the Word was with God and the Word was God... And the Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us (Jn 1:1;14). The Letter to the Hebrews echoes this sentiment: Now since the children share in the blood and flesh he likewise shared in them... therefore, he had to become like his brothers in every way (Heb 2:14-17). The human nature which our God and Lord assumed in the Incarnation is not an imaginary nature. It is a true nature with all its density and components (except for sin), with everything that pertains to it as individual, social and cultural characteristics. As a result, the mystery of the Incarnation is the basis and model for the Christian community in its earthly pilgrimage. It must therefore influence pastoral activity at all levels and in all areas.

The Incarnate Church 27. The incarnation of the Church is one aspect of the mystery of the incarnate Christ. The Church is a divine and human reality, living in time and space, with all that this implies as regards historical, geographical, social and cultural conditioning. The Church is rooted in this tangible human reality to which she owes her visible features and particular character. It has obvious repercussions for the way in which she lives her vocation and mission, hic et nunc (here and now). The mediation of this incarnation is ensured by the particular Churches, for the "Church" toto orbe diffusa' (spread to the whole world) would become a mere abstraction unless it assumed body and life in the individual Churches" (Paul Vl. Apostolic Exhortation Evangelii Nuntiandi, n.62). It is in the particular Churches that the one holy catholic and apostle in Church of Christ is truly present and active (Decree on the Pastoral Mission of Bishops, n.ll). The Church is presence, and this presence is accomplished by means of the particular Churches when they are incarnate in the world of the real man, a man speaking this or that language. Each will have its own cultural heritage its own outlook on the world its own historical memories, its own human foundations (Evangelii Nuntiandi, n.62). Evangelization will lose much of its power and efficacy if it does not take into consideration the people to whom it is addressed, if it does not make use of their language, their signs and symbols, if it does not offer an answer to the questions which are relevant to them if in a word it does not reach and influence their way of life (ibid., n.63). All this, of course, on condition that the proclamation is not emptied of content or altered. This kind of incarnation is one of the requirements for the universality of the Church. It can only truly bear fruit if the particular Churches maintain a deep and living communion of faith with the universal Church (cf Ibid., n.64). The heritage of the East 28. Here one should take note of the fact that our Churches in the East have throughout history shown a remarkable ability for this kind of adaptation, which has given birth to many different civilizations and heritages, enriching the common patrimony of the Church and of human culture. This heritage was mentioned by the Vatican Council ll, which praised its richness, and declared it to be a treasure for the whole Church (cf. Decree on the Catholic Eastern Churches, n. 1;5; etc.). Cultural variety such as this remains alive in the Eastern Churches. They are illuminated by it and communicate its light. In it they find inspiration to face up to the contemporary challenges of cultures and civilizations. In this respect, we can only encourage those initiatives dedicated to renewing this heritage, translating it, studying it and purifying it, and making it accessible to all, so that it nourishes the Christian memory of our lands, and can meet the challenges of the present and the calls of the future. May our common heritage be made more available to the faithful of our different Churches, giving us pride in it and instructing us in it. It is one of the vital sources of our faith and of our Christian life.

Incarnation in the Arabic Language 29.The interaction of our Churches with different civilizations has never ceased, but has rather maintained an ever-renewed vitality throughout the succeeding generations and periods of history in our region. Mention must be made of the cultural vitality that has been a characteristic of our Churches since the Arab conquest. The different Eastern Churches have not been onlookers or prisoners of bygone days. They have made the effort to express themselves in accordance with the new cultural conditions. The Arabic language has gradually entered the different areas of liturgical, intellectual and daily life. In this way our Churches have successfully crossed this historic threshold, in spite of all the difficulties. They have received their letters of credence and become inseparable partners in the development of civilization in this part of the world. The commonplace that claims that â&#x20AC;&#x2022;The Arabic language has refused to be christianized and Christianity has refused to be Arabized" is, in the light of all the evidence, historically false. The Christian Presence in the Middle East Witness and Mission Collegial Pastoral letter of the Catholic Patriarchs of the Middle East to their Faithful in their different countries of Residence Stephanos II Ghattas Patnarch of Alexandria of the Catholic Copts; Maximos V. Waxir, Patriarch of Antioch and all the East, of Alexandria and Jerusalem; Mar IgnaceAntoine ll Hayek, Antiochian Patriarch of the Syrian Catholics; Mar Nasrallah-Pierre Sfeir, Maronite Patriarch of Antioch and all the East; Mar Raphail I st Bidawid, Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans; Jean-Pierre XVIII Kasparian, Patriarch of the Armenian Catholics; Michel Sabbah, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem Incarnation in Arab civilization 30. Christians in the Middle East do not limit themselves to using the Arabic language as a means of expression for their rites, their particular culture, and daily relations. They have gone beyond this to concern themselves with the future of the whole of culture and civilization. Christians have not been mere spectators in the progressive modernization of Arab civilization. They have played an active part by the work of translation and the production of original works. They have thus created an outstanding means of cooperation between Muslims, Jews and Christians, and we can rightly be proud of this cooperation as a model and privileged means of coexistence. This cooperation has given life to a genuine Arabic culture, and, for centuries, has allowed it to nourish universal culture by its dynamism and richness. In this way a common cultural heritage has been generated and the three partners have all helped to crystallize it. Mutual assistance and cohesion on the level of civilization between Christianity, Islam and Judaism, have thus become a reality engraved on the fidelity of each side to its own faith and beliefs. This phenomenon is not limited to the formative period of Arab civilization. It also applies to the following periods. In the period of the modern renaissance, for example, Christians, alongside their Muslim and Jewish brothers, have been pioneers in the cultural and political resurgence of the Arab world from which we

continue to draw at present. It is this dialogue, creative of civilization, which we invite Christians, Muslims and Jews in our countries to pursue in the new historic conditions opening up to the future. The Arab Christian heritage 31. We would also like to consider the vast, outstanding heritage which has expressed itself in the Arabic language, and nowadays is known as the â&#x20AC;&#x2022;Arab Christian heritage" . It is found particularly between Vlll and XIV centuries in the different Christian Churches in the Middle East. Until recently, this heritage was buried away in libraries in the form of menu scripts, and researchers have been astounded by their number, the variety of subjects, and the wealth and originality of their contents. Today, we have only words of praise for those who have striven for so many years to publish this heritage. We wish to encourage this line of research and create conditions which will enable it to continue and develop, becoming a stimulus for Arab Christian thought in the contemporary world. We appeal to our universities, institutes and centers of scientific research to take the greatest interest in this subject, and place the necessary human and material resources at its disposal. Present day demands 32. The return to a patrimony such as this is a powerful stimulus to meet the present urgent needs of our Churches in the realm of culture and ideas. First of all, we would like to stress the importance of Christian books and the production of original, intellectual work. Our ancient Eastern heritage is authentic, but needs to be renewed, recreated to respond to the new demands posed by present-day conditions. In spite of growing activity over recent decades, the move towards translating, research, publishing and popularization is still minimum compared to the needs. We are called to multiply our efforts, undertaking practical initiatives to enrich the Arab Christian library. It must he given the means to support our Christian advancement, providing it with the essential cultural contents. This takes us back to the need for specialized publishing houses and distributors who can act together to encourage a wave of Christian thought in our lands. To this must be added the attention that needs to be given to the social media, enabling them to became a suitable means Or information and culture, and at the same time a precious instrument Or Christian presence and witness. Incarnation and Authenticity 33. The cultural dialogue characteristic or our Christian experience in the Middle East cannot be divorced from authenticity and uniqueness. Interaction at the level of civilization demands authenticity, and calls it forth. Based on this, our social environment enriches us, while in turn being enriched by us. The incarnation is realized by two Specific entities which work together to create a common form of culture that gives glory to God, and honors man, while serving him. A transitory identification with the other and the momentary coloring which gives the illusion of assimilation to him, leads in fact to the setting aside of one of the parties, and nullifies the authenticity of his

participation, just as absorption by the other leads only to a false dialogue. This helps no one and leads nowhere. We have a twofold responsibility as regards our faith, and our patrimony. Only by fidelity to the one and the other will we be able to make a real contribution to the common task of giving our societies a sense of direction on the level or civilization. More over, cultural action is an essential area in the evolution or our societies. We must follow this evolution both from the aspect of our patrimony and from the aspect of world culture. With patience, objectivity, and a critical spirit, we will thus be able to make a real contribution to a renewed, authentic Arab culture, in a way that is consistent with our national patrimony and responds to contemporary needs. This is what guides our faith, and is far-removed from foreign ideological perversions which would isolate us from one another and from our environment, and I also protect us from falling prey to racial slogans. IV. Presence and service Christ as servant 34. When Christ defined the different aspects Or his redemptive action, he insisted on service as the distinctive feature or his mission. He is the King who has come "not to be served, but to serve" (Mk 10:45). Christ, the Master and Lord, is he who rose from supper and took off his outer garments. He took a towel and tied it around his waist. Then he poured water into a basin and began to wash the disciples' feet (Jn 13:45). In particular, he serves those who are rejected or marginalized: the sick, the physically handicapped, the poor, sinners, women, children and all those to whom society gives scarcely no importance. Christ sides with all these, and brings them out of their isolation. He has dressed their spiritual, moral and physical wounds, and restored their human dignity. He has gone beyond the social barriers and the customs of his day, even the injunctions of the law, since, he said, "The Sabbath was made for man and not man for the Sabbath (cf Mk 2:27). In his teaching, Christ has ennobled service, giving it a particular dignity, and he who wishes to be great, will be a servant (cf Mk 10:43). Henceforth, service is not the task of slaves, but that of free men and women, who place their freedom at the service of the needy and neglected. This royal service of Christ found its highest expression on the cross. On the cross he did not limit himself to giving what he had: he gave what he was - he gave his life for those he loved. He came to serve and to give his life as a ransom for many (Mk 10:45). The serving Church 35. It was not enough for Christ to be a servant, so Christ did not call himself alone a servant he called also his disciples to follow in his footsteps and be a sign of his presence among men by their service to one another: " You call me teacher and 'master and rightly so for indeed I am. If 1 therefore the master and teacher have washed your feet you ought to wash one another's feet. I have given you a model to follow so that as I have done for you, you should also do (Jn 13:13-15). The Church has always seen in the example of Christ an urgent call to serve every man, whoever he might be, particularly he who suffers the different forms of human wretchedness, and to serve the

whole man, body and soul. Vatican Council II has summed up this ecclesial orientation in this way: "This is the reason why this sacred Synod, in proclaiming the noble destiny of man and affirming an element of the divine in hint offers to cooperate unreservedly with mankind in fostering a sense of brotherhood to correspond to this destiny of theirs. The Church is not motivated by an earthly ambition but is interested in one thing only to carry on the work of Christ under the guidance of the Holy Spirit for he came into the world to bear witness to the truth to save and not to judge to serve and not to be served (Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, n.3). Thus, throughout its history, the Church has put this directive into effect through its institutions and through the variety of initiatives that go by the name of the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The service of Man 36. The spiritual mission of the church cannot be separated from its mission, for the love of God poured into our hearts is directed both to man and to God: "You shall love the Lord, your God, with all your heart, with all your being, with all your strength, and with all your mind, and your neighbor as yourself" (Lk 10:27). As the Church looks towards the goods of the kingdom, she does not lose sight of the value of temporal, worldly affairs. On the contrary, her commitment to everything that is human is deepened. For she is "the good Samaritan" who stops to dress the wounds of the man by the roadside. "He came upon him (and) was moved with compassion the sight. He approached the victim, poured oil and wine over his wounds and bandaged them' (Lk 10:34). God has shown solidarity with man in all things except sin. He took a body like ours to free us from sin and from everything that disfigures his image in us, such as spiritual, moral and corporal evils. The Church is a living, tangible, visible sign which throughout history witnesses to this divine solidarity. She therefore stands at the side of man in order to alleviate his sufferings in all their forms, and to support his development in all its aspects.

The Christian Presence in the Middle East Witness and Mission Collegial Pastoral letter of the Catholic Patriarchs of the Middle East to their Faithful in their different countries of Residence Different fields of service 37. As we observe the Church, we see that social and humanitarian service is one of the most visible aspects of her mission. This service takes care of the varied needs that affect man: material, cultural, social, and development needs. We say this not in order to boast of it, but to renew both our solidarity with all kinds of suffering and needs, and our commitment to do everything in our power to alleviate human suffering in all its forms. Moreover, our Churches are vigilant to detect negative aspects of this action, in order to purify it, and conform their service more closely to the spirit of Christ and the Gospel. Further-more, we call on all the faithful, and particularly the social services, to

pay attention to the demands of society, to discover its new needs and open up new areas of action. This action will thus accompany social progress and identify its trials its needs and its aspirations. In doing so, it has but one objective: that of edifying man, a man aware of his being and dignity, by confronting him with the basic truth that every person is created in the image of God and his dignity stems from this divine resemblance. In serving every person in need, our Churches are not acting Out of self-interest, and most certain]y have no hidden agenda. They are at the service of every person who suffers, simply because he is a person, and hence represents the suffering of Christ crucified throughout human history. A renewed outlook 38. We therefore repeat our appeal to the faithful and the social institutions in the Church to renew their view of society and reexamine the services they offer, so that these different services be guided by the genuine charity from which they draw their inspiration and which gives them life. The time has come to set up a permanent system to coordinate all who work in this field, both individuals and organisms, and to review their activities periodically, so that they may continue to develop and satisfy new needs. We likewise invite them to cooperate with all those who work in this field Social, humanitarian service is a privileged place for dialogue and mutual assistance between Christians of different denominations and all members of society. It pertains to the suffering person to bring us all together in unity. This requires the creation of specialized centers capable of playing their role competently and effectively. We would like to direct a special message of encouragement and affection to all those who so generously dedicate themselves to working in the different areas of social service, particularly those that involve difficulties and sacrifice. V. Ecumenical Presence "We will be Christians together or we will not exist!! 39. This declaration appeared in our first message, and we wish to recall the context in which it was said. It is addressed to all our Christian brothers and sisters. "Our Eastern Churches are distinguished by their antiquity, their patrimonies, the variety of their liturgical expressions, the authenticity of their spiritualities, the breadth of their theological horizons and the force of their centuries-old witness which has sometimes reached the heroism of martyrs. All this represents a living experience which we bear in our hearts, a powerful stimulus for our hope and a source of confidence and perseverance from which we draw in looking to the future. Diversity is an essential characteristic of the universal Church, as it is of the Christian East. This diversity has always been a source of richness for the whole Church when we have experienced in it the unity of faith and charity. Unfortunately, this diversity has

been changed into divergences and separation because of human sin and human rejection of Christ's spirit. Nevertheless, what unites us is even stronger and more important than what divides us. It does not prevent us from meeting each other and helping one another. The Christianity of the East, in spite of its divisions represents a fundamental unity in faith, which nothing can break. We are Christians together, in good times and in bad. Our vocation is one, our witness is one and our destiny is one as well. We are thus required to work together in the different ways available and, in a spirit of fraternity and love, to give fundamental reaffirmation to the faithful who have been entrusted to us. We must do this in the various areas where we are compelled by the common good of Christians, as well as by the aspirations of all the believers of our various Churches, who put great hope in our rapprochement and our mutual assistance. In the East we will be Christians together or we will not exist. Certainly, interecclesial relations have not always been well- founded in our region. There are many reasons for this, both internal and external. But time has come to cleanse our memory of the bad effects of the past, however painful they may be, and to look towards the future together, in the spirit of Christ and in the light of his Gospel and the teaching of the apostles. "That all may be One" 40. Having recalled this commitment of ours last summer, we wish to encourage this ecumenical orientation which, in truth and love, wisdom and humility, seeks to ALBushra being about unity of faith and Eucharistic communion for all those who believe in Christ, Christ's tunic will thus once more be seamless. Many of the divisions in the Church have, for a variety of reasons, originated in the East. These divisions have often been accompanied by a hatred and rancour contrary to the Spirit of Christ. Indeed, we believe that Christ's call to unity, That they may be one just as we are. that the world may believe that you sent me" ~John) is an appeal directed in the first place to the conscience of all of us in the East. We are entreated to set aside the logic of division and follow the path of convergence and unity. "When God wills, and as he wills", this will come about with respect for the patrimony and legitimate characteristics of each ecclesial tradition. In this East of ours, unity is not a luxury, or a mere academic question. Its absence is a wound afflicting our faithful every day. They hope for the multiplication of efforts to bind up this wound which paralyzes us and restricts our Christian witness. Ecumenical Institutions 41. We rejoice to see the growth of ecumenical movements and institutions in the Christian world, and the initiatives in multilateral dialogue undertaken as result in the East and in the West. We accompany them with our prayer, our interest and our encouragement, that they might produce the longed for fruits, whenever they are based on solid, clear principles. As far as the East is concerned, there can be no doubt that

"The Middle East Council of Churches", which the Catholic Churches in the Middle East joined in 1990, is in the vanguard of ecumenical institutions in our region. The importance of its role in the service of Christians and man in our societies is destined to increase. As the foundational charter declares, the Council is intended to purify the Christian presence, bring about a spiritual renewal, direct its actions towards bringing about Christian unity, manifest community witness, develop mutual cooperation in the. area of social service and monitor questions related to justice and peace. We renew the commitment to the Council, which we made in our previous message. We understand it to be a place "for meeting together and seeking the common denominators which favor a collective presence and a common witness in our beloved East", it being understood that this presence and witness is not for our own benefit, but for the glory of God and the service of man in our society. Our unity is to be a living sign of fraternal meeting among all God's children in this part of the world. Hence, we will use all our strength to support the initiatives the Council undertakes in all its sections, so that our mutual cooperation becomes a feature of our ecclesial life and our pastoral activity. The "Council or Catholic Patriarchs of the Middle East" is situated within the same context and spirit. It was established in August 1991, as a channel of fraternal communion between Christians in the East. Its role will be to confirm and deepen communication and unity between all the Churches in the region, as is also the case with other local or regional councils or organisms, whether Catholic, non-Catholic or ecumenical, and it will cooperate with them. The Christian Presence in the Middle East Witness and Mission: A Continuing Series Collegial Pastoral letter of the Catholic Patriarchs of the Middle East to their Faithful in their different countries of Residence 42. Institutions are not enough. They require a genuine ecumenical spirit. Ecumenical action is first a Gospel spirituality, before being an action deployed on the ground. We recall the characteristics of this spirituality as they have been defined in the decree of Vatican Council II on ecumenism. This spirituality is based on the interior renewal of our Churches, thus providing a guarantee and a sign of success for the ecumenical movement. It is based on "a change of heart," as the movement to unity will make progress only in so tar as we live more transparent lives in accordance with the Gospel, and live a closer union with the Father, the Word and the Spirit. It consists of a search for mutual fraternal knowledge, free from over-hasty assessments and preconceived ideas (ef. Decree on Ecumenism n. 6,7,9). These spiritual guidelines aim to purify our hearts, and enable us to meet our brothers and sisters, not weighed down by our fears and suspicions, but in the Spirit of Christ who has set us free from all that prevents us from seeing in the other a brother in the faith. Difficulties and pitfalls 43. lt is clear that relations between the Churches and ecumenical progress arc hindered by a number of difficulties, pitfalls and problems. Some may be real obstacles,

and some a question of suspicions, of fears, of misunderstandings or negative interpretations that are the legacy of centuries of Church divisions. These difficulties appear in the pastoral field and other areas of daily life. Difficulties of this kind demand from us a sincere, fraternal explanation, in the Spirit of Christ and of the Gospel. Such a Gospel climate will help to create an environment, to prepare the ground for overcoming the difficulties which obstruct us. It is highly desirable that in every diocese a council should be set up in which these difficulties could be studied as they appear, and serve as a means of exchange and cooperation in all those areas which are in the interest of the faithful and our common witness. A fervent, fraternal appeal 44. In the present day the conditions in which the Christians of the Middle East live, with all their children, are by no means easy. It is no less certain that we are liable to meet these challenges alone. We must coordinate with all the initiatives of the other Christian Churches, especially our sister Orthodox Churches, for whom we have the greatest love, esteem and respect. The difficulties of the past, with the bitterness they have sown in human hearts, cannot be allowed to be an obstacle to fraternal exchanges for the good of Christians and their fellow-citizens in our lands. We make a fervent, fraternal appeal to all the Christian Churches to come together, to find one another. How could we reject any sincere effort to cooperate in all those areas that affect the lives of believers? In this way, we will attain unity of love while we await the great day when God grants us the gift of unity in faith which Christ desired for his Church. The dimensions of dialogue 45. Throughout the course of the Economy of Salvation, the East Ecumenical spirit ALBushra has been the land of dialogue between God and man. This dialogue reaches its culmination in Christ, God and Man. In Him, humanity is raised up to its Creator, and God draws close to His children1 the whole of mankind. The permanent dialogue he establishes with them is a reflection of the eternal dialogue of the three divine persons in the heart of the Blessed Trinity. Furthermore, God has entered into a dialogue with the man in 3esus Christ so that men can maintain a dialogue amongst themselves: "flat now in Christ Jesus you who once were far off have become near by the blood of Christ For he is our peace, he who made both one and broke down the dividing wall of enmity." (Eph 2.13,14). Hence, "there is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free person, there is not male and female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus." (Gal 3:28). The Church of dialogue 46. In Vatican Council II, the Church proclaimed that her identity, her vocation and her mission Mi led her to be a Church of dialogue. In the post-councilor period that has been seen in a series of openings to the world of our time and in all directions. The organisms required to transform this orientation into action have been set up. For their part, our countries have always been a place of openings, of the passage of

civilizations, with everything that this implies with regards to reconciliation and antagonisms, complementarity and conflicts, contacts and confrontations. This has given rise to forms of civilization which welcome and incorporate pluralism. Thus, nowadays as in the past, a characteristic of our countries is religious, ethnic, cultural and church pluralism. In consequence, dialogue is their fundamental vocation and their greatest challenge. Having lived at the heart of this cultural and human diversity, our Churches see in it one of the signs of the times, which they must interpret in the light of their faith and mission. This is how they acknowledge the call to dialogue as their primary vocation. It is also how the Church is called to be a living sign of the unity of the human family in a divided world. In the times in which we live, religions are invited to play a positive role in solving mankind's problems, instead of being a place for dispute and massacres among the children of the one human family, of the same country. The conditions for dialogue 47. Dialogue is first of all a spiritual attitude. Man is engaged in a dialogue with his God which elevates his soul and purifies his heart and conscience, and this is reflected in his dialogue within himself and with others, both as individuals and as communities. Dialogue is a spirituality which leads us from exclusion to assimilation; from rejection to welcome; from placing into rigid categories to inclusion; from distorting the image of others to respect; from condemnation to mercy; from enmity to harmony; from rivalry to complementarity; from antipathy to encounter; and from hostility to fraternity. Dialogue with the other consists in knowing him, and acknowledging him as he sees himself. This means acknowledging him in the fullness of his personality, and welcoming him as the completion of ourselves rather than as an adversary, rival or enemy. This can be done only if all preconceived ideas, self-interest, and all kinds of egoism are rejected. In such a climate, dialogue becomes a shared wealth, and neither of the parties is required to renounce its identity or patrimony. It goes without saying that fanaticism in all its different forms, be it in the name of God, or of religion, the nation, confession, land, ethnic origins and language, or in the name of social or cultural affiliation, is the first enemy of dialogue. There is a great difference between the believer and the fanatic, the believer is in the service of God, whereas the fanatic makes use of God. The believer worships God, whereas the fanatic worships himself while imagining he worships God. The believer hears the word of God; the fanatic distorts it. The believer raises himself to God's level; the fanatic brings God down to his own level. The believer fears God; the fanatic threatens others in the name of God. The believer honors God; the fanatic attacks His greatness. The believer does the will of God; the fanatic substitutes his own will for that of God. The believer is a grace for humanity; the fanatic is a scourge. Fanaticism is a way of rejecting both God and humanity. In the fanatic, the energy of faith and love is transformed into the energy of hostility and rancour. He believes he is honoring God, those who differ from him in religion, race, language, color or patrimony. In the believer, on the other hand, all his energy is used to bring people together, to cooperate and edify. SOURCE: http://www.al-bushra.org/hedchrch/christianprescence.htm

The Eastern Rite Church FR. WILLIAM SAUNDERS As are many Latin Rite Catholics, I am a bit ignorant about the Eastern Rite Church. What is the difference between the rites? Can Latin Rite Catholics fulfill their Sunday obligation by attending an Eastern Rite Mass? Can Latin Rite Catholics receive Holy Communion in an Eastern Rite Catholic Mass? Is the Eastern Rite Catholic Church the same as the Orthodox Church?

The Eastern Rite Catholics are part of the Roman Catholic Church, not the Orthodox Church. While the majority of Roman Catholics belong to the Latin Rite, the Eastern Rites provide a special dimension to our Catholic heritage and spirituality. The Second Vatican Council‘s Decree on the Catholic Eastern Churches emphasized, ―The Catholic Church values highly the institutions of the Eastern Churches, their liturgical rites, Ecclesiastical traditions and their ordering of Christian life. For in those churches, which are distinguished by their venerable antiquity, there is clearly evident the tradition which has come from the Apostles through the Fathers and which is part of the divinely revealed, undivided heritage of the Universal Church‖ (No. 1). To appreciate the Eastern Churches and their rites, we must first quickly survey early Church history. At the Ascension, Jesus commanded the apostles, ―Full authority has been given to me both in heaven and on earth; go, therefore, and make disciples of all the nations. Baptize them in the name ‗of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.‘ Teach them to carry out everything I have commanded you. And know that I am with you always, until the end of the world‖ (Mt 28:18-20). After Pentecost, the apostles, filled with the gifts of Holy Spirit, carried the gospel message throughout the world to unknown lands and foreign peoples. Tradition holds that the different Apostles journeyed as far as Spain in the West and India in the East. From the foundation they laid, the Church continued to spread despite persecution by the Roman Empire. Keep in mind also that the Roman Empire at that time encompassed most of western Europe, parts of eastern Europe, Asia Minor, Palestine, and northern Africa. While the Romans were severe conquerors, they did respect and tolerate the culture and customs of their subjects to insure peace. To govern this vast expanse more efficiently, Emperor Diocletian (ruling between 285-305) divided the empire in the year 292 into two main portions: Rome and Byzantium, with four prefectures. When Emperor Constantine 63

gained control, he legalized Christianity in 312 with the promulgation of the Edict of Milan, and then in 330 established the city of Constantinople as the capital of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. From this time on, the Empire was really seen as two halves — the West and the East. The eastern half was highly influenced by Hellenistic culture introduced by Alexander the Great in the fourth century before our Lord. Eventually, Constantine would make Constantinople his home and base of government, and this city would be called, ―New Rome.‖ Within this framework, the Church grew. Dominant centers of Christianity eventually developed: Jerusalem, the ―birthplace‖ for Christianity; Rome, the Diocese of St. Peter and the ―home base‖ of the Church; Antioch, in Asia Minor where Christians were first called ―Christians‖; Alexandria, Egypt; and Constantinople, present day Istanbul, Turkey. Each of these communities professed the same belief and were united together as one Church. As the bishops of these dominant centers appointed and ordained other bishops to lead the growing Church, the hierarchy was mindful of the authority of the Holy Father, the Successor of St. Peter. Especially when comparing the West with East, differences in culture and language impacted upon the expression of the faith even though essential elements remained the same. For example, Baptism always involved the invocation of the Holy Trinity and the pouring of or immersion in water; yet, other particular prayers or liturgical customs were introduced in different areas. For Mass, the West used unleavened bread while leavened bread became more of the norm for the East. Moreover, Mass was called ―The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass‖ or simply ―Mass‖ in the West and ―Divine Liturgy‖ or simply ―Liturgy‖ in the East. In the West, the faithful genuflected before the Blessed Sacrament, while in the East bowing became customary. In the East, the sacraments of Baptism, Holy Communion, and Confirmation were administered together, whereas in the West, these sacraments eventually were eventually separated and were administered to an individual as he matured. Another difference in religious culture was the usage of statues in the West as visible reminders to inspire devotion to the Lord, the Blessed Mother, or the saints whereas the veneration of icons evolved in the East. While these different traditions developed and remain to this day, the reflect the beautiful depth of Roman Catholicism. As the Church hierarchy became more stable, the position of Patriarch was recognized. A Patriarch had the highest ecclesiastical dignity after the Pope and had jurisdiction

over a particular territory. The term Patriarch comes from the Greek word for the leaders of the twelve tribes of Israel. Strictly speaking, "by the term 'Eastern Patriarch' is meant the bishop who has jurisdiction over all the bishops, metropolitans (archbishops) not excepted, clergy and people of his own territory or rite, according to the rules of canon law and without prejudice to the primacy of the Roman Pontiff" ("Decree on the Eastern Churches," No. 7). Therefore, the patriarch is the father and head of his patriarchate. The oldest version of Canon Law in the Church identified three patriarchs: The bishops of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. Each patriarch governed a territory of the Church: The patriarch of Rome governed the whole Church in the West; the patriarch of Alexandria, the area of Egypt and Palestine; and the Patriarch of Antioch, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece and the remainder of the Church in the East. These three patriarchates were recognized as having a supreme place among the bishops by the Council of Nicea in 325. With the rise of pilgrims to the Holy Land, the bishop of Jerusalem received greater honor. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 took the area of Palestine and Arabia from Antioch and formed the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. Since Constantine had made Constantinople the capital of the Roman Empire in the East and called it "New Rome," the Council of Chalcedon (451) eventually elevated it as a patriarchate with jurisdiction over the territories of Asia Minor and Thrace. The New Order of the Patriarchs then became in descending order Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. Keep in mind that the patriarchs are considered equal in rank even though they may have a precedence of honor. Moreover, just to underscore an important point, even though the bishop of Rome is a patriarch, as pope he has supreme authority and governance over the whole Church. Given this history, the differences in culture, language and liturgical practices, and the established hierarchy under patriarchs, the clear presence of defined "rites" arose. Rites basically refer to groups of the faithful who share the same manner of performing services for the worship of God and the sanctification of the faithful. The spiritual head of the rite was the patriarch, who in turn would be under the jurisdiction of the pope. During the fifth century, the barbarian invasions crippled the western Roman Empire. Rome itself declined in stature. Even though the pope was still the bishop of Rome, the great early Church councils were all convoked in cities of the east - Nicea, 65

Constantinople, Ephesus and Chalcedon. A rivalry over power, authority, and prestige developed between the pope, bishop of Rome, and the patriarch of Constantinople. In the mind of the patriarch, since Rome had declined in stature and since Constantinople was now the viable capital of the Roman Empire (or what was left of it), he thought he should be recognized as the head of the Church - in a sense, "New Rome" should be the home of the pope. From the pope's perspective, he was the successor of St. Peter, bishop of Rome, who held the keys of the Kingdom. Theological issues also became subject to debate, especially the adding of the filioque clause to the Creed, i.e. that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son. To make a long story short, the mounting tensions finally exploded in 1054 when both the patriarch and the pope issued bulls of excommunication against each other. The Eastern Church was now in formal schism with the Western Church. Although they acknowledged the pope as the successor of St. Peter, they rejected his binding authority over the whole Church and considered him simply as "the first among equals." Spurning any affiliation with Rome, these Churches identified themselves as the Orthodox. The patriarch of Constantinople was recognized as the spiritual head of the Orthodox Churches, but he did not have any juridic authority over them, except those of his own patriarchate. (Please note that the Maronite Rite Catholic Church whose patriarch resides in Lebanon never severed its ties with Rome.) As time continued, the Roman Catholic Church was identified with the Latin Mass and allegiance to the Holy Father, and the Orthodox Churches with the Eastern Rites and particular ethnic communities, for example the Greek Orthodox Church and the Serbian Orthodox Church. Attempts were made to reunite these Orthodox Churches with the Roman Catholic Church. At the Council of Florence (1438-45) which both Emperor John VIII and Patriarch Joseph II of Constantinople attended, the theological questions were debated. The Eastern Orthodox Churches agreed to accept the teaching that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, even though they were not required to add this phrase to the Creed. While the agreement was signed and the Churches officially reunited, a large segment of the regular clergy disdained this action. Moreover, when the Moslems conquered Constantinople in 1453, Sultan Mohammed II appointed Gennadios II as patriarch of Constantinople, who in turn repudiated the decrees of the Council of Florence. Once again, the two Churches were officially in schism. The

domination of Islam over the territory of the East made future reunification virtually impossible. In 1596, the first successful reunion occurred between the Ruthenian Orthodox and Roman Catholic Church in Poland with the Union of Brest. Other reunifications then followed. The most recent reunion involved the Church of Malankar, which traces its origins to St. Thomas the Apostle; in 1930, Bishop Ivanios, two other bishops, a priest, a deacon, and a laymen reunited with the Catholic Church and the Malankar Rite of the Catholic Church was born. These reunited Eastern Rites of the Catholic Church, except the Maronite Rite, all have counterparts remaining in the Orthodox Churches. Vatican Council II recognized in its "Decree on the Catholic Eastern Churches," "The holy Catholic Church, which is the Mystical Body of Christ, is made up of the faithful who are organically united in the Holy Spirit by the same faith, the same sacraments and the same government. They combine into different groups, which are held together by their hierarchy, and so form particular churches or rites. Between those churches there is such a wonderful bond of union that this variety in the Universal Church, so far from diminishing its unity, rather serves to emphasize it. For the Catholic Church wishes the traditions of each particular Church or Rite to remain whole and entire, and it likewise wishes to adapt its own way of life to the needs of different times and places" (No. 2). Although these Eastern Rites differ from the Western or Latin Rite in "rite" and liturgy, ecclesiastical discipline and Canon Law and spiritual traditions, they are fully part of the Roman Catholic Church under the leadership and pastoral care of the pope, the successor of St. Peter. Today, the various Eastern Rites are organized under the four eastern patriarchates. (The following information was gleaned from the Catholic Almanac.) The Alexandrian Rite is officially called the Liturgy of St. Mark. (St. Mark is traditionally considered the first bishop of Alexandria.) Their present liturgy contains elements of the Byzantine Rite of St. Basil and the liturgies of Sts. Mark, Cyril, and Gregory Nazianzen. This parent rite includes the Coptic Rite and the Ge'ez Rite. The Coptic Rite, which is situated primarily in Egypt, reunited with Rome in 1741 and uses the Coptic and Arabic languages in its liturgies. The Ge'ez Rite, based primarily in Ethiopia, Jerusalem, and Somalia, reunited with Rome in 1846 and uses the Ge'ez language in their liturgies.

The Antiochene Rite is the Liturgy of St. James of Jerusalem. This parent rite includes the following rites: The Malankar Rite is located in India, reunited with Rome in 1930, and uses the Syriac and Malayalam languages in its liturgies. The Maronite Rite, located primarily in Lebanon, Cyrpus, Egypt, and Syria but with large populations of the faithful also in the United States, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, and Canada, has remained united with Rome since the time of its founder St. Maron, and uses the Syriac and Arabic languages in its liturgies. The Syrian Rite is located primarily in Lebanon, Iraq, Egypt and Syria, with healthy communities in Asia, Africa, Australia, and North and South America, reunited with Rome in 1781, and uses the Syriac and Arabic languages in its liturgies. The Armenian Rite, technically a distinct rite, derived from the Antiochene Rite and is an older form of the Byzantine Rite. Although it uses a different language, this rite is technically called the Greek Liturgy of St. Basil. This rite has jurisdictions primarily in Lebanon, Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Syria, Turkey, Ukraine, France, Greece, Romania, Armenia, Argentina and the United States. The Armenians reunited with Rome during the Crusades, and the ritual liturgical language is Classical Armenian. The Chaldean Rite, also technically a distinct rite, also originated from the Antiochene Rite. This rite is also divided into two rites: The Chaldean Rite, located primarily in Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, Egypt, Syria, Turkey and the United States, reunited with Rome in 1692, and uses the Syriac and Arabic languages in the liturgy. The Syro-Malabar Rite, located in India, claims to have originated with St. Thomas the Apostle, and uses the Syriac and Malayalam languages in the liturgy. Although the Syro-Malabar Rite was never in formal schism, for centuries no communication occurred between them and Rome until the time of the missionaries in the 1500s. The Byzantine Rite, the largest Eastern Rite, is based on the Rite of St. James of Jerusalem with the later reforms of St. Basil and St. John Chrysostom. These rites employ the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom. This parent rite comprises many rites, which are themselves highly ethnic oriented. The Albanian Rite, centered in Albania, reunited with Rome in 1628 and uses Albanian as its liturgical language. The Belarussian (formerly titled Byelorussian) Rite, centered in Belarussia with large populations in Europe, North and South America, and Australia, reunited with Rome in the 1600s and uses Old Slavonic as their liturgical language. The Bulgarian Rite, centered in Bulgaria, 68

reunited with Rome in 1861 and uses the Old Slavonic language in the liturgy. The Croatian Rite, based primarily in Croatia with a significant population in the United States, reunited with Rome in 1611 and employs Old Slavonic as a liturgical language. The Greek Rite, which is centered in Greece and Turkey with congregations also in Asia Minor and Europe, reunited with Rome in 1829 and uses the Greek language in the liturgy. The Hungarian Rite, situated in Hungary with significant populations throughout Europe and North and South America, reunited with Rome in 1646 and uses Greek, Hungarian, and English in their liturgies. The Italo-Albanian Rite, mainly in Italy with congregations in North and South America, never separated from Rome and uses the Greek and Italo-Albanian languages in the liturgy. The Romanian Rite, centered in Romania with a significant population in the United States, reunited with Rome in 1697 and use Modern Romanian in their liturgy; in 1948, they were forced to join the Romanian Orthodox Church in Romania, but since the fall of communism, the Catholic Romanian Rite has regained independence. The Russian Rite, located mainly in Russia and China with congregations in Europe, Australia, and North and South America, reunited with Rome in 1905 and use Old Slavonic as a liturgical language. The Georgian Rite, based in the former Soviet Republic of Georgia, reunited with Rome in 1329, severed ties in 1507, then in 1917 broke with the Russian Orthodox Church and again reunited with Rome as the Georgian Byzantine Rite, and has struggled for survival ever since, especially during Communist oppression; the Georgian language is used in their liturgy. The Slovak Rite is based in Slovakia, the Czech Republic and Canada, and uses Old Slavonic in its liturgy. The three largest of the Byzantine Rites are the Melkite, Ruthenian and Ukrainian. The Melkite Rite has strong congregations in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, United States, Brazil, Venezuela, Canada, Australia, and Mexico. The Melkites reunited with Rome during the Crusades but due to impediments caused by the Moslem occupations more officially reunited in the early 1700s and use Greek, Arabic, English, Portuguese, and Spanish in the liturgy. The Ruthenian or Carpatho-Russian Rite is based in the Ukraine and the United States with strong congregations in Ukraine, United States, Hungary, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Australia, and North and South America. The Ruthenians reunited with Rome in the Union of Brest-Litovsk in 1596 and the Union of Uzhorod in 1646. They employ Old Slavonic and English in the liturgy.

Finally, the Ukrainian Rite has large populations in the Ukraine, Poland, the United States, Canada, England, Australia, Germany, France, Brazil and Argentina. The Ukrainians reunited with Rome about 1595. However, Stalin forced the Ukrainian Rite Catholics to enter the Russian Orthodox Church in 1943, but since the independence of the Ukraine, they have reunited with Rome. This rite uses Old Slavonic and Ukrainian. In the Diocese of Arlington, we have three Eastern Rite Catholic Churches: Epiphany of our Lord Byzantine-Ruthenian Rite in Annandale under the jurisdiction of the Eparchy of Passaic, N.J.; Holy Transfiguration Melkite Rite in McLean of the Melkite Eparchy of Newton, Mass.; and Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Byzantine Ukrainian Rite in Manassas of the Ukrainian Catholic Archeparchy of Philadelphia, Pa. Also, at the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, the Byzantine Rite communities in the United States funded a chapel which is adorned with beautiful icons. All Roman Catholics are welcome to attend the Divine Liturgy at these Eastern Rite Churches (which does indeed fulfill the Sunday obligation) and may receive Holy Communion. Particulars of Canon Law, however, do regulate marriages between a Latin Rite and an Eastern Rite Catholic. In all, these rites remind us of the universality of our Roman Catholic Church and the rich liturgical traditions we share as Catholics. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Saunders, Rev. William. "The Eastern Rite Church." Arlington Catholic Herald. This article is reprinted with permission from Arlington Catholic Herald. THE AUTHOR Father William Saunders is dean of the Notre Dame Graduate School of Christendom College and pastor of Our Lady of Hope Parish in Sterling, Virginia. The above article is a "Straight Answers" column he wrote for the Arlington Catholic Herald. Father Saunders is also the author of Straight Answers, a book based on 100 of his columns and published by Cathedral Press in Baltimore. Copyright ÂŠ 2003 Arlington Catholic Herald SOURCE: http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/religion/re0246.html

RITES OF THE EASTERN CATHOLIC CHURCH

ALEXANDRIAN RITE ( Liturgy of St. Mark ) CHURCH

AREA of PRACTICE

LANGUAGE of LITURGY

COPTIC

Egypt & Near East

Syriac & Arabic or Coptic

ETHIOPIAN

Ethiopia & Somalia

Geez & Arabic

ANTIOCHENE RITE ( Liturgy of St. James ) CHURCH

AREA of PRACTICE

LANGUAGE of LITURGY

SYRIAN

Near & Middle East

Syriac & Arabic

MARONITE

Middle East & Diaspora

Syriac & Vernacular

MALANKARESE

India

Syriac

ARMENIAN RITE ( Greek Liturgy of St.Basil ) CHURCH

AREA of PRACTICE

LANGUAGE of LITURGY

ARMENIAN

Near East & Diaspora

Greek & Armenian

CHALDEAN RITE CHURCH

AREA of PRACTICE

LANGUAGE of LITURGY

CHALDEAN

Near & Middle East

Syriac & Arabic

Syro-Malabarese

India

Syriac & Malayan

BYZANTINE RITE ( Liturgy of St. James, St. Basil & Others ) Please note that the Byzantine Rite is also known as "The Constantinopolitan Rite"

CHURCH

AREA of PRACTICE

LANGUAGE of LITURGY

ALBANIAN

ALBANIA

Albanian & Greek

BELARUSSIAN

BELARUS

Old Slavonic

BULGARIAN

BULGARIA

Old Slavonic

Czech Republic

Old Slavonic & Vernacular

CZECH

GEORGIAN

Georgia & Asia Minor

Georgian & Greek

GREEK

Greece & Diaspora

Greek & Vernacular

HUNGARIAN

Hungary & USA

Greek & Vernacular

ITALO-ALBANIAN

East & South ITALY

Greek & Vernacular

Croatia & former Yugoslavia

Old Slavonic & Vernacular

MELKITE

Greece & Diaspora

Greek & Vernacular

ROMANIAN

Romania & USA

Greek & Vernacular

RUSSIAN

Russia & Diaspora

Old Slavonic

RUTHENIAN

Ukrainia & USA

Old Slavonic

SLOVACKIAN

Slovackia

Old Slavonic

UKRAINIAN

Ukrainia & Diaspora

Old Slavonic & Vernacular

KRIZEVCI

The Apostolic Exarchate for Catholics of Byzantine Rite in the Czech Republic was established by Pope John Paul II in his Bull of March 13, 1996.

The first Catholics of the Byzantine rite in what was Yugoslavia were Serbians living in Croatian territory under Hungarian control in the early 17th century. In 1611 they were given a bishop, who was officially the Byzantine vicar of the Latin Bishop of Zagreb. His headquarters was at March monastery, which became a center of efforts to bring Serbian Orthodox into communion with Rome. After a period of tension with the local Latin bishops, the Serbs in Croatia were given their own diocesan bishop by Pope Pius VI on 17 June 1777, with his See at Krizevci. He was made suffragan at first to the Primate of Hungary, and later (1853) to the Latin Archbishop of Zagreb. The diocese of Krizevci was extended to embrace all the Byzantine Catholics in then-Yugoslavia when this new country was founded after World War I. Thus the diocese included 5 distinct groups: Croatians, Ruthenians who had emigrated from Slovakia around 1750, Ukranians who emigrated from Galicia in about 1900, Macedonians in the south of the country who became Catholic because of 19th c. missionary activity (who now have their own Apostolic activity), and a few Romanians in what was called the Yugoslavian Banat. Interestingly, Blessed Aloysius Cardinal Stepinac, the Archbishop of Zagreb tried to save Serb converts to the Church from the murderous pro-Nazi Croatian Ushtashi. The present Bishop of Krizevci for about 50,000 Byzantine Catholics in former Yugoslavia is Bishop Slavomir Mkilovs who was appointed in 1983 and resides in Zagreb, capital of Croatia.

SOURCE: http://credo.stormloader.com/ritesofc.htm

Chapter Two: The Antiochian Church

Church of Antioch The Church of Antioch is one of the five patriarchates (i.e., the Pentarchy) that constituted the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church before the schism between Rome and Antioch in 1098 and between Rome and the other patriarchates at around the same general period. Today it is one of the autocephalous Orthodox churches. In English translations of official documents, the Church of Antioch refers to itself as the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East. The literal translation into English of the Arabic name is "Roman (in Arabic, Rum) Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East." The Church of Antioch is the continuation of the Christian community founded in Antioch by the Apostles Peter (who served as its first bishop) and Paul, who are its patron saints. In terms of hierarchical order of precedence, it currently ranks third among the world's Orthodox churches, behind Constantinople and Alexandria. The seat of the patriarchate was formerly Antioch (Antakya), in what is now Turkey. Now it is in Damascus, Syria, located on the "street called Straight." The current patriarch is His Beatitude Patriarch Ignatius IV (Hazim) of Antioch and all the East.

Our Lady of Balamand Monastery

Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East

Founder(s)

Apostles Peter and Paul

Autocephaly/Autonomy declared

Traditional

Autocephaly/Autonomy recognized

Traditional

Current primate

Patriarch Ignatius IV

Headquarters

Damascus, Syria

Primary territory

Syria, Lebanon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Oman, UAE, parts of Turkey

Possessions abroad

United States, Canada, Central America, South America, Australia, New Zealand, Oceania, Great Britain, Western Europe

Liturgical language(s)

Arabic, Greek, English

Musical tradition

Byzantine Chant

Calendar

Revised Julian

Population estimate

750,000 to 1,000,000

Official website

Church of Antioch

History Early years The early history of the Church of Antioch is detailed in the Acts of the Apostles, where in Acts 11:26 the Apostle Luke records that it was in that city that the disciples of Christ were first called Christians. Due to the importance of Antioch as a major center in the ancient Roman Empire, many of the missionary efforts of the apostles were launched from that city. In the early centuries of the Church's history, it was natural that the Church sojourning in Antioch would come to be traditionally regarded as one of the centers of world Christianity. The territory that came to be associated with the bishop of Antioch was that of the Roman Diocese of the East (a diocese was originally an imperial governmental division before it became an ecclesiastical one).

The Antiochian school During the pre-Nicene period and that of the Ecumenical Councils, Christian theology centered in Antioch tended to emphasize the literal, historical facts of the life of Jesus Christ over philosophical or allegorical interpretations of Holy Scripture, contrasted with the more mystical and figurative theology coming from Alexandria. Antiochian theology, though stressing the "earthier" side of interpretation, nevertheless did not neglect the importance of insight into the deeper, spiritual meaning of the Scriptures. These two viewpoints came to be known respectively as the Antiochian school and the Alexandrian school, represented by major catechetical institutions at both places. Major figures associated with the origin of the Antiochian school include Lucian of Antioch and Paul of Samosata, but its real formation was found with writers such as Diodore of Tarsus, John Chrysostom, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Nestorius, and Theodoret of Cyrrhus. At times, this difference in emphasis caused conflicts within the Church as the tension between the two approaches came to a head, especially regarding the doctrinal disputes over Arianism and Nestorianism. Saints such as John Chrysostom are somewhat regarded as synthesizers of the Antiochian and 76

Alexandrian approaches to theology, and the Antiochian school of theology, whose more deviant proponents produced Arianism and Nestorianism, also enabled the Orthodox fight against the Alexandrian school's deviances, namely Apollinarianism and Eutychianism.

Schism over Chalcedon

The Church of the Entrance of the Theotokos in Hama, Syria

Disputes over the Christology of the Fourth Ecumenical Council at Chalcedonâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the Monophysite controversyâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; in 451 led to a schism within the Church of Antioch, which at that same council was elevated to the status of a patriarchate. The larger group at the time repudiated the council and became the Syriac Orthodox Church (also called the "Jacobites" for Jacob Baradeus, an early bishop of theirs who did extensive missionary work in the region). They currently constitute part of the Oriental Orthodox communion and maintain a Christology somewhat different in language from that of Chalcedon. The remainder of the Church of Antioch, primarily local Greeks or Hellenized sections of the indigenous population, remained in communion with Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Jerusalem. This is the current Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East which is considered by the other bishops of the Orthodox Church to be the sole legitimate heir to the see of Antioch. The schism greatly weakened the Antiochian church, and in 637 when Antioch fell to the Muslim Arabs, the "Greek" church was perceived by the invaders as allied to the Romano-Byzantine enemies of the Arabs. During the subsequent period, Antiochian Orthodox Christians underwent a lengthy period of persecution, and there were multiple periods of either vacancy or non-residence on the Antiochian patriarchal throne during the 7th and 8th centuries. In 969, the Roman Empire regained control 77

of Antioch, and the church there prospered again until 1085, when the Seljuk Turks took the city. During this period of more than a hundred years, the traditional West Syrian liturgy of the church was gradually replaced by that of the tradition of the Great Church, Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. This process was completed sometime in the 12th century.

Crusader and Muslim conquests In 1098, Crusaders took the city and set up a Latin Patriarchate of Antioch to adorn its Latin Kingdom of Syria, while a Greek patriarchate continued in exile in Constantinople. After nearly two centuries of Crusader rule, the Egyptian Mamelukes seized Antioch in 1268, and the Orthodox patriarch, Theodosius IV, was able to return to the region. By this point, Antioch itself had been reduced to a smaller town, and so in the 14th century Ignatius II transferred the seat of the patriarchate to Damascus, where it remains to this day, though the patriarch retains the Antiochian title. The Ottoman Turks conquered the city in 1517, under whose control it remained until the breakup of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I. During this period, in 1724, the Church of Antioch was again weakened by schism, as a major portion of its faithful came into submission to the Roman Catholic Church. The resultant Uniate body is known as the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, which in the current day maintains close ties with the Orthodox and is currently holding ongoing talks about healing the schism and returning the Melkites to Orthodoxy. Fearing for the preservation of the Orthodoxy of the Antiochian see, parishioners and bishops requested the ecumenical Patriarchate to send them a Greek patriarch. The Greek presence on the Antiochian see lasted from 1724 to 1898 until Malathius I (Doumani) the Damascene, an Arab patriarch, was appointed. A renewal movement, involving Orthodox youth in particular, has been under way since the 1940s.

The Antiochian church today

Patriarch Ignatius IV of Antioch

The St. John of Damascus Patriarchal Institute of Theology (Tripoli, Lebanon) was established by the patriarchate in 1970, and in 1988 it was fully incorporated into the University of Balamand. The Institute functions as the primary seminary for theological schooling for the patriarchate's clergy and lay leaders. The Holy Synod of Antioch includes the patriarch and all the ruling bishops. Meetings are held each year in Spring and Autumn at the patriarchate to consider church-wide issues, and to elect the patriarch and other bishops as needed. The patriarch and holy synod govern the Church of Antioch to preserve the true faith, to maintain ecclesiastical order, and to carry out the commandments of Christ. In addition to the synod itself, a general conciliar body meets twice a year to see to the financial, educational, judicial, and administrative matters of the patriarchate. It is composed of members of the synod and of lay representatives. When a new patriarch is to be elected, this body selects three candidates from whom the holy synod chooses the new patriarch. The current patriarch is His Beatitude Patriarch Ignatius IV (Hazim) of Antioch and all the East, elected in 1979. Patriarch Ignatius has been particularly active in strengthening ties with other Christian communions, but particularly with those whose roots are in Antioch. His Beatitude and the holy synod of Antioch were enthusiastic for the Church of Antioch to participate in general talks between representatives of all the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches.

At Anba Bishoy in Egypt and at Chambesy in Switzerland, plenary talks were held resulting in agreements in 1989, 1990 and 1993. All official representatives of the Eastern Orthodox and the Oriental Orthodox there present reached agreement in these dialogues that the Christological differences between the two communions are more a matter of emphasis than of substance. Although elements in a number of the Eastern Orthodox Churches have criticized the apparent consensus reached by the representatives at Anba Bishoy and Chambesy, the patriarch and holy synod of the Antiochian Orthodox Church welcomed the agreements as positive moves towards a sharing in the Love of God, and a rejection of the hatred of insubstantial division. As recommended in the Agreement of 1990, the Antiochian (Eastern) Orthodox Patriarch Ignatius IV formally met with the Syriac (Oriental) Orthodox Patriarch, Ignatius Zakka I, on July 22, 1991. At that formal meeting, the two patriarchs signed a pastoral agreement which called for "complete and mutual respect between the two churches." It also prohibited the passing of faithful from one church to the other, envisaged joint meetings of the two holy synods when appropriate, and provided for future guidelines for intercommunion of the faithful and Eucharistic concelebration by the clergy of the two churches. The Church of Antioch expects these guidelines to be issued when the faithful of both churches are ready, but not before. Patriarch Ignatius has also overseen participation in a bilateral commission with the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, which is exploring ways of healing the 18th century schism between the Melkite Catholics and the Antiochian Orthodox. In an unprecedented event, Melkite Patriarch Maximos V addressed a meeting of the Orthodox holy synod in October 1996. The members of the holy synod of Antioch continue to explore greater communication and more friendly meetings with their Syriac, Melkite, and Maronite brothers and sisters, who all share a common heritage. In May of 1997, the holy synod met and declared that the whole Paschaltide period is to be observed festally, thus balancing the lengthy fasting of Great Lent with an equal feasting period in celebration of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. This decision, the diplomatic activities, and other moves by Patriarch Ignatius and the holy synod, have drawn criticism from some elements within the mainstream Eastern Orthodox Church and particularly from "resistance" groups who have walled themselves off from communion with most of world Orthodoxy. Of the churches receiving opprobrium for "ecumenism", Antioch probably has received the greatest amount.

Expansion abroad

New Antiochian bishops with the patriarch Left to Right: Bp. Mark (Maymon) of Toledo, Patr. Ignatius IV (Hazim) of Antioch, Bp. Thomas (Joseph) of Oakland, Bp. Alexander (Mufarrij) of Ottawa

Extensive 20th and 21st century Arab immigration to the New World has further increased the size, vigor and influence of the Church of Antioch, and the majority of Antiochian faithful now reside outside the Middle East and include numerous nonArabic converts to the Orthodox Christian faith. As a result, besides its Middle Eastern territories in Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, the Arabian Peninsular, and parts of Turkey, the Church of Antioch also includes missionary dioceses in Central, North, and South America, in Europe, and in Australia and the Pacific. The archdiocese with the largest population is North America. It is also the only one with internal dioceses. The archdiocese with the largest area is Australia and New Zealand. Estimates of the membership of the patriarchate range from 750,000 to over 1,000,000 in Syria alone.

Antiochian saints Over the centuries, the Church of Antioch has been associated with many saints on the Church's calendar. These include the following:

Synaxis of the Great Saints of the Holy Church of Antioch

Column of St. Symeon the Stylite, Syria

Andrew of Crete Apostles Peter and Paul Babylas of Antioch Bacchus and Sergius Christopher the Great-martyr Daniel the Stylite Dorotheos of Gaza Ephrem the Syrian Eustathius of Antioch George the Trophy-bearer Habeeb Kheshy (as-yet uncanonized) Habib Ignatius of Antioch 82

Isaac the Syrian John Chrysostom John of Damascus Joseph of Damascus Meletius of Antioch Raphael of Brooklyn Roman the Melodist Symeon the Stylite Thekla the Protomartyr

Dioceses Only those dioceses with OrthodoxWiki articles are listed.

Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and All Oceania Archdiocese of North America Archdiocese of Western and Central Europe SOURCE: http://orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_Antioch

Ignatius IV (Hazim) of Antioch

Patr. Ignatius IV (Hazim) of Antioch

His Beatitude Patriarch Ignatius IV (Hazim) of Antioch and all the East (b. 1921) is the current primate of the autocephalous Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch.

Life Ignatius was born in 1921 in the village of Mhardey (Mhardeh) near Hama in Syria. He is the son of a pious Arab Orthodox family and from an early age was attracted to service within the Church. While studying in Beirut, Lebanon, for a literature degree, he entered the service of the local Orthodox diocese, first by becoming an acolyte, then a deacon. In 1945 he went to Paris where he graduated from the St. Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute. From his time in France onwards he has been moved not only by a desire to pass on the deposit of the faith, but also to take Orthodoxy out of its unhistorical ghetto by discovering in its Holy Tradition living answers to the problems of modern life. On his return to the Middle East, he founded the Balamand Orthodox Theological Seminary in Lebanon which he then served for many years as dean. As dean he sought to provide the Patriarchate with responsible leaders who had received a good spiritual and intellectual training and who were witnesses to an awakened and deeply personal faith.

While his native language is Arabic, he also speaks fluent English and French. He was one of the founders of the active Orthodox Youth Movement of Lebanon and Syria in 1942, through which he helped to organise and lead a renewal of Church life in the Patriarchate of Antioch. The movement worked at the heart of the Church helping ordinary believers to rediscover the personal and communal meaning of the Eucharist through a practice of frequent Communion which had become extremely rare. Following on from this in 1953 he helped to found Syndesmos, the world fellowship of Orthodox Youth and Theological Schools. He was consecrated to the episcopacy in 1961 and elected Metropolitan of Lattakia in Syria in 1970. His style as metropolitan broke with the former tradition of episcopal grandeur and he inaugurated an authentic practice of frequent communion. On July 2, 1979, under the name of Ignatius IV, he became the Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch, the third ranking hierarch of the Orthodox Church after the Patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria. After his election as Patriarch he said: I know that I will be judged if I do not carry the Church and each one of you in my heart. It is not possible for me to address you as if I were different from you. No difference separates us. I am an integral part of you; I am in you and I ask you to be in me. For the Lord comes, and the Spirit descends on the brothers gathered, united in communion, as they manifest a diversity of charisms in the unity of the Spirit. As patriarch he has sought to give a new dynamism to the Holy Synod and seen it name bishops who are close to the people and who are motivated to develop the Church's ecclesial and spiritual life, detached from political factions. Preceded by: ?

Metropolitan of Lattakia 1971-1979

Succeeded by: John (Mansour)

Preceded by: Elias IV (Muawad)

Patriarch of Antioch 1979-present

Succeeded by: â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

SOURCE: http://orthodoxwiki.org/Ignatius_IV_(Hazim)_of_Antioch

His Eminence Metropolitan PHILIP His Eminence the Most Reverend Metropolitan PHILIP (Saliba) Archbishop of New York and Metropolitan of All North America Residence and Chancery: 358 Mountain Rd. P.O. Box 5238 Englewood, New Jersey 07631-5238 Phone: (201) 871-1355 Fax: (201) 871-7954 archdiocese@antiochian.org

Featured Resource: Listen to Metropolitan PHILIP's 2007 Nativity Homily

Biography: Metropolitan PHILIP was born on June 10, 1931, in Abou Mizan, Lebanon, the fourth of five children to Elias and Saleema Saliba. After completing his primary education at the Shouier Elementary School, he entered the Balamand Orthodox Seminary, near Tripoli, Lebanon, at the age of fourteen. He subsequently attended and was graduated from the Orthodox Secondary School in Homs, Syria, and the Assiyeh Orthodox College in Damascus, Syria. Ordained to the holy diaconate in 1949, he was assigned to serve as secretary to His Beatitude, Alexander III (Tahan), the Patriarch of Antioch and all the East. In 1952, he was appointed lecturer in Arabic language and literature and student advisor at the Balamand Orthodox Seminary. While a deacon, Metropolitan PHILIP was awarded a scholarship and invitation to undertake studies in Great Britain at the Kelham Theological School and the University of London. In 1956, he arrived in the United States and enrolled at Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology in Brookline, Massachusetts. Assigned to a position at St.

George Church in Detroit, Michigan, he entered Wayne State University from which he was graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1959. On March 1, 1959, he was ordained to the holy priesthood by Metropolitan ANTONY (Bashir) and assigned to the pastorate at Saint George Church in Cleveland, Ohio. While serving in this capacity, he carried to completion the building of an educational and cultural center for the parish. He also served in many religious and civic posts while in Cleveland, among them the Eastern Orthodox Welfare Council, the Television and Radio Commission of the Cleveland Area Church Federation, and the Mayor's Civic Committee. He undertook graduate theological studies at Saint Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary in Crestwood, New York, and was graduated from that institution with a Master of Divinity degree in 1965. In March of 1966, the Antiochian Archdiocese, meeting in special convention, nominated Philip Saliba to succeed the late Metropolitan ANTONY (Bashir) as Archbishop of New York and Metropolitan of all North America. In July of that year, the Patriarchal Vicar for the widowed See of New York, Metropolitan ILYAS (Kurban), Archbishop of Tripoli, Lebanon, elevated Philip Saliba to the dignity of Archimandrite. He was elected for the See of New York by the Holy Synod of the Antiochian Patriarchate on August 5, 1966, and on August 14 was consecrated to the episcopacy by Patriarch Theodosios VI (Abourjaily) at the Monastery of the Prophet Elias in Dhour Shouier, Lebanon. Metropolitan PHILIP was enthroned at his Cathedral of Saint Nicholas in Brooklyn, New York, on October 13, 1966. On June 24, 1975, Metropolitan PHILIP and Archbishop MICHAEL (Shaheen) of Toledo, Ohio, accomplished the administrative and jurisdictional unity of the Antiochian Orthodox faithful in North America. This unity was ratified by the Holy Synod of the Patriarchate on August 19, 1975. The canonical praxis, issued by Patriarch Elias IV (Mou'awad), named Metropolitan PHILIP as Primate of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America. Metropolitan PHILIP has a keen interest in Middle Eastern affairs and is recognized as an expert in this field. As a student at Wayne State University, he served as President of the Arab Student Federation and in Cleveland, he was a member of the Committee on American Policy in the Near East. He has met with United States Presidents, Eisenhower, Johnson, Ford, Carter and Reagan, as well as with Pope Paul VI and Pope John Paul, II and many other world leaders on behalf of a just and durable peace in the Middle East. At present, he serves as chairman of the Standing Conference of American-Middle Eastern Christian and Moslem Leaders which represents the two million Americans of Arabic heritage. In 1968, he established a $100,000 Trust Fund to provide scholarships to Arab refugees studying in the fields of science, medicine, economics and technology. In 1977, he

established a $500,000 endowment fund for the support of the Orthodox Theological Academy of St. John of Damascus at Balamand Lebanon, the sole remaining Orthodox Seminary in the Middle East. Since the Israeli-Arab conflict of 1967, Metropolitan PHILIP has inaugurated a number of fund-raising campaigns to provide food, shelter and medical assistance to Arab refugees and victims of war. Under his leadership, the Archdiocese has also undertaken numerous charitable campaigns to aid victims of disasters in the United States and throughout the world. For his many charitable deeds and renowned humanitarian concern, Metropolitan PHILIP has been commended and decorated by many governments. Some of these awards include the Commander's Badge of the Lebanese Order of the Cedars and the First Class of the Order of Civil Merit of the Syrian Arab Republic. Awards presented to him by ecclesiastical authorities include the Order of the Bush Unburned from the Archbishopric of Mount Sinai, the Cross of Lebanon from the Archdiocese of Mount Lebanon and the Order of Saint Mark from the Patriarchate of Alexandria and all of Africa. In 1981, the Trustees and faculty of Saint Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary awarded Metropolitan PHILIP the degree of Doctor of Divinity, honoris causia. On May 5, 1986, the Metropolitan's Alma Mater, Wayne State University of Detroit, Michigan, awarded him an honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters. On May 20, 1995, The Holy Cross School of Theology bestowed upon Metropolitan PHILIP, the Honorary Doctor of Divinity Degree in recognition of his sterling leadership provided to the Antiochian Archdiocese and Orthodoxy at large. On May 26th, 2007, he was awarded the Doctor of Divinity ―honoris causa‖ by St. Tikhon‘s Orthodox Seminary in South Canaan, Pennsylvania. In conjunction with the 100 th Anniversary of the Statue of Liberty in 1986, he was one of the few Americans chosen to receive the cherished "Liberty Award" which was presented to him by Mayor Koch of New York City on July 1st. On May 21, 1994, His Eminence received the Ellis Island Medal of Honor. On September 27, 2007, His Eminence was awarded the Lebanese Order of Merit by President Emile Lahoud of Lebanon. His Eminence is the author of The Eucharist in the Primitive Church, Feed My Sheep, He Leads Them, and a number of poems and meditations, and is the co-author of Out of the Depths Have I Cried. He has also written many articles and monographs in the fields of theology and Middle Eastern affairs. Fluent in English and Arabic, and having a knowledge of French and Greek, His Eminence has translated many literary works into Arabic. In February 1987, some two thousand (2,000) Evangelical Christians embraced the canonical Orthodox Church and the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America. This was made possible through the leadership of the Evangelical churches

and His Eminence, Metropolitan PHILIP. They bring with them their strong desire to bring Orthodoxy to America. In 2003, a truly historic event occurred under the leadership of Metropolitan PHILIP. The Archdiocese of North America requested, and was granted by the Holy Synod of Antioch the status of a self-ruling archdiocese. In conjunction with this event, the archdiocese established a diocesan structure, and elected three new Diocesan Bishops who were consecrated by His Beatitude IGNATIUS IV in the Patriarchal Cathedral in Damascus, Syria. Metropolitan PHILIP serves as vice chairman of the Standing Conference of Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas (SCOBA), vice president of Saint Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary and Chairman of the Orthodox Christian Education Commission. SOURCE: http://www.antiochian.org/MetropolitanPHILIP

History of the Archidiocese By way of introduction THE SELF-RULED ANTIOCHIAN ORTHODOX CHRISTIAN ARCHDIOCESE OF NORTH AMERICA A Brief History The City of Antioch on-the-Orontes was the most important city of the Roman Province of Syria, and, as such, served as the capital city of the Empire‘s civil ―Diocese of the East.‖ The Church in Antioch dates back to the days of the foremost apostles, SS. Peter and Paul, as is recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. Scripture refers to Antioch as the place where the followers of Jesus Christ were first called ―Christians‖ (Acts 11:26), and records that Nicholas, one of the original seven deacons, was from that city- and may have been its first convert (Acts 6:5). During the persecution of the Church which followed the death of St. Stephen the Proto-Martyr, members of the infant community in Jerusalem sought refuge in Antioch (Acts 11:19), and while St. Peter served as the first bishop of the city, SS. Paul and Barnabas set out on their great missionary journeys to Gentile lands (Acts 13:1) – establishing a tradition which would last for centuries as from Antioch missionaries planted churches throughout greater Syria, Asia Minor, the Caucasus Mountains, Mesoptamia, Greece the Balkans, Italy and most of the Mediterranean Region. At the first Ecumenical Council, convened in the year 325 by Emperor Constantine the Great, the primacy of the bishop (patriarch) of Antioch over all bishops of the civil Diocese of the East was formally sanctioned. The Great Schism of 1054 resulted in the separation of Rome, seat of the Patriarchate of the West, from the four Eastern Patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem 1. During the reign of the Egyptian Mamelukes, conquerors of Syria in the 13 th century, the Patriarchal residence was transformed to the ancient city of Damascus, where a Christian community had flourished since apostolic times (Acts 9), and which had succeeded earthquake-prone Antioch as the civil capital of Syria. The headquarters of the Patriarchate, which has jurisdiction over all dioceses within its ancient geographic boundaries (Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, Iraq and the Arabic Peninsula) as well as others in the Americas, Australia, and Western Europe, are located in Damascus on ―the street called Straight‖ (Acts 9:11). The Archdiocese of North America In the late 19th century, events in their homelands forced Antiochian Christians to join the ranks of Europeans who emigrated to other parts of the world. The spiritual needs of those who settled in North America were first met through the ―Syro-Arabian Mission‖ of

the Russian Orthodox Church, which has had a presence in North America since 1794. In 1895, a ―Syrian Orthodox Benevolent Society‖ was organized by Antiochian immigrants in New York City, with Dr. Ibrahim Arbeely, a prominent Damascene physician, serving as its first president. Conscious of the needs of his fellow countrymen and co-religionists, Dr. Arbeely wrote to Raphael Hawaweeny, a young Damascene clergyman serving as Professor of the Arabic Language at the Orthodox Theological Academy in Kazan, Russia, inviting him to come to New York to organize and pastor the first Arabic-speaking parish on the continent. Fr. Raphael, a missionary at heart, went to the imperial capital of St. Petersburg to meet with His Grace, Nicholas, ruling bishop of the Russian Diocese of the Aleutian Islands and North America, who was then in Russia to recruit new missionaries. After being canonically received under the omophorion of Bishop Nicholas, Father Hawaweeny arrived in the United States on November 17, 1895. Upon his arrival in New York, Archimandrite established a parish at 77 Washington Street in Lower Manhattan, at the center of the Syrian immigrant community. By 1900, approximately 3,000 of these immigrants had moved across the East River, shifting the community center to Brooklyn. Accordingly, in 1902, the parish purchased a larger church building in the borough, at 301-303 Pacific Street. The Church, assigned to the heavenly patronage of St. Nicholas, the Wonderworker of Myra in Lycia, was renovated for Orthodox worship and consecrated on October 27, 1902, by Nocholas‘ successor, Archbishop Tikhon2. St. Nicholas Cathedral later relocated to 355 State Street, Brooklyn, and is today considered the ―mother parish‖ of the Archdiocese. At the request of Archbishop Tikhon, Hawaweeny was elected to serve as his vicar bishop, to head the Syro-Arabian Mission. His consecration as ―Bishop of Brooklyn‖ took place at St. Nicholas Church on Pacific Street on March 12, 1904. Bishop Raphael thus became the first Orthodox bishop of any nationality to be consecrated in North America. He crisscrossed the United States and Canada, and even ventured deep into Mexico, visiting his scattered flock and gathering them into parish communities. He founded al-Kalimat (The Word) magazine in 1905, and published many liturgical books in Arabic for use in his parishes, in the Middle East, and in emigration around the world. After a brief but very fruitful ministry, Bishop Raphael fell asleep in Christ on February 27, 1915, at the age. In 2000, Bishop Raphael was glorified as a saint by the Orthodox Church in America with participation from hierarchs of the Antiochian Archdiocese. His feast day is celebrated on the first Saturday in November. Not long afterwards, the tragedy of the First World and the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia brought financial and administrative ruin to the Orthodox churches in North America, and shattered the measure of unity they had enjoyed. Movements arose in every ethnic group to divide it into ecclesiastical factions. Deprived of its beloved founder and bishop, the small Syro-Arabian Mission fell victim to this divisiveness, and it would take sixty years from the death of Bishop Raphael – in June of 1975 – for total jurisdictional and administrative unity to be restored to the children of Antioch in North America. Some communities desired to remain under the jurisdiction of the Russian

Church, while others opted to be received into the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Antioch. The hierarchs of that period were: Metropolitan Germanos (Shehadi), Archbishop Aftimios (Ofiesh), Archbishop Victor (Abo-Assaley), and Bishop Emmanuel (Abo-Hatab). By 1936, all of the parishes were in one of two Antiochian archdioceses – the Archdiocese of New York, headed by Metropolitan Antony (Bashir) and the Archdiocese of Toledo, Ohio, and Dependencies, headed by Metropolitan Samuel (David). On June 24, 1975, Metropolitan Philip (Saliba) of the Antiochian Archdiocese of New York and Metropolitan Michael (Shaheen) of the Antiochian Archdiocese of Toledo, and Dependencies signed the Articles of Reunification which restored administrative unity among all Antiochian Orthodox Christians in the United States and Canada. This document was presented to the Holy Synod of the Patriarchate, which ratified the contents on August 19, 1975, recognizing Philip as Metropolitan-Primate and Michael as Auxiliary-Archbishop. Archbishop Michael fell asleep in the Lord on October 24, 1992. In October, 2003, in a history-making decision, the Holy Synod of Antioch unanimously approved a resolution which granted this Archdiocese the status of a self-ruling Archdiocese. Effective with this resolution, the Auxiliary Bishops took their positions as Diocesan Bishops. Diocesan Bishops serving the Archdiocese are Bishop Antoun (Khouri) of Miami and the Southeast consecrated January 9, 1983, at Brooklyn‘s St. Nicholas Cathedral; Bishop Joseph (Al-Zehlaoui) of Los Angeles and the West, consecrated May 8, 1991, at Damascus‘ St. Mary Cathedral; Bishop Basil (Essey) of Wichita and Mid-America consecrated May 31, 1992 at Wichitia‘s St. George Cathedral; Bishop Thomas (Joseph) of Oakland, PA and the East consecrated December 5, 2004 at the Patriarchal Cathedral in Damascus, Syria; Bishop Mark (Maymon) of Toledo and the Midwest consecrated December 5, 2004 at the Patriarchal Cathedral in Damascus, Syria; Bishop Alexander (Mufarrij) of Ottawa Eastern Canada and Upstate New York consecrated December 5, 2004 at the Patriarchal Cathedral in Damascus, Syria. The Metropolitan is a member of the Holy Synod of the Patriarchate of Antioch, the chair of the Local Synod, and a member of the Standing Conference of Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas (SCOBA)3. Today the faithful of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America are served by seven hierarchs and over four hundred clergy in 238 churches and missions throughout the United States and Canada4. In summary, there are Twentythree established departments and commissions, and four service organizations, which exist on the parochial, diocesan, and Archdiocesan levels: the Fellowship of St. John the Divine, Teen Soyo (Society of Orthodox Youth Organizations), AOCWNA (Antiochian Orthodox Christian Women of North America), and the Order of St. Ignatius of Antioch. The Word magazine, published monthly (except July and August), continues to be the official publication of the Archdiocese.

In 1978, the Archdiocese acquired the Antiochian Village, over 300 acres of property located near the town of Ligonier in the Laurel Highlands of southwestern Pennsylvania. In addition to the popular summer camp program, which attracts children and young adults from throughout the United State, Canada and Mexico, the Village is also the site of the Heritage and Learning Center, a modern conference facility housing one hundred guest rooms, and extensive theological and historical library, and a museum featuring an outstanding Icon collection and cultural displays. The master Plan also foresees a retirement village for senior citizen and a monastic community. Following the completion of their undergraduate studies, candidates for ordination to the holy priesthood receive their theological education at one of the Orthodox seminaries to which they are assigned by the Archdiocese. Their program is augmented by specialized courses offered annually by the Antiochian House of Studies, held for two weeks at the Heritage Learning Center in Ligonier, PA during the last week of August/first week of September. The Antiochian House of Studies offers a Master of Arts degree (M.A.) in conjunction with the University of Balamand, and a Doctor of Ministry (D.Min.) degree in cooperation with the Pittsburgh Theological Seminary. This degree is oriented to those clergy who hold at least an M.Div. degree and have served in full time ministry for no less than three years. Classes are held at the Heritage and Learning Center, and are offered on an intensive basis three times each year. A biennial Archdiocesan Clergy Symposium, under the auspices of the Antiochian House of Studies is convened for continuing education of all priests and deacons in the Archdiocese. The Archdiocesan Board of Trustees, consisting of over fifty elected and appointed clergy and lay persons, and the Metropolitan‘s Advisory Council, consisting of clergy and lay representatives from each parish and mission, meet regularly to assist the hierarchs in the administration of the Archdiocese. Each summer, Parish Life Conferences are convened in each of the following dioceses: New York, Worcester and New England, Ottawa and Upstate New York, Miami and the Southeast, Wichita and Mid-America, Los Angeles and the West, Toledo and the Midwest, Eagle River and the Northwest, and Pittsburgh and Tri-state. These attract thousands of people of all ages from parishes and missions. The largest legislative body of the Archdiocese, the General Assembly, meets in convention biennially. A pioneer in the use of the English language in the Orthodox churches in the New World, the Antiochian Archdiocese has since 1917 kept in print and available Isabel Hapgood‘s pioneering English Service Book; it printed the first English music books for choirs in the 1920s; and its Father Seraphim Nassar produced in 1938 the first – and still the only – comprehensive collection of texts needed for the chanting to complete services in English (The Book of Divine Prayers and Services). A full-fledged publishing department was established in 1940, and it has produced and distributed numerous titles in religious education, sacred music, and liturgical services. Thousands of people of various ethnic and racial backgrounds have ―come home‖ to the Orthodox Church and have found a spiritual home in the parishes of the Antiochian

Archdiocese, joining with Americans and Canadians of Middle Eastern descent to make the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America a vibrant witness for Christ and his Church. The main chancery of the Archdiocese is located at 358 Mountain Road, Englewood NJ just outside New York City. Diocesan chanceries are located in Toledo OH, Wichita KS, Los Angeles CA, Ligonier PA, and Montreal Canada.

Footnotes: 1. The Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East together with the three other ancient Eastern patriarchates (Constantinople, Alexandria and Jerusalem); four modern patriarchates (Russia, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria); five autocephalous churches (Cyprus, Greece, Georgia, Poland and Albania); and four autonomous churches (Sinai, Slovakia the Czech lands, Finland and Japan) – many with dependent bodies through the world – comprise what is known today as the ―Eastern Orthodox Church‖ with an estimated 250 million adherents, of whom, some 5-6 million live in the United States and Canada. 2. In 1917, Archbishop Tikhon was elected Patriarch of Moscow, and steered the Russian Church through the bloody days of the Communist Revolution. In 1991, he was canonized by the Moscow Patriarchate. 3. The member jurisdictions of SCOBA are: The Albanian Orthodox Diocese of America, the Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Diocese, the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, the Bulgarian Eastern Orthodox Church, the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese, the Orthodox Church in America, the Romanian Orthodox Archdiocese, the Serbian orthodox Church and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. 4. The Patriarchate has established separated diocesan structures for the faithful in the countries of Central and South America.

Source: http://www.antiochian.org/668

Diocese   

Parishes by State Parishes by Diocese All Parishes

Parish City and Name:

City:

State/Province:

Postal Code:

Country:

Diocese:

Cedar Rapids, Iowa St. George Church

Cedar Rapids

Iowa

524031652

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Iowa City, Iowa - St. Raphael of Brooklyn Mission

Iowa City

Iowa

522401833

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Warrenville, Illinois Holy Transfiguration Church

Warrenville

Illinois

60555

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Alsip, Illinois - Virgin Mary Mission

Alsip

Illinois

608032904

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Spring Valley, Illinois St. George Church

Spring Valley

Illinois

613622125

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Urbana, Illinois - St. Nicholas Church

Urbana

Illinois

618013230

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Cicero, Illinois - St. George Church

Cicero

Illinois

608041005

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Peoria, Illinois - St. Elias Mission

Peoria

Illinois

616042776

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Chicago, Illinois - All Saints Church

Chicago

Illinois

606414009

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Bloomington, Indiana All Saints Church

Bloomington

Indiana

474019387

United States

Diocese of Toledo and

Parish City and Name:

City:

State/Province:

Postal Code:

Country:

Diocese: the Midwest

Hobart, Indiana - Holy Resurrection Church

Hobart

Indiana

463425135

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Topeka, Indiana - St. Mary Church

Topeka

Indiana

465710346

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Indianapolis, Indiana St. George Church

Indianapolis

Indiana

462264464

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Ft. Wayne, Indiana St. John Chrysostom Church

Ft. Wayne

Indiana

46808

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Terre Haute, Indiana St. George Church

Terre Haute

Indiana

478021928

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Greenwood, Indiana Orthodox Mission

Greenwood

Indiana

46142

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Bowling Green, Kentucky - Holy Apostles Orthodox Mission

Bowling Green

Kentucky

TBD

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Lexington, Kentucky St. Andrew Church

Lexington

Kentucky

405034266

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Louisville, Kentucky St. Michael Church

Louisville

Kentucky

402202081

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Ironwood, Michigan St. Simon Church

Ironwood

Michigan

499381388

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Flint, Michigan - St. George Church

Flint

Michigan

485071050

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Livonia, Michigan - St. Mary Church

Livonia

Michigan

481524310

United States

Diocese of Toledo and

Parish City and Name:

City:

State/Province:

Postal Code:

Country:

Diocese: the Midwest

Grand Rapids, Michigan - St. Nicholas Church

Grand Rapids

Michigan

495466129

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Ann Arbor, Michigan St. Catherine Church

Ann Arbor

Michigan

48109

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Grand Rapids, Michigan - St. George Church

Grand Rapids

Michigan

495034534

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Taylor, Michigan Holy Incarnation Church

Taylor

Michigan

48180

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Iron Mountain, Michigan - St. Mary Church

Iron Mountain

Michigan

498013311

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Berkley, Michigan - St. Mary Church

Berkley

Michigan

480721357

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Williamston, Michigan - St. James Church

Williamston

Michigan

488951312

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Dorr, Michigan - Holy Cross Church

Dorr

Michigan

49323

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Ypsilanti, Michigan St. Catherine the Great Martyr Mission

Ypsilanti

Michigan

481979008

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Mt. Clemens, Michigan - St. Andrew Chapel

Mt. Clemens

Michigan

480383637

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Troy, Michigan - St. George Church

Troy

Michigan

480834400

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

W. St. Paul, Minnesota - St. George Church

W. St. Paul

Minnesota

551182601

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Parish City and Name:

City:

State/Province:

Postal Code:

Country:

Diocese:

Maryland Heights, Missouri - All Saints of North America

Maryland Heights

Missouri

630433317

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Fargo, North Dakota St. Nicholas Orthodox Church

Fargo

North Dakota

58103

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Loveland, Ohio - St. James Church

Loveland

Ohio

451408898

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Sylvania, Ohio - St. Elias Church

Sylvania

Ohio

435602106

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Solon, Ohio - St. Luke the Evangelist Mission

Solon

Ohio

44139

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Akron, Ohio - St. George Church

Akron

Ohio

443333116

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Delaware, Ohio - St. Barnabas the Apostle Mission

Delaware

Ohio

43015

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Canton, Ohio - St. George Church

Canton

Ohio

447041036

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Cleveland, Ohio - St. George Church

Cleveland

Ohio

441134408

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

N. Royalton, Ohio - St. Matthew Church

N. Royalton

Ohio

441331408

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Youngstown, Ohio St. Mark Church

Youngstown

Ohio

445058044

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Toledo, Ohio - St. George Cathedral

Toledo

Ohio

436061159

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

La Crosse, Wisconsin

La Crosse

Wisconsin

54602

United

Diocese of

Parish City and Name:

City:

State/Province:

Postal Code:

- St. Elias Church

Country: States

Diocese: Toledo and the Midwest

Madison, Wisconsin St. Ignatius of Antioch

Madison

Wisconsin

53711

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

Cedarburg, Wisconsin - St. Nicholas Church

Cedarburg

Wisconsin

53012

United States

Diocese of Toledo and the Midwest

SOURCE: http://www.antiochian.org/parishes/diocesedirectory/diocese+of+toledo+and+the+midwe st

100

Chapter Three: The Arab Christian Heritage

101

ARAB CHRISTIANS: AN INTRODUCTION by Dr Walid Phares

For years, the term "Arab Christians" was used to categorize the Christians in the Middle East. However, the concept instead of being precisely defined was intellectually misused and politically abused. Both Arab regimes and "Arabists" in the West attempted to libel all Christians living under the sovereignty of Arab states, as "Arab Christians." This denial of identity of millions of indigenous non-Arab nations can be equated to an organized ethnic cleansing on a politico-cultural level. Similarly to the Turkish attempts to eradicate the ethnic identity of the Kurds, whom they call "Mountain Turks," and the Assyrians, whom they define as "Semitic Turks." Arab-Islamic regimes in the region assert that all those Christians who live within the confines of "Arab borders" are "Arab." With Arab nationalism at its peak, and "Arabist" circles at the apex of their political influence in the West, the pre-Arab ethnicities of the Middle East became the real underdogs of the region. The Arab Israeli conflict increased their crisis. Not only the non-Arab ethnicities, particularly the non-Moslem ones, were denied their basic rights, stripped from their ancestral lands, but they were pressured to participate in the general "war effort" conducted by the Arab regimes against a non-Arab nation, i.e. the Jews of Israel. The gestalt of global Arab strategy in the region was to pit non-Arabs against other non-Arabs, after demonizing those who have formed their national state Israel, and fragmented those who weren't able to implement self determination. The Christians in the Middle East are not just a religious group, nor do they form one single community. The overwhelming majority of the Christians in the region are ethnically non-Arab, and their major common characteristic is their subjection to Arab colonialism and Islamic oppression for thirteen centuries. The Christians in the Middle East are not, as it was portrayed by the Arab regimes and many in the West, the followers of Christian faith among the Arab ethnic group. "Arab Christians" exist in few spots in the region, but they are a minuscule minority within the world of Middle Eastern Christianity. Prior to the Arab Islamic invasion of the upper Middle East--the term invasion is crucial--most of the peoples of the region, with the exception of the ancient Israelites, were Christianized: Copts in Egypt, Assyro-Chaldeans in Mesopotamia, Nubian Africans in Sudan, Armenians in Asia Minor, Phoenicians (Arameans, Canaanites, Amorites) in Syria, and Lebanon. With the dispersion of the Jews by the Romans, limited number of Christians moved to Palestine from the north and the East. In Arabia, the majority was pagan, a large segment of Arab tribes converted to Christianity, and after the dismantlement of ancient Israel, the number of Jewish centers increased in the Peninsula. Therefore, prior to the Arab Islamic Conquest,

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the upper Middle East was not Arab, its overwhelming majority was Christian, and many Arabs in the Peninsula were Christians. These are the "Arab Christians." Since the 7th century the geo-political landscape of the region changed dramatically. The Arab Islamic armies occupied the upper Middle East, the new order implemented an Arabization and an Islamization of the conquered people. The majority of the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, and Nubia, shifted to Arab Moslem. Numerically the native pre-Arab nations were reduced, and politically suppressed. The defeat, Arabization, and Islamization of the pre-Arab cultures, occurred during the dispersion of the Jews. The pre-Arab ethnicities, most of which were Christians, shrunk to enclaves, or to social categories. By the beginning of the twentieth century, the non-Arab Middle Eastern nations reasserted their historic national claims in many areas of their ancestral lands, which they never left. The Assyrians reclaimed their rights in northern Iraq, and north East Syria. The Lebanese Christians reaffirmed their identity in Mount Lebanon; the Copts attempted to reform in upper Egypt, and the Afro-Nubians called for self determination in southern Sudan. The historic national rights of these native nations were met with radical rejection by the established Arab regimes. Ethnic conflicts exploded in Sudan and Lebanon, while ethnic oppression was implemented in northern Iraq and Egypt. The political suppression of minor Christian communities was also applied in Syria and north Africa. What happened to the "Arab Christians?" At the onset of Islam, all of the Arab Christian tribes were military defeated or subdued. Numbers of them converted to Islam for socio-political reasons. When the Arab Islamic armies conquered the upper Middle East, the "Christian Arabs" were erased from Arabia, their Churches destroyed or converted to Mosques. Only few clans survived in southern Iraq, southern Syria, and mainly in north west Arabia -which became Trans-Jordan a few centuries later. After the conquest, some of these Arab Christian clans emigrated to Palestine moving in from the East. They joined the non-Arab Christians who were present in Palestine after the Jewish dispersion, and seven centuries before the Arab invasion. There are two types of Christians in Palestine, and later on within the state of Israel. The non-Arab Middle Eastern Christians, and Arabs who are Christians. The largest Christian nation are the Copts, who number about 12 million. The Egyptian government recognize only 2.5 million. The most concentrated and socially organized nation are the Lebanese Christians (mostly Maronites) who number 1.5 million in Lebanon and about seven million in the diaspora. The AssyroChaldeans of Iraq are about 1 million in Mesopotamia, and one million in the diaspora. The Christians of Syria are about a million. Non-Arab Syriacs (Arameans), Arabized Syriacs, and Arab Christians (mostly Orthodox), in addition to Armenians. In southern Sudan the African ethnic nationality is about seven million, Christians and Animists. There are small Christian communities in Iran and Turkey. There are no Saudi or Kuwaiti Christian. The Christian nations living within the confines of Arab states are about twenty million! So who are the "Arab Christians" to whom Arab regimes and Arabists in the West refer? First, they are not recognized as distinct ethnic identities, but rather as segments from the wide "Arab nation" who are "of

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Christian faith." This indicates the non- readiness of these regimes and their dominant ideologies to recognize the later's fundamental, political rights, and subsequently their rights to "national lands." Second, the Arab-Arabist duo do not admit the real numeric size of these so-called "Arab Christians." In Egypt they are recognized as 2.5 million, in Iraq, 250,000, in Sudan, 2 million, in Syria, 500,000, and in Lebanon, 25% of the population! Not only have the Arab dominant powers subverted the numbers, but they have attempted to subvert the identities of all preArab nationalities in the region, including those who converted to Islam, such as the Berbers of north Africa, and the Kurds. Where are the real "Arab Christians?" They are dispersed between Jordan, Syria, Israel, and the Palestinian autonomous territories. They are the remnants of the Arab Christian clans who escaped Islamization and more recently the end product of Evangelization. They are estimated to be 200,000 in Syria, a hundred thousand in Jordan and an equal number or more among the Palestinian-Arab populations, including within the Arab--Israeli population. The Christians in Israel are composed of Arabs, Arabized, non-Arabs, and few non-Middle Eastern. Although Arabs and Arabized are the majority (around 70%) the non-Arabs who are the descendants of pre-Arabs are in high numbers. Among them are the Maronites, Assyrians, Chaldeans, Syriacs, and Armenians. Ironically many in Israel are not familiar with the existence of non-Arab Christians in their country. This misperception led many to believe that all Christians in the Middle East are "Arabs," and as anti-Israel, as the Arab mainstream in the region. Most of the Israelis, as do most of the Western public opinion simply do not know that there are other "non-Arab" nations in the region, also seeking the establishment of their independent homelands. Many in Israel and the West perceive the Christians of the region as represented by Hanan Ashrawi, George Habash, or Michel Aflaq. Whereas the majority of the Christian nations do not recognize themselves as Arabs. Their causes are not reported, their present or past leaders such as John Garang, Ibrahim Hilal, Bashir Gemayel, Mar Shimun, and others are marginalized. Even the mini-community of Christian Arabs is not at ease with its ethnic brethren. As a result of the surge of Islamic fundamentalism, all the Christians in the Middle East realize that they travel in the same boat. >From the pogroms of Copts in Egypt, the ethnic cleansing of South Sudanese, the oppression of Lebanese Christians, to forced Arabization of the SyroMesopotamian Christians, the 20 million non-Arab Christians are systematically targeted. The 0.6 million Arab Christians, including those living within the Jewish state are experiencing one of their most severe choices: Surrender to Islamization, or join the pan-Middle East Christian boat, as a way to survive and maintain their spiritual identity.

Professor Walid Phares Curriculum Vitae

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Dr Walid Phares hold degrees in Law and Political Science from St Joseph University in Beirut, a masters in International Law from the University of Lyons (France), and a Ph.D. in International Relations and Strategic Studies from the University of Miami. Dr Phares is currently a political science professor at Florida Atlantic University and a visiting scholar at Florida International University. Dr. Phares authored eight books on the Middle East including: "The Christian People of Lebanon: Thirteen Centuries of Struggle," [1985]; "The Background of the Islamic Revolution of Iran," [Arabic, 1986]; and his most recent book "Lebanese Christian Nationalism: The Rise and fall of an Ethnic Resistance," [Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995]. Dr. Phares has published more than 300 articles in English, French, and Arabic. He is frequently quoted and interviewed in the local and international press, and has a number of research published in the scholarly journals. He was the editor of Mashrek International monthly magazine dedicated to the Christian minorities in the Middle East (1982-1986), and the publisher of Mideast Newswire analytical newsletter (1993-1997). Dr Walid Phares, P.O.Box 331195, Miami, Florida 33233 Email: Phares@cmep.com

SOURCE: http://www.arabicbible.com/christian/intro_arab_christians.htm

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Arab Christians Today there are 14 Million Christians in the Arab world descendants of those who did not convert to nor embrace Islam. Palestine is well known in the Bible and it is considered the cradle of Christianity. There are several other Arab countries that capture portions of the Old and New Testaments passages namely Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, Iraq and Syria. After the advent of Islam Christianity disappeared completely in certain countries such as Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia and the Arabian peninsula. Distribution of the Arab Christian Populations Most of the Arab Christians who live in the Middle East are located in the following countries:       

Lebanon (35-45 % of the population) Palestine (5-10 %) Jordan (6-12 %) Syria (10 %) Sudan (10 %) Egypt (6-12 %) Iraq (3 %).

In total about 5-6 % of the Arab countries population are Christians. It is important to note that Arabs are not all Muslims and Muslims are not all Arabs. Some Christians who live in the Arab world refuse to be considered as "Arabs". They take pride in their heritage and trace their roots to their ancestors who inhabited the land before the appearance of Islam. For example, Lebanese Christians take pride in their ancient Phoenician roots. Egyptian Coptics trace their roots to the ancient Egyptians under the Pharaohs dynasties. So the Chaldeans and the Assyrians of Iraq who consider themselves to be the original inhabitants and dwellers of present day Iraq.. Migration of Arab Christians A lot of Arab Christians migrated from Lebanon, Syria, Palestine and Iraq to Europe, West Africa, the American continent and Australia. Christian emigration from the Middle East has increased because of political and economic hardship (from Lebanon since the 1975-1990 civil war, from the Israeli occupied Palestinian territories, from Iraq since the UN sanctions destroyed the economy) and because of Islamic fundamentalist pressure. Denominations of the Arab Christians The Arab Christians belong to more than a dozen different churches, the result of

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numerous conflicts and schisms since Christianity was adopted as the official religion of the Roman empire by the emperor Constantine in 313 AD. Four separate churches evolved around the capitals of the four ecclesiastical provinces:         

Rome (Roman Catholic or Latin Church ) Constantinople (Greek Orthodox Church), Antioch (Syrian Orthodox or Jacobite Church) Alexandria (Coptic Church). (the Armenian Church) Nestorian Church in Syria and Mesopotamia The Maronite Church Chaldeans Non-uniate Assyrians

Further divisions occurred in the fourth century (the Armenian Church), the fifth century (the Nestorian Church in Syria and Mesopotamia), the seventh century (the Maronite Church in Lebanon). With the Crusades, and later when the Ottoman empire grew weaker and local Christians sought sponsors in Europe, certain churches or parts of them associated with Rome and became known as the Uniate Churches. They kept a large degree of autonomy and retained their rites, customs (such as marriage for priests) and liturgical language (Syriac, Greek). This was the case with the Lebanese Maronites (however some Maronites say their church never separated from Rome but only lost contact). Later, in the 17th century, the Nestorians in Mesopotamia were divided in Chaldeans affiliated with Rome and non-uniate Assyrians. The Protestant Church in the Arab World In the 19th century protestant, missionaries - notably American - followed in the footsteps of western Roman Catholic missionaries, and began proselytizing in the Arab world. Their enterprise was not very successful: conversion of Muslims was nearly impossible. The only converts were members of other nominal Christian churches. But they had nevertheless an important impact by creating educational institutions such as the American universities in Beirut and Cairo which contributed to the emergence of Arab nationalism. In its early stages these nationalist Christians from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine played an important role in the Arab national movement. In the 19th century Christianity was reappeared as a result of the presence in Sudan of Egyptian Coptic officials and traders during the Egyptian-British Condominium. Missionaries, Catholics and Protestants were allowed to work in the South and converted about 15 % of the local animist population. Colonial conquests also led to the reappearance of Christianity in the Maghreb, but without an impact on the local Arab societies.

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In Saudi Arabia, the cradle of Islam, all Christian activities, even for the numerous foreign workers, are strictly forbidden. The Arabic Evangelical Community of the Arab World Arabic Christian Organizations Arab Christians: An Endangered Species A Directory of Arabic Christian Internet Web Sites A Directory of Arab Christians Personal Web Sites

P.O. Box 486, Dracut , MA 01826 Problems with links? Contact: webmaster@arabicbible.com

SOURCE: http://www.arabicbible.com/christian/arab_christians_who_are_they.htm

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Arab Christian Heritage Vital Presence of Christian Arabs Among Moslem Arabs By Dr. Wajih Saadeh Dr. Saadeh show in this article the great contribution of the Arab Christians, on different fields as the social, political, national, thinking, literature, Arab language etc looking from the "tower of the twentieth century" back Previous centuries If we look at previous centuries and back to ancient history, we see from the end of the twentieth century many events and unlimited number of things taking place in one form or another, and leading us to where we are now. In this survey we remember names of men and women in history, places and cities that vanished or are still here. Also we remember dates, thoughts, battlefields, and conquests which were important and changed the social structure of human society. In such a case, a historian or a writer can give the reader a clear outlook to these facts and the events which stemmed from them, also we give these facts special, convenient and logical historical analysis and interpretations. From the tower of the twentieth century, or the end of the last decade of it, we want to make a review to Arab history beginning of past times to present, by way of Christian Arab presence and the effectiveness of this presence in the Arab society as a whole. Things look very clear as we advance in life, and as scholars, authors and students of learning uncovered so much in Arab history by way of research, writings, archeology and travel. There is abundance of material in this historical search which we cannot handle when writing a few pages about any topic in history, or in the learning process in general. It is my desire to concentrate in this writing on the Christian Arabs and their vital presence among their brethren the Moslem Arab majority. Also, let us not forget the impact of non- Arab Christianson Arab mind and behavior, though Christian Arabs had a unique status, and being a true positive factor in the makeup of the Arab society as a whole. The Christian Arab, a minority in the Arab society adds an essential touch to the Moslem Arab majority. Being in coordination and in association, the equalization of give and take between them enhanced in time and duration, and led to coherent mutual trust between them to become a bulwark and a moving force manifested in one destiny, and that is, of Arab independence, leading to norms and ideals for national unity. Christian Arab thinking was fundamental and positive in this order of circumstances. The Christian Arab gives to his capable brethren a different keen farsightedness, different valid directions, and unique thoughts to public and state of affairs. Being in his

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Christian Arab milieu, the Christian Arab approach to things and events takes a different universal impression, different political dress, patience, and special directions and judgment, particularly in facing and solving obstacles and problems, and more important in upbringing and in nurturing the human element. This Christian Arab thinking and behavior are enlightening to Arab society in general and at all times, they are basic and constructive and well planned. In modern times, Christian Arabs were the first to send their sons and specially their daughters to schools and universities to learn and be enlightened. Arab Moslems followed suit. This is one of many examples. Arab Christians opened significant cultural circles in Arab society, and being a continuous chain of actions and events, they will remain the torch bearers in future developments. Christian Arabs were and are always good and sincere citizens, and never betrayed the Arab nation in spite their persecution for being Christians, at occasions in history. Similarly mistreated were the Assyrian and Chaldean Christians and other minorities during Arab and Moslem rule. Even in the absence of social justice and equality, all those Christian groups would not separate themselves from the Arab nation. Arab Christians consider themselves, truly, the essence of the Arab nation and Arab nationalism be it now, or in past times during the Arab Christian kingdoms, of the Ghassanids, the Montherits, or the Nabateans and Tadmurits (Palmyra) and others. They, at all times, view themselves as essential part of their great Arab nation and its national movement. They remained Arabs in thought, conviction, and in spirit. They continue to be an enlightening candle to their brethren the Moslem Arabs, and worthy partners in the building of Arab society and in making of the factors that form a nation. They always made successful endeavors in serving the Arab nation, and in giving their love, their best advice and plan, to advance the cause and the unity of the Arab nation. Though many Christian Arabs and eastern Christians like Assyrians, Chaldeans and others left the Arab countries to the Americas, or Australia and other areas, due to religious intolerance or persecution or for living opportunities, the fact is, they remained faithful and are still bent in their love to their origin and to the land they had to leave. Meanwhile, the Arab world is kindled with a religious intolerance which is electrifying our atmosphere and the air we breathe, and in consequence, Christian families began leaving their houses and properties to find new abodes far away from the country of their origin. What a pity, to reach a dangerous and inhuman state of emergency. Let there be love among the Arabs, let them be more attentive. Let there be equality and social justice among the Arabs, otherwise they are done with, for the danger is domiciling in every corner of Arab society. This last decade of the twentieth century is a period of life and death to the Arab nation, and without unity, love and resolve, we will never succeed in preserving our sacred land and honor, or to be able to overstep the dangers and obstacles this nation is facing. The enemy of this nation, like any other enemy, is fierce and knows no mercy, and world history foretells of many inhuman actions and cruelty in wars and international disputes.

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Arab countries are in a state of shock due to the scheme of their thinking and belief and close to desperation for they try to remedy the problems facing them with the wrong medicine. They must change their thinking and directions, their approach to world problems and their social behavior and the routine of their daily life, and without which they shall remain under international control and separated, and under international pressure and subdued. The Arab states must separate religion from state. The state is to serve social, political and economic purposes, or material things. The state is to rule. Religion is to serve and fulfill the faith, or spiritual things. Religion is to worship God. The combination of both makes religion a political instrument in the hand of the ruler who is a political creature, and religion therefore becomes an ideology like liberalism, socialism or communism. The only set up that advances Arab society and improves its standing is the separation of religion from state. "Give what is for God to God, and what is for Caesar to Caesar." In Islam, religion and state are combined, and that combination is distorting Moslem approach to daily life and to social and international problems. This combination is affecting the spirituality of Islam, and thus severs its extension and stretch from Christianity, to remain in itself a political endeavor. SOURCE: http://www.al-bushra.org/arbhrtg/arbxtn02.htm

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The Christian Arab Heritage By Dr. Fr.Labib Kobti What is the Christian Heritage| Who are the Arab Christian Fathers | A Conclusion 1- Introduction: We are absolutely in need here in America to know about our Christian heritage. Al-Bushra will help you discover that "Heritage". We all know that the Arabs existed before Islam. They were mentioned in history and in the Bible centuries before the coming of the Arab Prophet Muhamed. Kingdoms like the Gassanids and the Muntherites were Christian kingdoms (from the third century to the eight century) modeled after the Roman and the Byzantine Empires. Some Bedwin tribes were also Christians. They had a common language, the Arabic language. We know also that mainly the Christian tradition at that time was using the Aramean and Syriac languages in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine, the Chaldean and Assyrian languages in Iraq, the Coptic language in Egypt, the Arabic in those kingdoms mentioned above and between Arab bedwins. Those languages are used still now in the liturgy of the Eastern Churches. Greek and Latin were the languages of culture and philosophy. They were used everywhere in the Roman or the Greek Empire had their colonies or influence. Latin and Greek are used in the liturgy of the Latin Catholic Church (the Roman Catholic), Greek is used in the liturgy of the Greek Orthodox Church. 2- What is the Arab Christian Heritage? The â&#x20AC;&#x2022;Arab Christian Heritage" is mainly known in the period between 750-1350 A.D. At that time our Arab Christian Fathers started to use the Arabic language so as to defend their Christian faith and believes against the Muslims. They wrote in different issues: theology, philosophy, interpretation of scriptures, apologetics, liturgy, history of the church, and many other things that do not concern faith like medicine, history, chemistry, geography etc. They used their old languages: Aramean, Syriac, Chaldean, Assyrian, Coptic and translated into Arabic a lot of their books on different issues. They translated from Greek and Latin as well what the Greek Fathers and Latin Fathers wrote. Then after the coming of Islam they started to write in Arabic to their people and to the Muslims in order to speak about their faith.

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Many Christians at that time, because of certain unfair treatment from the Muslin Califs or governors and under certain pressure became Muslims. The Arabic language was imposed first in Egyptian the year 780 (about 140 years after the coming of Islam). Then slowly and slowly other Arabic Countries of today started to use the Arabic language as an official Ianguage, as in Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Lebanon etc. The "Arab Christian Heritage" is the heritage that covers mainly the period between the 8th century to the 14th. This heritage is the third heritage after the Greek and Latin. It is in some words the writings that we have in Arabic language, translated from other languages: Greek, Latin, Aramean, Syriac, Coptic, Chaldean, Assyrian, Persian, Armenian etc.) or produced properly in Arabic. The recent European Ianguages (Italian, French, German English etc) started at the14th century to become official languages, about 600 years after our Christian Heritage. It is the writings of the Christian Fathers. They gave us a full idea about their faith, believes, liturgy, way of life, traditions, history of the Church, apologetics etc. They wrote also on issues other than faith, like medicine, philosophy, geography, history, chemistry etc. â&#x20AC;&#x2022;By "Arab Christian heritage"Arab means: the Arabic language known and spoken in the Arabian peninsula and by the Arab kingdoms before Islam. It means also the regions that used the Arabic language since 8th century as their official language. Arabic covers also beside the language, the traditions, the culture the way of life, the food, the folklore, the civilizations etc. It covers today the "Arabic Countries". They have in common those issues mentioned above. Arab does not mean Islam, even though Islam used the Arabic language since its origin. You can find today millions and millions of Muslims who do not relate to the Arabic language. They are Muslims but not Arabs, like Indonesia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, Turkey, Iran etc. It is known that the Arabic Northern characters used by the Quran were created by the Christian Missionaries of Hira, centuries before Islam, as says C. Rabin in art."Arabiyya, in "Encyclopedie de l'Islam", 2nd ed.,I (Leyde et Paris, 1960, pp.579a-622b). That the first Northern Arabic letters were found on the church doors in Zabad on the South East of Aleppo in Syria on 512 A.D. And another in Ir. Haran on 568 A.D. In Mecca itself centuries before Islam the Arab people used the Northern Arabic letters. Christians there, had their schools and churches, they used Arabic in their liturgy poetry and in commerce. Prophet Mohamed, and after him the Califs used these characters to write the Quran as says Jawad Ali, in his book "The history of Arabs before Islam" volume 8 pp. 178-179, and Vol 6, page 689. We can find the sites of the churches,

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temples and houses of our ancestors everywhere in today Arabic Countries especially in Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine. Recently Father Pecerillo, a famous Franciscan Archeologist, found more than twenty churches in Madaba at the south of Jordan. From the Forth Century we found houses in Syria, Lebanon, Iraq and Palestine with this inscription in Arabic :"Bism El-Lah al Rahman al Rahim" that showed that Christians were the first to use this name so as to indicate their belief in the Holy Trinity, more than two hundred years before Islam. In different region of the actual Arabic Countries, Christians had Eparchies (dioceses and bishops). All over the actual Iraq, Syria Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, Saudi Arabia: (Mekka itself), Algeria, Tunisia, Lybia, Palestine, etc. you can find the sites of churches, convents and Christian centers and schools. Today, archeology tells us a lot about these monuments. Recently a convent was discovered in Karbala (Iraq) that returns to the 1st century of Christianity. The oldest one that was discovered ever since was in the Fourth Century. We, Arab Christians of today, who live in the Middle East, are the real heirs of that "Heritage". In our way of thinking, worshiping, doing things, we reflect what our ancestors had lived centuries before us. We are the heirs of the first Christians, the heirs of both Old and New Testaments. We are the first Communities: of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria. 3- Who are the Arab Christian Fathers? "Father" is a bishop, a priest, or a simple lay man who wrote in Arabic or translated to Arabic from the 8th to 14th Century what we call today the "Arab Christian Heritage". A lot of those Fathers were martyrized with their folk defending their Christian faith and traditions. Arab Christian means then these Christians who first came from the Syriac, Chaldean, Assyrian, Arabic, Coptic, Greek or Latin traditions, they are the first converted to Christianity, "the first Christians ever" and who spoke Arabic, wrote in Arabic, translated into Arabic and declared their faith in Arabic language later on between the 8th and 14th centuries. 4- Conclusion "Al-Bushra" is willing to serve the Christians all over the word and tell them about the Arab Christian Heritage. We would like also to serve the unity of the Church, as well as the dialogue with Muslims and Jews. We will try to give a scientific studies about our "Arab Chistian Heritage". We want you to be proud of our traditions.

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Some times because of events in our today's Arabic Countries and because of a lot of misleading in the Media about the Arabs, and under an unfair claims against Arabic Countries or traditions, a lot of people do not know the truth about our Arabic language, tradition, history, Arab Christians, Islam, harmony between Muslims and Christians. Some young Arab generations feel ashamed of their Arab origin because of what the Media created in the mentality of people about Arabs. Al-Bushra will tell you about our Arab common heritage so as to serve the truth and serve the harmony between the five components of our Middle East society: Jews, Christians and Muslims, Israelis and Arabs. AI-Bushra calls everybody to know us more and to find in us friends, brothers and sisters of the same God, Allah, Yahweh, Adonai. It calls Arab Christians and Muslims, the blood brothers, to be proud of our Arab language, history and traditions. It calls Arabs and Israelis: the Semites, sons of Abraham to find peace of heart as a start of Justice and comprehensive peace in the Middle East, where Jews, Christians and Muslims, Israelis and Arabs should live in harmony, cooperation and love, when they recognize in the others their equal in duties and responsibilities. SOURCE: http://www.al-bushra.org/arbhrtg/arbxtn04.htm

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The Arabic Christian Literature By Dr. George Khoury Dr. Khoury Georges speaks about the contribution of the Melkites, the Jacobites, the Nestorians, The Copts and the Maronites to the Arab Christian Heritage. 1- Introduction Arabic at the time of the Abbasids had become a language of full maturity, unchallenged mistress in the school, the mosque, and in the offices of the administration. It prevailed in all parts of the Muslim world, not only as an ornament of great value for the pen, but also as a generous nurse of thought. The Iranians themselves, who later succeeded in giving life to their nationalism and in reviving anew a literature in Persian language, were unable to garble the Arabic language as a language of science and religion. They also had to keep its strong mark on their own vocabulary and on the alphabet. If Baghdad was an aging city hardly a century after its founding, it was nonetheless under the first Abassids the symbol of a new civilization and the home of the shining Arabic language which had become a language of thought and culture. The irruption of foreign nations reached its height during the Abassid caliphate, with their cultural contributions and their specific gifts to the social and intellectual life of Arab Islamism. It also provoked a great effervescence of thought and an intense literary activity which poured into the Arabic language and brought about a development of prose. The vocabulary waxed richer thanks to new terms it borrowed from other cultures; the syntax became suppler, and the style clearer. Literary genres were either recovered or created. Ideas, new doctrines and research required more suitable expression. Thanks to some talented writers of prose there was now a neat prose, eloquent in its simplicity, without affectation or mannerism, fluent and clear, without neither rhymes nor embellishment. From this period of Arab history we have works in theology, law, ethics, Qu'ranic exegesis, traditions, philology (i.e., grammar, lexicography, prosody), philosophy, history, geography, the exact sciences, and mystical theology. 2- The Melkites Melkites means those Christians who adhered to the Calcidonian faith,451AD, which was supported and defended by the Bysantine Basileus in Constantinople Connecting Greek with Syriac as a language of life and as expression of thought, Arabic became first and little by little the prevailing form and later the only form of Christian literature in the Melkite community, whereas the Syriac and Coptic communities kept for a longer time their respective languages. One must distinguish, however, between two literary forms of Arabic in the Melkite literature of this period. This diversity is to be explained by the destination of Melkite literature.

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One form uses the literary language--a language in no way inferior, from the point of view of stylistic purity, to that used by the Muslims. This is used in translating the Greek heritage of philosophy and science, in the chancellories, in the writing of history, and in the IslamoChristian controversies. This literary Arabic is addressed to a Christian as well as a Muslim elite. It is not contaminated with vernacular dialect nor with foreign terms, except when these are required by technical needs or by the lively evolution of the language, especially in the field of philosophy. A second, different Arabic is addressed to the people; this is the language used in hagiography, ascetic literature, and liturgy. Its users also enjoyed a bilingual education, Greek and Arabic, sometimes trilingual, Greek, Arabic, and Syriac, but its destination was the people and the monasteries. Its form of expression often deviated from grammatical norms and from syntax in order to borrow the suppler and livelier forms of the local dialect. Thus it frequently used foreign terms, mostly from Greek and Syriac. It was a language half-way between classical and local dialect. Here are some of the most famous and representative Christian Arab writers and thinkers who issued from the different Christian communities in Syro-Mesopotamia and Egypt, and who wrote during the Abassid era. This is by no means an exhaustive list. a) Qusta Ibn Luqa (835-912) Qusta Ibn Luqa was a Melkite from Baalbeck. He was an eminent translator and a theoretician of medicine. In addition, he was mathematician, physician, philosopher, apologist, and musician. Of him Ibn an-Nadim says: "He is an excellent translator; he knew well Greek, Syriac, and Arabic; he translated texts and corrected many translations. Many are his medical writings." (see Ibn anNadim, Fihrist, ed. Fugel, p. 234.) Qusta was with Hunain Ibn Ishaq the author who best served Greek culture in the Arab civilization. b) Al-Bitriq (8th century) Al-Bitriq lived during the caliphate of al-Mansur (754-775), who commissioned him to translate numerous ancient medical works. He translated Galian's Simplicia under the name of al-adwiat al-mufrada; the De Prohibenda Sepultura and the De Cura Icteri of the pseudo-Galian under the name of Maqala fi l-yaraqan. He also works attributed to Hippocrates: De Alimento, Kitab al-gida': De Septimanis, Kitab al-asabi, and he translated the Quadripartus of Ptolemeus, Kitab al-arabi'a. There was also Sa'id ibn alBitriq, Patriarch of Alexandria from 933 to 940 and whose works put him on equal footing with Qusta ibn Luqa. In the field of medicine he wrote Kitab fi t-tibb(lost), in history, Kitab at-tarih al-magmu' ala t-tahqiq wa t-tasdiq, more commonly known under

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the name, Nazam al-gawahar. As apologist, he wrote in defense of Christianity, Kitab algadal baina l-muhalef wa n-nasrani. 3- The Jacobites Habib Abu Ra'itah Al-Takriti (early 9th century) is a contemporary and a theological opponent of Theodore Abu Qurrah, Bishop of Harran. He is the author of four important theological treatise. 1. A letter on the Trinity addressed to a Muslim and in which he attempts to explain the mystery of the Trinity with the help of philosophical concepts of substance, hypostasis and essential attributes, such as life, knowledge, and wisdom, and with natural analogies, such as light, sun, man. He also quotes the Bible and the Qur'an. 2. A letter on the Incarnation in which he tries to explain the mystery of the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ.3. Demonstration of the truth of the Christian religion and of the doctrine of the Trinity. 4. Proof of the truth of the Christian religion (however, this treatise may be inauthentic). There were also Musa al-Hagari (known as Moses Bar Kepha, died 903), and Al-Harith ibn Sinbat from Harran who were great biblical translators. But the most prestigious among them was Yahya ibn Adi (d. 974): philosopher, polemist, and theologian. His literary corpus comprises 40 philosophical treatises, several treatises of apologetics, and his refutation of al-Kindi's refutation of the Christians. He was also a skilled translator of Plato and Aristotle. Issa ibn Zurah (Baghad, 1008), in addition to being an apologist and theologian, was also physician, philosopher, and scientist. Yahya ibn Garir from Takrit was physician, astronomer, philosopher, and theologian. His compendium in theology is call Kitab al-murshid. 4- The Nestorians Because of their number and importance in Mesopotamia, the Nestorians contributed more than any other Christian community to the Christian Arab literary heritage. Their activity comprises all the literary genres. In the first place stands out the Catholicos Timothy 1 (728-823). He was the protagonist and author of an interesting Muhawarah (debate) with the caliph al-Mahdi (775-785). Next to him stands Abu Nuh Ibn Al-Salt AlAmbari, translator of Greek works and author of Tafnid al Qur'an (Refutation of the Qur'an), Maqalat fi al-tawhid and Maqalat fi al-tatlit (Essaya on God's Unity and Trinity). Ammar al-Basri (1st half of the 9th century) was a contemporary of the Melkite Abu Qurrah and the Jacobite Abu Ra'itah al-Takriti, and of the Nestorian Timothy 1. Al-Basri wrote two apologetics: Book of the Demonstration and the Book of Questions and Answers. Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (808-837) was a famous physician, philosopher, and translator of Greek works under several caliphs. He is the author of a Letter to Yahya ibn al-Munaggim. Yahya ibn al-Munaggim was a Muslim who invited Hunayn to convert to Islam. He also wrote a Letter on how to attain to the True Religion in which he shows that Christianity corresponds to the criteria of the true religion. His son Ishaq continued in his father's footsteps as translator and writer. From him we have Maqalah fi al-tawhid (Essay on Unity). There was also Abd al-Masih al-Kindi(end of 9th or 10th century)

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known for his Letter of Abd al-Masih to Abdallah al-Hashimi which became a classic in the annals of the Islamo-Christian polemics. There were also the members of the Bahtishu' family who, in addition to their medical profession, produced during three centuries an abundant philosophical and theological literature. Elias of Nisibis (Metropolitan of Nisibis (d. ca. 1049), known also as Elias bar Senaya, wrote as a dogmatic theologian two significant theological treatises: Letter on the Unity of the Creator and the Trinity of Persons and Letter on the Creation of the World. As apologist he wrote The Justification of Faith and Treatise on the Happiness of the Other World. He also bequeathed the report of Seven Sessions with the vizir al-Magribi. In the field of exegesis he wrote a Letter on the Difficulties of the Gospel. Another important figure in the first half of the 11th century is Abdallah ibn al-Tayyib, physician, commentator of the Greek classics, philosopher and a prolific Christian writer. He wrote several treatises in systematic theology, one on moral theology and one on law. As biblical commentator he wrote more commentaries than any other Christian writer. 5- The Copts The Copts, who were of the Monophysite faith, adhered to their own language longer, and were almost one century later than the other Christian communities in expressing themselves in Arabic. Their contribution to the Arab Christian literature began with a great figure: Bishop of Asmunayn (Upper Egypt) Severus Ibn Al-Muqaffa (d. ca. 987). In theology, he wrote three important works: Book of the Exposition, Order of the Priesthood, and Precious Pearl. In apologetics he wrote: Book of the Councils and Brief Explanation of the Faith. He is best known though for his monumental History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria which was continued and completed in the 11th century by Michael, bishop of Tinnis and by Mawhub Ibn Mansur, deacon of Alexandria. In the 12th century the Patriarch Christodule (d. 1077), Cyril Second (d. 1092), and Yunus Ibn Abdalah wrote abundantly in the field of legal and liturgical literature. In the 13th century there was Simon Ibn Kalil (d. 1206), author of a treatise On the Unity of the Creator and of the Trinity. He also wrote a Commentary on the Gospel of St. Mathew and an Introduction to the Psalms. In ascetic theology he left us a beautifully written work, Garden of the Hermit and the Consolation of the Solitary. The 13th century was also called the century of "Awlad AlAssal", Al-Safi, Al-Assad, and Al-Mu'taman, who distinguished themselves in this golden century with a rich literary production. Al-Safi was a great translator and author of many works, among them: Al-Sahahih fi gawab al-nassa'ih (The Correct Answers), and AlKitab al-awsat (The Middle Book). Al Mu'taman was a philosopher, theologian, exegete, a homiletic and liturgical writer. 6- The Maronites The Maronite community kept longer than the other Christian communities to the Syriac language and literature. However, two Maronite names stand out during the classical period of Arab patrology. The first is Thomas, bishop of Kafartab, who composed in the 11th century a theological work The Book of Treatises. The other name is Bishop David

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who in the 11th century translated from Syriac to Arabic Kitab al-Huda (The Book of Guidance). It is a collection of canons and laws, of liturgical rules and short theological treatise dealing with trinitarian and christological problems. Copyright (C) by Al-Bushra January 22, 1997 Al-Bushra (from Arabic, means good news), is created by Rev. Labib Kobti from the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem (The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Jerusalem) Courtesy of: Catholic Information Network (CIN) http://www.cin.org ------------------------------------------------------Provided courtesy of: Eternal Word Television Network PO Box 3610 Manassas, VA 22110 Voice: 703-791-2576 Fax: 703-791-4250 Web: http://www.ewtn.com Email address: sysop@ewtn.com ------------------------------------------------------SOURCE: http://www.ewtn.com/library/HUMANITY/ARABLIT.TXT

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Chapter Four: The Armenian Heritage

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THE ARMENIAN APOSTOLIC ORTHODOX CHURCH By Hratch Tchilingirian

CONTENTS 1- History 2- The Faith of the Armenian Church 3- The Armenian Catholic Church 4- The Armenian Evangelical Church 5- Functional Structure of the Armenian Church 6- The Hierarchical Structure of the Church 1-HISTORY The Church was founded by Jesus Christ (cf. Matthew 16:18; 28:19-20). According to tradition, two of His Apostles--St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew--preached His Gospel in Armenia as early as the second half of the first century. Then in 314, St. Gregory the Illuminator formally established the Church in Armenia, when King Tiridates III was baptized and declared Christianity as the state religion. St. Gregory (c. 240-325 AD) was a descendant of a noble house in Parthia, who was brought up as a Christian in Cappadocia. He was consecrated a bishop by Leontius, the metropolitan of Caesarea, as the first Bishop of Armenia. The origin of the Armenian liturgical and sacramental tradition is ascribed to him. He began his missionary work in Armenia during the first decade of the 4th century, while a layman, and upon is consecration as Bishop he established the Armenian nation's Holy See in Vagharshapat (Etchmiadzin) . He is called Illuminator because he "enlightened the nation with the light of the gospel" through baptism. The Christianization of Armenia "determined the entire future course of Armenian history." The Armenian nation embraced Christ in its own land, where God himself "descended". Etchmiadzin, literally, means "the only begotten descended.â&#x20AC;&#x2013; According to tradition, St. Gregory saw Christ in a vision who indicated to him where to build His Church, the first Armenian Church. As the new Faith took roots in the life of the nation, the invention of an Armenian alphabet was necessitated. Realizing the needs of the Armenian faithful, in 406, St. Mesrob Mashdotz (ca. 355-439) created the Armenian alphabet, under the auspices of Catholicos Sahag (ca. 348-438) , in order to make the Christian faith accessible to the people in a written form. Greek and Syriac were the languages used in the church services. Soon after the invention of the alphabet, St. Mesrob together with St. Sahag and a group of associates--known as Holy Translators-translated the Holy Scriptures into Armenian, followed by the biblical, theological and liturgical writings of eminent church fathers. This most important era is known as the Golden Age of Armenian history. "The missionary and literary labors [of this period] shaped the destiny of the Armenian people and Church for succeeding generations. â&#x20AC;Ś [St. Mesrob and St. Sahag, their disciples and co-workers] spearheaded the creation of the Armenian Christian culture under the patronage of the King Vramshapuh (ca 389-

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415). This period was one of intense activity and rapid development for the Church and was decisive in its consolidation and nationalization." One of the most significant events in Armenian Christianity is the battle of Avarair. Toward the middle of the fifth century, Armenia faced growing pressures from the Persian King Yazdegert II, who had issued an edict bidding the Armenians to renounce Christ and embrace Zoroastrianism . The Armenians remained loyal to their faith, repeatedly refused to disavow Christ. In 451, headed by the commander-in-chief Vartan Mamikonian, Armenians fought against the Persians to preserve their faith. Yeghishe, the historian who wrote The History of Vartan and the Armenian War, in a dialogue between the Persian Tenshabuh (ambassador) and the Priest Ghevont, expresses the profundity of this faith, "Christ, the living and life-giving true God, by His beneficent will became the healer of souls and bodies and Himself first suffered tortures and pains to cure the entire human race. â&#x20AC;ŚHe granted us second birth in health without pains and afflictions." St. Vartan fell in the battle field of Avarair and Armenians were physically defeated. For the next thirty years oppression and resistance followed, until 484 A.D., when under the leadership of Vahan Mamikonian, Vartanâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s nephew, the Persian King Peroz reversed course and declared full toleration of Christian faith and the formal recognition and establishment of the Church, in the treaty of Nuarsak. The following centuries were difficult periods for the Armenian nation--Persian rule (430634) and later Arab domination (c. 654-851). In the 9th century (c. 885) there was an independent kingdom of the Bagratids in Armenia; however it ended in 1079. In the medieval Kingdom of Cilicia or Lesser Armenia, there was an independent entity from the end of the 12th century to 1375. Persecution and martyrdom had become common occurrences in the life of the Armenian nation. A larger proportion of Armenians were massacred by the Turks in the Ottoman Empire starting in the late 19th century to early 20th century. Armenians also suffered under the Russians starting in 1893 until the early 1980s. In assessing history and the role of the Armenian Church in the life of the Armenian nation, Abp. Aram Keshishian writes: "Confessing Christ has become the quintessence of our history. The history of the Armenian Church in all its manifestations and achievements, conflicts and struggles, is in the fullest sense of the term the history of confessing Christ in action. â&#x20AC;ŚAll the spheres of our life were touched by the transforming power of Christ. The Armenian culture in particular with its spiritual depth and transcendent dynamism has provided the Church with creative insights and new perspectives and horizons in terms of integrating Christ into the ethos of the Nation."

2-THE FAITH OF THE ARMENIAN CHURCH The Faith of the Armenian Church is transmitted through the church's Holy Tradition, i.e., the ongoing life of the church from the time of Christ to our times. The Bible, liturgy and worship, writings of the church fathers, church councils, saints, canons, religious art and rituals--organically linked together--formulate the Holy Tradition of the Church.

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This Faith is articulated in the Creed of the Armenian Church, which in turn defines the church's raison d‘être and sets the parameters of its modus operand. The Armenian Church professes her faith in the context of her worship. Theologically, whatever the church believes, the church prays . Therefore, the Armenian Church's worship and liturgy constitute a prime source for teaching her faith. History, i.e., Tradition, on the other hand, defines and formulates the "articles of faith" and transmits them from generation to generation. The Armenian Church believes in One God, the Father Almighty who is the Creator of heaven and earth, of all things visible & invisible. Humanity (male and female) is created in the image and likeness of God, and as such is a special creature. However, because of the Fall of man, sin entered the world. The Church believes in Jesus Christ, "the only begotten Son of God…who came down from heaven, was incarnate, was born of the Virgin Mary, by the Holy Spirit. He became man, was crucified for us and suffered and was buried. He rose again from the dead on the third day and ascended into heaven and sits at the right hand of the Father. He will come again with glory to judge the living and the dead.‖ The Armenian Church believes in the Holy Spirit – ―uncreated and perfect, who proceeds from the Father– and together with the Father and the Son is worshipped and glorified. The Holy Spirit spoke to the prophets and apostles and descended into the Jordan, witnessing Christ's Baptism.‖ The Armenian Church is One Holy Apostolic Catholic, Church. She believes in one Baptism with repentance for the remission and forgiveness of sins. On judgment day, Christ will call all men and women who have repented to eternal life in His Heavenly Kingdom, which has no end. Christ overcame the power of death with His own and gave salvation to all mankind. The dogmas of the Armenian Church are based on these "articles of faith." The Armenian Church belongs to the Orthodox family of churches, known as the Oriental Orthodox, or Non-Chalcedonian, Churches, i.e., the Armenian, Coptic, Syrian, Ethiopian and Indian Malabar churches. Generally, Christianity is divided mainly between Eastern and Western churches. The relationship between Byzantium (East) and Rome (West) deteriorated gradually. In the ninth century a schism between the Byzantine Church and the Church of Rome started to shape during the time of Patriarch Photius. Then in 1054, anathemas were declared by both sides (Patriarch Michael and Cardinal Humbert), which lasted for centuries. By 1204, when the Crusaders captured Constantinople, the schism had became final. In

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1965, following the Vatican II Council, the anathemas were lifted by both sides in a spirit of ecumenism and understanding among the churches. The main theological differences and disagreements between the Eastern (including the Armenians) and the Church of Rome (Catholics) are in the following issues: Filioque: according to the teachings of the Church of Rome, the Holy Spirit, the Third Person of the Holy Trinity, proceeds from the Father and the Son, while the Orthodox teach that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father only; Papal Supremacy: the Roman Catholics consider the Pope the ―Vicar of Christ‖, while the Orthodox churches consider him only as ―first in honor‖ and in pastoral diakonia. Papal Infallibility: The Catholics follow a "monarchical‖ model of ecclesial polity, while the Orthodox follow a ―conciliar‖ model, i.e., church councils determine church dogma, canons and policies. There are also other minor differences among these two branches of churches, such as the rules of fasting; unleavened bread at Eucharist (West); manner of conferring confirmation; celibacy of clergy; divorce (not sanctioned in Roman Catholicism); purgatory (East doesn't teach it); West has "scholastic' approach, East has "mystical" approach to theological issues. The main difference between the Byzantine tradition, also known as Chalcedonian churches, and the Armenian Church, (together with other non-Chalcedonian churches) has been on the issue of Christology, i.e., the dogma related to Christ‘s Divine and Human natures. Abp. A. Keshishian writes, "the Christology of the Armenian Church is fundamentally in line with the Alexandrian Theological School. In fact, the Cyrillian formula of 'One Nature of the Incarnate Word' constitutes the foundation stone of her Christology. [It should be noted that] first, 'One Nature' is never interpreted in the Armenian Christology as a numerical one, but always a united one. This point is of crucial importance [for the Armenian Church] particularly in its anti-Eutychian and anti-Chalcedonian aspects. Second the term 'nature' (ousia, in Armeian bnut'iun) is used in Armenian theological literature in three different senses: (a) as essence, an abstract notion, (b) as substance, a concrete reality, (c) as person. In the context of anti-Chalcedonian Christology 'one nature' is used in a sense of 'one person' composed of two natures." The Christological controversy continued for centuries, often becoming a matter of political influence and expediency. However, in 1990, the theologians and official representatives of both Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches--after years of dialogue and consultations--agreed in a formal statement that their theological understanding, especially their Christology, is "orthodox." The statement called for unity and communion among the Eastern and Oriental Churches and as such, the

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document was sent to the respective leaders of the participating churches for formal approval. While the overwhelming majority of Armenians are members of the Armenian Church (also known as the ―Mother Church‖), a number of Armenians belong to the Armenian Catholic and Protestant (Evangelical) churches.

3-THE ARMENIAN CATHOLIC CHURCH Beginning in the 12th century, Armenians came into contact with the Roman Church through their ties with the Crusaders in Cilicia. Later in the 14th century, through the missionary activities of the Franciscan and Dominican orders, a "Latinizing movement" gained ground among "liberal elements in the Armenian Church." However, it was only in the 19th century, during the Ottoman period, that the Armenian Catholics became a millet--an autonomous Church affiliated with Roman Catholicism. In 1831, when a new constitution for Christians living in the Ottoman Empire was instituted, " 'the (Armenian) Catholic Church Community" was created and legally recognized to form the Armenian Rite Catholic segment of the Roman Church, with its own hierarchy and its own Catholicos-Patriarch." In the early 18th century, two Mekhitarist monastic congregations were established in Venice and Vienna, which have "rendered inestimable service to Armenian letters and scholarship fostering and enriching the religious and cultural heritage of Armenians." 4- THE ARMENIAN EVANGELICAL CHURCH The Armenian Evangelical community was formally recognized in 1846 by the Ottoman government, after "painful clashes" between church authorities and the "reformers"-those within the Mother Church who wished to ―reestablished‖ the church‘s true evangelical mission. The beginning of Armenian Protestantism is traced back to the 19th century missionary activities of the American Board of Missions, which expanded an aggressive mission throughout Asia Minor. As a result of the continued affiliation of the Armenian Evangelicals with American missionary organizations, many schools and colleges were established during the second half of the 19th century, which benefited thousands Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire.

5- THE FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE ARMENIAN CHURCH The functional structure of the Armenian Church is primarily based on the canons and established traditions of the Armenian Church, which were formulated over the centuries. One of the most important aspects of the Armenian Church administration is its Conciliar System; i.e., the administrative, as well as doctrinal, liturgical, and canonical norms are set and approved by a council--collective and participatory decision making process. The Council of Bishops (or the Synod) is the highest religious authority in the Church.

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The ―norms‖ of the administrative structure of the church go back to the Apostolic times. A point could be made by the fact that there was a quasi-organizational structure in Christ‘s group of twelve apostles. Perhaps not as clearly defined, but nevertheless, it was an organizational subsystem that was endowed with a specific task and purpose. While the Scriptures do not record the organizational aspect of the ―apostolic college,‖ their activities and interaction underline the existence of certain ―norms.‖ For example, the group of the twelve had a treasurer (Judas Iscariot) and a ―natural‖ division of labor based on the talents or the personality of each apostles. Matthew was a tax collector (a ―government employee‖) and had certain familiarity with management practices of the time. In fact, Matthew was ―sitting in his office,‖ when Christ met him and asked him to ―follow‖ him (Matthew 9:9). Then we read that ―Jesus called his twelve disciples together and gave them authority...‖ (Matthew 10:1) to carry out their mission. We also find certain ―rules‖ for carrying out Jesus‘ instructions: ―The twelve men were sent out...with instructions,‖ (Matthew 10:5ff). One could even see traces of ―bureaucracy‖ (as defined by Max Weber) as early as Christ‘s time – i.e., a) recruitment and hierarchy, b) division of labor, c) set of rules. After Jesus had ―left‖ the twelve, the mission had to continue by the apostles. The first thing that the apostles did was to elect a replacement for Judas. ―...A few days later there was a meeting of the believers...so they proposed two men…then they drew lots to choose between the two men, and the one chosen was Matthias, who was added to the group of eleven apostles (Acts 1;15ff). Interestingly, this ―democratic‖ election and the proposal process, is indicative of yet another bureaucratic norm, namely ―promotion based on merit and qualification.‖ Eventually, as the church progressed from being a persecuted entity of believers to an institutionalized organization, the rules and admonitions of "the apostles and the elders" (Acts 15:6) were integrated in the canon books of Christian churches, including the Armenian Church. A significant aspect in Acts 15 is the "conciliarity" of the decision making process.

6-THE HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ARMENIAN CHURCH CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING: - Clerical Hierarchy Catholicos Bishop Priest - Lay Representation National Ecclesiastical Assembly Diocesan Assembly Parish Assembly

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The Catholicos First on the hierarchical ladder is the Catholicos, as the Chief Bishop and Supreme head of the Armenian Church. The Catholicos is elected by a National Ecclesiastical Assembly (NEA), consisting of lay and clergy representatives of the Armenian Churches from around the world. Working closely with the Catholicos is the Supreme Ecclesiastical Council, (the administrative arm of the NEA) which carries out the overall administration of the Armenian Church throughout the world. The Bishop Second on the hierarchical ladder is the bishop, who is ―elected‖ by the people and consecrated by the Catholicos with the aid of two other bishops (according to current practice, the Catholicos has exclusive right to consecrate bishops). A bishop in a given diocese is the ―chief executive officer‖ of the region, who works in cooperation with a Diocesan Council (consisting of clergy and lay members), who in turn are elected by the Diocesan Assembly of the region. The Bishop is the ex-officio president of each and every Diocesan organization. The Priest Third on the hierarchical ladder is the priest, who is appointed by the Bishop and accepted by the Parish Assembly of a given parish. The parish priest is the ex-officio president of each and every Parish organization. (In the case of "monastic priests," as it is the case in Etchmiadzin, Antelias, Jerusalem and Constantinople, they are under the jurisdiction of the Catholicos or the Patriarch of the given See). The National Ecclesiastical Assembly The National Ecclesiastical Assembly (NEA) consists of lay and clergy delegates elected by the diocesan Assemblies of the dioceses of the Armenian Church around the world. Every bishop in the Armenian Church is automatically a member of the Assembly. The Catholicos–or in his absence the Locum Tenens–is ex-officio president of the NEA. The primary function of the NEA is to elect a successor to a deceased Catholicos. The last NEA was convened in April 1995, when it elected His Holiness Karekin I as Catholicos of All Armenians in Etchmiadzin. The Diocesan Assembly The Diocesan Assembly consists of lay delegates elected by the Parish Assemblies. Every diocesan clergy is automatically a member of the Assembly. The Diocesan Primate is ex-officio president of the Diocesan Assembly.

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The Parish Assembly The Parish Assembly consists of all baptized and/or dues paying members of a given parish in a given diocese. The Pastor is the ex-officio president of the Parish Assembly. On each level on the hierarchical structure of the Armenian Church, clergy and lay cooperation is central to the overall administration and ministry of the church. While the Church is governed according to the standards set forth in the Canons, there are complementary By-Laws in most dioceses that further define the role and relationship of each functionary in the church within a given region. There are four hierarchical Sees in the Armenian Church: -The Catholicosate of All Armenians in Etchmiadzin (established by St. Gregory the Illuminator in the fourth century). -The Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia (established in Antelias, Lebanon in 1930. Its roots go back to the 13th century). -The Patriarchate of Jerusalem (the St. James Brotherhood established the Patriarchate at the beginning of the 14th century). -The Patriarchate of Constantinople (established in 1461 by Sultan Mehmet II). Each See has its own brotherhood, ecclesiastical jurisdiction and internaladministrative by-laws. They are not separate churches, but are part of the One Holy Apostolic Church--the Armenian Church--and are one in dogma, theology, liturgy and in their service to the Armenian nation. Church, Yegheghetzi in Armenian (from Greek Ekklesia) literally means assembly, gathering窶田oming together for a common purpose,i.e., to worship God and hear His words. [Cf. Nor Baragirk Haygazian Lezvi, Vol. 1, Yerevan 1979, p. 651; also Abp. Khoren Narbey, A Catechism of Christian Instruction According to the Doctrine of the Armenian Church, (New York: Diocese of the Armenian Church, 1964), p 75.] Although 301 has been traditionally accepted to be the date of conversion, recent critical studies by notable scholars (H. Manandian, G. Garitte and B. Ananian) have shown that 314 is the actual date [cf. Tiran Abp. Nersoyan, Summary Topics of Armenian Church History (New Rochelle: St. Nersess Armenian Seminary, 1986), p. 3. Also see Agathangelos, History of Armenians, [in Armenian] (Tblisi, 1914), p. 782.] According to archaeological findings, the present Cathedral of Etchmiadzin is where St. Gregory built an edifice over a pagan sanctuary. Before that, St. Gregory founded a Christian sanctuary at Ashtishat in Taron. [Malachia Ormanian, The Church of Armenia, (London, 1910) p. 10] St. Mesrob Mashdotz (ca 355-439) was born in the village of Hatzegyats in Daron, Armenia. After formal education in Armenia, he studied in Antioch, where he learned Greek, Syriac and Persian. Upon his return, he worked as a secretary in the Royal Court. In 394, he left the palace and became a monk and was eventually ordained a

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priest. St. Mesrob is also credited for assisting in the formulation of the Georgian and Albanian alphabets. St. Sahag (ca 348-438) was born in Caesarea. He was the only son of Catholicos Nersess the Great, whom he succeeded in 386. He was educated in Caesarea and Byzantium. Besides his important role in the invention of the Armenian alphabet, St. Sahag is also famous for organizing the Church and establishing learning centers, where the development of a rich Tradition became possible. Zorastrianism was the dominant religion of Persia, especially during the Sassania dynasty (211-640 A.D). It is a system of religious doctrine ascribed to Zoroaster. He taught that the world was made by one "Wise Lord" with the help of his Spirit and six other divine spirits or attributes of god. These spirits work against the Evil spirit, who is also helped by six other spirits and tempts man to wrong. [Yeshisheh, History of Vartan and the Armenian War, Trans. Dikran Boyajian, (New York: The Delphic Press, 1952), p. 110.] The Creed of the Church is the formal declaration of her faith and belief – as expressed in the Constantinopolitan formulary. The dogmas and teachings of the Armenian Church are based on the declarations of the first three Ecumenical Councils of the Church – Nicea, in 325 A.D., defined the divinity of the Son of God; Constantinople, in 381, defined the divinity of the Holy Spirit; Ephesus, in 431, defined Christ as the Incarnate Word of God and Mary was declared Theotokos (Astoua‗a‗in). Subsequent "Ecumenical" Councils, which are accepted by the Byzantine and Roman churches, defined other theological issues – Chalcedon 451, Constantinople II 555, Constantinople III 680, Nicea II 787 – however, they are not formally recognized by the Armenian Church. Nevertheless, the decision of Council of Nicea II (787) to uphold the veneration of the holy icons is in conformity with the Armenian tradition already articulated by Catholicos Vrtanes Kertogh in the seventh century. Lex orandi est Lex credendi et agenda in Latin translates to "the rule of prayer is the rule of belief and of action." This simple rule is the essence of liturgical theology. According to the patristic understanding, "the man of prayer is the true theologian; the true theologian is the man of prayer." The word Ish and Ishah in Hebrew are the masculine and feminine of the same word human. An exhaustive discussion of this topic is found in Claus Westermann, Genesis 1-11: A Commentary, (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1987), pp. 201-208. S. Verhovskoy writes, "The profound thought of Genesis lies in the indissolubility of man and woman…in the very moment of creation. God created not one man but two, in combination and mutual dependence." For a theological discussion of this topic see Serge Verhovskoy, "Creation of man and the Establishment of the Family in the Light of the Book of Genesis," St. Valdimir's Theological Quarterly 8:1/64, pp. 5-30. Theologically, in the image of God means sharing the spiritual attributes of divinity. Likeness is the potential of humans to become Godlike, through His grace. From a

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theological point of view, human development and growth is a continuous process in life. Sin in the original Greek (hamarthia) means "missing the mark," failure to be what one should be and to do what one should do. ONE--the Church is one because Christ founded one church. There can only be one Church and not many, as such the Church is indivisible. HOLY--the holiness of the Church comes from God. "The members of the Church are holy to the extent that they live in communion with God…. Within the earthly Church, people participate in God‘s holiness. Sin and error separate them from this divine holiness as it does from the divine unity. Thus the earthly members and institutions of the Church cannot be identified as such with the Church as holy." CATHOLIC--the catholicity of the Church is understood in terms of the Church‘s universality throughout time and space. Also, the term catholic should not be confused with the Roman Catholic Church. APOSTOLIC-the term apostolic, traditionally, affirms the establishment of the Armenian Church by Sts. Thaddeus and Bartholomew. However, the fact that the word apostolic describes that which has a mission, that which has ―been sent‖ to accomplish a task should not be overlooked. "As Christ was sent from God, so Christ Himself chose and sent His apostles." He said, "as the Father has sent me, even so I send you… receive ye the Holy Spirit.‖ Just as the apostles were sent by Christ to preach the word of God, the Church, i.e., its earthly members, is also sent by God to bear witness to His Kingdom, to keep His word and to do His will and His works in this world. [cf. Thomas Hopko, Doctrine (New York: OCA, 1981), pp. 123-128.] The major sacraments of the Armenian Church are: Baptism, Confirmation, Penance, Holy Communion, Matrimony, Holy Orders, Unction with Oil. Sacrament (Khorhoort) means mystery, i.e., something that cannot be explained in "human terms." St. Paul uses the word mystery to explain God's desire to save, renew and unite all things in Christ. Jesus is mystically present in all the sacraments of the church and is Himself the officiate through the person of the priest. The sacraments are outward signs that give grace and blessings to the person receiving the sacrament. For a more detailed discussion of sacraments in the Armenian Church, see Garabed Kochakian, The Sacraments: The Symbols of our Faith, (New York: Diocese of the Armenian Church, DRE, 1983); Bp. S. Kaloustian, Saints and Sacraments, (New York: Diocese of the Armenian Church, ACYOA, 1964), pp. 37-58. Also see Ormanian, The Church of Armenia, pp. 114-117. For a historical survey and study of the Armenian Church's sacraments, see F. C. Conybeare, Rituale Armenorum, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905).

Most other traditional churches are also governed by the same principles, e.g., the Eastern Orthodox Churches). SOURCE: http://www.sain.org/Armenian.Church/intro.txt

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Biography of Archbishop Khajag Barsamian His Eminence Archbishop Khajag Barsamian was born in Arapkir, Turkey in 1951. At the age of 13, he began his religious studies at the Holy Cross Armenian Seminary in Istanbul. Encouraged by Archbishop Shnork Kaloustian (the late Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople), he went to Jerusalem to study at the Seminary of the St. James Armenian Patriarchate from 1967 to 1971. He was ordained a celibate priest in 1971 and achieved the ecclesiastical degree of vartabed two years later. His later educational pursuits have led him throughout the United States and Europe: to New York's General Theological Seminary, St. John's University in Minneapolis, the Gregorian University in Rome, and Oxford's Oriental Institute. He has lectured in the U.S., Italy, England, Germany, Jerusalem and Armenia, and has conducted research at the Manuscript Library of Yerevan, the Mekhitarist Institute of Venice and the Manuscript Library at the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. His publications have appeared in various educational and scholarly journals. In October of 1991, General Theological Seminary awarded him an Honorary Doctor of Divinity Degree. Concurrent with and subsequent to his education, he has taken on pastoral duties in Istanbul; in the Armenian communities in Jaffa, Haifa and Ramleh; and throughout the Eastern Diocese of the Armenian Church of America--in Worcester, Massachusetts; Minneapolis/St. Paul, Minnesota; and at the St. Vartan Armenian Cathedral in New York City, where he served as Vicar General and director of Ecumenical Relations. His Eminence was elected as Primate of the Diocese of the Armenian Church of America in the spring of 1990, and was subsequently elevated to the rank of bishop by His Holiness Vasken I, the late Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians, at the Cathedral of Holy Etchmiadzin. In October 1992, he received the rank of archbishop. He is currently serving his third fouryear term as chief bishop of the largest diocese of the Armenian diaspora. As the president of the Fund for Armenian Relief (FAR), he has led the effort to develop the free Republic of the Armenia, and bring humanitarian assistance to its citizens. Archbishop Barsamian is a leader in a number of religious and ecumenical organizations, including the National Council of Churches, the World Council of Churches, the Appeal of Conscience Foundation, the National Ethnic Coalition of Organizations, Religion In American Life, and the American Bible Society. He is a recipient of the Ellis Island Medal of Honor, and has received honorary doctorates from General Theological Seminary, Seaton Hall University, and the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia. SOURCE: http://www.armenianchurch.net/diocese/primate/profile.html

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History The Armenian presence in the Holy Land dates back to the earliest years of Christianity, even before the conversion of Armenian King Tirdat the Third on or about 301 A.D. There is recorded historical evidence that as early as 254 A.D. bishops of the Armenian Church, in cooperation with bishops of the Greek Orthodox Churches in Jerusalem and Alexandria, Egypt, were actively engaged in the discovery and confirmation of Holy Places deemed to be related to the activities of Jesus Christ, and the construction of edifices for the preservation of these early Christian treasures. Further, from the inception of Christianity, Armenian pilgrims began trekking to the Holy Land on spiritual journeys in steady and continuous numbers, braving disruptive political upheavals and other hardships. A large number of them chose to remain in Jerusalem, and to take up residence in the proximity of the sanctuaries owned by the Patriarchate (the Armenian Convent), with the St. James Cathedral as its centerpiece. Eventually, these areas near the Patriarchate, located in the southwestern corner of the Old City of Jerusalem, constituted the Armenian Quarter, which today takes up one-sixth of the geographic area within the walls of the Old City. The pilgrims also built houses, churches, and convents in other areas, some no longer standing, like the one at the Musrara Quarter, a stone's throw from the 15th Century walls of the Old City where, in 1991, archaeologists uncovered an incomparable mosaic, laid down by an unknown Armenian priest, Eustadius, in the 7th century. At its peak, the Armenian presence in Jerusalem numbered 25,000. According to historical records, as early as the 3rd century A.D., the Armenian Church, under the uninterrupted leadership of successive bishops, not only maintained the integrity of the Holy Places, but also had a leading role in their protection and reconstruction following their repeated destruction by invading armies. From the 4th through the 8th century A.D., monasticism took strong root in the Christian world, from the mountains of Asia Minor through the Holy Land, the Sinai Peninsula and the deserts of Egypt. Considered to be an honorable profession in the service of God, it attracted scholars, educators and artisans of all kinds. With the influx of thousands of monks and pilgrims from Armenian cities, Armenian monasteries were established in the Holy Land, particularly in the hills outside Jerusalem, near the Dead Sea, and the Sinai Desert in the south. The monks became an influential creative force and pioneered the enrichment of the Church with an invaluable trove of manuscripts and archives. The development of the Armenian Lectionary, consisting of a comprehensive anthology of Armenian church readings, hymns and celebration of feasts, liturgical calendar, and numerous saints' days, was a unique accomplishment. These elements and others have become an integral part of the tradition of the Armenian Church in the Holy Land thus making the Armenian Patriarchate a very unique institution throughout the world. Because of the Armenian Church's enhanced prestige, the leading bishop of the Church

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was elevated to the status of Patriarch sometime in the 5th century A.D. The first formally recorded Patriarch of Jerusalem was named Abraham who, in the middle of the 7th Century A.D., received a charter and official recognition from the Arab Caliph Omar Ibn-Il-Khattab of the Omayyad (Damascus) Dynasty. The charter enumerated the rights and privileges of the Armenian Church in the Holy Land, guaranteeing its integrity and security. On the back wall facing the main entrance to the St. James Convent there is an elaborately carved inscription in Arabic which, loosely translated, warns all intruders: `This decree from our Lord Sultan and King Al-Daher Abu Sayid Mohammed, cursed be to all those and their sons through generations, and may Almighty God curse whoever harms or inflicts any injustice to this Holy Place. Abu Kheyer Razan hereby guarantees this to the St. James Armenian Convent in Jerusalem. In the year of Mohammed 854 (1488 A.D.)'. This and previous protective edicts have helped strengthen and perpetuate the integrity of the Patriarchate and have provided a basis for succeeding conquerors to honor these pledges. The final and most important pledge was made by the written declaration of the Turkish Sultan, Abdul Majid, in 1852. This declaration officially established the principle of "Status Quo" (i.e. existing "as is" condition) in the Holy Places, which defines, regulates and maintains, without change, the proprietary rights in the Holy Places granted exclusively to the three major Christian rites--Greek, Armenian and Latin Catholic--thus making the Armenian Church equal in stature to the Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches despite its relatively small size. As a result of the "Status Quo", one interesting aspect unique to the Holy Places is the cadre of guards, caretakers, called "Kawasses" who were primarily Moslem, a choice seemingly inspired by logic. Not being Christian, they could impartially administer any Holy Place, thus eliminating points of contention between the three major Christian rites. Over the centuries, these functions were passed from father to son throughout succeeding generations. The Kawasses protecting the Armenian Patriarch have become such familiar figures over the past hundreds of years that the successive generations have learned Armenian and speak it fluently. Throughout the ensuing decades the resident Armenian community continued to grow and prosper, yielding tradesmen and merchants who shared their prosperity with their Church by donating land and assisting in the construction of new churches, commercial buildings and housing. The need for printed materials in the Armenian language resulted in the establishment of the first printing press in Jerusalem in 1833 within the walls of the St. James Convent. The first issue of "SION", the official monthly publication of the Armenian Patriarchate was first distributed to the public in 1866. In 1841 the first Armenian Theological Seminary was founded just north of Jerusalem, in the town of Ramle, and in 1845 that Seminary was physically moved to a newly-built complex within the confines of the Convent.

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As World War I ended, and Palestine was liberated from the Ottoman Turks by the British, there was a large influx of Armenian refugees who were welcomed by the Patriarchate and settled in available facilities. With the increased population in and around the Patriarchate, children's education became a growing matter of concern. Fortunately, the Seminary afforded a ready-made system for the education of boys at the elementary level. This approach, by its nature, must have provided future candidates for the Seminary and subsequent ordination into the priesthood. However, without the inclusion of girls in the scheme, the endeavor was not deemed to be complete. Finally, in the 1860's, a small building was erected adjacent to the Seminary, thus creating the first girls' elementary school in Jerusalem. These schools continued to operate well into the early 1920's. In 1925, through the efforts of the newly-elected Patriarch Yeghishe Tourian, a staunch believer in education, a unified elementary school came into existence. Patriarch Tourian set about modernizing the curriculum of the Seminary and acquiring highlyqualified instructors from the cadre of talented teachers and educators who had come to Jerusalem as refugees. He envisioned the construction and establishment of an educational institution under one roof to accommodate the growing number of children in the community. In 1929, the unified elementary school officially opened its doors. By consolidating disparate locations, including the St. Gayane Girl's School, this elementary school became the first co-educational institution in the Holy Land and was renamed School of the Holy Translators ("Serpots Tarkmantchats Varjaran") after the Sts. Sahag and Mesrob, the inventors of the Armenian alphabet in approximately 400 A.D. It is in existence today. These organs of the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem--the School, the St. James Cathedral, the Patriarchate, the Armenian Seminary, the Calouste Gulbenkian Library, and the Edward and Helen Mardigian Museum -- together with its custodianships of the Holy Places -- form the core of the Armenian presence in Jerusalem today.

St. James Cathedral

The Cathedral of St. James, the jewel of the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, lies just beyond its entry gate. It has been built on the site of the tombs of St. James, the Apostle, and St. James the brother of the Lord. A magnificent edifice dating from the 12th century with mostly 18th century decoration because of the renewal work carried out by the late Patriarch, Gregory the Chainbearer (1715-1749), it ranks as one of the most awe-inspiring in all of the Middle East. At the entrance to the Cathedral, a large plaque marks the site of the grave of Jerusalem's 94th Armenian Patriarch, the late Archbishop Guregh Israelian. One of the

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city's most popular and charismatic men of the cloth. Israelian died in 1949, of a broken heart it is said, after witnessing the intolerable suffering of his war-ravaged flock, caught in the crossfire of war-time. hostilities. More than once, he would cradle in his own arms, the shrapnel-shredded body of an Armenian who had been the latest casualty in the unrelenting war. Another unpretentious grave sits under an archway a few paces away, at the other end of the vestibule. This one is the last resting place of the Armenian Patriarch, Abraham, a contemporary of Saladdin. Upon entering the Cathedral, one is immediately captivated by the interior bedecked by centuries old "ganteghs" (oil lamps) dangling from the soaring vaulted dome and tallow candles dotting the three altars. The only source of light, the oil lamps, are still lovingly tended by altar boys who replenish them with oil at regular intervals. The candles, made by the Patriarchate's own candle-maker, try vainly to dispel the elemental darkness that pervades the church, imparting a mystical significance to Armenian church rites. To the left of the entrance are three small chapels. The first from the entrance contains the tomb of Makarios, the bishop of Jerusalem in the fourth century. The third from the entrance is the shrine where the head of St. James the Apostle is entombed. Armenians believe that he was buried here in the first century after his execution by King Herod Agrippa I. In the chancel, beyond the fence, are two thrones. The one closest to the pier with the canopy is the symbolic throne of St. James, the brother of the Lord, and first bishop of Jerusalem, who is buried beneath the high altar. The Patriarch stands in front of this throne once a year on the feast of St. James in early January to symbolize his place in the succession of the bishops of Jerusalem. The other throne is the one normally used by the Patriarch. The Cathedral has in the past also served as a bomb shelter. During the 1948 ArabIsraeli war, the only sanctuary from the daily bombardment of the city that the Armenians could find was within the solid, reassuring confines of their Cathedral, with its one-meter thick walls. During one particularly memorable night, over 1,000 shells of all kinds, including the dreaded mortar, landed on and around the Cathedral. But not a single casualty did they claim. Many believers would later swear that they had seen a mysterious figure, dressed in white, standing vigil on the roof of the Cathedral, warding off the shower of missiles with his hands. Believers assert that it was none other than St. James the Elder.

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ARMENIAN PATRIARCHS OF JERUSALEM Patriarch

Period of office

1. Abraham

638-669

2. Krikor Yetesatzi

669-696

3. Kevork

696-708

4. Mgrdich

708-730

5. Hovhannes

730-758

6. Stepanos

758-774

7. Yeghia

774-797

Unknown Incumbents

797-885

8. Abraham

885-909

Unknown Incumbents

909-981

9. Krikor

981-1006

10. Arsen

1006-1038

11. Mesrob (usd hrovardagatz)

1008

Unknown Incumbents

1038-1090

12. Simeon

1090-1109

13. Movses

1109-1133

14. Esayee

1133-1152

15. Sahag

1152-1180

16. Abraham of Jerusalem

1180-1191

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17. Minas

1191-1205

18. Abraham

1215-1218

19. Arakel

1218-1230

20. Hovhannes Garnetzi

1230-1238

21. Garabed of Jerusalem

1238-1254

22. Hagopos

1254-1281

23. Sarkis

1281-1313

24. Theodore (Asdzvadzadoor)

1313-1316

25. David

1316-1321

26. Boghos (usd odaratz Bedros)

1321-1323

27. Vartan Areveltzi

1323-1332

28. Hovhannes Josleen

1332-1341

29. Parsegh

1341-1356

30. Garabed

1349

31. Krikor

1356-1363

32. Giragos with Krikor remembered as a co-adjutor 33. Mgrdich first co-adjutor with Krikor the Patriarch

1363-1378

34. Hovhannes Lehatzee

1378-1386

35. Krikor of Egypt

1386-1391

36. Esayee

1391-1394

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37. Sarkis first co-adjutor then Patriarch

1394-1415

38. Mardiros probably co-adjutor

1399

39. Mesrob probably co-adjutor

1402

40. Boghos Karnetzi

1415-1419

41. Mardiros of Egypt

1419-1430

42. Minas probably co-adjutor with Mardiros

1426

43. Esayee initially co-adjutor with Mardiros then Patriarch

1430-1431

44 Hovhannes

1431-1441

45. Muron

1436-1437

46. Abraham Missirtzee

1441-1454

47. Mesrob first co-adjutor then Patriarch

1454-1461

48. Bedros first co-adjutor then Patriarch

1461-1476

49. Mgrdich Elovtzee

1476-1479

50. Abraham Pereeahtzee initially coadjtor then Patriarch

1497-1485

51. Hovhannes Missirtzee

1485-1491

52. Mardiros Broosatzee

1491-1501

53. Bedros

1501-1507

54. Sarkis

1507-1517

55. Hovhannes

1517-1522

56. Theodore (Asdvadzadoor

1532-1542

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Merdeentzee) came to Jerusalem 1523 57. Pilibos

1542-1550

58. Theodore (Asdvadzadoor Merdeentzee) again

1550-1551

59. Antreas Merdeentzee initially coadjutor with Theodor then Patriarch

1551-1583

60. David Merdeentzee initially coadjutor then Patriarch resigns

1583-1613

61. Krikor Kantzagehtzee

1613-1645

62. Theodore (AsdvadzadoorDaronetzee)

1645-1664

63. Yeghiazar Hromglayetzee co-adjutor

1664-1665

64. Theodore (Asdvadzadoor Daronetzee) again

1665-1666

65. Yeghiazar

1666-1668

66. Theodore (Asdvadzadoor)

1668-1670

67. Yeghiazar again

1670-1677

68. Mardiros Khrimtzi

1677-1680

69. Hovhannes Amasyatzee

1680

70. Mardiros Khrimtzi again

1681-1683

LAY LOCUM TENENS

1683-1684

71. Hovhannes Bolsetzi

1684-1697

72. Simeon

1688-1691

73. Minas Hamtetzi initially co-adjutor of Hovhannes later Patriarch

1697-1704

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74. Kaloosd Hetoontzi co-adjutor 75. Krikor co-adjutor at historical period when Jerusalem Patriarchate was unified with Istanbul Patriarchate

1704-1715

76. Krikor Shiravantzee (Chainbearer)

1715-1749

77. Hagop Nalian

1749 resigned 1752

78. Teotoros

1752-1761

79. Garabed Tantchagetzee

1761-1768

80. Boghos Vanetzee

1768-1775

81. Hovhannes Kanapertzee

1775-1793

82. Bedros Yevtogeeyatzee

1793-1800

83. Teodoros Vanetzi

1800-1818

84. Kapriel Neegomeetatzee

1818-1840

85. Boghos Atreeunoobolsetzi

1824-1847

86. Zakaria Gopetzi

1840-1846

87. Giragos of Jerusalem

1846-1850

88. Hovhannes of Smyrna

1850-1860

Vertanes LOCUM TENENS

1860-1864

89. Esayee of Talas

1864-1885

Yeremya Der Sahagian

1885-1889

LOCUM TENENS 90. Harootiun Vehabedian elected 1885 stays in Istanbul until 1888 is in office

1889-1910

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91. Yeghishe Tourian

1921-1929

92. Torkom Koushagian

1929-1939

93. Mesrob Nishanian

1939-1944

94. Guregh Israelian

1944-1949

Tiran Nersoyan (Patriarch - elect)

1957-1958

95. Yeghishe Derderian

1960-1990

96. Torkom Manoogian

1990

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The Armenian Orthodox Patriarchate

The Armenian Orthodox Patriarchate (Convent) of St. James is the home of the Brotherhood of the St. Jameses, a monastic order of the Armenian Church with about 60 members worldwide. Within the compound of the Patriarchate, also lie the private residences of 2,000-3,000 Armenian families and hence public access to the grounds of the Patriarchate are restricted to the Cathedral itself. This residential enclave was, at one time, the largest single compound that housed Armenian pilgrims, and represented the demographic and spiritual core of the newly established colony. Today, together with its adjoining outcrop, the Armenian Quarter, which skirts the northern edge of the Convent, it represents one-sixth of the territory of the Old City. Another 2,000 Armenians are scattered in various other parts of the Holy Land, mainly in Bethlehem, Jaffa, Haifa, Ramleh and Ramallah, where viable communities have evolved around the periphery of their ubiquitous nucleus, a church or convent. The compound of the Patriarchate, which enjoys a strict curfew of 10 p.m. when the massive doors are closed and locked until the early morning, also houses the administrative offices and residences of the Patriarch and the clergy. It also comprises the Cathedral of St. James, the Church of the Archangels, the second major Armenian church in Jerusalem, and the church of St. Toros, which is home to the precious illuminated Armenian manuscript collection, the second largest in the world (over 4,000). The Convent itself occupies the southwestern corner of the Old City and is situated on the site of the encampment of the Tenth Legion of Rome. As you tread the cobblestone alleys of the entryway of the Convent, you are taken back more than a thousand years into the distant, idyllic past of the community's forefathers who laid the foundation stones of the Convent's present existence for all generations to come. At its peak, the Armenian presence in Jerusalem, where they were most densely concentrated, numbered 25,000. But the havoc caused by half a century of bloodshed and the perennial political and economic instability in the region have decimated the colony. Most of its former members now reside in more placid capitals of the world. This fact notwithstanding, Armenians have continued to be a dynamic presence in Jerusalem and are in a unique situation. Their Patriarchate enjoys a semi-diplomatic status and is one of the three major guardians of the Christian Holy Places in the Holy Land (the other two are the Greek Orthodox and Latin Patriarchates). Among these sites are the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in the Old City, the Church of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives, the Tomb of Virgin Mary in the Valley of Gethsemane, and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. The Patriarchate exercises a paternalistic care of the members of its community and provides a medical service for a symbolic fee at a clinic donated by the Jinishian

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Medical Fund. Free meals to the aged and invalid pensioners and indigent members of the community are also provided. Other branches of the Patriarchate located within the compound include The Calouste Gulbenkian Library of over 100,000 volumes, half in Armenian and the rest in English and half a dozen European languages; the Edward and Helen Mardigian Museum of Armenian Art and Culture housing historical and religious artifacts including precious rugs, Armenian coins and scraps of evidence of the presence at the site of the Tenth Legion of Rome; and the St. Tarkmanchatz School, a leading co-educational private school and the only one that teaches Arabic, Armenian, English, French and Hebrew. Rounding out this vast accumulation of treasures of all kinds is the complex of the Theological Seminary of the Patriarchate, located a hundred yards from the entrance of the compound, a gift of the late Armenian-American philanthropists Alex and Marie Manoogian. Armenian youths from all over the world, including the United States and Armenia, come to study for the priesthood here, and after ordination, help infuse new blood into the ranks of Armenian clergy worldwide. Not to be overlooked is the Patriarchate's printing press, the first to be established in Jerusalem, which has now become a modern, state-of-the-art facility capable of undertaking commercial color printing. This was the first facility within the Armenian compound to adopt the concept of computerization on a dedicated scale. The present Patriarch, His Beatitude Archbishop Torkom Manoogian, was elected to the Throne of St. James in 1990 and is the 96th successive Armenian Patriarch of Jerusalem. He, along with a Synod of seven clergymen elected by the Brotherhood, oversees the Patriarchate's operations.

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Chapter Five: The Assyrian Heritage

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Brief History of Assyrians by Peter BetBasoo

Geography Racial Type Language Religion History of Assyrians Emergence: beginnings to 2400 B.C. First Golden Age: 2400 B.C. to 612 B.C. First Dark Age: 612 B.C. to 33 A.D. Second Golden Age: 33 A.D. to 1300 A.D. Second Dark Age: 1300 A.D. to 1918 A.D. Diaspora: 1918 A.D. to the present

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Geography Assyria is located in north Mesopotamia and spans four countries: In Syria it extends west to the Euphrates river; in Turkey it extends north to Harran, Edessa, Diyarbakir, and Lake Van; in Iran it extends east to Lake Urmi, and in Iraq it extends to about 100 miles south of Kirkuk. This is the Assyrian heartland, from which so much of the ancient Near East came to be controlled. Two great rivers run through Assyria, the Tigris and the Euhprates, and many lesser ones, the most important of which being the Upper Zab and Lower Zab, both tributaries to the Tigris. Strategically surrounding the Tigris and the two Zabs are the Assyrian cities of Nineveh, Ashur, Arbel, Nimrod and Arrapkha. To the north and east of Assyria lie the Taurus and Zagros mountains. To the west and south lies a great, low limestone plateau. At the southern end of Assyria the gravel plains give way to alluvium deposited by the Tigris, and farther south there is insufficient rainfall for agriculture without irrigation. These two features create a geographical boundary between Assyria and the neighboring land to the south. To the south of Baghdad lies Babylon. There is a stark geographical distinction between Babylonia and Assyria. To quote Saggs, A journey in spring from Baghdad, the capital of modern Iraq and within the Area of Ancient Babylonia, to Mosul [Nineveh], which is near several old Assyrian

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capitals, takes the traveler into what is manifestly a different country. In the region of Baghdad and southwards the predominant vegetation is palm trees. . .The terrain is flat to the horizon, and for most of the year its sun-parched earth is arid and dead wherever irrigation ditches do not reach. Approaching Mosul [Nineveh] the traveler finds a striking change. The flat terrain gives way to undulating plains, in spring green with pasturage or cereal crop and gay and scented with flowers and clover. The rolling plains are cut with wadis, aflow after spring rains, with higher ranges of hills on the horizon. The traveler has reached Assyria.[Might that was Assyria, page 5] The Assyrian land is rich and fertile, with growing fields found in every region. Two large areas comprise the Assyrian breadbasket: the Arbel plain and the Nineveh plain. To this day these areas remain critical crop producers. This is from where Assyria derived her strength, as it could feed a large population of professionals and craftsman, which allowed it to expand and advance the art of civilization.

Racial Type Assyrians are a Semitic peoples indigenous to Mesopotamia. They are Mediterranean Caucasoids, and are ethnically distinct from Arabs and Jews.

Language

Assyrians have used two languages throughout their history: ancient Assyrian (Akkadian), and Modern Assyrian (neo-syriac). Akkadian was written with the cuneiform writing system, on clay tablets, and was in use from the beginning to about 750 B.C.. By 750 B.C., a new way of writing, on parchment, leather, or papyrus, was developed, and the people who brought this method of writing with them, the Arameans, would eventually see their language, Aramaic, supplant Ancient Assyrian because of the technological breakthrough in writing. Aramaic was made the second official language of the Assyrian empire in 752 B.C. Although

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Assyrians switched to Aramaic, it was not wholesale transplantation. The brand of Aramaic that Assyrians spoke was, and is, heavily infused with Akkadian words, so much so that scholars refer to it as Assyrian Aramaic.

Religion Assyrians have practiced two religions throughout their history: Ashurism and Christianity. Ashurism was, of course, the first religion of the Assyrians. The very word Assyrian, in its Latin form, derives from the name of Ashur, the Assyrian god. Assyrians continued to practice Ashurism until 256 A.D, although by that time, most Assyrians had accepted Christianity. Indeed, Assyrians were the first nation to accept Christianity, and the Assyrian Church was founded in 33 A.D. by Thomas, Bortholemew and Thaddeus.

History of Assyrians It is convenient to divide Assyrian history into six periods: 1. Emergence: beginnings to 2400 B.C. 2. First Golden Age: 2400 B.C. to 612 B.C. 3. First Dark Age: 612 B.C. to 33 A.D. 4. Second Golden Age: 33 A.D. to 1300 A.D. 5. Second Dark Age: 1300 A.D. to 1918 A.D. Diaspora: 1918 A.D. to the present:

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1. Emergence: beginnings to 2400 B.C. In 1932, Sir Max Mallowan, the eminent British archaeologist, dug a deep sounding which reached virgin soil ninety feet below the top of the mound of Nineveh; this gave a pottery sequence back to prehistoric times and showed that the site was already inhabited by 5000 B.C.. Very soon after that, the two other great Assyrian cities were settled, Ashur and Arbel, although an exact date has yet to be determined. Arbel is the oldest extant city, and remains largely unexcavated, its archaeological treasures waiting to be discovered. The same holds for Ashur. It is clear that by 2500 B.C., these three cities were well established and were thriving metropolis. This period of history saw the development of the fundamentals of our civilization: animal domestication, agriculture, pottery, controllable fire (kilns), smelting, to name but a few. As regards Assyrians, because of it rich corn fields, Arbel was one of the very earliest permanent agricultural settlements. Between 4500 and 2400 B.C., complex societies appear in the form of cities, with craft specialization and writing. These features were associated with the Sumerians, but they quickly spread to other parts of Mesopotamia, including Assyria. In Assyria, settlements had become large and guarded by fortifications walls, which implies the risk of attack from outside, and hence the need for defense and warfare. 2. First Golden Age: 2400 B.C. to 612 B.C. We enter into an extremely fruitful period in Assyrian History. This period would see 1800 years of Assyrian hegemony over Mesopotamia, beginning with Sargon of Akkad in 2371 B.C. and ending with the tragic fall of Nineveh in 612 B.C. Sargon of Akkad established his kingdom in 2371 B.C., becoming the first king to assert control outside of his city-state. His model would be followed by all succeeding empires, down to our times. From his base at Akkad, south of Baghdad, Sargon would come to control territories stretching north to Ashur and west to the Mediterranean.

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Shamshi-Adad I would establish his kingdom in 1813 B.C. Shamshi-Adad forever united the three cities of Ashur, Nineveh and Arbel into one cohesive unit, and brought Arrapkha firmly into the Assyrian sphere, so that henceforth these four cities, and Nimrod, would constitute the very core of Assyria. Under Shamshi-Adad I, the long established Assyrian merchant colonies of Cappadocia saw renewed activity. ShamshiAdad accomplished this through his administrative efficiency and political skill. In 1472 B.C. or there about, a Mittanian king annexed Assyria, and this lasted for about 70 years. Mittanian control was decisively thrown off by about 1365 B.C. by Ashuruballit, who laid the foundation of the first Assyrian empire. Invaders from the Taurus mountains, north of Assyria, posed a significant threat to Assyria, and occupied Arik-den-ili for a number of years, but were successfully repelled, paving the way for Adad-narari (1307 B.C.) to establish the first Assyrian empire, which lasted until approximately 1248 B.C. A new power from south-west Iran, the Elamites, would assert control over Babylon for 30 years. This affected Assyria slightly. The death of Ashurdan in 1135 B.C. brough instability as his two sons vyed for the crown. Their terms only lasted one year, and Ashur-resh-ishi I ascended to the thrown in 1133 B.C. The Middle Assyrian empire began in 1307 B.C. with Tiglath-Pileser, who greatly expanded Assyrian territory. It is also during his reign that a significant development occurs, that of the Aramean migrations into Assyria. This would have a profound impact on Assyria and Assyrians, as we shall see. Tiglath-Pileser states "I crossed the Euphrates twenty eight times...in pursuit of the Arameans." This would ultimately prove unsuccessful. Tiglath-Pileser was not only a military man, but also a sportsman. Upon reaching the Mediterranean, he took the time, he tells us, to go dolphin hunting. He also established several zoos in Assyria, as he had a fascination with foreign animals. The Aramean problem persisted during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser's successor and son, Ashur-bel-kala 1074-1057), who tells us that the Arameans were penetrating deep into Assyrian territory, including Tur Abdin, Harran and Khabur. For the next century Assyria declined, the Aramean disruptions being the principal cause. It was not until 934 B.C., by which time the Arameans had settled into stable kingdoms in Mesopotamia, that Assyria would reemerge. Ashur-dan II would concentrate on rebuilding Assyria within its natural borders, from Tur Abdin to the foothills beyond Arbel. He built government offices in all provinces, and as

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an economic boost, provided ploughs throughout the land, which yielded record grain production. He was followed by four able kings, who used the foundation which he had laid to make Assyria the major world power of its time. The four Kings that followed Ashur-dan II were Adad-nerari II (his son), Tukulti-Ninurta II, Ashur-nasir-pal II, and Shalmaneser III. Adad-nerari would provide the final solution to the Aramean problem. He defeated the paramount Aramean chief at Nisibin and, marching up and down the Khabur, he obtained formal submissions from a series of Aramean controlled cities. Ashur-nasir-pal II would bring under Assyrian control the area from south Lebanon to the Zagros mountains, with loose control over the Taurus region. Diyarbekr was under direct Assyrian control. Skipping ahead to Shamsi-Adad V, and I mention him because his wife was none other than Sammurammat, or Shamiram, whom so many Assyrian woman are named after today. There is a stele about her, it says: Stele of Sammurammat Queen of Shamshi-Adad King of all, king of Ashur mother of Adad-nerari King of all, king of Ashur Daughter-in-law [kalta] of Shalmaneser King of the four regions We come now to the beginning of greatest expansion of the Assyian empire with Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727); through a series of able kings, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, Ashurbnaipal, Assyria would extend its rule over a vast area, from Egypt up to cyprus to the west, through Anatolia, to the Caspian in the east. The Assyrian empires, particularly the third one, had a profound and lasting impact on the Near East. Before Assyrian hegemony would come to an end, the Assyrians would bring the highest civilization to the then known world. From the Caspian to Cyprus, from Anatolia to Egypt, Assyrian imperial expansion would bring into the Assyrian sphere nomadic and barbaric communities, and would bestow the gift of civilization upon them. And though today we are far removed from that time, some of our most basic and fundamental devices of daily survival, to which we have become so accustomed that we cannot conceive of life without them, originated in Assyria. One cannot imagine

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leaving his home without locking the door; it is in Assyria where locks and keys were first used. One cannot survive in this world without knowing the time; it is in Assyria that the sexagesimal system of keeping time was developed. One cannot imagine driving without paved roads; it is in Assyria where paved roads were first used. And the list goes on, including the first postal system, the first use of iron, the first magnifying glasses, the first libraries, the first plumbing and flush toilets, the first electric batteries, the first guitars, the first aqueducts, the first arch, and on and on. But it is not only things that originated in Assyria, it is also ideas, ideas that would shape the world to come. It is the idea, for example, of imperial administration, of dividing the land into territories administered by local governors who report to the central authority, the King of Assyria. This fundamental model of administration has survived to this day, as can be seen in America's federal-state system. It is in Assyria where the mythological foundation of the old and new testament is found. It is here that the story of the flood originates, 2000 years before the old testament is written. It is here that the first epic is written, the Epic of Gilgamesh, with its universal and timeless theme of the struggle and purpose of humanity. It is here that civilization itself is developed and handed down to future generations. It is here where the first steps in the cultural unification of the Middle East are taken by bringing under Assyrian rule the diverse groups in the area, from Iran to Egypt, breaking down ethnic and national barriers and preparing the way for the cultural unification which facilitated the subsequent spread of Hellenism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

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3. First Dark Age: 612 B.C. to 33 A.D. The Assyrian empire collapsed in 612 B.C. The Assyrian people survived the loss of their state, and they remained mostly inconspicuous for the next 600 years. The Persians mention employing Assyrians as troops, and there is the failed attempt at reestablishing an Assyrian Kingdom in 350 B.C.; the Persians squelched this attempt and castrated 400 Assyrian leaders as punishment. 4. Second Golden Age: 33 A.D. to 1300 A.D. Assyrians continued living in their homeland throughout this dark age, until that momentous moment in human history, when the Lord Son of God gave himself for the salvation of mankind. Very soon after the crucifixion, the bulk of the Assyrian population converted to Christianity, although there remained to be Ashurites, until 256 A.D. It was the Apostle Thomas, with Thaddeus and Bartholomew who came to the Assyrian city of Edessa and founded the Assyrian Church of the East, the first and oldest church in the world. Armed with the word of God, and after 600 years of dormancy, the Assyrians once again set out to build an empire, not a military empire, but a religious empire founded on divine revelation and Christian brotherhood. So successful was the Assyrian missionary enterprise, by the end of the twelfth century the Assyrian Church was larger than the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches combined, and it spanned the Asian continent, from Syria to Mongolia, Korea, China, Japan and the Philippines. When Marco Polo visited China in the thirteenth century, he was astonished to find Assyrian priests in the Chinese royal court, and tens of thousands of Chinese Christians. The Assyrian missionaries had reached China in the sixth century. With only the bible, a cross, and a loaf of bread in hand, these messengers had walked thousands of miles along the old silk road to deliver the word of God. So successful were the missionaries, when Genghis Khan swept through Asia, he brought with him an army over half of which belonged to the Assyrian Church of the East. So successful were the missionaries, the first Mongolian system of writing used the Assyrian alphabet. Armed with the word of God, Assyrians once again transformed the face of the Middle East. In the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries they began a systematic translation of the Greek body of knowledge into Assyrian. At first they concentrated on the religious works but then quickly moved to science, philosophy and medicine. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Galen, and many others were translated into Assyrian, and from Assyrian into Arabic. It is these Arabic translations which the Moors brought with them into Spain, and which 154

the Spaniards translated into Latin and spread throughout Europe, thus igniting the European renaissance. By the sixth century A.D., Assyrians had begun exporting back to Byzantia their own works on science, philosophy and medicine. In the field of medicine, the Bakhteesho Assyrian family produced nine generations of physicians, and founded the great medical school at Gundeshapur. Also in the area of medicine, Hunayn ibn-Ishaq*s textbook on ophthalmology, written in 950 A.D., remained the authoritative source on the subject until 1800 A.D. In the area of philosophy, the Assyrian philosopher Job of Edessa developed a physical theory of the universe, in the Assyrian language, that rivaled Aristotle*s theory, and that sought to replace matter with forces. One of the greatest Assyrian achievements of the fourth century was the founding of the first university in the world. The School of Nisibis had three departments: theology, philosophy and medicine, and became a magnet and center of intellectual development in the Middle East. The statutes of the School of Nisibis, which have been preserved, later became the model upon which the first Italian university was based. When Arabs and Islam swept through the Middle East in 630 A.D., they encountered 600 years of Assyrian Christian civilization, with a rich heritage, a highly developed culture, and advanced learning institutions. It is this civilization which became the foundation of the Arab civilization. But this great Assyrian Christian civilization would come to an end in 1300 A.D. The tax which the Arabs levied on Christians, simply for just being Christian, forced many Assyrians to convert to Islam to avoid the tax; this inexorably drained the community, so that by the time Timurlane the Mongol delivered the final blow in 1300 A.D., by violently destroying most cities in the Middle East, the Assyrian Christian community had dwindled to its core in Assyria, and henceforth the Assyrian Church of the East would not regain its former glory, and the Assyrian language, which had been the lingua franca of the Middle East until 900 A.D., was completely supplanted by Arabic (except amongst the Assyrians). This, from 1300 A.D. until World War One, became the second Assyrian dark age. 5. Second Dark Age: 1300 A.D. to 1918 A.D. The Assyrian missionary enterprise, which had been so successful throughout the Asian continent, came to an abrupt end with the coming of Timurlane the Mongol. The indiscriminate destruction leveled by Timurlane against the civilizations he encountered put to a permanent end the Assyrian missionary enterprise. A large segment of the Assyrian population escaped the ravages of Timurlane by fleeing into the Hakkary mountains (present day eastern Turkey); the remaining Assyrians continued to live in their homelands (presently North Iraq and Syria), and Urmi. The four Assyrian communities, over time, begin defining themselves in terms of their church affiliation. The western Assyrians, all of whom belonging to the Syrian Orthodox Church, began

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identifying themselves as "Jacobites". The remaining communities belonged to the Assyrian Church of the East. After the division of the Church of the East in 1550 A.D., the Chaldean Church of Babylon, a Roman Catholic Uniate, was created, and members of this church began to call themselves Chaldean. By the end of the nineteenth century, these three communities no longer saw themselves as one and the same. 6. Diaspora: 1918 A.D. to the present:

World Assyrian Population In this century, Assyrians have suffered massive genocide, have lost control of their ancestral lands, and are in a struggle for survival. The Assyrian nation today stands at a crossroad. One third of is in a diaspora, while the remaining two-thirds lives perilously in its native lands. These are some of the dangers facing the Assyrians:    

Denominationalism and fragmentation Islamic fundamentalism Arabization Cultural immersion and absorption into Arab societies Mass emigration to the West, and absorption into Western societies

Iraq

1,500,000 France

20,000

Syria

700,000

Belgium

15,000

USA

400,000

Georgia

15,000

Sweden

120,000

Armenia

15,000

Lebanon 100,000

Switzerland 10,000

Brazil

Denmark

10,000

Germany 70,000

Greece

8,000

Russia

70,000

England

8,000

Iran

50,000

Austria

7,000

Jordan

44,000

Italy

3,000

Australia 30,000

New Zealand

3,000

Turkey

24,000

Mexico

2,000

Canada

23,000

Other

100,000

Holland

20,000 Total

3,447,000

SOURCE: http://www.aina.org/aol/peter/brief.htm

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80,000

The Assyrian Church of the East

It is not known exactly when Christianity first took root in upper Mesopotamia, but a Christian presence had certainly been established there by the mid-2nd century. In the 3rd century, the area was conquered by the Persians. Although this was to be a multiethnic church, the Assyrian people traditionally played a central role in its ecclesial life. Its geographical location caused it to become known simply as â&#x20AC;&#x2022;the Church of the East.â&#x20AC;&#x2013; Around the year 300, the bishops were first organized into an ecclesiastical structure under the leadership of a Catholicos, the bishop of the Persian royal capital at SeleuciaCtesiphon. He later received the additional title of Patriarch. In the 5th century, the Church of the East gravitated towards the radical Antiochene form of Christology that had been articulated by Theodore of Mopsuestia and Nestorius, and fell out of communion with the church in the Roman Empire. This was due in part to the significant influx of Nestorian Christians into Persia that took place following the condemnation of Nestorian Christology by the Council of Ephesus in 431, and the expulsion of Nestorians from the Roman Empire by Emperor Zeno (474-491). In addition, the Persian Christians needed to distance themselves from the official church of the Roman Empire, with which Persia was frequently at war. In this way they were able to maintain their Christian faith while avoiding suspicions that they were collaborating with the Roman enemy. Synods in the 5th century also decreed that celibacy should be obligatory for no one in this church, including bishops. A number of bishops and even patriarchs were married until the early 6th century, when the decision was taken to ordain only celibate monks to the episcopate. Priests, however, have always been allowed to marry, even after ordination. The Church of the East was always a minority in largely Zoroastrian Persia, but nevertheless it flourished for many centuries, with its rich scholarly activity centered on the famous school of Nisibis. The church expanded through missionary activity into areas as far away as India, Tibet, China, and Mongolia. This continued even after the Mesopotamian homeland was conquered by the Muslim Arabs in the 7th century. The Patriarchate was moved to the new city of Baghdad after it became the capital in 766. By 1318 there were some 30 metropolitan sees and 200 suffrage dioceses. But during the invasions of Tamerlane in the late 14th century, these Christians were almost annihilated. By the 16th century, they had been reduced to a small community of Assyrians in what is now eastern Turkey. The church was then further weakened by the formation of a Catholic counterpart known as the Chaldean Catholic Church. During World War I, the Assyrians suffered massive deportations and massacres at the hands of the Turks who suspected them of supporting the British enemy. About one third of the Assyrian population perished. Most of the survivors fled south into Iraq,

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hoping to be protected by the British. But in 1933, after the end of the British mandate in Iraq, a clash between Assyrians and Iraqi troops ended in another massacre and a further scattering of the community. The Iraqi authorities then stripped Assyrian Patriarch Mar Simon XXIII of his citizenship and expelled him. He went into exile in San Francisco, California, USA. In 1964 a dispute arose within the church, triggered by Mar Simon‘s decision to adopt the Gregorian calendar. But the real issue was the person of Mar Simon and the centuries-old practice by which he was elected. By 1450, the office of Patriarch and some other Episcopal sees had become hereditary within one family, usually being passed down from uncle to nephew. This often produced unqualified leaders of the church who at times were elected at a very young age: Mar Simon himself had been elected at age 12. The dissidents also held that a Patriarch was needed who could live with his community in Iraq. Those opposed to Mar Simon were supported by Mar Thomas Darmo, the Assyrian Metropolitan of India. In 1968 he traveled from India to Baghdad and ordained three new bishops. They then met in synod and elected him Patriarch over against Mar Simon. Mar Thomas Darmo died in the following year, and was succeeded in 1970 by Mar Addai of Baghdad. But in 1973 Mar Simon resigned as Patriarch and married. As no successor could be agreed upon, the Assyrian bishops in communion with him attempted to persuade him to resume his office despite his marriage. But in the midst of these negotiations, on November 6, 1975, Mar Simon was assassinated in San Jose, California. The bishop of Tehran, Iran, was elected Patriarch in 1976 and adopted the name Mar Dinkha IV. He took up residence in the United States. Mar Dinkha made it clear that with his election, the patriarchal dynasty had ended. This removed the major reason for the schism between the two groups. Although the rift has not yet been healed, recent meetings between bishops of the two sides appear to have made substantial progress towards resolving the dispute. Currently Mar Dinkha‘s side has twelve bishops and Mar Addai‘s side has seven bishops. Meeting in Australia in July 1994, the Assyrian Holy Synod reached a number of important decisions concerning the life of this church. The bishops established a Commission on Interchurch Relations and Education Development under the guidance of Bishop Bawai Soro to prepare for theological dialogues with other churches and develop programming in religious education. The Synod also officially sanctioned the residence of the Patriarch in Morton Grove, Illinois, USA. A milestone in relations with the Roman Catholic Church was reached on November 11, 1994, when Mar Dinkha IV and Pope John Paul II signed a Common Christological Declaration in the Vatican. The statement affirms that Catholics and Assyrians are ―united today in the confession of the same faith in the Son of God…‖ and envisages broad pastoral cooperation between the two churches, especially in the areas of

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catechesis and the formation of future priests. The Pope and Patriarch also established a mixed committee for theological dialogue and charged it with overcoming the obstacles that still prevent full communion. It began meeting annually in 1995. This international theological dialogue between the Assyrians and the Catholic Church as a whole has been accompanied by an improvement in relations between the Assyrian Church of the East and its Catholic counterpart, the Chaldean Catholic Church. In November 1996 Mar Dinkha IV and Chaldean Patriarch Raphael I Bidawid met in Southfield, Michigan, and signed a Joint Patriarchal Statement that committed their two churches to working towards reintegration and pledged cooperation on pastoral questions such as the drafting of a common catechism, the setting up of a common seminary in the Chicago-Detroit area, the preservation of the Aramaic language, and other common pastoral programs between parishes and dioceses around the world. On August 15, 1997, the two Patriarchs met again, in Roselle, Illinois, and ratified a ―Joint Synodal Decree for Promoting Unity,‖ that had been signed by the members of both Holy Synods. It restated the areas of pastoral cooperation envisaged in the Joint Patriarchal Statement, recognized that Assyrians and Chaldeans should come to accept each other‘s diverse practices as legitimate, formally implemented the establishment of an Assyrian-Chaldean ―Joint Commission for Unity,‖ and declared that each side recognized the apostolic succession, sacraments and Christian witness of the other. The text also spelled out the central concerns of both sides in the dialogue. While both churches wanted to preserve the Aramaic language and culture, the Assyrians were intent on retaining their freedom and self-governance, and the Chaldeans affirmed the necessity of maintaining full communion with Rome. In mid-1997 it was announced that the Assyrian Church of the East and the Syrian Orthodox Church had agreed to establish a bilateral theological dialogue. As a gesture to foster better relations with the Oriental Orthodox churches, the Assyrian Holy Synod decided in 1997 to remove from the liturgy all anathema directed against others. Although the Assyrians accept only the first two ecumenical councils, recent ecumenical discussions held under the auspices of the Pro Oriente foundation have concluded that in substance the faith of the Assyrian Church is consistent with the Christological teaching of the Council of Chalcedon (451). Officially the church adheres to extreme Antiochian Christological terminology, according to which in Christ there are two natures and two qnoma (a Syriac term with no Greek equivalent that refers to an individual but never personalized concrete nature) in one person. The synod of bishops has requested that their church not be called Nestorian, since this term has been used in the past to insult them. The Assyrians are not in communion with any other church. The East Syrian rite of the Assyrian Church appears to have been an independent development from the ancient Syriac liturgy of Edessa. It may also preserve elements of an ancient Persian rite that has been lost. Services are still held predominantly in Syriac.

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The Patriarch (8908 Birch Avenue, Morton Grove, Illinois 60053) is also the administrator of the Diocese of the Eastern USA. Mar Aprim Khamis is Bishop of the Western United States (18221 N. 59th Drive, Glendale, Arizona 85308). Altogether there are about 20 parishes in the country. Mar Emmanuel Joseph is Bishop of Canada, where there are four parishes and two missions (16 Hibiscus Court, Toronto, Ontario M9M 1R9). The Diocese of Australia and New Zealand (with four parishes and three missions in Australia and two missions in New Zealand), is headed by Mar Meelis Zaia (PO Box 621, Fairfield NSW 2165). There is also one Assyrian parish in London (St Maryâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s Church, Westminster Road, Hanwell, W7 3TU) under the jurisdiction of Mar Odisho Oraha, who resides in Sweden. Location: Iraq, Iran, Syria, Lebanon, North America, Australia, India Head: Mar Dinkha IV (born 1935, elected 1976) Title: Catholicos-Patriarch of the Church of the East Residence: Morton Grove, Illinois, USA Membership: 400,000

SOURCE: http://www.cnewa.org/ecc-bodypg-us.aspx?eccpageID=1&indexview=toc

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His Holiness Mar Dinkha IV

Catholicos Patriarch of the Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East His Holiness was born on September 15, 1935, in the province of Arbil, Bet Nahrain. He is the fourth in the line of succession to the Bishopric See of Urmia bearing the sanctimonious title of Mar Dinkha. He gained his elementary education under the wise tutorship of his grandfather, Rev. Benyamin Soro. In 1947, at the age of twelve, he was entrusted to the care of His Beatitude, the late Mar Yosip Khnanisho, Metropolitan and the Patriarchal representative for all of Iraq. After two years of very strict study, he gathered the basic knowledge in theology to qualify him to undertake an active role in the service of the Church. Thus, on September 12, 1949, he was ordained deacon by the second highest ranking ecclesiastic of The Assyrian Church of the East. Eight years later, on August 15, 1957, deacon Khnania was ordained to priesthood, once again, by no other than his mentor and religious scholar Mar Yosip Khnanisho. Due to the political upheavals during and after World War I, a large number of the clergy lost their lives. The Church was on the threshold of disintegrating for lack of viable Church organization or priesthood. His Beatitudes Mar Yosip Khnanisho was aware of the dire circumstances prevalent in that country. This deplorable situation was on his mind when he carefully selected young priest Khnania and trained him for the difficult task ahead as he was assigned as a priest in Teheran, Iran, in 1957. This young priest in no time built a very viable, well organized and progressive institution that attracted its strayed adherents by the thousands. Consenting to overwhelming popular demand, Rev. Khnania was consecrated as bishop by His Holiness, the late Mar Eshai Shimon on Sunday, October 17, 1968, in the church of Martyr Mar Gewargis, in Teheran. After the unexpected death of His Holiness, Mar Eshai Shimon, the Church of the East had an urgent need to restore the leadership. In 1976 the prelates of the church convened in London to elect a new Catholicos Patriarch. At this historic meeting, the consentaneous choice of all the prelates in session was His Holiness Mar Dinkha as the most qualified candidate to fill this sublime post. After his consecration, His Holiness

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Mar Dinkha IV became the 120th successor in this line to the Apostolic Sea of SeculiaCtesiphon. Due to the unfavorable circumstances prevailing in the Middle East currently, His Holiness has moved his headquarters to Chicago on a temporary basis. Since his arrival here in 1980, he has been actively engaged in the building of the Church in this country and at the same time, administering the affairs of the Church throughout the world. Voice From The East, August/Dec. 1996 SOURCE: http://www.betnahrain.net/Biographies/HHiv.htm

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Chapter Six: The Chaldean Heritage

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The Chaldean Catholic Church As early as the 13th century, Catholic missionaries – primarily Dominicans and Franciscans – had been active among the faithful of the Assyrian Church of the East. This resulted in a series of individual conversions of bishops and brief unions, but no permanent community was formed. In the mid-15th century a tradition of hereditary patriarchal succession (passing from uncle to nephew) took effect in the Assyrian church. As a result, one family dominated the church, and untrained minors were being elected to the patriarchal throne. When such a patriarch was elected in 1552, a group of Assyrian bishops refused to accept him and decided to seek union with Rome. They elected the reluctant abbot of a monastery, Yuhannan Sulaka, as their own patriarch and sent him to Rome to arrange a union with the Catholic Church. In early 1553 Pope Julius III proclaimed him Patriarch Simon VIII ―of the Chaldeans‖ and ordained him a bishop in St. Peter‘s Basilica on April 9, 1553. The new Patriarch returned to his homeland in late 1553 and began to initiate a series of reforms. But opposition, led by the rival Assyrian Patriarch, was strong. Simon was soon captured by the pasha of Amadya, tortured and executed in January 1555. Eventually Sulaka‘s group returned to the Assyrian Church of the East, but for over 200 years, there was much turmoil and changing of sides as the pro- and anti-Catholic parties struggled with one another. The situation finally stabilized only on July 5, 1830, when Pope Pius VIII confirmed Metropolitan John Hormizdas as head of all Chaldean Catholics, with the title of Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans, with his see in Mosul. The Chaldean Catholics suffered heavily from massacres during World War I (1918) when four bishops, many priests, and about 70,000 faithful died. The location of the Patriarchate shifted back and forth among several places over the centuries, but gained a measure of stability after it was set up at Mosul in 1830. In 1950 it moved to its present location in Baghdad after substantial migration of Chaldean Catholics from northern Iraq to the capital city. The Chaldean Catholic Church‘s relationship with the Assyrian Church of the East improved dramatically after the signing of a joint Christological agreement between the Pope and the Assyrian Patriarch in Rome in November 1994. In August 1997 the Holy Synods of the two churches formally instituted a commission for dialogue to discuss pastoral cooperation at all levels. Chaldean candidates for the priesthood study at St. Peter‘s Patriarchal Seminary in Baghdad. In 1991 the Chaldean Holy Synod established Babel College for Philosophy and Theology next to St. Peter‘s Seminary. It aims to provide a higher scientific education for priests, monks, nuns and interested lay people, and is affiliated with the

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Pontifical Urban University in Rome. Today the largest concentration of these Catholics remains in Baghdad. There are ten Chaldean dioceses in Iraq, four in Iran, and four others in the Middle East. The Chaldean liturgy can be traced back to the Syriac Christian culture of Edessa, and attained its present basic structure in the 7th century. The liturgical language is Syriac, and a number of Latin customs have been adopted. The war in Iraq that has been in progress since 2003 has dealt a heavy blow to the Chaldean Catholic community there. In 2007 Patriarch Emmanuel III said that large number of Chaldeans had left Iraq because of various forms of persecution. He spoke of internal persecution by Muslim extremists who were chasing Christians out of their homes and lands, and external persecution by the occupying armies. He cited in particular the decision by American troops to transform Babel College into a military base against the wishes of the Patriarchate. There are two Chaldean Catholic dioceses in the United States. The Eparchy of St. Thomas the Apostle of the Chaldeans was established in 1982, and is under the leadership of Bishop Ibrahim Ibrahim (25585 Berg Road, Southfield, Michigan 48034). It has five parishes in the Detroit area and two in Chicago. The Eparchy of St. Peter the Apostle of the Chaldeans in San Diego (established in 2002) has six parishes in California and one in Arizona, and is headed by Bishop Sarhad Jammo (1627 Jamacha Way, El Cajon, California 92019). In 2006 a new eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Sydney was established for Chaldeans in Australia and New Zealand, led by Bishop Djibrail Kassab. There are eight worshipping communities for approximately 29,000 Chaldeans in the two countries. In other areas of the world, Chaldeans are under spiritual supervision of the local Latin ordinaries. Location: Iraq, Iran, Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, Israel, Egypt, France, USA Head: Patriarch Emmanuel III Delly (born 1927, elected 2003) Title: Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans Residence: Baghdad, Iraq Membership: 419,000 SOURCE: http://www.cnewa.org/ecc-bodypg-us.aspx?eccpageID=59&indexview=toc

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Chaldean Americans by Mary C. Sengstock OVERVIEW Chaldean Americans are descendants of people from the northern Tigris-Euphrates Valley, presently located in the Middle Eastern nation of Iraq. The majority of Chaldean Americans live in Detroit, Michigan, although there are also Chaldean Americans in Chicago, Illinois; El Cajon, San Jose, and Turlock, California; and Oaxaca, Mexico. It is difficult to determine the exact number of Chaldeans in the United States because they are not represented as such in the U.S. Census. According to statistical projections from previous data on the Chaldean American community, however, it is estimated that Chaldeans in the Detroit metropolitan area may number as many as 70,000 to 80,000; in California they are projected at 2,000 to 3,000 persons. Although Chaldean Americans constitute the bulk of Iraqi immigrants living in the United States, they represent less than 10 percent of the population of Iraq. While the vast majority of Iraqis, like residents of other Arabic nations, are Muslim, Chaldeans are Roman Catholic, and practice one of the 18 to 20 separate rites of the Catholic Church. They also differ from other Iraqis in that their ancestral language is not Arabic but a dialect of Aramaic, also referred to as Chaldean, Assyrian, or Syriac. As a result of their religious and linguistic differences from other Iraqi immigrants, Chaldeans tend not to identify themselves either with Iraq or the Arab world, but prefer being called Chaldean Americans. HISTORY Chaldean Americans are a highly religious people proud of their Christian heritage. According to legend, they were converted to Christianity by the Apostle Thomas on one of his missionary journeys to the East. (St. Addai, an associate of Thomas, is revered as a Chaldean patron.) In the third century, they were followers of Nestorius, a patriarch of Constantinople who was declared a heretic by the Roman Church for teaching that Jesus Christ was not concurrently God and man. This division between the followers of Nestorius in the East and the Roman Church lasted until 1445, when some Chaldeans were received into the Roman Church by Pope Eugenius IV. They were permitted to retain their historic rituals and the Chaldean/Aramaic language for mass and other ceremonies. Searching for an appropriate name to call this new Catholic rite, the Pope focused on their historic homeland, which in ancient times had been the land of the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Chaldeans. It was also the historic homeland of the prophet Abraham, who came from Ur, a city of the Chaldeans. Hence, the Pope chose "Chaldean" as the name for the new Catholic rite. Over 95 percent of Chaldeans in the Detroit community can trace their origin to a single town, Telkaif, which is one of several Christian towns in the northern Iraqi province of Mosul, near the ruins of the ancient city of Nineveh. Some of the earliest members of Detroit's Chaldean American community recall hearing stories from their grandparents

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about the conversion of their town from Nestorianism. This occurred in about 1830, when the town recognized the Roman Pontiff as the head of the Church. MIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES While Chaldeans are believed to have immigrated to the United States as early as 1889, the first significant migration wave did not occur until around 1910, when Chaldeans began settling in metropolitan Detroit. At the time, Detroit was popular among a number of immigrant groups because of the growing automobile industry. It also had an established Middle Eastern community during this period, consisting primarily of Christian immigrants from Lebanon. In 1943 community sources listed 908 Chaldeans in the Detroit area; by 1963, this number had tripled, to about 3,000 persons. An even greater number of Iraqi citizens immigrated to the United States due to changes in U.S. immigration laws during the mid-1960s, and growth in Detroit's Chaldean American community became even more dramatic, increasing to about 45,000 in 1986, and approximately 75,000 by 1992. (These figures are based on the statistical projections and estimates of Chaldean American community leaders.) This period also saw an increase in immigration to other parts of the country, particularly California. The majority of Chaldean Americans left their homeland for economic and religious reasons. Telkaif in the early 1900s was a poor, non-industrialized village. Many left the town for nearby cities such as Mosul, Baghdad, Basra, or Beirut. Only later did some of them decide to migrate to the United States, or simply to North America. At the time the earliest settlers came, the United States had not yet introduced restriction on immigration, making entry relatively easy. Migration at that time was largely a male phenomenon; women and children generally stayed behind until their husbands, fathers, and brothers became established. Chaldeans also fled their homeland to escape religious persecution from the Muslim majority in the Middle East. The combination of religious freedom, an established Lebanese Moronite community, and economic opportunity made the United States, particularly metropolitan Detroit, inviting. Once members of the Telkaif community had settled in the area, they encouraged others from their homeland to join them. Thus began an immigration process, known as "chain migration," between Telkaif and Detroit, that continues to the present. In this process, members of a community who have already established themselves in a new location assist relatives and friends left behind to migrate as well. The assistance they provide can take many forms, including the provision of jobs, a place to stay, or, at the very least, information and advisement. Close relatives may even provide money for passage. In a typical chain, a man migrates first; later he sends home for his wife and children, or if he is not married, he may return to find a bride. As he and his wife become citizens, they arrange for the migration of their parents and siblings as well. And these, in turn, arrange to assist their spouses, in-laws, and other relatives.

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This type of assistance became especially important in the 1920s, after the passage of U.S. quota limitations on migration. Under quota restrictions, only 100 immigrants from Iraq were allowed to enter the United States each year. These quotas reinforced the chain migration process by giving preference to the families of persons already in America, under the assumption that such persons would have assistance in the United States and were less likely to become indigent and require public assistance. Migration of all types largely ceased during World War II when travel became difficult. It commenced again following the war, particularly with the introduction of the student visa, which allowed migrants to enter the United States for educational purposes, on the assumption that they would return home following their training. Many Chaldean Americans entered as students and later married members of the community, thus allowing them to remain in the country. The 1968 change in U.S. migration law allowed for a significantly larger number of immigrants from Iraq, and the migration of Chaldeans increased substantially. A steady stream of Chaldean immigrants came to the United States, until the onset of the Gulf War when the United States placed restrictions on immigration from Iraq. ACCULTURATION AND ASSIMILATION The steady rate of Chaldean migration has had a profound effect on the assimilation of Chaldeans in American society because it has provided a constant influx of Chaldean culture. However, many changes have taken place in Iraq since the first Chaldean settlers came to the United States, which, in turn, has greatly altered Chaldean American communities. Like most ethnic groups, Chaldean Americans have also been affected by cultural differences between the immigrant generation and their children and grandchildren born in the United States. Chaldean Americans reared in the United States are more comfortable speaking English than the language of their parents. They attend school with non-Chaldeans, watch television, and adopt an American lifestyle. Recent Chaldean immigrants were more likely to have been born and reared in one of modern Iraq's major cities, such as Baghdad, Mosul, or Basra. They are better educated and many have attended college or professional schools. The two groups differ socioeconomically as well; many of the earlier immigrants, and their children born in the United States, have prospered and moved into more affluent suburbs, while more recent immigrants, despite their educational background and general understanding of the English language, struggle among the nation's poor. Yet perhaps the most dramatic difference between older and newer Chaldean immigrant groups is language. Since World War II, Iraq has taught Arabic, the national language, in schools throughout the country. As a result, the Chaldean/Aramaic language of early immigrants has largely been replaced by the Arabic tongue of the newcomers. In fact, few immigrants know Chaldean at all.

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Chaldean Americans are often mistaken for other ethnic groups in the United States, specifically Arab Americans. Like Arab Americans, Chaldeans tend to have large families, own independent businesses such as grocery or party stores and gas stations, and they even share some foods. On a deeper level, however, there are important distinctions between the two immigrant groups. The large patriarchal families of Muslim Arabs have traditionally allowed a man to take multiple wives, a pattern forbidden for centuries in the Christian tradition. Chaldeans also contend that women are accorded a higher place in their social structure than in the Arabic tradition. In the Chaldean community, many young women are encouraged to attain higher education. Even in the area of food there are important distinctions; Arabs do not consume alcohol and pork, which are forbidden in the Muslim faith. Chaldeans have no such restrictions. Many of these distinctions clearly flow from religious differences, but they are important distinctions in their own right. LANGUAGE Most modern-day immigrants speak Arabic, the dominant language of the Iraqi nation, but the earliest Chaldean immigrants spoke only Chaldean, which they also call "Jesus language," since it is believed to be the language that Jesus Christ spoke during his life. Some Chaldeans resent the fact that they were forced to learn Arabic in Iraqi schools. Inquiring which language Chaldean American children should learn usually provokes a debate. Practical thinkers consider the Arabic language more useful in today's world. More nostalgic individuals assert the importance of learning their original tongue. Hence, while most Chaldean Americans speak Arabic, they do not necessarily take pride in it. FAMILY AND COMMUNITY DYNAMICS The Chaldean American family is not limited to the nuclear family of husband, wife, and children. Rather, it includes grandparents, siblings, aunts, uncles, and cousins. Indeed, Chaldeans are quick to point out that their shared ancestry means that everyone is at least distantly related to everyone else. Family names are recognized by everyone and enable members of the community to place everybody in relation to everyone else. Therefore, a Chaldean's family ties constitute a major source of identity within the community. Chaldeans tend to have large families, in keeping with Catholic tradition. In the past, the number of children per couple averaged from five to six, with some couples having as many as 12 or 15 children. This number has decreased with second and third generations, but Chaldean families continue to be somewhat larger than the national average. Ties to one's extended family are close and involved. Visiting between a married couple and the parents and siblings of both husband and wife are frequent, occurring at least several times each week, even daily. Extended Chaldean American families also perform numerous functions together, such as cooking, child care, or cleaning. Cooking

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and eating together several times each week is common. Child care is often shared by sisters, sisters-in-law, or grandmothers. Yard work for older relatives may be managed by younger members of the extended family. Because of the importance given to family and community, Chaldeans prefer to have their children be endogamous, or marry within the community, as occurred in Telkaif. In the United States, many Chaldeans marry someone from outside the community, but the rate of endogamy continues to be high. Even those who marry non-Chaldeans (exogamy) usually remain close to their parents and siblings. Among Chaldeans, most exogamous marriages bring an outsider into the community, rather than resulting in the loss of a member. Chaldean families exercise great influence over the individual. One example of this is the expectation that family preferences will be considered in the choice of a spouse. Chaldeans are also expected to open their homes to other members of the family, should that be necessary. This means that young people are expected to welcome their elderly parents or a visiting relative from Iraq into their homes, for periods which may last from a few weeks to several months or even years. In its initial years, the Chaldean American community was a small and highly unified group. All but one or two families could trace their origin to the town of Telkaif; all were interrelated; and marriages were frequently arranged within the community or with persons in the original town. Moreover, they spoke a common language, Chaldean/ Aramaic, which they shared with few other Americans. Common interests in the Church and a community economic system also served to draw the members into a closely knit unit. Over the past eight decades, however, significant changes have occurred in the Chaldean American community. What was, in 1960, a community of about 3,000 members has multiplied to nearly 25 times that size. Differences and divisions are inevitable. Many such divisions arise from the varying places of birth among Chaldeans. While early Chaldean immigrants were born in small, rural communities, more recent groups are from Iraq's large, industrialized cities. Moreover, many Chaldeans were born in the United States and are therefore heavily influenced by American culture. Other problems arise from economic wealth. Many established Chaldean families have obtained significant wealth in the United States. Several more recent immigrants, however, struggle well below the poverty level. Language too, tends to divide Chaldean American communities. Early immigrants maintain their ancestral Chaldean/Aramaic language, but more recent immigrants speak Arabic. At the same time, numerous American-born Chaldeans favor English. Such differences have torn communities, and even families apart. Nonetheless, Chaldean Americans remain somewhat unified by their common heritage and Catholic faith. Jobs, income, and other needs of recent immigrants are paramount in community priorities. Also, problems of the homeland, such as Iraq's recent wars, first with Iran and then with the United States, assume a prominent role in community concerns.

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INTERACTIONS WITH OTHERS Many Americans have difficulty distinguishing Chaldean Americans from other American ethnic groups, particularly Arab Americans and Iraqi Americans, much to the dismay of the members of these groups, who are quite aware of the differences among them. While they share similar physical traits, they differ linguistically, culturally, and most importantly, in terms of religion. During the early years of the twentieth century, a period about which many Chaldeans have heard from their parents and grandparents, Arabic-speaking Muslims were abusive oppressors of Christians in the area in which Telkaif was located. Many Chaldeans have negative memories of treatment by Iraqis as well. In fact, from a political standpoint, many Chaldeans are more supportive of Israel than Arab countries in the Middle East. Many Chaldean Americans remain resentful of their constant identification with the Arab American community. Most simply reassert their identity as Chaldeans. Others, however, have attempted to develop links with groups that share their religious, linguistic, and cultural heritage, though not necessarily their Roman Catholic faith. Chaldeans who follow this tactic have attempted to link with other groups sharing the Aramaic language and the historic tie to the Assyrian or Babylonian heritage. Examples are Nestorian Christians in the Chicago Area, and a community of Assyrian Christians of several denominations, including Chaldean Catholics, living in Turlock, California. For a variety of reasons, however, most Chaldean Americans have not embraced this identity. Perhaps the most important reason is the salience of the Roman Catholic faith for so many Chaldeans. For them it is preferable to relinquish the Chaldean identity for the dominant Roman Catholic designation, rather than exchange their religious tie for a linguistic one. A more consequential factor, however, may lie in the size of the Chaldean American community in the Detroit area. Chaldean Americans do not need to find another group with which to link themselves. With over 70,000 of their background in a relatively limited geographic area, they are able to find many others who share not only a general but a very specific historic, linguistic, religious, and ancestral heritage. As the major concentration of Chaldeans in the United States, they need look no further than each other for a meaningful ethnic identity. The media has recorded many cultural clashes between blacks and Chaldeans in the United States, which have resulted from Chaldean Americans operating stores in fundamentally urban, African American communities. The large grocery chains have found these areas unprofitable and have largely abandoned them, but they can be quite profitable when run as an extended family business. Many blacks feel that these stores overcharge, only hire Chaldeans, and neglect to reinvest into the community. The high prices usually result from having to make purchases in smaller quantities. Chaldeans also hire members of their own ethnic group because they are usually family members who demand less income. Some improvements have been made, however, as many

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Chaldean stores are increasingly hiring more African Americans, thus contributing to the community. RELIGION Religion is of such importance in the Chaldean community that their name and identity derives from it. As full members of the Roman Catholic Church, Chaldeans follow the same rules and hold the same beliefs as other Catholics. However, they have their own leader, or patriarch, and the rituals used in their mass and other ceremonies are quite different from those practiced in the Western Church. Originally, they conducted services in the historic Chaldean/Aramaic language, but many services are now conducted in Arabic. Occasionally, masses are given in English for American-born persons of Chaldean ancestry. The first Chaldean Church in the United States was founded in 1947 in Detroit. It was named "Mother of God," thus reaffirming the Chaldean split with their Nestorian heritage and their unity with Catholicism. More recently, the Church moved to Southfield, Michigan and was elevated to the status of a cathedral (Our Lady of Chaldeans Cathedral) when the Chaldean diocese of the United States was formed under the leadership of Chaldean Bishop Ibrahim Ibrahim. Prior to 1947, Chaldean immigrants usually attended services at Western rite Catholic Churches. For special events, such as weddings and holidays, many Chaldeans attended services at Lebanese Catholic Churches (of the Moronite Eastern rite), which share more in common with the Chaldean Church than Western rite Churches. Chaldean children often attend Western rite Catholic Schools because the Chaldean rite does not offer such schools. This often requires parents to support two parishes, their own Chaldean church and the parish in which their children attend school. However, many children also attend special instruction in their own rite at the Chaldean Church. According to Roman Catholic rules, members of the Catholic Church are expected to attend services and receive sacraments in their appropriate rite whenever possible. In practice, however, Catholics attend services at whichever Catholic Church is most convenient. Moreover, many priests of the Western rite can usually be persuaded to perform special ceremonies, such as weddings and funerals. Consequently, many Chaldeans have found it more convenient to attend Western rite Catholic Churches, especially in areas where there is a small Chaldean population. As a result, many second and third generation Chaldean Americans are likely to prefer the more "American" services of Western Catholic Churches. Nonetheless, Chaldean Churches remains important for recent immigrants, for whom the Arabic language and the familiar rituals are still meaningful. The Chaldean Church has also served as the center of community social life for the bulk of its existence. In addition to weddings, funerals, and baptisms, the Church offers special ceremonies for Chaldean children who received First Communion during the year and, in recent years, a graduation ceremony each spring honoring all Chaldean

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young people who graduated from high school or college during the year. Sunday services provide an opportunity for members of the community to meet one another and exchange greetings and gossip. The church is also responsible for the formation of numerous organizations serving the community, including parish councils, family clubs, a men's club, a women's group, a business association, and youth groups. EMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMIC TRADITIONS Chaldean Americans have traditionally owned and operated their own businesses, primarily grocery stores. As early as 1923, when only seven Chaldean men lived in the Detroit area, there were four Chaldean-owned stores. In the 1980s, it was estimated that over 1,000 Chaldean-owned grocery stores were located in Detroit and its environs. Because the grocery industry has become saturated, however, many Chaldean Americans have moved into related areas. Newer immigrants often own party stores and gas stations. Immigrants who have been here many years, or their children and grandchildren, have moved into fields which serve the retail grocery trade, including wholesale food supply, marketing and maintenance of store fixtures (such as refrigeration equipment, freezers, burglar alarms), commercial real estate, business financing, and so on. These are largely family-owned businesses. In some instances two stores owned by close relatives may work together in joint buying or advertising projects, but, for the most part, the stores are operated independently. These independent businesses are of extreme importance in the community as most family members assist in the family enterpriseâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;even small children or immigrants who lack knowledge of English can make deliveries or stock shelves. This makes it unnecessary to hire other employees and helps to control business expenses. It also allows the family to assist other immigrants, who can be employed in the family business as soon as they arrive from the country of origin. The role of these independent businesses in the welfare of the family and the growth of the ethnic community illustrates the influence of family over the individual. If the family store is to serve the purpose of assisting immigrants from the country of origin, then the family must be able to depend upon its members to play their role in its development. It cannot afford to have its most competent young people move into other lines of work. Consequently, many young Chaldeans who might have preferred other occupations were drawn into the grocery business. Most accepted this responsibility with little sense of loss, so great is the influence of the Chaldean family over its members. This pattern has changed somewhat as the second and third generations born in America have moved into different occupations. Many Chaldean Americans have joined such professions as medicine, dentistry, law, accounting, and teaching, to name a few. Some immigrants also come to this country with skills in other occupational areas. However, grocery stores continue to serve as a major meeting place for members of the community and concerns about the grocery business remain a major topic of conversation among Chaldean Americans. The time schedules of these stores also

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exert influence over community activities. For example, weddings, family gatherings, and Church activities tend to occur late in the evening in order to accommodate the late closing hour of most grocery and party stores. POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT An established community, Chaldean Americans actively participate in local, state, and federal government by keeping abreast of government activity and voting regularly. They are also quite interested in events taking place in their homeland. EFFECTS OF THE GULF WAR The most dramatic event to affect Chaldean Americans in some time occurred in 1991 and 1992, when hostilities broke out between Iraq and the United States. As the only major concentration of Iraqi immigrants in the United States, Chaldean Americans received a great deal of attention from the press, the military, and the general public. Reporters from throughout the world sought to interview community leaders concerning their views. Military representatives worried about the degree to which local Chaldeans might be security threats. Moreover, rumors spread that Chaldean Americans would be incarcerated in a camp in Louisiana as was done with the Japanese during the Second World War. Since Chaldean Americans and Arab Americans are linked together in the public mind, both were subjected to harassment by the general public, who saw them as local representatives of a hostile foreign powerâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;in spite of the fact that many Arab Americans immigrated from nations which were U.S. allies during the Gulf War. For Chaldean Americans, who view themselves as committed Americans and do not identify strongly with either Iraq or the Arab World, the experience was distressing. The Gulf War was, in a real sense, a battle of brother against brother, since many families had sons in both the U.S. and Iraqi armies. Nearly all Chaldean Americans have relatives in Iraq; most had to wait weeks or months to learn whether they were safe. In particular, they were shocked by the carnival-type atmosphere of the war. The American public watched news reports of the hostilities like a sports event, and spoke of it in similar terms. Most distressing to Chaldean Americans, however, was the public's continued perception of their alliance with Arab Americans. As a result of American resentment over the Gulf War, immigration from Iraq has slowed. The continuing difficulties between the two nations are a problem for Chaldean Americans who must worry about loved ones in their ancestral homeland and face discrimination in their adopted homeland. SOURCE: http://www.everyculture.com/multi/Bu-Dr/Chaldean-Americans.html

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Chapter Seven: The Coptic Heritage

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The Christian Coptic Orthodox Church of Egypt

The word Copt is derived from the Greek word Aigyptos, which was, in turn, derived from "Hikaptah", one of the names for Memphis, the first capital of Ancient Egypt. The modern use of the term "Coptic" describes Egyptian Christians, as well as the last stage of the ancient Egyptian language script. Also, it describes the distinctive art and architecture that developed as an early expression of the new faith. The Coptic Church is based on the teachings of Saint Mark who brought Christianity to Egypt during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero in the first century, a dozen of years after the Lord's ascension. He was one of the four evangelists and the one who wrote the oldest canonical gospel. Christianity spread throughout Egypt within half a century of Saint Mark's arrival in Alexandria as is clear from the New Testament writings found in Bahnasa, in Middle Egypt, which date around the year 200 A.D., and a fragment of the Gospel of Saint John, written using the Coptic language, which was found in Upper Egypt and can be dated to the first half of the second century. The Coptic Church, which is now more than nineteen centuries old, was the subject of many prophecies in the Old Testament. Isaiah the prophet, in Chapter 19, Verse 19 says "In that day there will be an altar to the LORD in the midst of the land of Egypt, and a pillar to the LORD at its border." Although fully integrated into the body of the modern Egyptian nation, the Copts have survived as a strong religious entity who pride themselves on their contribution to the Christian world. The Coptic church regards itself as a strong defendant of Christian faith. The Nicene Creed, which is recited in all churches throughout the world, has been authored by one of its favorite sons, Saint Athanasius, the Pope of Alexandria for 46 years, from 327 A.D. to 373 A.D. This status is well deserved, after all, Egypt was the refuge that the Holy Family sought in its flight from Judea: "When he arose, he took the young Child and His mother by night and departed for Egypt, and was there until the death of Herod, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the Lord through the prophet, saying, "Out of Egypt I called My Son" [Mathew 2:12-23]. The contributions of the Coptic Church to Christendom are many. From the beginning, it played a central role in Christian theology---and especially to protect it from the Gnostics heresies. The Coptic Church produced thousands of texts, biblical and theological studies which are important resources for archeology. The Holy Bible was translated to the Coptic language in the second century. Hundreds of scribes used to write copies of the Bible and other liturgical and theological books. Now libraries, museums and universities throughout the world possess hundreds and thousands of Coptic manuscripts. The Catechetical School of Alexandria is the oldest Catechetical School in the world. Soon after its inception around 190 A.D. by the Christian scholar Pantanaeus, the school of Alexandria became the most important institution of religious learning in Christendom. Many prominent bishops from many areas of the world were instructed in

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that school under scholars such as Athenagoras, Clement, Didymus, and the great Origen, who was considered the father of theology and who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative Biblical studies. Origen wrote over 6,000 commentaries of the Bible in addition to his famous Hexapla. Many scholars such as Saint Jerome visited the school of Alexandria to exchange ideas and to communicate directly with its scholars. The scope of the school of Alexandria was not limited to theological subjects, because science, mathematics and the humanities were also taught there: The question and answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before Braille, wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write. The Theological college of the Catechetical School of Alexandria was re-established in 1893. Today, it has campuses in Alexandria, Cairo, New Jersey, and Los Angeles, where priests-to-be and other qualified men and women are taught among other subjects Christian theology, history, Coptic language and art---including chanting, music, iconography, tapestry etc. Monasticism was born in Egypt and was instrumental in the formation of the Coptic Church's character of submission and humbleness, thanks to the teachings and writings of the Great Fathers of Egypt's Deserts. Monasticism started in the last years of the third century and flourished in the fourth century. Saint Anthony, the world's first Christian monk was a Copt from Upper Egypt. Saint Pachom, who established the rules of monasticism, was a Copt. And, Saint Paul, the world's first anchorite is also a Copt. Other famous Coptic desert fathers include Saint Makarios, Saint Moses the Black, and Saint Mina the wondrous. The more contemporary desert fathers include the late Pope Cyril VI and his disciple Bishop Mina Abba Mina. By the end of the fourth century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian hills. Many of these monasteries are still flourishing and have new vocations till this day. All Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example: Saint Basil, organizer of the monastic movement in Asia minor visited Egypt around 357 A.D. and his rule is followed by the eastern Churches; Saint Jerome, who translated the Bible into Latin, came to Egypt around 400 A.D. and left details of his experiences in his letters; Saint Benedict founded monasteries in the sixth century on the model of Saint Pachom, but in a stricter form. And countless pilgrims visited the "Desert Fathers" and emulated their spiritual, disciplined lives. There is even evidence that Copts had missionaries to Northern Europe. One example is Saint Moritz of the Theban Legion who was drafted from Egypt to serve under the Roman flag and ended up teaching Christianity to inhabitants of the Swiss Alps, where a small town and a Monastery that contains his relics as well as some of his books and belongings are named after him. Another saint from the Theban Legion is Saint Victor, known among Copts as "Boktor". Under the authority of the Eastern Roman Empire of Constantinople (as opposed to the western empire of Rome), the Patriarchs and Popes of Alexandria played leading roles in Christian theology. They were invited everywhere to speak about the Christian faith. Saint Cyril, Pope of Alexandria, was the head of the Ecumenical Council which was held in Ephesus in the year 430 A.D. It was said that the bishops of the Church of Alexandria did nothing but spend all their time in meetings. This leading role, however, did not fare

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well when politics started to intermingle with Church affairs. It all started when the Emperor Marcianus interfered with matters of faith in the Church. The response of Saint Dioscorus, the Pope of Alexandria who was later exiled, to this interference was clear: "You have nothing to do with the Church." These political motives became even more apparent in Chalcedon in 451, when the Coptic Church was unfairly accused of following the teachings of Eutyches, who believed in monophysitism. This doctrine maintains that the Lord Jesus Christ has only one nature, the divine, not two natures, the human as well as the divine. The Coptic Church has never believed in monophysitism the way it was portrayed in the Council of Chalcedon! In that Council, monophysitism meant believing in one nature. Copts believe that the Lord is perfect in His divinity, and He is perfect in His humanity, but His divinity and His humanity were united in one nature called "the nature of the incarnate word", which was reiterated by Saint Cyril of Alexandria. Copts, thus, believe in two natures "human" and "divine" that are united in one "without mingling, without confusion, and without alteration" (from the declaration of faith at the end of the Coptic divine liturgy). These two natures "did not separate for a moment or the twinkling of an eye" (also from the declaration of faith at the end of the Coptic divine liturgy). The Coptic Church was misunderstood in the 5th century at the Council of Chalcedon. Perhaps the Council understood the Church correctly, but they wanted to exile the Church, to isolate it and to abolish the Egyptian, independent Pope, who maintained that Church and State should be separate. Despite all of this, the Coptic Church has remained very strict and steadfast in its faith. Whether it was a conspiracy from the Western Churches to exile the Coptic Church as a punishment for its refusal to be politically influenced, or whether Pope Dioscurus didn't quite go the extra mile to make the point that Copts are not monophysite, the Coptic Church has always felt a mandate to reconcile "semantic" differences between all Christian Churches. This is aptly expressed by the current 117th successor of Saint Mark, Pope Shenouda III: "To the Coptic Church, faith is more important than anything, and others must know that semantics and terminology are of little importance to us." Throughout this century, the Coptic Church has played an important role in the ecumenical movement. The Coptic Church is one of the founders of the World Council of Churches. It has remained a member of that council since 1948 A.D. The Coptic Church is a member of the all African Council of Churches (AACC) and the Middle East Council of Churches (MECC). The Church plays an important role in the Christian movement by conducting dialogues aiming at resolving the theological differences with the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Presbyterian, and Evangelical Churches. Perhaps the greatest glory of the Coptic Church is its Cross. Copts take pride in the persecution they have sustained as early as May 8, 68 A.D., when their Patron Saint Mark was slain on Easter Monday after being dragged from his feet by Roman soldiers all over Alexandria's streets and alleys. The Copts have been persecuted by almost every ruler of Egypt. Their Clergymen have been tortured and exiled even by their Christian brothers after the schism of Chalcedon in 451 A.D. and until the Arab's conquest of Egypt in 641 A.D. To emphasize their pride in their cross, Copts adopted a

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calendar, called the Calendar of the Martyrs, which begins its era on August 29, 284 A.D., in commemoration of those who died for their faith during the rule of Diocletian the Roman Emperor. This calendar is still in use all over Egypt by farmers to keep track of the various agricultural seasons and in the Coptic Church Lectionary. For the four centuries that followed the Arab's conquest of Egypt, the Coptic Church generally flourished and Egypt remained basically Christian. This is due to a large extent to the fortunate position that the Copts enjoyed, for the Prophet of Islam, who had an Egyptian wife (the only one of his wives to bear a child), preached especial kindness towards Copts: "When you conquer Egypt, be kind to the Copts for they are your protégés and kith and kin". Copts, thus, were allowed to freely practice their religion and were to a large degree autonomous, provided they continued to pay a special tax, called "Gezya", that qualifies them as "Ahl Zemma" protégés (protected). Individuals who cannot afford to pay this tax were faced with the choice of either converting to Islam or losing their civil right to be "protected", which in some instances meant being killed. Copts, despite additional sumptuary laws that were imposed on them in 750-868 A.D. and 905-935 A.D. under the Abbasid Dynasties, prospered and their Church enjoyed one of its most peaceful era. Surviving literature from monastic centers, dating back from the 8th to the 11th century, shows no drastic break in the activities of Coptic craftsmen, such as weavers, leather-binders, painters, and woodworkers. Throughout that period, the Coptic language remained the language of the land, and it was not until the second half of the 11th century that the first bi-lingual Coptic-Arabic liturgical manuscripts started to appear. One of the first complete Arabic texts is the 13th century text by Awlaad El-Assal (children of the Honey Maker), in which the laws, cultural norms and traditions of the Copts at this pivotal time, 500 years after the Islamic conquest of Egypt were detailed. The adoption of the Arabic language as the language used in Egyptians' every-day's life was so slow that even in the 15th century al-Makrizi implied that the Coptic Language was still largely in use. Up to this day, the Coptic Language continues to be the liturgical language of the Church. The Christian face of Egypt started to change by the beginning of the second millennium A.D., when Copts, in addition to the "Gezya" tax, suffered from specific disabilities, some of which were serious and interfered with their freedom of worship. For example, there were restrictions on repairing old Churches and building new ones, on testifying in court, on public behavior, on adoption, on inheritance, on public religious activities, and on dress codes. Slowly but steadily, by the end of the 12th century, the face of Egypt changed from a predominantly Christian to a predominantly Muslim country and the Coptic community occupied an inferior position and lived in some expectation of Muslim hostility, which periodically flared into violence. It is remarkable that the well-being of Copts was more or less related to the well-being of their rulers. In particular, the Copts suffered most in those periods when Arab dynasties were at their low. The position of the Copts began to improve early in the 19th century under the stability and tolerance of Muhammad Ali's dynasty. The Coptic community ceased to be regarded by the state as an administrative unit and, by 1855 A.D., the main mark of

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Copts' inferiority, the "Gezya" tax was lifted, and shortly thereafter Copts started to serve in the Egyptian army. The 1919 A.D. revolution in Egypt, the first grassroots display of Egyptian identity in centuries, stands as a witness to the homogeneity of Egypt's modern society with both its Muslim and Coptic sects. Today, this homogeneity is what keeps the Egyptian society united against the religious intolerance of extremist groups, who occasionally subject the Copts to persecution and terror. Modern day martyrs, like Father Marcos Khalil, serve as reminders of the miracle of Coptic survival. Despite persecution, the Coptic Church as a religious institution has never been controlled or allowed itself to control the governments in Egypt. This long-held position of the Church concerning the separation between State and Religion stems from the words of the Lord Jesus Christ himself, when he asked his followers to submit to their rulers: "Render therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's." [Mathew 22:21]. The Coptic Church has never forcefully resisted authorities or invaders and was never allied with any powers, for the words of the Lord Jesus Christ are clear: "Put your sword in its place, for all who take the sword will perish by the sword." (Mathew 26:52). The miraculous survival of the Coptic Church till this day and age is a living proof of the validity and wisdom of these teachings. Today [as of the writing of this document in 1992 A.D.], there are over 9 million Copts (out of a population of some 57 million Egyptians) who pray and share communion in daily masses in thousands of Coptic Churches in Egypt. This is in addition to another 1.2 million emigrant Copts who practice their faith in hundreds of churches in the United States, Canada, Australia, Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Holland, Brazil, and many other countries in Africa and Asia. Inside Egypt Copts live in every province and in no one of these provinces are they a majority. Their cultural, historical, and spiritual treasures are spread all over Egypt, even in its most remote oasis, the Kharga Oasis, deep in the western desert. As individuals, Copts have reached prestigious academic and professional stature all over the world. One such individual is Dr. Boutros Boutros Ghali the Sixth United Nations Secretary-General (1992-1997). Another is Dr. Magdy Yacoub one of the world's most famous heart surgeons. Copts observe seven canonical sacraments: Baptism, Christmation (Confirmation), Eucharist, Confession (Penance), Orders, Matrimony, and Unction of the sick. Baptism is performed few weeks after birth by immersing the whole body of the newborn into especially consecrated water three times. Confirmation is performed immediately after Baptism. Regular confession with a personal priest, called the father of confession, is necessary to receive the Eucharist. It is customary for a whole family to pick the same priest as a father of confession, thus, making of that priest a family counselor. Of all seven sacraments, only Matrimony cannot be performed during a fasting season. Polygamy is illegal, even if recognized by the civil law of the land. Divorce is not allowed except in the case of adultery, annulment due to bigamy, or other extreme circumstances, which must be reviewed by a special council of Bishops. Divorce can be requested by either husband or wife. Civil divorce is not recognized by the Church. The Coptic Orthodox Church does not have and does not mind any civil law of the land as long as it does not interfere with the Church's sacraments. The Church does not have

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(and actually refuses to canonize) an official position vis-Ă -vis some controversial issues (e.g. abortion). While the church has clear teachings about such matters (e.g. abortion interferes with God's will), it is the position of the Church that such matters are better resolved on a case-by-case basis by the father of confession, as opposed to having a blanket canon that makes a sin of such practices. There are three main Liturgies in the Coptic Church: The Liturgy according to Saint Basil, Bishop of Caesarea; The Liturgy according to Saint Gregory of Nazianzus, Bishop of Constantinople; and The Liturgy according to Saint Cyril I, the 24th Pope of the Coptic Church. The bulk of Saint Cyril's Liturgy is from the one that Saint Mark used (in Greek) in the first century. It was memorized by the Bishops and priests of the church till it was translated into the Coptic Language by Saint Cyril. Today, these three Liturgies, with some added sections (e.g. the intercessions), are still in use; the Liturgy of Saint Basil is the one most commonly used in the Coptic Orthodox Church. The worship of Saints is expressly forbidden by the Church; however, asking for their intercessions (e.g. Marian Praise) is central in any Coptic service. Any Coptic Church is named after a Patron Saint. Among all Saints, the Virgin Saint Mary (Theotokos) occupies a special place in the heart of all Copts. Her repeated daily appearances in a small Church in Elzaytoun district of Cairo for over a month in April of 1968 was witnessed by thousands of Egyptians, both Copts and Muslims and was even broadcast on International TV. Copts celebrate seven major Holy feasts and seven minor Holy feasts. The major feasts commemorate Annunciation, Christmas, Theophany, Palm Sunday, Easter, Ascension, and the Pentecost. Christmas is celebrated on January 7th. The Coptic Church emphasizes the Resurrection of Christ (Easter) as much as His Advent (Christmas), if not more. Easter is usually on the second Sunday after the first full moon in Spring. The Coptic Calendar of Martyrs is full of other feasts usually commemorating the martyrdom of popular Saints (e.g. Saint Mark, Saint Mina, Saint George, Saint Barbara) from Coptic History. The Copts have seasons of fasting matched by no other Christian community. Out of the 365 days of the year, Copts fast for over 210 days. During fasting, no animal products (meat, poultry, fish, milk, eggs, butter, etc.) are allowed. Moreover, no food or drink whatsoever may be taken between sunrise and sunset. These strict fasting rules -which have resulted in a very exquisite Coptic cuisine over the centuries -- are usually relaxed by priests on an individual basis to accommodate for illness or weakness. Lent, known as "the Great Fast", is largely observed by all Copts. It starts with a pre-Lent fast of one week, followed by a 40-day fast commemorating Christ's fasting on the mountain, followed by the Holy week, the most sacred week (called Pascha) of the Coptic Calendar, which climaxes with the Crucifix on Good Friday and ends with the joyous Easter. Other fasting seasons of the Coptic Church include, the Advent (Fast of the Nativity), the Fast of the Apostles, the Fast of the Virgin Saint Mary, and the Fast of Nineveh. The Coptic Orthodox Church's clergy is headed by the Pope of Alexandria and includes Bishops who oversee the priests ordained in their dioceses. Both the Pope and the

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Bishops must be monks; they are all members of the Coptic Orthodox Holy Synod (Council), which meets regularly to oversee matters of faith and pastoral care of the Church. The Pope of the Coptic Church, although highly regarded by all Copts, does not enjoy any state of supremacy or infallibility. Today, there are over 60 Coptic Bishops governing dioceses inside Egypt as well as dioceses outside Egypt, such as in Jerusalem, Sudan, Western Africa, France, England, and the United States. The direct pastoral responsibility of Coptic congregations in any of these dioceses falls on Priests, who must be married and must attend the Catechetical School before being ordained. There are two other non-clerical bodies who participate in taking care of Church affairs. The first is a popularly-elected Coptic Lay Council, which appeared on the stage in 1883 A.D. to act as a liaison between the Church and the Government. The second is a joint lay-clerical committee, which appeared on the stage in 1928 A.D. to oversee and monitor the management of the Coptic Church's endowments in accordance with the Egyptian laws. Daily, in all Coptic Churches all over the world, Copts pray for the reunion of all Christian Churches. They pray for Egypt, its Nile, its crops, its president, its army, its government, and above all its people. They pray for the world's peace and for the wellbeing of the human race.

SOURCE: http://www.coptic.net/EncyclopediaCoptica/

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The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria The Coptic Orthodox Church is one of the most ancient Churches in the world, having been founded by Saint Mark the Apostle, the writer of the second gospel, in the first Century. The word 'Coptic' simply means 'Egyptian.' The Coptic Orthodox Church is the Church of Alexandria, one of the five ancient sees of Christianity. The five sees are: Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem and Constantinople. The Coptic Orthodox Church has carefully preserved the Orthodox Christian Faith in its earliest and form, handing it down from generation to generation, unaltered and true to the Apostolic doctrines and patterns of worship. The Coptic Orthodox Church is one of the Oriental Orthodox Churches, which include the Syrian Orthodox Church, the Armenian Orthodox Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the Indian Orthodox Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Church. The Oriental Orthodox Family of Churches is close in faith, dogma and liturgical worship to the Eastern Orthodox Church and is engaged in active and fruitful dialogue with the Eastern Orthodox with the goal of full communion within reach after centuries of division. Saint Mark the Apostle and Evangelist, one of the seventy apostles and writer of the oldest gospel, established the Church of Alexandria in the middle of the First Century. In Alexandria, St. Mark structured the church worship; ordained one bishop and seven deacons; established the famous School of Alexandria; and was martyred there by the Romans in 68 AD. While the formal establishment of the Church of Alexandria took place with the arrival and ministry of St. Mark, it is of course important to note that Egypt has always been a religious nation and a land which received with hospitality honored patriarchs and prophets of the Old Testament such as Abraham, Joseph, Jacob and his sons, Moses as well as Jeremiah the Prophet. Egypt is also mentioned with honors in the Book of the Prophet Isaiah chapter 19. The prophesy of Isaiah foreshadows the coming of Christ himself as the child with the Holy Family in verse 1: ―Behold, the LORD rides on a swift cloud, And will come into Egypt; The idols of Egypt will totter at His presence, And the heart of Egypt will melt in its midst.” Also, there is a prophesy of the establishment of the Church of Egypt, i.e., the Coptic Orthodox Church in verse 19: ―In that day there will be an altar to the LORD in the midst of the land of Egypt, and a pillar to the LORD at its border. 20 And it will be for a sign and for a witness to the LORD of hosts in the land of Egypt; for they will cry to the LORD because of the oppressors, and He will send them a Savior and a Mighty One, and He will deliver them. 21 Then the LORD will be known to Egypt, and the Egyptians will know the LORD in that day, and will make sacrifice and offering; yes, they will make a vow to the LORD and perform it.” Finally, Isaiah records a divine blessing in verse 24, which is a source of pride for all Egyptians, when the Lord says, ―Blessed is Egypt my people.‖ Thus the Old Testament prophesies and the Flight of the Holy Family into Egypt are the earliest signs of the establishment of the Coptic Orthodox Church. The sites visited by the Holy Family in their three year stay in Egypt are some of the most ancient and holy churches, monasteries and pilgrimage sites in the world.

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The School of Alexandria was the earliest and most important institution of theological learning in Christian antiquity. It grew tremendously in the first four centuries of the world. After the Roman Empire officially accepted Christianity in 313 AD, Alexandria became a renowned center of learning, especially in theology. The School was essential in the education of both recent converts and future patriarchs of Christianity throughout the world. Many of the great deans of the school include St. Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 - 254 AD), a gifted author; Origen (185 - 264 AD) the brilliant scholar; and St. Didymus the Blind, who formed a system of engraved writing for the blind fifteen centuries before Braille. The Ecumenical Councils As a result of this great tradition of theology, there arose a number of theologians who were well respected and recognized in the Christian world. Many of these scholars played a critical role in the development of Christian theology in the three recognized Ecumenical Councils of Nicea (325 AD), Constantinople (381 AD), and Ephesus (431 AD). While still a young deacon at Nicea, St. Athanasius, the 20th Patriarch of Alexandria, defended the Divinity of Christ and was one of the writers of the Christian Creed, which is followed by most Christians today. Another Egyptian sage was St. Cyril of Alexandria, who stressed the unity of the Divinity and Humanity of Christ in the third Council of Ephesus (431 AD). Although the Coptic Church has been unjustly labeled as being 'Monophysite' (believing in only one nature of Christ), St. Cyril explained centuries ago that the Coptic Orthodox Church believes in the "one incarnate nature of God the Word" - that is, one union of two natures - one fully human nature and one fully divine nature, without mingling, confusion or alteration, thus not monophysite, but mia-physite. The Monastic Movement The Coptic Orthodox Church is also famous for its asceticism and monasticism, a longstanding tradition founded by St. Anthony the Great, the "Father of Monasticism" (251 356 AD), St. Pachomios, St. Makarios and St. Shenouda the Archimandrite. This monastic order - based on principles of poverty, obedience and chastity - became the foundation from which many western orders developed from. The Church of Martyrs As Christianity grew, the attempts to quash it became fierce. The Egyptian Church is recognized as having suffered one of the most violent waves of persecution in Christian history, and thus our Coptic Calendar commences at the beginning of the reign of Roman Emperor Diocletian, at whose hands hundreds of thousands of Christians were massacred. What we believe: The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed is a comprehensive summary of the beliefs of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. This Creed, built on the foundation of the Apostleâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s Creed, defines the belief in the Holy Trinity, the incarnation of the Logos and

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the four pillars of the Church, i.e., that it is One, Holy, Universal and Apostolic. The Nicene Creed was drafted by the Coptic deacon, Athanasius who later became the 20th Patriarch of Alexandria and was the definition of the faith reached in the First Ecumenical Council held in Nicea in 325 AD. The creed was completed in the Second Ecumenical Council held in Constantinople in 381 AD: We believe in one God, God the Father, the Pantocrator, who created heaven and earth, and all things seen and unseen. We believe in one Lord Jesus Christ, the OnlyBegotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all ages; Light of light, true God of true God, begotten not created, of one essence with the Father, by whom all things were made; Who for us men and our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and of the Virgin Mary, and became Man. And he was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, suffered and was buried. And the third day He rose from the dead, according to the scriptures, ascended into the heavens; he sits at the right hand of his Father, and He is coming again in his glory to judge the living and the dead, whose kingdom shall have no end. Yes, we believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Life-Giver, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son is worshipped and glorified, who spoke by the prophets. And in one holy, catholic and apostolic church. We confess one baptism for the remission of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the coming age. Amen. The Seven Sacraments of the Church: Baptism, Chrismation (Confirmation), Repentance and Confession, the Eucharist (Holy Communion), Marriage, Priesthood, and Unction of the Sick. The Coptic Orthodox Church todayâ&#x20AC;Ś The Coptic Orthodox Church is the largest Church in the Middle East, with over 12 million faithful in Egypt. Under the leadership of His Holiness Pope Shenouda III, the 117th Patriarch of the See of Saint Mark, there is an increasing number of monasteries and convents in the deserts of Egypt, as well as new monasteries being established abroad in America, Europe, and Australia. The Coptic Orthodox Church is a dynamic church, always looking at the needs of her children, and trying to satisfy them to her best ability. Over the past thirty years, the Church has spread all over the world. Since his enthronement in 1971, H.H. Pope Shenouda III has established hundreds of churches abroad in Africa, the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, South America, the Middle East, South East Asia and Oceania. The Church takes an active role in trying to restore the unity of the Christian faith. The Church is actively involved in official and unofficial dialogues with the major Christian Churches denominations. Additionally, the church is currently a member of the World

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Council of Churches, the Middle East Council of Churches, the All African Council of Churches, the National Council of Churches of Christ in the USA, Christian Churches Together in the USA, the Global Christian Forum and other international, regional and local bodies. At a personal level, the Church promotes the peace, love and unity taught by our Lord Jesus Christ. She teaches her children to be holy, constructive, and peaceful member of society; and to have good relations with all of its members, regardless of race, color or creed, thus enabling us to be worthy ambassadors of Jesus Christ. +Adapted from The Coptic Orthodox Church by St. Paul Brotherhood, Diocese of Los Angeles. SOURCE: http://www.ecucopt.org/Coptic%20orthodox%20Church.php

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Coptic Orthodox Churches In United States Of America: The Coptic Diocese Of The Southern United States o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

St. Anthony Coptic Orthodox Church - San Antonio, Texas St. Athanathius Coptic Orthodox Church - Chattanooga, Tennessee St. George Coptic Orthodox Church - Dayton, Florida St. George Coptic Orthodox Church - Tampa, Florida St. Mena and Anba Sarabamon Coptic Orthodox Church - Nashville, Tennessee St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Houston, Texas St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - New Orleans, Louisiana St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Phoenix, Arizona St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Atlanta, Georgia St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Dallas, Texas St. Mary & Archangel Michael Coptic Orthodox Church, Houston Texas St. Mary and Archangel Michael Coptic Orthodox Church - Orlando, Florida St. Mary & St. Mina Coptic Orthodox Church - Clearwater, Florida St. Mary & St. Mina Coptic Orthodox Church - Clearwater, Florida St. Mary & St. George Coptic Orthodox Church, Tallahassee, Florida St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Miami, Florida St. Philopateer Coptic Orthodox Church - Dallas, Texas (Another Site) (No Frame)

The Coptic Diocese Of Southern California and Hawaii o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

St. Mercurius & St. Abraam Coptic Orthodox Church - Torrance, CA. St. Anthony and St. Abanoub Coptic Orthodox Church - Norco, CA. Archangel Michael Coptic Orthodox Church - Orange County, CA. St. Athanathius Coptic Orthodox Church - Los Angeles, CA. St. Demiana Coptic Orthodox Church - San Diego, CA. St. George Coptic Orthodox Church - Bellflower, CA. St. John Coptic Orthodox Church - Covina, CA. St. Marina Coptic Orthodox Church - Lake Forest, CA. St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Los Angeles, CA. St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Los Angeles, CA. St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Los Angeles, CA. St. Peter and St. Paul Coptic Orthodox Church - Santa Monica, CA. St. Philopateer Mercurius & St. Abraam Coptic Orthodox Church - Los Angeles, CA. St. Philopateer Mercurius & St. Abraam Coptic Orthodox Church - Los Angeles, CA. St. Verena Coptic Orthodox Church - Anaheim, CA

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-Coptic Orthodox Church - Archdiocese of North America -Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate Of Alexandria - Archdiocese of North America - Office of Ecumenical Affairs -St. Antony Coptic Orthodox Monastery

Other Coptic Orthodox Churches in USA California: o o o o o o o o o

Archangels Michael & Gabriel Coptic Orthodox Church - Fresno, CA. St. Antonius Coptic Orthodox Church - San Francisco, CA. St. Demiana Coptic Orthodox Church - Bakersfield, CA. St. George Coptic Orthodox Church - San Jose, CA. Archangel Raphael and St. Mina Coptic Orthodox Church - Palmdale, CA. St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Sacramento, CA. St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Sacramento, CA. - (Another Site) St. Mary & St. Mina Coptic Orthodox Church - Concord, CA. St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Victorville, CA.

Connecticut: o

St. Mary & Archangel Michael Coptic Orthodox Church - Hamden, Connecticut

Illinois: o o

St. Mark & St. Bishoy Coptic Orthodox Church - Chicago, Illinois St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Chicago, Illinois

Indiana: o

St. Mary & St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Indianapolis, Indiana

Iowa: o o

St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Des Moines, Iowa St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Des Moines, Iowa

Kansas: o o

St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Kansas City Kansas St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Kansas City Kansas

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Massachusetts: o o

St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Boston, Massachusetts Virgin St Mary's Spiritual Vineyard, Charlton, Massachusetts

Maryland: o

St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Savage, Maryland

Minnesota: o

St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - St. Paul, Minnesota

Michigan: o

St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Troy, Michigan

Missouri: o o

St. Mary and St. Abraam Coptic Orthodox Church - St. Louis, Missouri (Official Site) St. Mary and St. Abraam Coptic Orthodox Church - St. Louis, Missouri (Alternate Site)

Nebraska: o

St. Mary & St. George Coptic Orthodox Church - Omaha, Nebraska

New Jersey: o o o o o o o o o

Archangel Michael Coptic Orthodox Church - Howell, New Jersey St. Abanoub & St. Antonious Coptic Orthodox Church - Bayonne, New Jersey St. Anthony Coptic Orthodox Church - South New Jersey, New Jersey St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Jersey City, New Jersey St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - East Brunswick, New Jersey St. Mary and St. Mercurius Coptic Orthodox Church - Belleville, New Jersey St. Mina Coptic Orthodox Church - Holmdel, New Jersey St. George & St. Shenouda Coptic Orthodox Church - New Jersey St. Paul Coptic Orthodox Church - Egg Harbor Twp, New Jersey

New York: o o o o

St. Abraam Coptic Orthodox Church - Woodbury, New York St. George Coptic Orthodox Church - Astoria, New York St. George Coptic Orthodox Church - Brooklyn, New York St. George Coptic Orthodox Church - Brooklyn, New York

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o o o o

St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Rochester, New York - (Another Site) St. Mary & St. Antonios Coptic Orthodox Church - Queens, New York St. Mary & St. Pakhomious Coptic Orthodox Church - Spring Valley, New York St. Mary & St. Dimiana Coptic Orthodox Church - Mamaroneck, New York

North Carolina: o o

St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Raleigh, North Carolina St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Charlotte, North Carolina

South Carolina: o o

St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Myrtle Beach, South Carolina St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Greenville, South Carolina

Ohio: o o

St. Mina and St. Abanoub Coptic Orthodox Church - Miamisburg, Ohio St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Cleveland, Ohio

Oregon: o

St. Antonious Coptic Orthodox Church - Portland, Oregon

Pennsylvania: o o o o

St. Anthony Coptic Orthodox Church -Annville, Pennsylvania - (Another Site) St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Lancaster, Pennsylvania St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania St. George Coptic Orthodox Church - Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Vermont: o

St. Mary & Archangel Michael Coptic Orthodox Church - Richmond, Virginia

Virginia: o o

Archangel Michael and St. Anthony Coptic Orthodox Church - Richmond, Virginia St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church Roanoke, Virginia

Washington: o o o o

St. George Coptic Orthodox Church - Seattle Washington St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Seattle, Washington St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - Seattle, Washington St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Puyallup, Washington

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Washington-DC: o

St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Washington-DC

Wisconsin: o

St. Mary & St. Antonious Coptic Orthodox Church - Waterford, Wisconsin

Coptic Orthodox Churches In Canada: o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

Archangel Michael Coptic Orthodox Church - Calgary, Canada St. George Coptic Orthodox Church - Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada St. George and St. Joseph Coptic Orthodox Church - Montreal, Quebec, Canada St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Montreal, Quebec, Canada St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church - St. Hubert, Quebec, Canada Center de la Petite Enfance St. Marc - Montreal, Quebec, Canada Ti Agia Maria & St. Demiana Coptic Orthodox Church - Etobicoke, Canada St. Mary & St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Edmonton, Alberta, Canada (Old Site) St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church - Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada St. George and St. Rueiss Coptic Orthodox Church - Ontario, Canada St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church in Toronto - Ontario, Canada St. Mary and St. Athanasius Coptic Orthodox Church - Ontario, Canada St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church in Ottawa - Ontario, Canada St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church, Kitcheners - Ontario, Canada St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church, Kitcheners - Ontario, Canada Ti Agia Maria & St. Demiana Coptic Orthodox Church, Etobicke, Ontario, Canada St. George & St. Mercurus Abu Sefein Coptic orthodox Church - Ontario, Canada St. Mina Coptic Orthodox Church - Hamilton, Ontario, Canada St. George & St. Mercurius Abu Sefein Coptic Orthodox Church, St. Catharine, Ontario, Canada St. Mina Coptic Orthodox Church - Calgary, Alberta, Canada St. George & St. Anthony Coptic Orthodox Church, Ottawa, Canada St. Mary Coptic Orthodox Church, Ottawa, Canada St. Mina Coptic Orthodox Church, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada St. George & St. Joseph Coptic Orthodox Home Page, Canada St. Mary & St. Athanathius Coptic Orthodox Church, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada St. Mina Coptic Orthodox Church, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

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Coptic Youth In North America: o o o o o

Coptic Youth Conventions Network St. Mark American Coptic Youth Association St. Marina's Youth Class St. Mary's Coptic Orthodox Youth Magazine St. Macrina Youth Group

Coptic Charitable Organizations In North America: o o o o o

Coptic Orphans Coptic Aid Foundation BLESS USA BLESS CANADA Egyptian Relief Association

Coptic Organizations In North America: o o o o o o o o o

St. Shenouda The Archimandrite Coptic Society Coptic Church Review Home Page The Coptologia Journal Archives The Copts Magazine St. Mark Foundation Orthodox Action on line Coptic Orthodox.Com International Institute for Christian Egyptology The Message

Coptic Human Rights Organizations In North America: o o o o o o o o

The Coptic Association The Coptic Chapter The American Coptic Association American Coptic Union US COPTS HOME PAGE The Coptic Voice Of The Nile Voice of Martyrs Freedom House

Coptic Human Rights Articles on the net: o o o o o

Religious Freedom US State Department - Annual Report on International Religious Freedom 1999 Washington Report on Middle East Affairs Religious Intolerance in Egypt Human Rights - Coptic Issues

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Coptic Societies, Communities and Clubs In North America: o o o o o o o o o o o

Coptic Medical Society The Rochester Copts Coptic Orthodox Christian Club at UCLA Cal Poly Coptic Club Coptic Orthodox Club, University of Virginia The Holy Theotokos Icon Victorian Coptic Orthodox Youth Association VCOYA St. Mark American Coptic Youth Association i-Copts Internet Community for Coptic Christians Coptic Orthodox Youth Den The Coptic Society of Rutgers Newark and NJIT

Coptic Communities On The Internet: o

The Coptic Community on MSN

Coptic Resources In North America: Coptic Museums: o

Cairo Coptic Museum

Coptic Art (Iconography & Pictures): o o o o o o o o o o

The Theotokos Coptic Iconography Coptic Iconography The Icons "Contemporary Coptic Iconography" Coptic Tapestry Inner Light Productions Home Page Coptic Design First Image Icons The Coptic Arts & Center Coptic Icons

Coptic Art (Music & Hymns): o o o o o o o

Coptic Orthodox Hymns Christian MIDI Archive Coptic Audio The Coptic Hymns Coptic Praise Coptic Music Web Site Coptic Classical Music

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o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

Coptic Music Coptic Music Coptic Sound Clips Collection Victor's Multimedia Site David Ensemble Home Page The King's Castle Digital Coptic Stuff Introduction to Coptic Music St. Mina's Multimedia Center Hymns Haya.Org Trinity Music Coptic Al-Han (Hymns) The Angels Team Coptic Hymns Coptic Architecture

Coptic Daily Synexarion : o

Coptic Synexarion

Coptic Evangelism: o

Southern United State Diocese Evangelism

Coptic Software: o o o o o

Arabic Holy Bible Software The Holy Bible Web Site @ GeoCities Athens The Holy Bible Web Site Coptic Software Digest Laser Coptic

Coptic Language: o o o o o o o o o o

Listen and Learn Coptic Language Coptic Fonts Coptic Fonts & Macros Coptic Language & Alphabets Coptic Language Coptic Lessons Coptic Language Fonts for DOS/Windows Codex II Coptic Resource Center REMENKIMI Introduction to Coptic Language

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Coptic Books: o o o o o o o o o o o o

Orthodox Bookstore The Coptic Orthodox Publications and Translations Grace Bookstore Esmaa Books Orthodox Bookstore On line Coptic Books - Fr. Tadros Malaty Coptic Books - Fr. Tadros Malaty The Nature Of Christ: By H.H. Pope Shenouda-III St. Mark The Evangelist: By H.H. Pope Shenouda-III Coptic Books on line Yellow Pages of Coptic Bookstores Coptic Books in Arabic

Coptic Sunday School: o o o o

Sunday School Lesson Coptic Sunday School Programs Servants Preparatory Program for Sunday School Sunday School Class, of St. George C.O.C.

Coptic Orthodox Fellowship: o o

Saint Mark's Orthodox Fellowship Bible Study Group Coptic Orthodox Fellowship

Coptic Deacons: o

The Deacons Website

Coptic Popes, Bishops and Fathers: o o o o o o o o o o o o o

Ava Kirellos VI Library (another site) WELCOME TO ST. KYRILLOS VI PAGE The Life and Miracles Of Pope Saint Kyrillos VI St. Kyrillos the 6th Home Page Pope Kyrillos VI H.H. Pope Shenouda III Home Page H.H. Pope Shenouda III Pope Shenouda III Coptic Orthodox Theological Seminary The Pope Page Coptic Bishops Assembly H.G. Bishop Samuel H.G. Bishop Tomothawes H.G. Anba Paula

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o o o

Father Hegoman Youssef Assad Page (Arabic) Father YOUHANNA EL BARAMOUSY Father Makary Yonan

Coptic Saints: o o o o o o o o o o o o o

Apparitions of Mary in Assiut, Egypt Apparitions of Mary at Zeitun, Egypt Our Lady Of Zaitoun The Glorification of Holy Virgin Saint Mary The Mary Page Coptic Synaxarium Coptic Synaxarium Synexarion (Life of the Saints) Coptic Saints Early Church Fathers Saint Stories St. Athanasius Careers Class St. Mark

Coptic General History: o o o o o o o o o o o o o

The History of the Coptic Orthodox Church Who Are The Copts? The Home Page For Coptic Millennium Copt-Net St. Mark Coptic Foundation For Coptic History Studies Alexandrian Orthodox, Alexandria, Alexandrian, Coptic Orthodox, Coptic, Alexandrian Coptic Orthodox, Orthodox, Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodox Archaeology Online - The Dig Site Coptic Pro Union Web Site Coptic People Network Accounts of The Arab Conquest of Egypt, 642 Chalcedonian and Non-Chalcedonian Orthodox Pages from Al-Makrizi (1898) an ancient Egyptian historian (Arabic)

Coptic Theology: o o o o o

"Theological and Dogmatic Differences and Reconciliation's Between Orthodox and Catholics" The Differences between Copts and Protestants The Coptic Orthodox Church and Homosexuality (text) - Another page - Orthodox Statements on Homosexuality St. Athanasius On The Incarnation The Coptic Orthodox Church and Lent

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The Holy Sacraments The Third Meeting Of The Heads Of The Oriental Orthodox Churches The Coptic Church Pope Shenouda III Coptic Orthodox Theological Seminary Monophysitism, Why we rejected it.

Coptic Directories: o o o o o o o

Coptic Pages Coptic-Church.com Coptic Directory Coptic Churches E-mail List Yellow Pages of Coptic Churches in the Diaspora Yellow Pages of Coptic Charities in the Diaspora Home Pages of Christian Coptic Orthodox Congregations

Coptic Magazines: o o o o o

Agape On Line Monthly Magazine Teeshori TheoLogos Monthly Magazine The Message - Youth Magazine Coptic News

Coptic Newspapers: o

Watani

SOURCE: http://www.coptic.org/north_am.htm

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The Office of Ecumenical Affairs The Office of Ecumenical Affairs, through the Ecumenical Officer, Bishoy M. Mikhail, represents His Holiness Pope Shenouda III and the Coptic Orthodox Church in North America at the Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches, The Joint Commission of the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches in America, The National Council of Churches and other ecumenical events. Bishoy has also been on the Coptic Orthodox delegations to the 7th General Assembly of the World Council of Churches in Harare, Zimbabwe, 1998; the 8 th General Assembly in Porte Alegre, Brazil, 2006 and the Halki Summer Seminars on the Environment of the Ecumenical Patriarchate 1997, 1998. The Ecumenical Officer also works to raise awareness of the issues related to interchurch relations among the youth of the Coptic Orthodox Church.

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His Holiness Pope Shenouda III 117th Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark A Brief Biography by the V. Rev. Archpriest Mikhail E. Mikhail, D.Min. Pastor, St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church of Cleveland From the land of the great ancient Egyptian civilization, the land visited by Our Lord and the Holy Family and from the line of renowned predecessors such as St. Mark the Apostle, St. Athanasius the Apostolic, and St. Cyril the Great, comes the author of the renaissance of the Coptic Orthodox Church: H. H. Pope Shenouda III. A distinguished and prominent religious leader, a profound theologian, a gifted preacher, a talented author, a spiritual father, a man of God his entire life. His Holiness was born Nazeer Gayed on August 3, 1923, to a pious Christian family in Egypt. By the age of 16, H. H. was active in the Sunday School movement, which wrought to enrich Christian Education in the Coptic Orthodox Church. When H. H. graduated from Cairo University, he joined the Coptic Orthodox Seminary, and upon graduation, joined the faculty of the seminary. On July 18, 1954, H. H. chose the solitude of the Egyptian desert and the angelic life of monasticism over everything else, taking the example of St. Anthony the Great. As a monk, and later a monk priest, H. H. carried the name of the Christian monk and was know as Fr. Antonious El-Syriani. Wishing to live in complete solitude and devotion to our Lord, he became a hermit and lived in a cave that he had carved out himself for a period of six years. On September 30, 1962, he was called by the late Pope Cyril VI to be consecrated Bishop of Christian Education and President of the Coptic Orthodox Theological Seminary. He was known as His Grace Bishop Shenouda. Through his leadership of the seminary, the number of students tripled. On November 14, 1971, His Grace Bishop Shenouda was consecrated as His Holiness Pope Shenouda III, the 117th Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark.

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Since that blessed day, the Coptic Orthodox Church has witnessed a remarkable revival through the guidance of the Holy Spirit and the pastoral care of H. H. Pope Shenouda III. H. H. conducts a weekly meeting, which is attended by over seven thousand of the faithful at the Cathedral of St. Mark in Cairo. H. H has been the editor-in-chief of El-Kiraza Magazine the official publication of the Coptic Orthodox Church, since 1962. He became the first patriarch of Alexandria since the Fifth Century to have been Dean of the Theological Seminary and continues to lecture at the branches of the Seminary in Cairo, Alexandria, and abroad and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies. He also established other branches of the Seminary in Egypt as well as in America, Australia, and the United Kingdom. His Holiness is the author of 101 books on a variety of subjects, over half of which have been translated into English, French, German, Italian, and other languages. He has ordained more than eighty Metropolitans and Bishops and over 600 priests since 1971. He gives special attention to the youth of the church. H. H. has said many times, ―A church without youth is a church without a future.‖ And one of our youth once replied to H. H., ―And youth without the church are youth without a future.‖ H. H. also gives special attention to the service of women in the Coptic Orthodox Church. H. H. said, and I quote, ―We felt a great need of the work of women and we wanted women to have a certain order and service in the church, not only to have girls as Sunday School teacher who give a part of their time whenever they can, but we want girls and women to give their whole life to God and serve the Church.‖ Despite his many responsibilities, H. H. usually manages to spend three days a week in the monastery. His love of monasticism has led a monastic revival in the Coptic Orthodox Church. He has ordained hundreds of monks and nuns and reestablished many monasteries and convents. He is the first pope to establish Coptic monasteries outside of Egypt, which presently number nine. One of the most remarkable things about the growth of the Coptic Orthodox Church is her expansion worldwide. When H. H. became pope in 1971, there were only four churches in North America. Today, there are over 100. The year 1996 witnessed the installation of the fist two Diocesan bishops for the United States, one for Los Angeles and the other for the Southern United States. There are plans to further group the churches into regional dioceses in the near future. H. H. has established mission churches in the U. S. Virgin Islands in St. Thomas, Bermuda, and St. Kitts. Moreover, he founded the first Coptic Orthodox Church in South America in Sao Paolo, Brazil, and the second in Bolivia. Under his leadership, the Coptic Orthodox Church has also witnessed a growth in Australia and New Zealand, where there are currently twenty-eight churches. In 1999,

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we witnessed the enthronement of the first bishop over Melbourne, Australia and New Zealand. In Europe, there are currently over fifty church and ten bishops. Africa currently has two bishops serving in missions in nine African countries. His Holiness Pope Shenouda III is well known for his deep commitment to Christian Unity. In an address he gave at an ecumenical forum during the International Week of Prayer in 1974, he declared, â&#x20AC;&#x2022;The whole Christian world is anxious to see the church unite. Christian people, being fed up with divisions, are pushing their church leaders to do something about church unity and I am sure that the Holy Spirit is inspiring us.â&#x20AC;&#x2013; H. H. has emphasized that Christian Unity must be found upon a unity of faith and not a unity of jurisdiction. As a result, H. H. has paid many visits to the various sister Orthodox churches and their patriarchs, such as those of Constantinople, Moscow, Romania, and Antioch. A full communion of these churches with the Oriental Orthodox Churches is very close. In 1973, H. H. was the first Coptic Orthodox pope to visit the Vatican in over 1500 years. In this visit, both H. H. Pope Shenouda III and H. H. Pope Paul VI signed a common declaration on the issue of Christology and agreed to establish joint commissions for dialogue on unity. There have also been dialogues with various Protestant churches worldwide. Under the leadership of H. H., the Coptic Orthodox Church is a full member of the World Council of Churches, the Middle East Council of Church, the All-African Council of Churches, the National Council of the Churches in Christ in the U.S.A., the Canadian Council of Churches, and the Australian Council of Churches. In May 2000, he established the Office of Ecumenical Affairs in the Archdiocese of North America. --Biography from St. Mark's Church of Cleveland, Ohio. SOURCE: http://www.ecucopt.org/Pope.php

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Chapter Eight: The Evangelical Christian Heritage

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Middle Eastern Presbyterians in the United Statesâ&#x20AC;Ś Presbyterian Middle Eastern Americans trace their faith origin to the apostolic age, and their Reformed roots to the Presbyterian missions in the Middle East in the 19th Century. Here in the USA, Middle Eastern immigrants started to join the Presbyterian Church more than a century ago. In 1898, the Armenian Presbyterian Mission of West Hoboken was organized to minister to refugees from the 1895 Turkish massacres, and was officially recognized by the Jersey City Presbytery. The Mission later became the Armenian Presbyterian Church in New Jersey. In 1899, a small group of Lebanese/Syrian immigrants met regularly for worship in an apartment in Fall River, Massachusetts. The group eventually became affiliated with the Presbyterian Church, first as a mission and, in 1934, as a church. The first Assyrian Presbyterian Church in the United States was established in Chicago in 1910 as the Carter Memorial Persian Assyrian Presbyterian Church. Today, there are more than 60 Presbyterian congregations and fellowships throughout the United States, worshiping in different languages, including Arabic, Armenian, Assyrian, and Farsi. The office of Middle Eastern Ministries was created by the General Assembly Council in 1993 to provide spiritual and organizational services to enable the growth and enhance the ministry of Middle Eastern Presbyterian congregations and fellowships; and to help PC(USA) reach out to the more than six million Middle Easterners living in the United States.

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History of the National Evangelical Church of Beirut The National Evangelical Church of Beirut is the headquarters and administrative center for a conglomerate of churches (in the towns of Abeih, Aramoun, Khalde, Kafarshima, Hadath, Dbayyeh, Jdeideh and Dhour Shweir) operating under the name of the National Evangelical Union of Lebanon (NEUL). These churches function like a presbytery for Beirut and its suburbs. The Beirut church is the oldest and largest of these nine congregations; indeed, it is the oldest indigenous Arabic-speaking Protestant congregation in the Middle East. It was established in Beirut in 1848 as a result of the efforts of Congregational and Presbyterian missionaries from the United States. In 1869, the first evangelical church edifice was built to house the Arabic and English-speaking congregations. For the next hundred years it served as the center for all the activities and celebrations of both communities. The Arabic-speaking congregation is typical of most other evangelical churches around the world. It has active Sunday school, youth groups, womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s program, spiritual, social and cultural services and committees which minister to the needs of the congregation and the society surrounding it. In 1975, with the beginning of the war in Lebanon, most of the active ministries of the NEUL came to a halt. The Church of Beirut was still able to worship in the chapel of the Near East School of Theology in Ras Beirut. However, most of the churches of the Union were destroyed or deserted. The elementary and high school, which the Beirut Church was running in the nearby town of Dbayyeh, had to move to several different locations in and around Beirut during the war years (1975 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1990). In 1990, the churches of the Union began gradually to rebuild their infrastructures and rejuvenate their ministries and activities. This process is still going on. It is, however, slow, time consuming and expensive. Thanks to the commitment of the members of the congregation, however, as well as the helping hands of sister churches and mission organisations -- especially the EMS -- the results have been fruitful and encouraging. The love of Christ for all human beings, regardless of gender, race, colour or religion, shines through the dedicated lives of the Church members and friends. At present, the National Evangelical Church of Beirut runs a number of social and educational projects in different parts of Lebanon: two elementary schools, one in Ras Beirut and another in Kafarshima, and a high school in Kafarshima as well. The Church also runs the Schneller orphanage and school (academic and vocational) in the village of Khirbet Qanafar, in the Beqaâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; Valley of Lebanon. This orphanage was founded in Jerusalem in 1860 to house the victims of the civil war in Lebanon, but was moved to Lebanon after the establishment of the State of Israel. It is run in partnership with EMS. Since the year 2002, the National Evangelical Church has fostered the re-establishment of the International Community Church, an international congregation that was disbanded during the Lebanese civil war. At the present the International Community Church worships at the Beirut Church. It is a Christian community that is made up of expats, migrant workers, refugees and English-speaking Lebanese.

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The brief chronicle below includes some of the years that are crucial for Lebanon as a whole and for our Church in particular. 1820 Lebanon under Ottoman rule. Mount Lebanon semi autonomous district. Baabda capital. Beirut a small sea-port town on the historic Syrian coast. 5000 inhabitants. 1823 American Reformed missionaries buy a small house for their mission in Zkak AlBlat, outside the city walls, by ―Bab Yaqoub‖ (the gate of Jacob!). 1840-45 Civil war in Lebanon. Displaced and refugees begin to migrate to Beirut. 1848 First Arabic-speaking Evangelical church founded in Beirut. 1860-64 Another civil war. More displaced and refugees continue to migrate. Beirut grows in stature. 1866 Syrian Protestant College (later American University of Beirut) founded by American Reformed missionaries. Further boost for Beirut. 1869 Evangelical church building consecrated. 1870 St. Joseph University founded by French Catholics. Further growth of Beirut. 1918 End of Ottoman rule over Lebanon and Syria. French mandate begins. 1922 ―Grand Liban‖ created. Beirut declared capital. 1943 Lebanon gains independence. Christians and Muslims form the ―National Pact‖, no west – no east. 1975-90 Lebanon at war. Palestinian – Lebanese conflict becomes a Lebanese – Lebanese and a Lebanese – Israeli and a Lebanese – Syrian conflict. 1982 Israeli incursion and occupation of South Lebanon. 1990 Taef Agreement ends war, but peace is not secure. Lebanon – Israel conflict continues. Hizbullah (mostly Shiite) intensifies resistance to occupation of Southern Lebanon. Lebanon – Syria conflict continues. Opposition to Syrian hegemony over Lebanese polities and land grows. Mostly Christian. 1993 Plans are made to rebuild the Church, which had been destroyed completely during the civil war. 1998 Consecration of reconstructed Church. 2000 Israeli troops withdraw from South Lebanon. Syrian hegemony continues – opposition also. 2002 The Interational Community Church (formerly called Anglo-American Community Church) that was disbanded during the civil war is restarted at the National Evangelical Church of Beirut. 2005 Assassination of former prime-minister Rafik Hariri and Protestant MP Basil Fuleihan. Cedar Revolution and exit of Syria from Lebanon. Rift between pro-Syrian and anti-Syrian political parties emerges. Series of bombings and assassinations of antiSyrian MPs. 2006 War between Israel and Hezbollah. Deepening political rift.

SOURCE: http://www.nechurchbeirut.org/cms/?q=node/21

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The Reformed Churches in Iraq Until recently most Christians were not aware of the presence of Christian churches in Iraq. It is possible that few Western Christians are conscious of the presence of Reformed churches there. Yet, biblical Christianity in Iraq goes back to the second half of the first century AD. The land of the Tigris and Euphrates was Abram the Hebrew's birthplace. His wife, Sarah, and his son Isaac's wife, Rebecca, were also from there. Jacob also went back there in search of a good wife. He ended up marrying Leah and Rachael, his cousins, daughters of Laban, his mother's brother. The Assyrians and Babylonians exiled the Israelites there. It was there that the people of God experienced a spiritual awakening under leaders like Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah and Haggai. The concept of gathering in simple meeting places called synagogues to study the Scriptures sprang up there and spread among the rest of the Jewish communities in Palestine and elsewhere. From there the exiles returned by the Lord's mighty hand refreshed and blessed by the presence of a vibrant believing remnant. They rebuilt the temple and the walls of Jerusalem. For several hundred years afterwards they were prepared for the coming of the promised seed of the woman, the seed of Abraham through whom all families of the earth would be blessed. Archeological evidence points to the conversion to the Christian faith of many Jews who remained in Mesopotamia during the first century. The Jewish communities there did not enjoy the same level of influence they had in the Mediterranean lands. Synagogues were turned into Christian meeting places, which gradually were remodeled and became elaborate liturgical church buildings. It was not long before the entire area became predominantly 'Christian'. The early Christian communities there did not seem to have had much pressure from local authorities or followers of other faiths. Even before the conversion of Emperor Constantine, the Christian communities there enjoyed much freedom and were spared the kind of persecution endured by other Christians elsewhere during the first three Christian centuries. The quality of the Christian faith in Iraq seems to have declined as fast as the number of its adherents increased. The Church in Iraq was more quickly invaded by unbiblical doctrines and practices and more speedily divided than in other lands in the region. Mesopotamia became a strong base for Nestorianism and the anti-Chalcedon rebellion. Hierarchical and other forms of power struggles among the clergy sometimes led to violent clashes and to deep and lasting divisions among Christians. This coupled with an increased distancing of the people from the reading and the study of the Bible led the faithful to rely more and more on the clergy. They, in turn, lost sight of the ministry of the Word and the saving grace of God in Christ. One can read or hear many heroic stories of 'Christian' warriors who fought the Mongols, the Muslims and the Ottomans. History, however, does not testify to the

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presence of spiritually vibrant leaders like Daniel or Zerubbabel in those lands which now are called Iraq. Spiritual decline led to loss of vision. Divisions among Christians led to political as well as religious disasters. The Muslim armies did not have much difficulty in subduing most of the country. Christians were quickly forced to seek refuge in the mountainous north. Even then they were spared complete annihilation only because of the inter Muslim conflicts between the Sunnis and the Shiites. Despite the internal weaknesses of the Church and the external threats to its existence, there continued to be a significant Christian minority in Iraq. Until the early part of the twentieth century, Christians constituted about 30% of the Iraqi population. Immigration and other demographic factors have reduced the numbers to less than 8% at the present time. For the most part they belong to various ethnic and linguistic branches of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. There are Chaldeans, Assyrians, Romans and Armenians in both groups. In addition, there is the ancient Nestorian Orthodox Church a portion of which migrated eastward and settled in southern India. There they gained some Indian converts and have survived until this day. Still, Iraq's 'Christian' communities have, throughout the centuries, had small groups of lay people and clergy deeply interested in the study of the Bible. The traditional churches for the most part, unlike others in the West prior to the Protestant reformation, did not discourage the people from the study of the Bible. This made the job of Reformed missionaries far easier as they began their endeavors of Gospel proclamation in 1836. Reformed witness in Iraq and the Arabian Gulf was established as a joint endeavor between the American immigrant German Reformed Churches at the time called 'Reformed Churches in the USA' and the main Dutch immigrant churches called 'Reformed Church in America'. Both denominations were committed to the Scriptures, the Reformed faith and the Great Commission. (The RCUSA, however, drifted to liberalism and ecumenism and later became part of what is now called United Church of Christ. A small remnant remained faithful and is now called the RCUS. The RCA still exists and has many faithful Reformed and missionary-oriented people.) Reformed mission work in Iraq proved to be very effective from the start. In less than five years, a congregation was organized in the northeastern in the city of Mosul. In 1840 a church building was erected for the use of the young congregation. Later another congregation was established about 15 miles from the first one, in a smaller town. The work continued to advance to the south and west. Congregations were organized in Kirkkuk, Baghdad and Basra, with several preaching stations throughout the country. Just like in other Arabic-speaking countries the churches have been called 'Evangelical'. Presbyterian and Reformed missions recognized that such an identification with the 'evangel'(Gospel) would not only give the right impression of the churches as Gospel-preaching and Gospel-based, but also solved the problem of having to use terms like 'Presbyterian' or 'Reformed' which do not translate well into Arabic. So, the term 'Evangelical' in the Middle East does not mean just being generally evangelical. Now, if you hear of 'Evangelical' churches in the Middle East, you would be hearing of the Presbyterian or Reformed ones. At least local people understand that.

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For the most part the mission concentrated on work among the majority who were Arabic-speaking. This proved to be very wise; thus the newly founded churches did not seem to be a deliberate effort to convert those who belong to the ancient ethnic churches. It also meant that the congregations could be more easily identified as national Arab churches. Still, there were also successful efforts among the Assyrian and Armenian communities. The emphasis of the mission was on a balanced combination of evangelism and church planting. The Continental Heidelberg Catechism was Arabized from an English translation and used as the main means of preparing new believers for church membership. The mission wisely determined to recognize any baptisms performed in the name of the Triune God. They took a clear stand against re-baptizing converts from the ancient churches. In time, all the native churches adopted the Reformed translation of the Bible into Arabic as their own. This in itself was one of the greatest and the most far-reaching achievements of Presbyterian and Reformed missions in the Muslim world. For some unknown reasons, however, the missionaries did not give enough attention to training local pastors and other church officers. Unlike Presbyterian missionary endeavors in countries like Egypt, the Sudan, Lebanon, Iran and Syria, the Reformed missions in Iraq and the Arabian Gulf region allowed the expatriate missionaries to stay on as pastors of the local congregations for many years. This meant that, when missionaries were no longer able to pastor the indigenous churches, congregations were unable to maintain a steady and stable existence. The larger ones in the main cities were able to wait for and finally received trained Egyptian pastors. Others never recovered. The momentum of the mission ultimately lost its upward trend by the beginning of World War II. In the seventies and eighties, the congregations in Baghdad and Basra enjoyed good pastoral leadership by the steady ministries of two faithful Egyptian Presbyterian under shepherds. The congregation in Kirkkuk did not have effective pastoral care in recent years except for a brief period in the early nineties. From the beginning it was not difficult to gain government recognition for these Reformed congregations. In the sixties, however, some visiting non-Reformed preachers introduced dispensationalist eschatological teachings with pro-Israeli overtones. This caused a great deal of turmoil to the churches and led to the imprisonment of several people including one of the pastors. By the Lord's grace, the churches have been able to withstand those difficulties and ably proved to the authorities that they advocate biblical loyalty to the authorities divinely ordained over the country. For over twenty years, the Reformed churches of Iraq have enjoyed much freedom. This might surprise many; but the Iraqi authorities have been quite helpful to all Christian churches including the Reformed ones. Christians enjoy a lot more religious freedom in Iraq than many other countries in the region, including Turkey, Israel and Kuwait. One of the elders of the congregation in Baghdad recently put it this way: 'In Iraq you can legally and freely do anything religious as long as it is not mix with politics and so far as it does not endanger the social stability of the community.'

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In recent years, Reformed believers in Iraq have experienced the same difficulties as other Iraqi citizens. The last Gulf war devastated the economic superstructure of the nation. The US led air bombardment did not spare one sector of the economy. Most industrial sites were destroyed. The rest have not had the spare parts or raw materials necessary for continued operation. The harsh United Nations embargo and sanctions have made it very difficult for the people to return to living a normal life. Many Reformed people lost their jobs or businesses and have not been able to provide for their families. Some have resorted to selling houses, other properties and even household effects to provide food or medicine for their families. Because of the severity of the economic situation there, the government has allowed relief agencies to operate quite freely throughout most of the country. This has included some very unsound church-based as well as para-church groups. Such people have tried to win converts from among the members of the Reformed churches in order to establish their own works or alter the Reformed nature of some of these congregations. The Middle East Reformed Fellowship (MERF) now works very closely with the remaining six Reformed congregations in Iraq. MERF has been able to help them with temporary pastoral care from Egypt. For the first time the congregation in Basra has an Iraqi pastor. He was supported by MERF to prepare for the ministry at the Presbyterian Theological College in Cairo. Other promising Iraqi young men are being prepared for the Gospel ministry. In the meantime, MERF provides diaconal aid to needy Iraqi families to help them get established in self-supporting jobs. Also, training is being provided for elders, deacons, lay evangelists and others. In July 1997, meetings were organized in Amman, Jordan with representatives of all the Iraqi congregations. MERF's Executive Committee worked out with them an action plan for the next six years in the areas of evangelism, pastoral care, church-extension, and biblical and theological training as well as diaconal aid. As we help these brethren and pray for them, we can thank the Lord for their perseverance and their desire to be faithful to the Saviour and to His inspired word. We can also rejoice in the opportunities we have to serve them and with them. In May 1997 MERF's new and much expanded Study Centre was opened in Larnaca, Cyprus. Please pray for MERF's plans to establish a branch of this in Amman, Jordan. This is designed to help not only Iraqi churches and believers, but also those in Syria and Palestine. Pray also for the efforts underway to establish a Reformed congregation in Jordan SOURCE: http://merf.woh.gospelcom.net/articles/iraqChurches.html

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Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and The Holy Land Mission Statement God calls the ELCJHL to proclaim the Gospel within an Arab context in the Holy

Lands. This proclamation of the Kingdom of God and the message of salvation is to Arabs, including Palestinians, and is expressed both through witnessing to the Gospel as well as through diakonia. God calls us to serve the poorest of the poor and to care for people who have suffered long because of the difficult political situation in this area. Although the ELCJHL is a minority church we do not have a minority complex. Rather we consider ourselves to be salt in the society, as God calls us to be. For this reason we seek to serve our Palestinian people through education that aims to provide Christian evangelical instruction, quality training and peace education. The ELCJHL is called to serve the marginalized, the elderly, those who suffer or are traumatized, and all who are in need - regardless of race, gender or political affiliation. The ELCJHL empowers youth, women, men, and children, encouraging all our baptized members to be the people of God in service and witness. The ELCJHL ministers with the other 12 churches of the Holy Land. Together we promote unity, make a joint witness and seek to speak with a prophetic voice against any kind of injustice or any violation of human rights. The ELCJHL is a catalyst for a just peace, working as bridge builders among the nations. We seek to be brokers of justice, ministers of reconciliation, and apostles of love. The ELCJHL, with the other churches, seeks to live and witness within a Muslim world and seeks to create a paradigm of Christian-Muslim relations. The ELCJHL, with the other churches, seeks also to live with Jews in a just and equitable coexistence.

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The ELCJHL engages in interfaith dialogue, seeking to cooperate positively for a just peace throughout the Middle East. The ELCJHL is the local expression of the Lutheran communion worldwide. It works in partnership and companionship with other Lutherans who have come to the Holy Land and with Lutheran Churches and agencies throughout the world.

History Compared with other churches in the Middle East, the history of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan & the Holy Land (ELCJHL) is rather short. The ELCJHL traces its origin to the middle of the 19th century when German and English Evangelical Christians came to Palestine to support the Christian minority in the area through diaconal and mission work. Their activities were many and were channeled through a variety of organizations and institutions.

The initial phase of the Lutheran mission efforts began in 1841 when a joint British Anglican and Prussian Evangelical bishopric was established in Jerusalem. In 1851 Theodor Fliedner, of Kaiserswerth, was invited to bring four deaconesses to the Holy Land to begin a hospital. Four years later, a school for girls, Talitha Kumi, was begun. This was the first school to offer girls a proper education. In 1860 Johann Ludwig Schneller founded the Syrian Orphanage in Jerusalem. His work among homeless boys had its origin in a civil war in Syria, at that time a province of the Turkish regime. Some 30,000 Christians lost their lives in that war and many children became orphans. (Eventually that work was moved to the Bekka Valley of Lebanon and was administered by the Lutheran World Federation.) The Anglicans and Lutherans worked together as one body until 1886 when the Prussian Lutherans went their own way, partly due to political and theological differences in Europe between Prussia and England. The German Lutherans focused their efforts on social work and education at a time when the British Anglicans were emphasizing conversion. Today the ELCJHL continues this call to witness through

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education and health care for Palestinians regardless of faith and provides for the spiritual needs of the Arab Lutheran community. The original aim of these Protestant mission efforts in the Holy Land was not to create a new church in the area, but to serve the poor and provide a proper education for Christians. Only later the former pupils of the Lutheran Schools helped to establish the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Many of these members became refugees at the time the State of Israel was created. Until 1947 the Lutheran Church was a mission church under the spiritual leadership of a Propst appointed by the Evangelical Church in Germany. On 7 May 1959, at a time when what is now the West Bank was part of Jordan, the ELCJHL was officially recognized as an autonomous religious community with a royal decree from King Hussein. Thus it was officially called the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan though in practice it is known simply as the Evangelical Lutheran Church (ELCJ). The ELCJ Synod met on Jan. 14, 2005, and unanimously decided to add "and the Holy Land" to our name, so that the name more accurately reflects the full scope of the ministry of the Lutheran church that is serving in Jordan, Palestine and Israel. During the 1970s the ELCJHL began to make its way toward independence as Lutherans world wide focused on ―church to church‖ relationships rather than ―church to mission field‖ relationships. In 1979 the German Propst transferred spiritual leadership to the first Palestinian Bishop, the Rev. Dr. Daoud Haddad, who had been vicar of the Jerusalem congregation for more than 30 years. The Synod of the ELCJHL had elected him as the first Arab Lutheran bishop in the whole of the Middle East. The election of a Palestinian as bishop proved to be very important as the ELCJHL took its place among the churches of the region. The tenure of the Bishops of the Church is as follows:   

31 Oct. 1979 – 30 Oct. 1986 - Bishop Dr. Daoud Haddad 31 Oct. 1986 -- 31 Dec. 1997 - Bishop Naim Nassar 1 Jan. 1998 -- Up to Date - Bishop Dr. Munib A. Younan

Congregations of the ELCJHL are located in Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Beit Jala, Beit Sahour, and Ramallah, and in Amman, Jordan. The latter two congregations were initially established to serve refugees from the Israeli-Palestinian conflicts, especially Lutheran families who were driven from their homes in Lydda, Ramle and Jaffa. The ELCJHL can properly be called a church of refugees and is grateful for the efforts of the Lutheran World Federation (LWF) among Palestinian refugees that began in 1950. Today the church operates schools in Ramallah, Beit Jala, Bethlehem and Beit Sahour. There is a kindergarten in Jerusalem and two boarding homes in Beit Jala. More than 3000 pupils, boys and girls, are served.

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The headquarters of the ELCJHL is in the Church of the Redeemer in Jerusalem, located on the Muristan Road in the ―Resurrection neighborhood,‖ about 100 yards from the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. The ELCJHL has been a member of the Lutheran World Federation since 1974 and maintains a ―companionship‖ or partner relation with many other churches worldwide. It's a member of the Middle East Council of Churches and is active in ecumenical affairs and interreligious dialogue. The Evangelical Lutheran Church faces many challenges in this new century. A particular concern is the emigration of many Palestinian Christians from the Holy Land. And, as Palestinians continue to struggle for autonomy and nationhood, they are confronted with the need for improved education, better access to health care, improved employment opportunities, stronger leadership, and a greater recognition within the international community. The ELCJHL remains a Christian presence in these demanding times, providing leadership in ecumenical efforts and offering both spiritual and social services to meet the daily needs of the people. Bishop Dr. Munib A. Younan believes that educating Lutheran and other Christian communities around the world about the presence of Arab Christians in the Holy Land and about the Palestinian struggle is essential if Palestine is to attain recognition and autonomy. SOURCE: http://www.elcjhl.org/mission.asp

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Middle East Reformed Fellowship History of MERF The Church in the Middle East: The Evangelical churches in the Middle East were largely established by Reformed missionaries. However, in recent decades they have been influenced by different unbiblical trends, superficiality and dead spirituality. Moreover, those of the Reformed persuasion in the region lack active fellowship and cooperation with like-minded Christians elsewhere. They need encouragement from Reformed churches and believers worldwide. MERF was formed to link together the gifts of the national believers with the vision and support of the Bible-believing Reformed communities worldwide. Born in Beirut: In 1971 three young believers in Beirut, Lebanon, from various nationalities, got together for fellowship and mutual encouragement. The three were united in a desire to "proclaim the whole counsel of God" and to serve and guard "the church of God which He purchased with His own blood." They were driven by love for Christ and admiration for those pioneer missionaries who faithfully laboured and established believing churches in different countries of the region. Their vision centred around presenting the whole Gospel to the whole man in the spirit of the pioneers. Meeting regularly for prayer, Bible study and the discussion of Reformed literature, they established a growing fellowship. They began to sponsor lectures, seminars and other Christian activities in Beirut. The membership steadily grew and the Middle East Reformed Fellowship (MERF) was fully organized in 1974. Its vision began to receive much attention in Reformed circles worldwide. In 1975, however, as MERF began to take root, war broke out in Lebanon, scattering its members around the world. The organization's official activities ceased, but the dispersed members kept working toward the goal of strengthening the Reformed witness in the Middle East. Projects of translating and publishing Reformed literature as well as preaching and teaching were carried out in Egypt. Also, the Lebanon Reformed Fellowship (LRF) was organized by Lebanese believers to continue the original work of MERF in Lebanon. Reorganized as an Indigenous Service Organization: The events of the 70's and 80's forced the reexamination of MERF's strategy. On the one hand, doors became clearly closed for the traditional missionary endeavors in the region. On the other hand, the effectiveness of nationals and their churches in outreach became more obvious. National Christians began to make an impact in their societies by means of radio, literature and other mass media. With the wise counsel of prominent national pastors as well as Reformed missionary strategists, in 1983 a reorganized MERF began to emerge on a regional scale as an indigenously-based Fellowship with clear statements. of nature, faith and purpose, structured as a holistic four-fold ministry--Evangelism, Church-extension, Biblical Training and Diaconal Aid. In November 1984 MERF was registered in Cyprus along this new indigenous line. After much prayerful preparation a

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new Board of Directors was organized and met in October 1985 as a Reorganizing Committee. Today: Pastors, churches and Christian individuals all over the world have caught sight of this vision. MERF has the great opportunity to promote an active Reformed witness in the Middle East out of its headquarters in Cyprus, with local MERF administrative committees in Egypt, Sudan, Iraq and Lebanon. MERF is committed to the service of the church of Christ according to God's Word. This is a truly ecumenical effort since it unites the gifts and resources of God's people from different ethnic backgrounds for the service of Christ in the Arab World, with a view of expanding outreach to other Muslim lands. By God's grace, much prayerful and hard work over the years has resulted in an effective and expanding ministry in the region. As the work has expanded its needs also have grown. Thus, MERF support bodies have been organized in the Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, the USA, Canada and South Africa. SOURCE: http://merf.woh.gospelcom.net/articles/merfmanual1.html

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Chapter Nine: The Maronite Heritage

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The Maronite Church

History Maronites (Arabic: ‫الموارنة‬, transliteration: Mawārinah, Syriac: ‫ܡܪܘܢ ܝܐ‬, Latin: Ecclesia Maronitarum) are members of one of the Syriac Eastern Catholic Churches, with a heritage reaching back to Maron in the early 5th century. The first Maronite patriarch, John Maron, was appointed in the late 7th century. Although reduced in numbers and estimated to have lost their status as a majority in Lebanon itself, today, Maronites remain one of the principal religious groups in the country and they continue to represent the absolute majority of Lebanese people when the Lebanese Diaspora is included. Before the conquest by Arabian Muslims reached Lebanon, which resulted in the Arabization of both those Lebanese who would become Muslim and the majority which would remain Christian, the Lebanese people, including Maronites, spoke a dialect of Aramaic.[2] Since at least the 15th century, however, the Lebanese people, be they Muslim, Christian, Jew or other, have been Arabic-speaking. Syriac (Christian Aramaic) still remains the liturgical language of the Maronite Church. It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus Christ were first called Christians (Acts 11:26). Antioch, especially after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70, became a center for Christianity. According to Catholic tradition, the first Bishop was Saint Peter before his travels to Rome. The third Bishop was the Apostolic Father Ignatius of Antioch. Antioch became one of the five original Patriarchates (the Pentarchy) after Constantine recognized Christianity. Maroun, a contemporary and friend of St. John Chrysostom, was a monk in the fourth century who left Antioch for the Orontes River to lead an ascetic life, following the traditions of Anthony the Great of the Desert and Pachomius. He soon had many followers that adopted his monastic life. Following the death of Maron in 410, his disciples built a monastery in his memory and formed the nucleus of the Maronite Church. The Maronites held fast to the beliefs of the Council of Chalcedon in 451. When 350 monks were slain by the Monophysites of Antioch, the Maronites sought refuge in the mountains of Lebanon. Correspondence concerning the event brought papal and orthodox recognition of the Maronites which was solidified by Pope Hormisdas on February 10, 518. The martyrdom of the Patriarch of Antioch in 602 left the Maronites without a leader, a situation which continued because of the final and most devastating war between the Byzantine and Persian Empires of the early 7th century. The chaos and utter depression which followed led the Maronites to elect their first Maronite Patriarch, John Maroun, in 685. This however was seen as a usurpation by the Orthodox church. Thus,

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at a time when Islam was rising on the borders of the Byzantine Empire and a united front was necessary to keep out the Islamic infiltration, the Maronites were focused on a struggle to retain their independence against Roman imperial power. This situation was mirrored in other Christian communities in the Byzantine Empire and helped facilitate the Muslim conquest of the most of Eastern Christendom by the end of the century. Now under Arabic rule after the Muslim conquest of Syria, the Maronites' relationship with the Byzantine Empire improved. The imperial court, seeing its earlier mistake, saw an advantage in the current situation. Thus, Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV provided direct ecclesiastical, political and military support to the Maronites. The new alliance soon coordinated devastating raids on Muslim forces, providing a welcome relief to the besieged Christians throughout the East. Some of the Maronites relocated to Mount Lebanon at this time and formed several communities that became known as the Marada. That is from the view of Patriarch Doueihi, a renowned patriarch and historian. But this view being widely rejected by most of today historians. Another view is of Ibn al-Qilaii, a Maronite scholar from the 16th century who propose that Maronites fled Muslim persecutions of the Umayyads, late 9th century. This theory is widely rejected. The most widely accepted theory stipulates that the Maronites fled Jacobite monophysite persecution, because of Monothelite heresy as advanced by Sergius of Tyr a scholar of the 10th century. It is most probable because nearly all the sects became Monothelite after that Patriarch Sergius I of Constantinople introduced it. The Maronite migration to the mountains was over a long period. But a main migration must had occurred between the 7th and the 11th century CE. Very little is known about Maronite history before the 11th century mainly because of the lack of references written at that time. So nothing can be conclusive except that they originally inhabited the Orontes Valley (today Syria). Therefore, since 685 the Maronites have found themselves isolated from Christians of the Byzantine Empire and European powers. In turn, they have appointed their own Patriarch, starting with John Maron, who had been a bishop of Batroun, Mount Lebanon. Through him, the Maronites of today claim full apostolic succession through the See of Antioch. Nonetheless, a source of controversy surrounds the Maronites, as they have been accused of having fully adopted and embraced the Monothelite heresy. However, this charge has been adequately explained away, as noted in the 2003 new Catholic Encyclopedia (see reference below). Maronites themselves insist that they have "never been out of communion with the Roman Catholic Church." Following the conquest of Eastern Christendom outside of Anatolia and Europe by the Muslims, and the establishment of secured lines of control between Islamic Caliphs and Byzantine Emperors, little was heard from the Maronites for 400 years. Secure in their mountain fastnesses, It was not until the Crusader Raymond of Toulouse on his way to conquer Jerusalem in the Great Crusade that the Maronites were re-discovered in the

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mountains near Tripoli, Lebanon. Raymond later returned to besiege Tripoli after his conquest of Jerusalem and relations between the Maronites and European Christianity were re-established. During the Crusades in the 12th century, Maronites assisted the Crusaders and reaffirmed their affiliation with the Holy See in Rome in 1182. Consequently, at least from this point onwards, the Maronites have upheld an unbroken ecclesiastical orthodoxy and unity with the Catholic Church. To commemorate their communion, in 1100 Maronite Patriarch Youseff Al Jirjisi received the crown and staff marking his patriarchal authority, from Pope Paschal II. In 1131 Maronite Patriarch Gregorious Al Halati received letters from Pope Innocent II in which the Papacy recognized the independence of the Patriarchate. However, this Roman affiliation was to cost the Maronites dearly after Muslim rule returned following the ethnic cleansing of the Crusader States in 1291. The Mamelukes led a jihad which exterminated the last of the European Christians at Siege of Acre in 1291 and was continued in the anti-Eastern Christian pogroms in following decades. However, connection to Rome was arduously maintained and through diplomatic threats and maneuvering, European Christian powers helped keep the Maronite community from destruction. Eventually, a Maronite College was established at Rome on July 5, 1584. From this college, the Maronite community obtained some valuable assistance in maintaining and buttressing their Christian identity. In 1610, the Maronite monks of the Monastery of Saint Anthony of Qozhaya imported one of the first printing presses in the Arabic-speaking world. The monasteries of Lebanon would later become key players in the Arabic Renaissance of the late 19th century as a result of developing Arabic, as well as Syriac, printable script. Following the defeat of the Mamelukes by the Ottoman Empire, at first the Sultans left the Maronites to their own devices in their mountain strongholds. However, the chaos that resulted from the neglect of early Ottoman rule was exploited by rival Muslim warlords and their Druze allies leading to a constant state of turmoil which continued to limit the survivability of the Christian Maronites. Finally, following a rapid campaign, the Druze warlord Fahkr-al-Din II conquered and ruled the Greater Lebanon from 1585 to 1635 and implemented a more or less stable situation. However, unwilling to tolerate an Islamic heretic warlord in control of the area, the Ottomans led a military campaign and Fahkr-al-Din II was defeated by Ottoman forces and executed at Constantinople on April 13, 1635. In 1638, France declared that it would protect the Catholics within the Ottoman Empire, including the Maronites, with the threat of war should Muslim jihads again be launched against Catholics under the Sultan's rule.

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The Peshitta is the standard Syriac Bible, used by the Maronite Church, amongst others. The illustration is of the Peshitta text of Exodus 13:1416 produced in Amida in the year 464.

The head of the Maronite Church is the Maronite Patriarch of Antioch, who is elected by the bishops of the Maronite church and now resides in Bkirki, north of Beirut (the Maronite Patriarch resides in the northern town of Dimane during the summer months). The current Patriarch (since 1986) is His Beatitude Mar Nasrallah Cardinal Boutros Sfeir. When a new patriarch is elected and enthroned, he requests ecclesiastic communion from the Pope, thus maintaining their communion with the Catholic Church. As an Eastern-Rite patriarch, if invited to join the College of Cardinals, the Maronite Patriarch joins the order of Cardinal Bishops. Maronites share the same doctrine as other Catholics, but they retain their own liturgy and hierarchy. Strictly speaking, the Maronite church belongs to the Antiochene Tradition and is a West Syro-Antiochene Rite. Syriac is the liturgical language, instead of Latin which was a tradition of the Roman Rite. Nevertheless, they are considered, along with the Syro-Malabar Church, to be among the most latinised of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Cardinal Sfeir's personal commitment accelerated liturgical reforms in the 1980s and 1990s, bearing fruit in 1992 with the publication of a new Maronite Missal. This represents an attempt to return to the original form of the Antiochene Liturgy, removing the liturgical latinisation of past centuries. The Service of the Word has been described as far more enriched than in previous Missals, and it features six Anaphoras (Eucharistic Prayers). Celibacy is not required for deacons and priests with parishes (though they may not remarry after the death of a spouse); monks must remain celibate, as well as bishops who are normally selected from the monasteries. Due to a long-term understanding with their Latin Rite counterparts in North America, Maronite priests in that area are expected to remain celibate. The bishops who serve as eparchs and archeparchs of the eparchies

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and archeparchies (the equivalent of diocese and archdiocese in the Roman Catholic Church) are answerable to the patriarch. Population The exact worldwide Maronite population is not known, although it is at least 8 million according to CNEWA (Catholic Near East Welfare Association).[6] It is estimated that 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 remain in Lebanon where they constitute up to 25% of the population. According to a Lebanese agreement celebrated among the various religious leaders, the president must be a Maronite. Syrian Maronites total 40,000 and they follow the archdioceses of Aleppo and Damascus and the Diocese of Latakia. There is also a Maronite community in Cyprus which speaks Cypriot Maronite Arabic,[7] They are a recognized religious minority on the island and the community elects a representative to sit in the house of representatives (parliament) to voice their interests. They are probably descended from those Maronites who accompanied the crusaders there. A noticeable Maronite community also exists in northern Israel. The two residing eparchies in the United States have issued their own "Maronite Census". The Census is designed to estimate approximately how many Maronites reside in the United States due to their emigrations to that country. Many Maronites have been assimilated into American culture, often taking on Roman Catholicism as there were no Maronite parishes or priests available. The Census was designed to locate those people. There is also an eparchy in S達o Paulo, Brazil. Modern Maronites, like other Christians in the Levant, often adopt French or other Western European given names (with biblical origins) for their children like Michel, Marc, Marie, Georges, Carole, Charles, Chris, Antoine and Pierre. Given names of Arabic origins identical with those of their Muslim neighbors are also common, such as Khalil, Samir, Salim, Jameel, or Tawfik. Other common names are strictly Christian and are Aramaic, or Arabic, forms of biblical, Hebrew, or Greek Christian names, such as Antun (Anthony, also Tanios, Antonios or Tannous), Butros (Peter), Boulos (Paul), Semaan or Shamaoun (Simon), Jergyes (George), Elie (Ilyas or Elias), Iskander (Alexander) and Beshara (literally Good News in reference to the Gospel). Other common names are Sarkis (Sergius) and Bakhos (Bacchus), while others are common both among Christians and Muslims, such as Yousseff (Joseph) or Ibrahim (Abraham). Some Maronite Christians are named in honor of Maronite saints, including the Aramaic names Maroun (after their patron saint, Maron), Sharbel, Charbel and Rafqa.

SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maronite_Church

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MARONITE RITE The Maronite is one of the Syrian rites and has been closely assimilated in the Church to the Roman Rite (see MARONITES). Unlike the Syro-Chaldean or the Syro-Catholic rites, for they all use the Syriac language in the Mass and liturgy, it has not kept the old forms intact, but has modeled itself more and more upon the Roman Rite. Among all the Eastern rites which are now in communion with the Holy See, it alone has no Schismatic rite of corresponding form and language, but is wholly united and Catholic, thereby differing also from the other Syrian rites. The liturgical language is the ancient Syriac or Aramaic, and the Maronites, as well as all other rites who use Syriac, take especial pride in the fact that they celebrate the Mass in the very language which Christ spoke while He was on earth, as evidenced by some fragments of His very words still preserved in the Greek text of the Gospels (e.g., in Matthew 27:46 and Mark 5:41). The Syriac is a Semitic language closely related to the Hebrew, and is sometimes called Aramaic from the Hebrew word Aram (Northern Syria). As the use of Ancient Hebrew died out after the Babylonian captivity, the Syriac or Aramaic took its place, very much as Italian has supplanted Latin throughout the Italian peninsula. This was substantially the situation at the time of Christ's teaching and the foundation of the early Church. Syriac is now a dead language, and in the Maronite service and liturgy bears the same relation to the vernacular Arabic as the Latin in the Roman Rite does to the modern languages of the people. It is written with a peculiar alphabet, reads from right to left like the Hebrew or Arabic languages, but its letters are unlike the current alphabets of either of these languages. To simplify the Maronite Missals, Breviary, and other service books, the vernacular Arabic is often employed for the rubrics and for many of the best-known prayers; it is written, not in Arabic characters, but in Syriac, and this mingled language and alphabet is called Karshuni. The Epistle, Gospel, Creed and Pater Noster are nearly always given in Karshuni, instead of the original Arabic. The form of the Liturgy or Mass is that of St. James, so called because of the tradition that it originated with St. James the Less, Apostle and Bishop of Jerusalem. It is the type form of the Syriac Rite, but the Maronite Use has accommodated it more and more to the Roman. This form of the Liturgy of St. James constitutes the Ordinary of the Mass, which is always said in the same manner, merely changing the epistles and gospels according to the Christian year. But the Syrians, whether of the Maronite, Syrian, Catholic, or Syro-Chaldaic rite, have the peculiarity (not found in other liturgies) of inserting different anaphoras or canons of the Mass, composed at various times by different Syrian saints; these change according to the feast celebrated, somewhat analogously to the Preface in the Roman Rite. The principal anaphoras or canons of the Mass used by the Maronites are: (1) the Anaphora according to the Order of the Holy Catholic and Roman Church, the Mother of all the Churches; (2) the Anaphora of St. Peter, the Head of the Apostles; (3) the Anaphora of the Twelve Apostles; (4) the Anaphora of St. James the Apostle, brother of the Lord, (5) the Anaphora of St. John the Apostle and Evangelist; (6) the Anaphora of St. Mark the Evangelist; (7) the Anaphora of St. Xystus, the Pope of Rome; (8) the Anaphora of St. John surnamed Maro, from whom they derive their name; (9) the Anaphora of St. John Chrysostom;

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(10) the Anaphora of St. Basil; (11) the Anaphora of St. Cyril; (12) the Anaphora of St. Dionysius; (13) the Anaphora of John of Harran, and (14) the Anaphora of Marutha of Tagrith. Besides these they have also a form of liturgy of the Presanctified for Good Friday, after the Roman custom. Frequent use of incense is a noticeable feature of the Maronite Mass, and not even in low Mass is the incense omitted. In their form of church building the Maronites have nothing special like the Greeks with their iconostasis and square altar, or the Armenians with their curtains, but build their churches very much as Latins do. While the sacred vestments are hardly distinguishable from those of the Roman Church, in some respects they approach the Greek form. The alb, the girdle, and the maniple or cuffs on each hand, a peculiar form of amict, the stole (sometimes in Greek and sometimes in Roman form), and the ordinary Roman chasuble make up the vestments worn by the priest at Mass. Bishops use a cross, mitre, and staff of the Roman form. The sacred vessels used on the altar are the chalice, paten or disk, and a small star or asterisk to cover the consecrated Host. They, like us, use a small cross or crucifix, with a long silken banneret attached, for giving the blessings. The Maronites use unleavened bread and have a round host, as in the Roman Rite. The Maronite Mass commences with the ablution and vesting at the foot of the altar. Then, standing at the middle of the sanctuary, the priest recites Psalm xlii, "Introibo ad altare," moving his head in the form of a cross. He then ascends the altar, takes the censer and incenses both the uncovered chalice and paten, then takes up the Host and has it incensed, puts it on the paten and has the corporals and veils incensed. He next pours wine in the chalice, adding a little water, and then incenses it and covers both host and chalice with the proper veils. Then, going again to the foot of the altar, he says aloud the first prayer in Arabic, which is followed by an antiphon. The strange Eastern music, with its harsh sounds and quick changes, is a marked feature of the Maronite Rite. The altar, the elements, the clergy, servers, and people are incensed, and the Kyrie Eleison (Kurrilison) and the "Holy God, Holy strong one, etc." are sung by choir and people. Then comes the Pater Noster in Arabic, with the response: "For thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory, world without end. Amen." The celebrant and deacon intone the Synapte for peace, which is followed by a short form of the Gloria in excelsis: "Glory be to God on high, and on earth peace and good hope to the sons of men, etc." The Phrumiur is then said; this is an introductory prayer, and always comes before the Sedro, which is a prayer of praise said aloud by the priest standing before the altar while the censer is swung. It is constructed by the insertion of verses into a more or less constant framework, commemorative of the feast or season, and seems to be a survival of the old psalm verses with the Gloria. For instance, a sedro of Our Lady will commemorate her in many ways, something like our litany, but more poetically and at length; one of Our Lord will celebrate Him in His nativity, baptism, etc. Then come the commemorations of the Prophets, the Apostles, the martyrs, of all the saints, and lastly the commemoration of the departed: "Be ye not sad, all ye who sleep in the dust, and in the decay of your bodies. The living Body which you have eaten and the saving Blood which you have drunk, can again vivify all of you, and clothe your bodies with glory. O Christ, Who hast come and given peace by Thy Blood to the heights and the depths, give rest to the souls of Thy servants in the promised life everlasting!" The priest then prays for the living, and makes special intercession by name of those living or dead for

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whom the Mass is offered. He blesses and offers the sacred elements, in a form somewhat analogous to the Offertory in the Roman Rite. Another phrumiun and the great Sedro of St. Ephraem or St. James is said, in which the whole sacrifice of the Mass is foreshadowed. The psalm preparatory to the Epistle in Arabic is recited, and the epistle of the day then read. The Alleluia and gradual psalm is recited, the Book of Gospels incensed, and the Gospel, also in Arabic, intoned or read. The vesicles of thanksgiving for the Gospel are intoned, at several parts of which the priest and deacon and precentor chant in unison. The Nicene Creed, said in unison by priest and deacon, follows, and immediately after the celebrant washes his hands saying Psalm xxvi. This ends the Ordinary of the Mass. The Anaphora, or Canon of the Mass, is then begun, and varies according to season, place, and celebrant. In the Anaphora of the Holy Catholic and Roman Church, which is a typical one, the Mass proceeds with the prayers for peace very much as they stand at the end of the Roman Mass; then follow prayers of confession, adoration, and glory, which conclude by giving the kiss of peace to the deacon and the other clergy. The Preface follows: "Let us lift up our thoughts, our conscience and our hearts! Response. They are lifted up to Thee, O Lord! Priest. Let us give thanks to the Lord in fear, and adore Him with trembling. R. It is meet and just. P. To Thee, O God of Abraham and Isaac and Jacob, O glorious and holy King of Israel, for ever! R. Glory be to the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost, now and forever, world without end. P. Before the glorious and divine mysteries of our Redeemer, with the pleasant things which are imposed, let us implore the mercy of the Lord! R. It is meet and just" (and the Preface continues secretly). Then the Sanctus is sung, and the Consecration immediately follows. The words of Consecration are intoned aloud, the choir answering "Amen." After the succeeding prayer of commemoration of the Resurrection and hope of the Second Coming and a prayer for mercy, the Epiklesis is said: "How tremendous is this hour and how awful this moment, my beloved, in which the Holy and Life-giving Spirit comes down from on high and descends upon this Eucharist which is placed in this sanctuary for our reconciliation. With silence and fear stand and pray! Salvation to us and the peace of God the Father of all of us. Let us cry out and say thrice: Have mercy on us, O Lord, and send down the Holy and Life-giving Spirit upon us! Hear me, O Lord! And let Thy living and it descend upon me and upon this sacrifice! And so complete this mystery, that it be the Body of Christ our God for our redemption!" The prayers for the Pope of Rome, the Patriarch of Antioch, and all the metropolitans and bishops and orthodox professors and believers of the Catholic Faith immediately follow. This in turn is followed by a long prayer by the deacon for tranquility, peace, and the commemoration of all the saints and doctors of the early Church and of Syria, including St. John Maro, with the petition for the dead at the end. Then comes the solemn offering of the Body and the Blood for the sins of priest and people, concluding with the words: "Thy Body and Thy Holy Blood are the way which leads to the Kingdom!" The adoration and the fraction follow; then the celebrant elevates the chalice together with the Host, and says: "O desirable sacrifice which is offered for us! O victim of reconciliation, which the Father obtained in Thy own person! O Lamb, Who wast the same person as the High Priest who sacrificed!" Then he genuflects and makes the sign of the Cross over the chalice: "Behold the Blood which was shed upon Golgotha for my redemption;

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because of it receive my supplication." The "Sanctus fortis" is again sung, and the celebrant lifts the Sacred Body on high and says: "Holy things for holy persons, in purity and holiness!" The fraction of the Host follows after several prayers, and the priest mingles a particle with the Blood, receives the Body and the Blood himself, and gives communion to the clergy and then to the people. When it is finished he makes the sign of the Cross with the paten and blesses the people. Then follow a synapte (litany) of thanksgiving, and a second signing of the people with both paten and chalice, after which the priest consumes all the remaining species saying afterwards the prayers at the purification and ablution. The prayer of blessing and protection is said, and the people and choir sing: "Alleluia! Alleluia! I have fed upon Thy Body and by Thy living Blood I am reconciled, and I have sought refuge in Thy Cross! Through these may I please Thee, O Good Lord, and grant Thou mercy to the sinners who call upon Thee!" Then they sing the final hymn of praise, which in this anaphora contains the words: "By the prayers of Simon Peter, Rome was made the royal city, and she shall not be shaken!" Then the people all say or sing the Lord's Prayer; when it is finished, the final benediction is given, and the priest, coming again to the foot of the altar, takes off his sacred vestments and proceeds to make his thanksgiving. The principal editions of the Maronite missals and service books for the deacons and those assisting at the altar are The Book of Sacrifice according to the Rite of the Maronite Church of Antioch (Kozhayya, 1816, 1838, and 1885; Beirut, 1888), and The Book of the Ministry according to the Rite of the Maronite Church of Antioch (Kozhayya, 1855). Maronites in America The Maronites are chiefly from the various districts of Mount Lebanon and from the city of Beirut, and were at first hardly distinguishable from the other Syrians and Arabicspeaking persons who came to America. At first they were merely peddlers and small traders, chiefly in religious and devotional articles, but they soon got into other lines of business and at present possess many well-established business enterprises. Not only are they established in the United States, but they have also spread to Mexico and Canada, and have several fairly large colonies in Brazil, Argentine, and Uruguay. Their numbers in the United States are variously estimated from 100,000 to 120,000, including the native born. Many of them have become prosperous merchants and are now American citizens. Several Maronite families of title (Emir) have emigrated and made their homes in the United States; among them are the Emirs Al-Kazen, Al-Khouri, Abi-Saab, and others. There is also the well-known Arabic novelist of the present day, Madame Karam Hanna (Afifa Karam) of Shreveport, Louisiana, formerly of Amshid, Mount Lebanon, who not only writes entertaining fiction, but touches on educational topics and even women's rights. Nahum Mokarzel, a graduate of the Jesuit College of Beirut, is a clever writer both in Arabic and English. The Maronites are established in New York, the New England States, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, and Alabama. The first Maronite priest to visit the United States was Rev. Joseph Mokarzel, who arrived in

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1879 but did not remain. Very Rev. Louis Kazen of Port Said, Egypt, came later, but, as there were very few of his countrymen, he likewise returned. On 6 August, 1890, the Rev. Butrosv Korkemas came to establish a permanent mission, and after considerable difficulty rented a tiny chapel in a store on Washington Street, New York City. He was accompanied by his nephew, Rev. Joseph Yasbek, then in deacon's orders, who was later ordained to the priesthood by Archbishop Corrigan, and founded the Maronite mission in Boston; he is now Chor-Bishop of the Maronites and practically the head of that rite in America. A church was later established in Philadelphia, then one in Troy and one in Brooklyn, after which the Maronites branched out to other cities. At present (1911) there are fifteen Maronite churches in the United States: in New York, Brooklyn, Troy, Buffalo, Boston, Lawrence, Springfield, Philadelphia, Scranton, St. Paul, St. Louis, Birmingham, Chicago, Wheeling, and Cleveland. Meanwhile new congregations are being formed in smaller cities, and are regularly visited by missionary priests. The Maronite clergy is composed of two chor-bishops (deans vested with certain episcopal powers) and twenty-three other priests, of whom five are Antonine monks. In Mexico there are three Maronite chapels and four priests. In Canada there is a Maronite chapel at New Glasgow and one resident priest. There are only two Arabic-English schools, in New York and St. Louis, since many of the Maronite children go to the ordinary Catholic or to the public schools. There are no general societies or clubs with religious objects, although there is a Syrian branch of the St. Vincent de Paul Society. About fifteen years ago Nahum A. Mokarzel founded and now publishes in New York City the daily newspaper, "Al Hoda" (The Guidance), which is now the best known Arabic newspaper in the world and the only illustrated one. His brother also publishes an Arabic monthly magazine, "Al Alam ul Jadid" (The New World), which contains modern Arabic literature and translations of American and English writers. There are also two Maronite papers published in Mexico. The Maronites also have in New York a publishing house on a small scale, in which novels, pamphlets, and scientific and religious works are printed in Arabic, and the usual Arabic literature sold. SOURCE: http://www.ourladyofthecedars.net/maroniteright.htm

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Maronite Church Maronite Church Christian community, centered to Lebanon, and affiliated to the Roman Catholic Church as part of the Eastern Rite. There are also smaller groups in Palestine and Syria, as well as in Cyprus and the USA. Their total number is about 1.5 million, of which about 800,000 live in Lebanon. This means that 60% of all Maronites live in Lebanon, and that they represent 25% of the country's population. According to the Lebanese constitution, the president of the country shall be a Maronite Christian. In Syria about 40,000 Maronites live, headed by the archdioceses of Aleppo and Damascus, and the Diocese of Latakia. Over centuries, the Maronites lived isolated in the mountains, where religion came to play an important part in all aspects of their lives. In modern times, they have become much more urban and represent an important part of the population in Lebanon's largest cities. The spiritual head of the Maronites is the Patriarch of Antioch, who actually resides no longer in Antakya (now Turkey) but in Jounieh north of Beirut. The liturgy was developed inside the Maronite Church prior to the affiliation to Rome in the 12th century, but Roman Catholic elements have been introduced. Even in modern times, Syriac language is used for the services even though the Maronites use Arabic as the vernacular tongue. The Maronites claim to be within Orthodox theology, but this is not always true. From the 7th century, they became supporters of the doctrines of the patriarch of Constantinople Sergius, who claimed that Jesus had no human qualities, only divine (called Monothelite). Celibacy is not a prerequisite for the Maronite clergy, but is regulated according to local traditions. SHORT HISTORY Early 5th century: The hermit Maron (now St. Maron) living in northeast Syria fetches the attention of local Christians, and a group starts to develop around his domain. This group survives his death and gets more supporters, which soon are referred to as "Maronites". Late 7th century With the arrival of Islam in Syria, the Maronites leave for the Lebanon mountains, under the leadership of Joannes Maro (or John Maron), their patriarch of Antioch. Over the following centuries, many other Christians flee to the same mountains, where they joined the Maronite Church. 12th century: The Maronites cooperate with the Crusaders in their battle against the Muslims. 1182: The Maronite Church gets part affiliation with the Catholic Church, but is allowed to preserve its liturgy and keep the organization with a Patriarch in Lebanon. 1585: The Maronite College is established in Rome by the Pope and is administered by Jesuits. This becomes an important training centre for the church over the next 350 years.

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1648: France declares itself protector of the Catholics living in the Ottoman Empire. From this time on, close ties have existed between France and the Maronites. This relationship would centuries later become one of the central foundations for the creation of the state of Lebanon. 1858: Maronite peasants rebel against the Maronite aristocracy, destroying their feudal privileges. 1860 May 31: After 2 years of tensions between Maronites and Druze, the Druze attack Maronite towns alike Hasbaiya, Bkassine and Jezzine, killing around 1,500 people. 1860 June: Lebanon falls into a state of civil war, causing many more killed. The Ottoman rulers granted the Maronites autonomy, in order to make them feel safe. Still, the happenings this summer caused many Christians to emigrate to the Americas. 1920: The Maronites gets self rule under the French mandate. 1943: Lebanon gets its independence, and the constitution secures the Maronites the position of president. 1975- 90: Lebanese Civil War where the Maronites are one of the main groups. During most of this time, they are backed by Syria. SOURCE: http://i-cias.com/e.o/maronite.htm

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History of the Maronite Patriarchate

The Beginning  Antioch  The Maronites and Lebanon  The Patriarchs of Kfarhay  The Patriarchs and Akoura

The Last Ten Centuries  Years of Difficulties  The Maronites and Rome  The Pallium  Wadi Qannoubine  The Maronite College of Rome  First Maronite Order  Bkerke  1860

1900 in our Days  The independent Lebanon  The Maronite Diaspora  The New Maronite Saints  The Maronite Patriarchs

Antioch Antioch has always been a city of openness, dialogue, and bold initiative. It was converted to Jesus Christ by the preaching of certain of his disciples, and the believers were strengthened in their faith, thanks to the labors of the apostles Paul and Barnabas. The apostle Peter himself, the head of the Christian Church, was its bishop until he set out for Rome. Subsequently, the Church of Antioch prospered and extended its territory, finally becoming one of the great original patriarchates, namely Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. In the year 518, the Patriarch of Antioch, Severius, was deposed from his see for having denied the two distinct natures in Christ and for rejecting the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon. A Catholic Patriarch succeeded him, by the name of Paul. However, not all the Christians approved his appointment, and in consequence the Church split into two groups, the Chalcedonians and the anti-Chalcedonians. Every since that time, there has always been a Catholic Patriarch holding to the faith as defined at Chalcedon and a non-Catholic Patriarch rejecting it. A century later, another division affected the Church of Antioch, leaving three groups of Christians, the Syriacs, the Maronites, and the Melkites, and this division has continued down to the present day. As from the seventh century, we find that the original Church had given rise to five district communities, the Melkites, the Maronites, the Syriacs, the Assyrians, and the Armenians, each of which had its own Patriarch. In the twelfth century yet another Patriarch was added in the person of the Latin Patriarch. The Church of Antioch had originally been one church encompassing the whole of Asia and the East, but finally became several churches. Where there had been one Patriarch, now there are several. One day, God‘s mercy will bring it together again as

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one flock under one shepherd.

The Maronites and Lebanon The Maronites are those Christians who gathered round a certain priest by the name of Maron and adopted his pattern of life. Maron left the city and made his abode on a mountain, intending thereby to leave behind the theological strife and to worship God in solitude. But in his retreat, Maron found that his true vocation was to live with others, so he resumed his parish duties and set about teaching the true doctrine. His disciples increased in number, and they began to call themselves Maronites after their teacher. Maron died in the year 410, but his disciples carried on his mission. In 451 at the Council of Chalcedon, they held to the clear teaching that Christ was both God and man, having two natures, one divine and one human. Afterwards the Maronites were loyal defenders of the decrees of the Council. In the upshot, the opponents of Chalcedon showed themselves bitter enemies of the Maronites, who started moving to Lebanon in successive waves after 350 of them had been martyred. Near the end of the fifth century of the Christian era, the inhabitants of Mount Lebanon had been converted by the disciples of St. Maron and had become Maronites themselves. These now welcomed their brethren arriving from Antioch and the two groups, now mingled, pursued their mission together. When the Arabs finally dominated the area, and any regular contact with the patriarchate of Constantinople became impossible, the Maronites had to appoint in 687 their own Patriarch, who was Saint John-Maron. The Emperor of Byzantium acted as if his royal authority extended over the Church. He appointed Patriarchs and in many ways interfered in ecclesiastical matters. The Christians for their part got into the habit of turning to him to solve their problems. When the Maronites chose a Patriarch for themselves, the authorities at Byzantium withheld their consent. While invading the region, the imperial army attacked the Maronites, and a battle was fought at Amioun, which resulted in a victory for the latter. The Patriarch established himself at Kfarhay, where he made the Episcopal palace his seat. A number of Patriarchs resided at Kfarhay, among who are John-Maron, Cyr, and Gabriel. They watched over their flock and ensured the purity of their faith. The Anaphora of St John- Maron, in daily use, is a brilliant testimony to the faith of the Maronites in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The lure of the riches of the world, which they had left, could not shake their firm belief, nor could the assaults of their enemies disperse them. They loved their Creator and cherished his Holy Word.

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The Patriarchs of Kfarhay At Kfarhay the Patriarchs lived through hard times. Numbers of their spiritual children flocked about them, trudging to Kfarhay on weary feet, carrying in their arms their infant children and staggering under the burden of such simple belongings as they had been able to bring when driven from their houses, their lands, and their property in Syria and the Bekaa. They now came to wrest a living from a rocky, densely forested land, lacking every amenity. However, the district of Batroun opened its arms to them like a mother welcoming her children. Now the Maronites put behind them the years of plenty and prepared for the years of hunger. They transformed rock into fertile soil in which they grew wheat and other grains, planted olive trees, grapevines and mulberry trees, and added to their traditional prayers a beautiful one: ‖By the intercession of your Mother, O Lord, turn your wrath from the land and its inhabitants. Put an end to trouble and sedition, banish from it war, plunder, hunger and plague. Have pity on us in our misfortunes. Console those of us who are sick. Help us in our weakness. Deliver us from oppression and exile. Grant eternal rest to our dead. Allow us to live in peace in this world that we may glorify you‖. In their prayers the Maronites spoke of their hardships, hunger, disorders, and injustice, for these were things they were familiar with. Finally, after 251 years spent by the Patriarchs in the region of Batroun, they had to find a new refuge, facing new difficulties on new soil. The thoughts of the Patriarch kept turning to the city of Antioch, where he yearned to remain with his flock during its days of torment. Patriarch John II imagined that he could fulfill this ambition. Once he had reached Antioch he made every endeavor to bring all the Maronites together, but without any success. Recurring difficulties and disorders obliged him to relinquish his plan and to ‖take refuge in the heart of Mount Lebanon in 938‖ as Patriarch DOUAIHY wrote of him. Finally, he settled in the vicinity of Aakoura. (The Annals, 50)

The Patriarchs and Akoura The sojourn of the Maronite Patriarchs in the district of Jbeil lasted for 502 years, that is to say, from 938 to 1440 A.D. Thirty-four Patriarchs resided there, whose names are to be found in a list compiled by Patriarch DOUAIHY and published in 1902 by Rashid SHARTOUNI. John-Maron II, Gregory, Stephen, Mark, Eusebius, John, Joshua, David, Gregory, Theofelix, Joshua, Dumith, Isaac, John, Simon, Joseph EL GERGESSI (1110-1120), Peter (1121-1130), Gregory of Halate (1130-1141), Jacob of Ramate (1141-1151), John (1151 -1154), Peter (1154-1173), Peter of Lehfed (1173-1199), Jeremiah of Amshit (1199-1230), Daniel of Shamat (1230-1239), John of Jaje (1239-1245), Simon (1245-

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1277), Daniel of Hadshit (1278-1282), Jeremiah of Dmalsa (1282-1297), Simon (12971339), John (1339-1357), Gabriel of Hjula (1357-1367), John (1367- 1404), John of Jaje (1404-1445). What was the activity of these prelates, and what did they achieve? Of this, history has nothing to record. They lived in inaccessible and trackless mountain fastness. They lacked all means for the acquisition and storing of knowledge and considered themselves happy if they were able to live in peace among their faithful people, treasuring the Christian teaching that had been handed down to them. They did not even have any fixed Patriarchal seat. They went from Yanuh down to Mayfuq, then to Lehfed, to Habil, back to Yanuh, to Kfifan, to Kfarhay, to Kafre, to Yanuh again, and to Hardine, and to Mayfuq again. If they accepted to live an austere life and to be like Abraham ever on the move, it was because it was their will to follow in the footsteps of St Maron, their master, and to say Yes to Jesus Christ. Their dwellings were extremely humble, and deprived of all show of riches and pomp, but magnificent in their simplicity and detachment from the world. However, ‖the devoted inhabitants of Yanuh, being pious and good Apostles, insisted on building a residence for the Patriarch, in green stone, very attractive and solidly constructed‖. (DOUAIHY, The Annals 50) The Patriarchal seat at Mayfuq, which still exists, is a true work of art. If the greater part of the construction is devoted to the church, as was the case of the other residences vestiges of which are scattered about, this was because the Patriarchs were above all men of prayer and so wanted their places of residence to be in the first place retreats for prayer.

The Years of Difficulties After the departure of the Crusaders, the Maronites came under attack from the Mamlouks. They suffered every humiliation, while their Churches were set of fire, their villages plundered, and their vineyards destroyed. ‖On Monday, the second day of Muharram, Akush Pasha, governor of Damascus, marched at the head of a military force into the mountains of Kesrouan. The soldiers invested these mountains and, having dismounted scaled the slopes from all sides. ‖The governor invaded the hills, and his soldiers trampled underfoot a land whose inhabitants had believed it impregnable. The enemy occupied the heights, destroyed the villages, and wreaked havoc in the vineyards. They massacred the people and made prisoners of them. The mountains were left deserted.‖ (The Annals, 288) The Patriarchs themselves had their share of the general misfortune, suffering as much as any. One was tortured, another harassed, another compelled to flee, another put on trial, and yet another burnt alive.

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‖In 1283 Patriarch Daniel of Hadshit in person led his men in their defense against the Mamlouk soldiery, after the latter had assaulted the Jubbeh of Bsharri. He succeeded in checking their advance before Ehden for forty days, and the Mamlouks captured Ehden only after they had seized the Patriarch by a ruse. ‖In 1367, patriarch Gabriel was conveyed from Hjoula, his home district where he had taken refuge during the persecutions, down to Tripoli, where he was burnt alive at the stake. His tomb still stands in Bab el Ramel, at the gates of Tripoli.‖ ‖In 1402, there was great hardship. Many of the dead remained without burial, many of which died of hunger. It was a tragedy without parallel.‖ (DOUAIHY, The Annals, 338). However, the Maronites bore their trials patiently. They looked on the district of Jbeil, which had sheltered their Patriarchs, as a fertile land which by its bounty and situation invited them to meditation and prayer. They had drawn from its rough roads patience in adversity, from its high mountains the ability to rise above the outrages inflicted on them, and from the vastness of the sea reflecting the azure vault of heaven the habit of turning their vision to distant horizons. For them Jbeil was the Garden of Gethsemane, impressing on them its pure spirit and endowing them with courage, wisdom and peace of mind. They read the Holy Gospel, and in this way they were brought together again. For they did not give up hope. They put in the balance what they had gained and what they had lost as a result of their alliance with the Crusaders and realized that God was their only resort. In Him they placed all their trust and gathered round their Patriarch as their leader, both spiritual and civil. After passing their situation in review, they called on the civil chiefs of the villages, the muqaddams, to act according to the instructions emanating from the Patriarch, and for their part these notables accepted minor orders as sub-deacons to put themselves at his disposition. These initiatives bore good fruit. The country knew some tranquility and order. When they had invaded Kesrouan, the main purpose of the Mamlouks, who were Sunni Muslims, had been to eliminate the Shiites. But this gave the Maronites the opportunity to act as mediators. To a considerable degree they reconciled the opposing points of view of the two rival communities, acting as Apostles of peace and harmony in all the villages where Sunnites and Shiites dwelt together, interposing between them. The Churches that have survived from this period are small, but they testify to the renewal in our mountains of the mission in Our Lord Jesus Christ, which began when he trod the soil of Lebanon. The priests administered the sacraments and preached the word of God. Miracles followed: wounds were healed, tears were wiped away, vendettas were settled, and unity was restored. The unity of the Maronites owes much to their parochial life. It was this, which led them to enter into relationships with the Shiites and the Druzes, serving the Sunnites Shehabi dynasty, and working with all for the common good. All were united when it was a matter of facing a common enemy. When finally they found themselves in a situation, which knew no other solution, the Maronites moved into the valley of Kannoubine.

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The Maronites and Rome Pope Innocent III saw with his own eyes what men of prayer the Maronite Patriarchs were on the day when Patriarch Jeremiah of Amshit came to see him during the proceedings of the Latran Council of 1215, in which the latter participated. ‖The Pope ordered that the Patriarch be depicted in a painting to be made for St Peter‘s. When over the centuries the painting had lost much of its radiance, Pope Innocent XIII ordered that it be retouched. This painting represents the Patriarch raising the host that had frozen in his hands while he was celebrating Mass, with the Pope attending‖. (DOUAIHY, Chronologie des Patriarches Maronites, 24). These Patriarchs did not leave behind them great works, such as fine Churches or castles or universities. Nevertheless, they succeeded like the Apostles in watching over their flocks as mothers and fathers do over their children, and to pass on to them the teachings of Our Lord. They formed a people full of the faith, blessing when insulted and enduring when persecuted. When at last they had completed their labors in one place, they carried the torch and went elsewhere. For three centuries the Maronites were cut off from the rest of the world, blockaded with in their mountains; and when the Crusaders swarmed into the East, their discovery of the Maronites came as a surprise. The Holy See itself was astonished to learn of their continued existence when their disappearance had been taken for granted. Subsequently there were strong ties formed between the Maronites and the Crusaders, particularly after the arrival in the East of St Louis, King of France. During the thirteenth century, Lebanon knew some decades of relative peace. The Maronites were even able to undertake the construction of a number of Churches, an activity which Patriarch DOUAIHY recorded as follows: ‖At that time, Christianity spread throughout the East and was openly proclaimed. Bronze bells were rung to summon the faithful to prayer and to the sacred services. Those who received the outpourings of God‘s grace founded convents and built Churches, for the people yearned to serve the Almighty and to perform good deeds. Father Basil of Bsharri had three daughters: Mariam, Thecla, and Salomeh. Mariam constructed the shrine of St Saba in Bsharri in Mount Lebanon; Salomeh, that of St Daniel in Hadath; and Thecla, that of St George in Bkerkasha as well as two churches in Koura...‖ (The Annals, 104)

The Pallium Although he had received an invitation from Pope Eugene IV to attend the Council of Florence in person,‖the Maronite Patriarch sent Fra Juan as his delegate, being motivated by concern about the risks of the voyage. Fra Juan had an audience with the Pope, at that time presiding over the works of the Council, after which he returned to Lebanon bearing the Pallium.

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‖When the worthy friar reached Tripoli, there was a large crowd who came to greet him; unfortunately however, there were also soldiers sent by the governor to arrest him, the official in question being persuaded that the Christians had met in Florence to prepare the launching of another crusade against the Muslims of Syria. On learning of the envoy‘s misfortune, the Patriarch sent emissaries to reassure the governor about Fra Juan‘s intentions. After having pocketed a substantial bribe, the governor set his prisoner free after the latter had promised to return after completing his mission. Fra Juan made his way up to Our Lady of Mayfuk, which was then the seat of the Patriarch, and delivered him the Pallium together with a letter from Pope Eugene IV. But he then set off for Rome again, this time passing through Beirut and ignoring his earlier promise to the governor of Tripoli, who naturally enough flew into a rage and sent his soldiers to arrest both the Patriarch and other leading personalities. Finding nobody at the patriarchal residence, he plundered and set fire to the houses around and even killed a number of the local inhabitants. Those of his men who continued the search for the Patriarch destroyed the monastery, killing some of the monks and taking the others in chains to Tripoli.‖ The Patriarch was obliged to leave the monastery of Mayfuk and from then on lived under the protection of Jacob, Mukaddam of Bsharri.‖ (DOUAIHY, The Annals, 210).

Wadi Qannoubine As one advances into the deep-cut valley of Kannoubine, one is surrounded by mountains towering over the gorge, leaving only a patch of the sky visible overhead. If one looks down from the shoulder of one of the great mountains into the threethousand-foot depths of the gorge below, one is overwhelmed by a sense of power, and one wants to seize some twisted tree- trunk or jutting crag so as not go falling into the vast space between plunging cliffs. One European traveler recounted how the Patriarch, like a second Moses risen from the pages of the Old Testament, guided his people from his austere retreat among the rocks. Our Lady of Kannoubine was the seat of 24 Patriarchs between 1440 and 1823. They were: John of Jaj (1440-1445), Jacob of Hadeth (1445-1468), Joseph of Hadeth (1468-1492), Symeon of Hadeth (1492-1524), Moussa AKARI of Barida (1524-1567), Michael RIZZI of Bkoufa (1567- 1581), Sarkis RIZZI of Bkoufa (1581-1596), Joseph RIZZI of Bkoufa (1596-1608), John MAKHLOUF of Ehden (1608-1633), George OMAIRA of Ehden (1633-1644), Joseph HALIB of Akoura (1644-1648), John Bawab of Safra (1648-1656), George Rizkallah of Bseb‘el (1656- 1670), Stephen DOUAIHY of Ehden (1670-1704), Gabriel of Blaouza (1704-1705), Jacob AWAD of Hasroun (1705-1733), Joseph DERGHAM Khazen of Ghosta (1733-1742), Symeon AWAD of Hasroun (1743-1756), Toubia EL KHAZEN of Bekaata Kanaan (1756-1766), Joseph STEPHAN of Ghosta (1766-1793), Michael FADEL of Beirut (1793-1795), Philip GEMAYEL of Bikfaya (17951796), Joseph TYAN of Beirut (1796-1808), John HELOU of Ghosta (1808-1823). All of those named above were God-fearing men, servants of their people. The valley stands witness to their holiness and the sincerity of their quest for God through austerity

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and frugality. People said of them,‖Their crosses are of wood, but their hearts are of gold.‖ If must be said here that the hardships endured by the Maronites were not entirely to their disadvantage. Their sufferings united the people under their leaders, in turn under the authority of the Patriarch. The Mukaddam of Bsharri was the chief of his whole region. In this way some semblance of peace and order was established. But even the times of peace were not without trouble, as may be seen from this report made by a traveler who visited Kannoubine in 1475: ‖The Maronite nation has lived under occupation enduring continuous oppression and tyranny. All over Lebanon one finds ruin, tears, and terror. Under the pretext of gathering a certain tax called the ‖Gezia‖, the authorities strip the peasants of all their belongings and beat them with sticks, and torture them in order to extract from them all that they possess. Many would have perished had not their aged patriarch, Peter son of Hassan, come to their rescue. Terrified by the perils that threatened his people, the Patriarch gave away all the revenues of the Church to satisfy the rapacity of the tyrants. "The door of the patriarchal monastery was sealed, and the Patriarch sometimes had to hide in caves as did Popes Urban and Sylvester." (Marcellin de Civezza, Histoire universelle des missions franciscaines, Paris 1858, vol. 3, p. 209) In Wadi Kannoubine, the Maronites heard the Gospel and lived by it. Theirs was a life of sacrifice inspired by the true faith and by hope, and so their lives were directed. They were an example of unity and love. In Wadi Kannoubine the Maronites had no need to be urged to pray. Wadi Kannoubine is in itself an invitation to the forgetfulness of self, to meditation, and to prayer, an invitation that the Maronites did not refuse. ‖They spent their time as the first Christians did, learning from the Apostles‖. (Acts II:42) Some of them felt the need to live a life more fully devoted to prayer; many men and women sought God away from the haunts of men, and soon the caves in the valley became the retreats of hermits devoted to the inner life of union with the Creator. The Maronites at that time were always under the threat of famine through failure of the crops. They were also under the threat of attack on their persons whenever they went out to their fields. But they lived without hate towards any, anxious only to fulfill their mission in this world. They were the Apostles of Jesus Christ. They labored in patience and in hope. They looked on their enemies as people for whom Jesus had died, people to whom they must convey the message of the Gospel. They made such progress in virtue that in 1515 Pope Leo could write them a letter of encouragement in which he said: ‖You have acted without allowing the persecutions and the hardship inflicted on you by the infidels, enemies of Our Savior, and from the heretics and schismatic, to turn you away from the faith of Christ.‖

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The Maronite College of Rome On July 5th, 1584, Pope Gregory inaugurated the Maronite College in Rome, satisfying the aspirations of the community and opening to its students the way to success. In his bull the Pope declared: ―We hope that the students of this college during the days ahead, after being formed in piety and the true religion, which are of the tree of Sion and of the teaching of the Roman Church, head of all the Churches, will return home to the cedars of Lebanon to serve their community, renewing in their country faith in God. ‖This is why, with full knowledge of the facts and by virtue of our apostolic authority, we establish the Maronite College, where the students of this community may learn good behavior, devotion, the true doctrine, and all the virtues which every Christian must have.‖ With the arrival of the first students in Rome, the dreams of the Pope became a reality, and the whole Maronite community began to emerge from the shadows. More than that, the Maronite community now had means of access to Europe and to the world beyond, and was able to play its role as an intermediary between East and West. Many eminent clerics were trained in the Maronite College, the most famous being Patriarch DOUAIHY, ‖who visited every diocese to choose holy and educated priests. He examined the liturgical books, corrected the errors introduced into them by the copyists, read and adapted the works of historians, both eastern and western, and wrote books some of which are still unpublished.‖ (Patriarch Jacob AWAD) Others worthy of note include Joseph Assemani, appointed archivist in the Vatican Library, Gabriel SIONITE, professor first in Rome and then in Paris in the Royal College as well as interpreter to King Louis XIII, Echellensis, whose career exactly paralleled that of Gabriel SIONITE, and Mirhej Ben Namroun, also professor and interpreter. The Patriarchs were now in a position to encourage the education of their people. As the famous Lebanese Synod said: ‖In the name of Jesus Christ we urge you all, the ordinaries of the dioceses, of the towns, villages and hamlets, and of the convents, to work together to encourage this undertaking, which will bear much fruit. The chiefs of the people must find teachers wherever they can, and take the names of all the children able to learn, and order the parents to bring their children to school even against their will. If they are orphans or if they are poor, let the church or the monastery feed them, and if it cannot, let it contribute one half of the cost and the parents the other.‖ (The Lebanese Synod, 529) Now western religious communities began to settle in Lebanon. The Capuchins were the first in 1626, followed in 1635 by the Carmelites and in 1656 by the Jesuits. The process went steadily ahead.

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These religious orders came in order to serve the Lebanese. They opened schools in which the youth of the country were formed, schools whose academic level was on a par with those of Europe itself. Schools were opened one after the other, until there was one adjoining every Maronite Church. Some, such as those of Ain Warka, Mar Abda, and Haouka, flourished and gained a reputation for themselves. Once the Lebanese, at that time mostly Maronites, had acquired a good education, they were at the forefront of Arab intellectual progress, and played a leading role in the cultural Renaissance of the Middle East.

First Maronite Order â&#x20AC;&#x2013;In 1694, Gabriel HAWA, Abdallah BEN ABDEL-AHAD Qaraâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;li, and Youssef BEN ALBETEN, approached Patriarch DOUAIHY to request his permission to establish a religious community that follows a religious rule and constitutions under the authority of superiors who would be under a superior general. The members would take vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, under the patronage of St Anthony, the father of hermits. The Patriarch looked favorably on their demand, thanked them, and blessed their enterprise.â&#x20AC;&#x2013; (Debs, 253)

Bkerke The beginning of the eighteenth century found the Maronites divided by two currents. One group wanted to preserve the Maronite traditions, while the others were in favor of the Latinization. The holding of a synod became necessary to heal the divisions and to restore to the community its previous luster. This synod opened at Louaizeh in 1736 and was the most comprehensive to be held in modern times. It was useful to the community, as it provided guidelines for the ending of chaos and the healing of divisions. But it also limited the authority of the Patriarch and favored the liberal Latinizing tendency. It did not provide definitive solutions and left the community in a condition that was by no means entirely healthy. In the region of Jbeil, the Maronites suffered from famine, hardship, and privation, bearing with their lot in patience and silence. When pursued by enemies, they took to flight, and history speaks of no protest on their part, as if they had acknowledged their guilt. Their wretched condition was accepted as a punishment for sin. When the Mamlouks vented their wrath on the Maronites, no murmur rose from their victims. Their muqaddams received the sub-diaconate as a way of turning a page on the past and accepting the authority of the Patriarch. In Wadi Kannoubine, too, the Maronites endured famine and privation, and were pursued by enemies. But here they made themselves heard. In Jbeil they had kept silence, but in Wadi Kannoubine they did not accept to be downtrodden. Was this because something around them had changed? Was it because they were in a place of

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surer refuge, unlike Jbeil? Wadi Kannoubine was indeed their last stronghold, and it was lost all would be lost. Now the Maronite people reacted with vigor and initiative. Men and women devoted to prayer, and particularly to the life of the hermitage, increased in number. Schools were opened and the pupils flowed in. Religious orders were founded, and after division a synod was held.

Such a brief summing-up is not without truth. The fact is that Nature has a force of its own. Jbeil is a region of serenity and a school of wisdom, where the Maronites learnt peace of mind. The adjoining sea extended in tranquil vastness. Wadi Kannoubine, however, is all crag and mountain rock, soaring heights and plunging depths. It is a land still bearing the imprint of its Creator, and is a source of revelation and inspiration to action. There the Maronite has been schooled in forcefulness and obstinacy, to become a man of bold initiative. In Wadi Kannoubine one feels a force conducive to prayer and meditation, to thought and to action. There, a man can realize that he is both dust and spirit. He feels the force of the soil and its attraction, and remembers the words to Holy Scripture: ‖Dust and ashes art thou, O man, and to dust and ashes thou shalt return‖. He feels also the force of the spirit, and again recalls the words of Holy Scripture: ‖In the beginning God created heaven and earth. And the earth was void and empty, and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the spirit of God moved over the waters‖. (Genesis I, 1, 2) At Wadi Kannoubine the poet is a poet, the husbandman is a husbandman, and the Christian is a Christian. At Wadi Kannoubine, a man is known for what he is, either cold or hot, as is said in the Apocalypse of St John:‖I know what you have done; I know that you are neither cold nor hot. How I wish you were either one or the other. But because you are lukewarm, neither hot nor cold, I am going to spit you out of my mouth‖. (Apocalypse III: 15 -16). The Maronites of Wadi Kannoubine had not been at all cold. Their difficulties and their sufferings had marked them. They mourned but they took stock of themselves, and entered on a new life. As Jbeil was the Maronites‘ Garden of Olives, so Wadi Kannoubine was their road to Golgotha, and there remained for them only the triumph of the Resurrection. In 1823 the patriarchal seat was transferred to Dimane for the summer and Bkerke for the winter. The Maronites stood now in expectation of finding glory after their long history of suffering and tribulation. Wadi Kannoubine was where the Patriarch took refuge during the period of great hardship, which lasted 383 years, from 1440 to 1823. As peace slowly returned, the Patriarchs envisaged the transfer of their seat to Dimane. The first Patriarch to consider such a move was Youssef HOBAISH, who occupied a house overlooking the valley and belonging to a partner in ownership of a farm west of the village. But the first to act on the idea was Patriarch Hanna EL HAJJ, who built the Patriarchal residence in Dimane now known as the Old Residence, in the center of the village, while near it he erected the church of St John-Maron, now the parish Church. The present residence was the work of Patriarch Elias HOAYEK, who laid the foundation stone on September 28, 1899. The architect was the Lazarist Brother Leonard, who had previously planned the residence at Bkerke.

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The Patriarch had no winter residence, and therefore considered the construction of one at Bkerke. In 1703, cloister of Bkerke was built by Sheikh Khattar EL KHAZEN. It had a little Church with a presbytery alongside. In 1730, it was taken in charge by the Antonine order. In 1750, Bishop Germanos SAKR and Sister Hindyieh Oujaymeh took it as a house for the Congregation of the Sacred Heart. In 1779, an apostolic decree was issued dissolving the Congregation of the Sacred Heart and putting the house at the disposition of the Maronite community for any useful purpose. In 1786, the Maronite Synod of Bishops declared that Bkerki should be a dependency of the residence at Kannoubine. In 1890, Patriarch Hanna EL HAJJ restored it, adding part of the ground floor and the whole of the upper story. Brother Leonard, the Lazarist, was the architect. In 1970, Patriarch Paul MEOUSHI had various repairs made. In 1982, Patriarch Anthony KHORAISH had the main gate made. In 1995, patriarch Nasrallah SFEIR enlarged the residence with a new building for the archives and for the patriarchal exhibition. He also made a cemetery for the Patriarchs and embellished the church with fine stained-glass windows. Nine Patriarchs have used Dimane as a summer residence and Bkerki as a winter one: Youssef HOBAISH of Sahel Alma (18231845), Youssef EL KHAZEN of Ajaltoun (1845-1854), Boulos MASSAD of Ashkout (1854-1890), Hanna EL HAJJ of Dlebta (1890-1898), Elias HOAYEK of Hilta (18981931), Antoun Arida of Bsharri (1932-1955), Boulos MEOUSHI of Jezzine (1955-1975), Anthony KHORAISH of Ain Ibl (1975-1986), Nasrallah SFEIR of Reyfoun (1986) All these Patriarchs bore a heavy burden of responsibility, working for the unity of their flock. Their main concern has been the independence of Lebanon. In fact, despite the Mamlouk occupation and the especially redoubtable Ottoman occupation, the Maronites have always managed to preserve a certain degree of autonomy. Their Patriarch refused the decree by virtue of which the Sublime Porte used to recognize the Patriarch, and so they have always been leading their country towards total independence and seeking to preserve all that they achieved.

1860 Events followed in rapid succession. After the troubles of 1860 between the Maronites and the Druzes, there came massive emigration, World War I, and then conflicts with brother against brother. The tragedy of 1860 resulted in the death of some ten thousand Maronites, and in a deep division between the Maronites and the Druzes. Many Maronites were forced to leave their homeland and seek their fortune abroad. The coexistence of the communities was called into question. Then during World War I a blockade was imposed on the Lebanese Mountains and hundreds of thousands starved. The Church opened its doors to the poor. Patriarch Anthony ARIDA set up a cement-making factory and also the Kadisha Electricity Company. These provided jobs for hundreds of young men. Such initiatives had a

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positive effect, helping forward the process of reconciliation to strengthen national unity. After the war, there was a return to the traditional pattern of life. Now that the Maronites had a more normal existence, there were two tendencies dividing them. Conflict was renewed, and the enemy outside entered the house. Coming to the most recent part of the contemporary history of our community, we find selfishness as the dominating force driving the hearts of the faithful. Division reached the point where members were finally at each other‘s throats and carrying out massacres.

This egoism has inevitable repercussions on the lives of the faithful. There was a moral collapse, and many people went abroad, as their predecessors had done after the events of 1860.

The Independent Lebanon Independence was not easy to achieve. After the Ottoman withdrawal, the diverging political orientations of the seventeen Lebanese communities made agreement among them difficult. However, every one of the Maronite Patriarchs knew his mission as an Apostle of peace. His presence could be felt everywhere, supporting every effort for the public good and opposing injustice. All the Lebanese would trust him, for they knew he could be relied on as working for national unity and independence. In 1919, patriarch Elias HOAYEK as delegated by the Lebanese people to go to the Peace Conference at Versailles, and to demand independence on their behalf. The Patriarch went to Versailles explained the problems of Lebanon, negotiated effectively, and accomplished his mission. He thus put the future of Lebanon on a firm footing and obtained satisfaction for the national aspirations. The Patriarchs who succeeded Elias HOAYEK all followed his example. ‖No to monopolies!‖ said Patriarch ARIDA. ‖No to injustice!‖ said Patriarch AFEOUSHI. ‖No to fratricidal strife!‖ said Patriarch KHORAISH. ‖No to hegemony!‖ said Patriarch SFEIR. But it was always ‖Yes!‖ For sovereignty and freedom of decision. The Patriarchs looked beyond narrow confines and worked not only on behalf of their community but on behalf of all the Lebanese. Acting in this spirit, they helped strengthen national unity and mutual understanding among the communities. This proved to be a source of wealth for the country, as Lebanon swung into an era of development. When the worst period of trial came to an end, the Patriarch moved to Dimane in summer and to Bkerke in winter. The Maronites thought that glory now awaited them and happiness unalloyed. However, they were to learn that they had a long road to tread before they could achieve their ambitions.

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The Maronite Diaspora Did this mark the end of all the aspirations of the Maronites? Let us turn back to the very beginnings of the Church. ‖That very day the Church in Jerusalem began to suffer cruel persecution. All the believers, except the Apostles, were scattered throughout the provinces of Judea and Samaria... The believers who were scattered went everywhere, preaching the message‖. (Acts Vlll. 1/4). A similar movement in the history of the Maronites in Lebanon paralleled this development in the early history of the Church in Jerusalem. The Maronites set out for foreign parts and in doing so spread the message of St Maron throughout the world. The Maronites of the Diaspora, estimated to number some four million, played a humanistic role wherever they went, and wherever they went they succeeded, the most famous among them being Khalil GIBRAN. However, they did not forget the suffering land of Lebanon, which they had once left; they helped it financially and politically with a view to their future return. Emigration meant no setback for the community, and the Maronites were by no means doomed to extinction. At the same time, the papal bulls, received by the Patriarchs over many hundreds of years and jealously kept in the Patriarchal archives in Bkerke, the manuscripts written by bishops, priests, and hermits in the valley of Kannoubine, in the Churches of the mountains of Lebanon and elsewhere, kept the historical documents numbering over a million, all these are a testimony to the achievements of the Maronites in passing their message down the ages and to the witness they have borne for Christ down generations of cruel suffering. Their mission has been clearly fulfilled despite the challenges they faced.

The New Maronite Saints Saint Charbel Makhlouf, whom Pope Paul Vl canonized on October 9th, 1977, and Blessed Rafca Rayess, whom Pope John-Paul II beatified on November 17th, 1985, may help us as examples of that multitude of Maronites who followed Jesus Christ in silence, doing his will, and forgetting themselves for the sake of their Savior and of His Gospel. Charbel and Rafca represent those Maronites who said ‖No!‖ to evil and who incarnated that Maronite spirituality whose youth is ever renewed. Self- seeking has hampered this mission, assumed by the Maronites down the centuries. It may be thought to have been enfeebled to the point where it appears non-existent. However, there can be no doubt that it will revive, that love will prevail, and that the Maronites will once again play their leading role. The Pastoral Synod called for by Pope John-Paul II on June 12th, 1991, is a ray of hope. If the whole Maronite nation has suffered decline, in the same way this nation, if it listens to the call of the Pope, will triumph over its sins and continue on the road to success. Will triumph over its sins and continue on the road to success. This initiative comprises, among many other proposals, an educational project the effectiveness of

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which is certain. All efforts are to be coordinated and with good will on all sides there can be no doubt concerning the results. The teaching, which formed the Maronite nation in the days of Yanuh and Mayfuk, will sanctify it during the days of Dimane and Bkerke. It has become apparent to many that the cause of the evils which have come upon us, the fratricide, the expulsions, the ruin and the devastation, has been the failure to give adequate instruction, with the tragic consequence of a turning away from God. What we must demand from Dimane and Bkerke is encouragement for this task of Christian education. Instruction is the doorway to salvation. The more vigorously they follow the path marked by their ancestors in following the apostolic teaching, in leading the common life, in breaking bread, and in prayer, the better the Maronites will surmount their failure, and the sooner they will pass from Golgotha to the glory of the Resurrection. Dimane and Bkerke are the sheet anchor. They point the way to Christ. They are the windows to the glory of Resurrection.

The Maronite Patriarchs since 1110 Youssef EL GERGESS (11101120), Pierre (1121-1130), Grégoire from Halate (11301141), Jacob from Ramate (11411151), Jean (1151-1154), Pierre (1154-1173), Pierre from Lehfed (11731199), Jérémie from Amchite (11991230), Daniel from Chamate (12301239), Jean from Jaje (1239-1245), Siméon (1245-1277), Daniel from Hadchite (12781282), Jérémie from Dmalsa (12821297), Siméon (1297-1339), Jean (1339-1357), Gabriel from Hjoula (13571367), Jean (1367-1404) Jean from Jaje (1440-1445), Yacoub from Hadath (14451468),

Georges OMAIRA from Ehden (16331644), Joseph HALIB from Akoura (16441648), Jean BAWAB from Safra (16481656), Georges RIZKALLAH from Bseb‘el (1656-1670), Etienne DOUAIHI d‘Ehden (16701704), Gabriel from Blaouza (1704-1705), Yaccob from Hasroun (1705-1733), Joseph Dergham KHAZEN from Ghosta (1733-1742), Siméon AWAD from Hasroun (17431756), Tobia EL KHAZEN from Békaata Kanaan (1756-1766), Joseph ETIENNE from Ghosta (17661793), Michel FADEL from Beyrouth (17931795), Philippe GEMAYEL from Bikfaya (1795-1796), Joseph TAYAN from Beyrouth (17961808), Jean HELOU from Ghosta (18081823). Youssef HOBEICHE from Sahel Alma

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Joseph from Hadath (14681492), Siméon from Hadath (14921524), Moussa AKKARI from Baridi (1524-1567), Michel RIZZI from Bkoufa (1567-1581), Sarkis RIZZI from Bkoufa (1581-1596), Joseph RIZZI from Bkoufa (1596-1608), Jean MAKHLOUF from Ehden (1608-1633),

(1823– 1845), Youssef Raji El KHAZEN from Ajaltoun (1845– 1854), Paul MASSAAD from Achkout (1854– 1890), Jean HAGE from Dlebta (1890– 1898), Elias HOAYEK from Helta (1898– 1931), Antoine ARIDA from Bécharré (1931– 1955), Paul MEOUCHI from Jezzine (1955– 1975), Antoine KHORAICHE from Ain Ebl (1975– 1986), Nasrallah SFEIR from Raifoun (1986).

SOURCE: http://www.opuslibani.org.lb/egliseeng/002/antioch1.html

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Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir Patriarch Mar Nasrallah Boutros Cardinal Sfeir (Arabic: ‫ال كاردي نال مار ن صر هللا ب طرس ص ف ير‬Al-Kārdīnāl Mār Naṣrallah Buṭrus Ṣafīr) (born May 15, 1920 in Rayfoun, Lebanon) is the patriarch of Lebanon's largest Christian body, the Maronite Church, an Eastern Catholic Church in communion with the Holy See. He was elected Patriarch of Antioch for the Maronites on April 27, 1986, after the resignation of Cardinal Anthony Peter Khoraish. His official title is His Holiness the seventy-sixth Patriarch of Antioch and the Whole Levant.

Background He was educated in Beirut, and at Mar Abda School in Harharaya where he completed his primary and complementary studies, and Ghazir where he completed his secondary studies at St. Maron seminary. He graduated in philosophy and theology in 1950 at Saint Joseph's University in Beirut. He was ordained to the priesthood in the same year on May 7. From 1951 to 1955 he served as priest to the parish of Rayfoun. In 1956, he was appointed the secretary of the Maronite Patriarchate, based in Bkerké. In the same year, he became the professor of translation in literature and philosophy at the Frères Maristes (Marist Brothers) School in Jounieh. In June of 1961, he was appointed the titular bishop of Tarsus and Patriarchal vicar. In July of 1961, he was elected a Bishop. He was elected to the primacy of the Maronite Church by the Council of Maronite Bishops, on April 27, 1986. Sfeir was made a cardinal by Pope John Paul II in the consistory of November 26, 1994. As the Patriarch of a sui juris particular Church who has been made a cardinal, Sfeir is a Cardinal Bishop. Sfeir is fluent in many languages: Syriac, Aramaic, French, Italian, Latin, and English, as well as his native Arabic, being proficient in both classical and Lebanese dialects. Serving as the Vicar for two previous patriarchs prepared Sfeir for the role in both the ecclesiastical and civil spheres. He became a strong voice for reason and sanity in the latter years of the Lebanese Civil War, which raged from 1975 to 1990. He has often spoken out against social and political injustices, and for the poor and disenfranchised. His writings and sermons set out his vision of how Lebanon can achieve a free and prosperous future. Like his predecessor, Sfeir largely stayed out of politics during the first few years of his tenure as patriarch, generally deferring to the stance of the Lebanese President, but by 1989, he had become embroiled in national politics.

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Involvement in politics The cardinal has found himself both within the Syrian camp and outside it. At the beginning of the 1990s he did not support Syria's role against General Michel Aoun. In the spring of 1989, when Aoun launched a campaign to achieve control of militiadominated areas, 23 Christian deputies of parliament met at the seat of the Maronite Church in BkerkĂŠ, under the auspices of Sfeir, and called for a cease-fire. While hundreds of thousands Lebanese (Christians and non-Christians) gathered in the Baadba presidential palace in support for Aoun, a couple of thousands of Christians demonstrated in Bkerki against Aoun. Under what some say was pressure from the Vatican, he backed the Taif Agreement and hence the Syrian mandate over Lebanon in order to end the civil war, saying that it was "a fatal error to believe that we can live alone on an island in which we run our affairs as we like." A few days later, he declared that Aoun's nonacceptance of the Taif Agreement was illegal and unconstitutional. On November 5, as parliamentary deputies met at an abandoned air base in Syriancontrolled North Lebanon to elect a new president, Sfeir warned in a sermon that Aoun's stand "would lead to partitioning of the country." Opposition within the church The patriarch's authority was challenged even within the Church itself, as several monastic orders issued proclamations supporting Aoun and denouncing the Taif Accord. To bolster the patriarch's authority, the Vatican became directly involved in reorganizing the Maronite Church. Speaking before a gathering of Lebanese bishops in November 1989, the papal nuncio in Lebanon, Pablo Puente, condemned "the interference of clerical persons and institutions in politics without being officially mandated to by the church hierarchy... an end must be put to political visits and declarations that have no clear Church mandate." The Vatican later sought to temper nationalist views in the clergy by appointing "visiting bishops" to supervise three especially militant monastic orders. In 1990 Sfeir called for the rival government in West Beirut to take over Aoun's "Christian enclave" in the east. "The legitimate government should spread its authority over the whole nation," he said in one interview. "It should not wait for an invitation from anyone to do so." Finally on October 13, 1990, the Syrian army crushed Aoun's insurgency and the long civil war finally came to an end. Aoun's main objection to the Taif Accord was that it had no firm timetable for Syrian withdrawal and that it abolished most of the Maronite president's power giving them to the Sunni prime Minister. The Syrians were to occupy Lebanon for another 15 years. Damascus was 'forced' under international pressure to withdraw its forces from Lebanon, following the political upheaval and large scale street protests which followed the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri; at the end of April 2005 - Sfeir was at times a vocal critic of Syrian prevarication in carrying out its pledge to withdraw, up until around 2003, falling silent again just as anti-Syrian views were becoming more widespread. His restraint in his comments at this time appeared to have lost him the support, in particular, of a majority among those Christians who had fled the country. The Cardinal also urged restraint in anti-Syrian rhetoric, and for Lebanon to focus on its

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economic development rather than political rifts. Nevertheless, hundreds of thousands of Lebanese (mostly Christians) gathered in Bkerke and the roads leading to it on March 27, 2001, to welcome back the Cardinal from a tour in the United States, during which he asked for the withdrawal of the Syrian army. He blessed in 2001 the establishment of Christian Qornet Shehwan Gathering opposed to the Syrian role and in the aftermath of the Hariri assassination he restated his opposition to Syria's predominant role in Lebanese politics and the political changes following Syrian withdrawal appear to have largely restored his previous position as the main spokesperson for his community. In the first half of 2006 the Cardinal was critical of the political paralysis created by the controversy over whether President Ă&#x2030;mile Lahoud should serve the remainder of his term of office (which was specially extended under Syrian pressure in 2004 until November 2007). At the same time, he stressed that Lahoud should be removed only by lawful and constitutional means and that the continued smooth functioning of government and a national consensus on his successor were the main priorities. In order to discuss the July 2006 Israel-Lebanon war and American policy on the affair, he met with Vice President Dick Cheney at the White House, and later talked with Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice. On October 15, 2006, the predominantly Christian Free Patriotic Movement held gatherings in which anti-patriarchal slogans were raised, denouncing Cardinal Sfeir's political stands, which they consider contradictory to the will of the majority of the Christians in Lebanon. The FPM bloc, led by retired general and current MP Michel Aoun, constitutes the largest Christian bloc in the Lebanese parliament. Belief and liturgy The Maronite Church is an Eastern Catholic Church in communion with the Bishop of Rome, the Pope. Sfeir has written several books, including "The sources of the Gospel-BkerkĂŠ", (1975); "Personalities that disappeared 1961-1974" - (two volumes); and "Sunday sermons: spiritual reflections and stand of national positions", (several volumes, 1988). Sfeir is keen on accelerating liturgical reforms. This work bore fruit in 1992 with the publication of a new Maronite Missal, which represents an attempt to return to the original form of the Antiochene Liturgy. Its Service of the Word has been described as far more enriched than previous Missals, and it features six Anaphoras (Eucharistic Prayers).

SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasrallah_Sfeir

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Chapter Ten: The Melkite Heritage

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A Short History of the Melkite Church The Church began on the day of Pentecost when the Apostles followed Jesus' command to preach the Gospel on the streets of Jerusalem. From there the Apostles preached in all the great centers of the Roman Empire. The first converts were Jews, but soon the Church began to appeal to gentiles of all nationalities: Romans, Greeks, Syrians, Egyptians and Africans. The message of the Gospel was heard even at the far reaches of the Roman Empire. Antioch was a major city in the Eastern Roman Empire. As an important stop along the east-west trade route it had a large and ethnically diverse population. It was here that St. Peter and St. Paul preached to a Christian community of both Jews and gentiles and where the followers of Jesus were first known as "Christians." As the Christian Church spread throughout the Empire and beyond, five major administrative centers developed into the first Patriarchates: Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem, Rome and finally, in the 4th Century, Constantinople. The Bishop at each of these five centers was known as the Patriarch, and the Patriarch of Rome was considered "first among equals" by the others. Each Patriarchate developed its own liturgy and theology, often related very closely to the customs and modes of thought of the people in its respective part of the Empire. In the 4th and 5th Centuries serious disagreements about the nature of Jesus arose. One priest, Arius, taught that Jesus had only a human nature: he was merely a great man. Another priest, Nestorius, taught that there were actually distinct persons in Jesus Christ. Yet another theologian taught that Christ had only a divine nature, that His human form was merely a disguise (Monophysite heresy). The Church of Antioch held to the true faith that Jesus has two natures: He is at once fully human and fully divine. This truth was taught by the Emperor at Constantinople, but many Christians who resented the rule of the Greeks would not accept the Emperor's teaching. Those who followed the true faith were called "malkaya" or "followers of the emperor." Unfortunately the Church of Antioch split into two factions: the Orthodox (Melkite) faction and the Jacobite faction which adhered to the idea that Jesus' nature was solely Divine. By the end of the 5th Century the Melkite Church grew to encompass Antioch, Alexandria and Jerusalem. The Church developed a strong and flourishing spiritual life. Many of its saints are revered in both Eastern and Western Churches to this day: Ignatius of Antioch, John Chrysostom, Barbara, John of Damascus, Cosmas and Damian, Ephram the Syrian, Maron, Romanos the Melodist and Thallelaeus the Physician. The city of Antioch suffered many invasions through the centuries, and the fortunes of the Patriarchate rose and fell with successive waves of invaders. In 637 Antioch fell to the Muslim Arabs and was not recovered by the Byzantine Roman Empire until 969. It was during this period of Muslim occupation that the Church felt persecution but

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managed to maintain a strong spiritual life. St. John of Damascus, while serving as a secretary to the Muslim ruler, wrote the beautiful canon for our Easter Matins service and the deeply moving canon for our funeral service as well. The fierce Seljuk Turks conquered Antioch in 1084 and imposed harsh restrictions on the practice of Christianity. Melkite Christians expected relief from their sufferings when ten years later Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade and thousands of European Knights set out to recapture the Holy Land from the Turks. Unfortunately, the Melkite Church fared little better under the rule of Europeans than they had at the Muslims. Many Melkite Patriarchs had to flee Antioch and reign from Constantinople because of continued difficulties with both the Europeans and the Muslims. During the rule of the Mamluks, who overran Antioch in 1268, the Patriarch was banished from Antioch; the Patriarchate moved to Damascus and has been there ever since. The churches of Rome and Constantinople excommunicated each other in 1054, but the Melkite Patriarch of Antioch tried to promote good relations between both churches. Nevertheless, the political situation forced the Melkite Patriarch under the protection of Constantinople to break communion with Rome. After the Crusades, when many European traders established permanent trading contacts in the Middle East, the Melkite Church once again came in contact with Europeans, primarily French merchants. The foreign merchants often enjoyed greater freedom of religion than the Melkites living under the rule of the Ottoman Turks. Factions of the Melkite Church sought to bring the Patriarchates of Rome and Constantinople together once again, but the differences were perceived as too great. So, for religious and economic reasons the Patriarch of Antioch split again: the election of Patriarch Cyril Tanas in 1724 brought the Melkite Patriarchate into communion with Rome. Opponents formed the Orthodox Partriarchate of Antioch, which remains our sister church to this day. Over the18th and 19th Centuries western European powers conquered territory throughout the world. Conquered peoples often regarded the Europeans as culturally superior. The Melkite Church regrettably began to adopt Latin Catholic theology and liturgical forms from the French whose culture they greatly admired. In the late 19th Century many Melkites immigrated to the United States and Latin America, determined to retain something of their Melkite identity. These immigrants organized the first parishes and requested priests from the Middle East to serve their spiritual needs. In response the Patriarchs sent many priests from the ranks of the celibate clergy to act as "circuit riders" in the United States. These priests held services all across the country, organized parishes where local Melkites were willing to make the commitment and functioned under the jurisdiction of Latin Rite Bishops. It was in this way that the Melkite churches in the United States were begun. Although they were often architectural copies of Latin Rite churches, and although many priests incorporated Latin Rite modifications into the Liturgy in the mistaken notion that Melkites would appear to be "more Catholic," the immigrant clergy nevertheless served several generations of the faithful and preserved the Melkite heritage in America.

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Before the Second Vatican Council a group of prominent Melkite clergy stationed at the seminary in Cairo advocated a restoration of Eastern Theology and Liturgy in the Melkite Church. Archbishop Joseph Tawil was an original member of the Cairo group, which expressed considerable influence on the Second Vatican Council and prompted a renewal of the Melkite liturgy according to its ancient traditions. This liturgical and theological renewal of the Melkite Church has made perhaps the greatest headway in the United States, especially since the creation of a Melkite episcopate in the United States in 1966. Today the Melkite Church in America stands as a living witness to the universality of the Church, to the truth that "in Christ there is no East or West." SOURCE: http://www.stanndanbury.org/history.htm

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The History of Melkites Historical Introduction Here are some extracts taken at length from a synthesis made by Mgr Joseph Nasrallah, the Exarch in Paris, of his "HISTOIRE de L'EGLISE MELCHITE des ORIGINES Ă NOS JOURS" (History of the Melkite Church from its Origins to the Present Day), published in Le Lien. Unlike the other oriental churches, Catholic or Orthodox, the Melkite Church is not a national church. In the canonical acceptation of the word it is a particular Church, spread throughout the Arab Middle East and throughout a diaspora of ever increasing extent. It is the legitimate heir of the three apostolic sees of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. Its origins are inextricably bound up with the preaching of the Gospel in the Greco-Roman world of the Eastern Mediterranean and with the extension of Christianity beyond the limits of the Empire. The setting up of the patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, the first two at the Council of Nicaea (325 A.D.) and the third at Chalcedon (451 A.D.), gave it its form and made of it a territorial and juridical entity. The Melkite Church owes its character as a particular church to two loyalties, one to the Empire of Byzantium and the other to the first seven ecumenical councils. However, it was only towards the end of the fifth century that it took the name of Melkite. This appellation, which was invented by its Monophysite detractors to stigmatize its fidelity to Marcian the Emperor (=malka in Syriac) and to the council which he had called at Chalcedon, is the distinguishing label marking its orthodoxy in relation to the cattolica. In our day, sociologically speaking the Melkite Church offers an astonishing ethnic homogeneity; its patriarch, its episcopate, its clergy both regular and secular, its faithful, are mostly Arabic speaking. With the Arabo-lslamic conquest of the seventh century, the world of the Melkite patriarchates passed under non-Christian domination; Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem were part of the Islamic world up to and including the Ottoman domination, which started in 1516. With rare exceptions during the Mameluke rule, the Christians did not undergo persecution so much as a regime of vexation and subjection; they were now dhimmis or protected people. They assumed with resignation and courage their new role as witnesses to Christ in the territory of Islam. As they were no longer able to play a political role, the Melkites, like the Jacobites and Nestorians, turned towards the liberal professions, especially medicine, and were the artisans of the translation into Arabic of the philosophical, medical and scientific heritage of ancient Greece. The Byzantine reconquest of Antioch lasted no more than a century, from 960 to 1085 A.D. It had as consequence the Byzantinization of the liturgy of the three patriarchates, and the adaptation of the liturgical usage and customs of the imperial city was more or less accomplished at Antioch by the end of the thirteenth Century.

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But there was something which not even the halo surrounding the ecumenical throne of Constantinople had been able to do, and that was the dragging of the Melkite Church into schism; now, however, the Crusaders prepared the way for it. What happened was that Latin patriarchs and bishops replaced the Melkite hierarchy everywhere except at Alexandria. The local Church was forced to submit to a foreign Church. A kind of estrangement grew up between the two, without the former however actually breaking off its relations with Rome. The reign of the Mamelukes from 1250 to 1516 not only put an end to the existence of Frankish possessions in the East, but was itself a crucial period for the Christian communities; persecutions, destruction and massacres were their almost daily lot. It was during the reign of these slaves invested with authority that the number of Christians went sharply down, with whole regions either Islamized or emptied of their population. However, the faithful few held on to their mission, which took on more and more a character of witness and of fidelity to Christ. Confessors and martyrs were not lacking. The Ottoman conquest (1516 to 1918) was no more clement, at least until the seventeenth century. For a long time now, Christians had no longer been considered as "protected" persons but were viewed as no better than infidels. The Pashas were under no restraint in their dealings with this category under their administration, a category which had no legal means of protest. Now all the East was under one authority alone, that of the Sultan, who knew how to get the most out of the situation. Constantinople became not only the political capital of an immense empire, but also the religious capital of the East, in the same way as Rome was of the West. The Ecumenical Patriarch was now given complete authority over the members of the Melkite hierarchy. Their confirmation and sometimes even their election depended on the Phanar. The hierarchies of Alexandria and Jerusalem were in consequence completely Hellenized, and from 1534 down to the present day their episcopal charges have been given to Greeks. So it was that the two patriarchates cut themselves off from the cattolica to embrace schism. Hellenism had no hold on Antioch, whose patriarchs were chosen from among the native clergy, and for the most part maintained some links with 14 Rome. Basically, the Patriarchate never faltered in its belief, even when one or other of its chief hierarchs happened to be more favorable to Constantinople than to Rome. A Church is formed of more than its head; it is composed also of bishops, clergy and people. The faithful bear within themselves a sense of the truth, a sure instinct which allows them to recognize it. Simply because Pope Honorius leaned towards monothelitism, has anyone ever seriously deduced that the Church of the West actually embraced this heresy? The failure of the Union attempted at Florence served as a lesson for Rome. The establishment of formal communion with an oriental Church would have to be brought about by work at the base and not at the summit. During an early stage, various missionaries, including Jesuits, Capuchins, Carmelites and Franciscans, put themselves at the disposition of the local hierarchy and worked in co-operation with it. Pastors who

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were not in formal communion with Rome encouraged their flocks to turn to the missionaries. The people felt the need for a deeper understanding of the traditional faith which they followed despite one thousand years of repression. They hoped to gain this from a clergy more instructed than their own. On both sides, the feeling was that there was one and the same faith which they shared. However, there was a fraction of the population which felt drawn by the high reputation of western culture and took over the Latin contribution in its entirety. So it was that after some decades there appeared a new way of conceiving the traditional faith. The behavior of these new «Catholics» was viewed as treason by the group of those attached to their past and as a 15 deformation of their ancestral law. Consequently, communion in one faith with the cattolica, which had never ceased to flourish in the Patriarchate of Antioch, was called into question and two different conceptions of it made their appearance. The Antiochean identity became lost. one fraction of the faithful leaned towards Byzantium and became more Constantinopolitan than Antiochean, while the other fraction tended towards Rome, with a relationship that was Roman rather than faithful to the belief of the local Church The result was that at the death of Patriarch Athanasius in 1724, a double lineage of patriarchs came into existence, one Orthodox and the other Catholic. Both lines have lasted down to the present day. 1724 was indeed a fateful year; from now on there were two parallel hierarchies, two sister communities, driven apart under the complacent eye of the Turks, who granted the patriarchal and episcopal sees to those who offered them the most. Both sides had their martyrs and confessors. Henceforth, the two Churches, Catholic and Orthodox, followed two divergent ways and two different destinies. The first one, the one which we are to talk about, namely the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, pushed on with its own internal organization. New monastic orders were founded and a clergy educated in Rome taught in the newly founded schools. A seminary was opened in Aïn Traz in 1811. Despite the difficulties of the period of growth, which lasted until the end of the eighteenth century, due above all to antagonisms between the new monastic congregations, the Melkite Church could stand on its own feet; local Church councils endowed it with a solid organization and so it extended and developed. Then in the nineteenth century, Providence provided it with two great patriarchs, Maximos Mazioum (1833 to 1855), and Gregory Joseph Sayour (1864 to 1897). Three years after his election, Mazloum put the finishing touches to the canonical legislation of his Church, confirmed at the Councils of Aïn Traz in 1835 and of Jerusalem in 1849. He extended his care to the Patriarchate of Alexandria, for in their efforts to flee persecution at the hands of the Orthodox, many Catholics from Syria and Lebanon had emigrated to Egypt. Mazloum consecrated a bishop for them, sent them priests and provided the new parishes with churches and charitable foundations, and did as much for the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. But Mazloum is above all famous for

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having obtained from the Sultan recognition of the complete independence of his Church from both the civil and ecclesiastical points of view, in the year 1848. The long patriarchal reign of Gregory Joseph was both glorious and fertile. For thirtythree years, balancing his actions against their possible consequences on the capital work of the union of the Churches, he strove for the application of his great plan for the restoration of his Church. He wished for this to be done according to the pure oriental tradition and this explains his opposition to Vatican I for its declaration of the dogmas of the Primacy and Infallibility of the Pope in the meaning given them by the majority of the Fathers present, as he considered declaration of these dogmas to be inopportune. He struggled against Protestantism, which was penetrating the area in force, by founding the patriarchal colleges of Beirut in 1865 and of Damascus in 1875. In 1866 he reopened the seminary of A誰n Traz, but most important of all it was he who was behind the founding of the seminary of St. Anne of Jerusalem in 1882. He took a most important part in the Eucharistic Congress of Jerusalem in 1893. His suggestions had in addition an important influence on the elaboration of the encyclical Orientalium Dignit as a veritable charter for the oriental Churches by which Pope Leo XIII ordered the strictest respect for the rights of the patriarchs and for the oriental discipline, correcting on several points the spirit of the majority of the Latin missionaries. We all remember the outstanding personality of Maximos IV (1947-1967) and his action at Vatican II. It has been truly said of him that he was one of the Fathers who made the Council, to which he imparted many of the orientations that it took. Perhaps, when one considers the small number of the faithful of his Church, his audacity may appear to have bordered on temerity. But he was strongly aware that he was speaking on behalf of the "absent brother", the great Orthodox Church, which counts no less than two hundred million faithful. He drew his force and his effectiveness from the conception which he had of his Church as a bridge between Rome and Orthodoxy. Since his election to the Patriarchate on November 22, 1967, his successor, His Beatitude Maximos V Hakim, the present head of the Melkite Church, has firmly followed the way traced by his predecessors, while paying particular attention to the problem of the Diaspora of his Church; for in fact most of its members live outside the limits imposed on our Patriarchate. J. Nasrallah, Exarque patriarcal, Paris

Antioche When, in the fullness of time and "awaited by all the peoples" Christ was born of the Virgin Mary in Palestine(1), most of the world was under the civilizing influence of the "lex romana" and Antioch, situated where the Orontes returns between its banks, was the second most important city in the Empire(2). There are very interesting descriptions of Antioch, the ancient capital of the Kingdom of Seleucia, later to become the Roman province of Syria. This city, with a population of over 200,000, often received the imperial court and was the true capital of what was then called the East

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Two important men of letters from Antioch, Liban and Saint John Chrisostomos, have testified in their writings to the greatness and beauty of the city. Of that former splendor, of the elegant villas described by Chrisostomos, the streets paved with marble and illuminated at night for which Antioch was renowned, nothing but memories and ruins remain. Today, Antakia, as it is now known, is an unpretentious rural centre on Turkish soil. Then, however, when for the first time on earth the tidings that the Word had been made flesh and the coming of the Saviour were received, this city, notorious for its riches and even more so for its degenerate morals, could not be overlooked by the Twelve. From Antioch, a center of international trade, great highways led to Damascus and Jerusalem, to Asia Minor and Egypt, to Persia and India. Antioch's connecection with the beginning of the preaching of the gospel is of great significance: it was from here that the good tidings were brought to Syria and Persia, from here that Paul undertook his first apostolic journeys, here that Peter established his Bishopric before he went to Rome; and it was in Antioch that "Christians" were first so named. The fact that this most scandalous city of the East should become the Seat of the Prince of the Apostles is really philosophically Christian, in the words of Juvenal, that "vice should flow into the Tiber from the Orontes". Thus, a fresh stream began to flow from the Orontes to the Tiber, whose murmurings brought words of Hope and Love until the Word was preached on the very banks of the Tiber, from Rome itself, chosen as the new Seat of the throne of Peter. The same was to happen with the cross which, on the Hill of Golgotha in Jerusalem, was used to "execute" Christ, now became the symbol of salvation; and the ignominious instrument of condemnation became the sign of holiness and honor. (1) cf. rise Holy Bible. (2) GLANVIllE DOWNEY, A History of Antioch in Syria, Princeton, 1961, with an extensive bibliography.

The Melkites With freedom secured (in 313), the Church possessed a well defined territorial organization based on the civil administration (1). On the occasion of the first Ecumenical Council in Nicaea in the year 325, the existing situation received juridical confirmation. According to the provisions of the various canons, specific powers were granted to the "metropolitans", i.e. to the bishops of the "metropolises", or capitals of the "provinces". The rights of the bishops having jurisdiction over the "metropolises" were also laid down. Canon 6(2) granted Alexandria special privileges in Egyptian territory, similar to those enjoyed by Rome in Italy. Antioch

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was granted primacy over the East and Canon 7 conferred a similar privilege on Jerusalem. In this way, the government of the Church was based on the jurisdictional powers held by the Sees of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem over the territories assigned to them, the overall primacy being attributed to the Holy See of Rome. The title of the Bishops of these four Seats was that of Patriarch. With the transfer of the capital of the empire to Constantinople, the city of Constantine gained considerable importance also within the ecclesiastical administration and eventually became a Patriarchal see. In the year 381, the second Ecumenical Council decreed that Constantinople should be honored with a primacy that was second only; to that of Rome, which would remain the See of the Successor of Peter. The five patriarchal Sees formed the so called "Pentarchy", their Patriarchs being known as the five luminaries of the universe, the five heads and supports of the Church, the five senses of the ecclesiastic body of which Rome represented the eyes. Under Justinian, imperial authority and the rights of the Patriarchs were consolidated. The Novella 123(3) set the order of precedence of the Patriarchal Seats as follows: Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. Furthermore, the consecration of metropolitan bishops and the convening of local councils would remain with the Patriarchs, as well as judicial rights and the right of control over the entire Patriarchate and that of dispatching personal ambassadors to other Patriarchates. In addition, the Patriarchs were granted the right to maintain a permanent Synod, a union of Bishops, to carry out and direct the main business of the Patriarchate. The Pentarchy, which was virtually tantamount to a government by five territorial Popes, one of whom, the Pope of Rome, had universal primacy, collapsed in 1054 with the schism of Constantinople. Centuries earlier, at the time of the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedony in 451, the Patriarchate of Antioch had undergone a severe crisis which led to a split in the Patriarchate itself. This crisis had been created by the Dyophysitic definition (4). The Monophysites, who acknowledge only one person in Christ, were condemned by the Council. They persisted in holding to their doctrine principally for political, anti-byzantine motives, since the emperor had become the Guarantor of the "orthodox" doctrine. To challenge the Council of Chalcedony signified a form of protest against imperial authority, against Constantinople. The term "Melchgite" (5) was thus coined to refer to the true believers, those who remained faithful to the Council doctrine and who followed imperial orthodoxy. The "orthodox" Patriarchate of Antioch has been called "Melkite" ever since. The same occurred in Alexandria (6) and the Patriarch and the faithful who accepted the official doctrine were called "Melkites".

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With the schism between Constantinople and Rome in 1054 the entire East virtually broke away from the West and the Eastern Patriarchates, up to that time in close contact with Rome, mostly rallied round the ideas of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. In order, however, to distinguish themselves from the heretics, whom they had always condemned and repudiated, the Church of the East, though now separated from Rome, insisted on calling themselves "orthodox", that is to say faithful to the true doctrine just as, in order to stress the universal character of its Primacy, the Holy See of Rome called itself "Catholic". Thus, in time, "orthodox" came to be applied to Christians belonging to a Church of the East that had broken away from Catholicism.

(1) In the year 292, Diocletian had divided the empire into 12 "Diocesess". In 395, Theodosius had decreed the division into the Eastern and Western empires, each which were divided into "Provinces". According to the "Notitia dignilatam" the Roman Empire around the end of the 4th century thus consisted of: The Empire of the East with the eastern Prefecture, comprising the "Dioceses" of Egypt (capital Alexandria) East (Antioch), Asia (Ephesus), Thrace (Heraclea) Pontus and the Prefecture of llliria with the two "Dioceses" and Macedonia, the Empire of the West with the Italian Prefecture, comprising the Italian, African and Illyrican Prefectures and the Prefecture of Gaul with the "Dioceses" of Spain, Gaul and Britain. (2) "Antiqua consuetudo servetur per Aegyptum, Lybiam et Pentapolim ita ut Alexandrinus episcopus horum omnium habeat potestatem, quia et urbis Romae episcopo parilis mos est. Similiter autem et apud Antiochiam ceterasque provincias sua privilegia serventur ecclesiis". Cfr. B. KURTSCHEID, Historia iaris canonici vista ria Institutorum Roma 1951. (3) "Novella" is the name given the legal provision of the great legislator Justinian, author of the "Corpus iuris dVili5 ". (4) That is, that the human and the divine in Christ constitute two natures. (5) From "Melek" which in Syrian signifies King, Emperor. (6) It was in Alexandria, in 460, that the expression "Melkite" was first used, to designate the "orthodox" faithful of the legitimate Patriarch of Alexandria, Times them Solofaciolo, who had the support of Emperor Leo 1

Constantine's Peace After the first three hundred years of preaching Christianity, which were the most dangerous and difficult for the ecclesiastical community, peace finally came. Previously, after an initial period of tolerance, the imperial authority had enacted the infamous laws of repression and condemnation of the preaching or acceptance of the gospel. Any

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violation of the law was punished by death. There were hosts of martyrs, that is, those "criminals" who confessed their faith and preferred to die rather than be condemned to losing their peace in Christ. By now, most of the Empire's subjects were Christians and the time was ripe for a reconciliation between Church and State. It was thus that Constantine the Great, in the year 313, promulgated his famous edict of Milan on tolerance for Christians after his famous vision of the flaming cross standing out against the sky with the words "IN HOC SIGNO VINCES", and following the victory of Maxentius at Ponte Milvio. Through the wisdom of this young Serbian emperor, born in 280 in the town known today as Nish, peace between Church and State was accomplished. This peace was dependent, however, on the proviso that the Church recognize and support the authority of the State(1). Constantine fell more and more under the Christian influence until, in the year 330, he transferred the imperial court to Byzantium and changed its name to Constantinople, thereby founding the Christian capital of the empire in deliberate opposition to Rome where pagan traditions were still rife. In 391, under Theodosius, Christianity was adopted as the religion of the State. The imperial power was therefore considered the Garantor of doctrinal orthodoxy and the Protector of the organized community of the believers in Christ. (1) An extensive study of the Roman Empire of the East has been made by GEORG STROGORSKY, Storia dell'lmpero bizantino, Torino 1968.

The Patriarchate Already in the 16th and 17th centuries, efforts toward a return to unity had been made by various Melkite Patriarchs of Antioch, now residing in Damascus where the See had been transferred in the 15th century after the destruction of Antioch by a violent earthquake. Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries did everything they could to foster good will and, finally, in 1709, Patriarch Cyril V formally recognized the authority of the Pope. One of his successors, Cyril VI Thanas ( 1724-1759) completed the work of unification, but a Greek monk, Sylvester, had himself nominated Patriarch by the Patriarchate of Constantinople, thereby forcing Cyril VI to flee from Damascus and take refuge in Lebanon.

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Henceforth, events could only move in one direction. Although an orthodox Malachite Patriarchate remained in Antioch, a new "Greek-Melkite-Catholic" Patriarchate also grew up there which was linked to the Holy See of Peter. The Pope granted the Patriarch of Antioch and all the East in communion with Rome the "ad personam" title of "Patriarch of Alexandria and Jerusalem". And this brings us to the present day. On November 26, 1967, H.B. cardinal Maximos IV Sayegh, who distinguished himself by the enthusiasm and the content of his doctrinal intervention at the various sessions of the Vatican Council, was succeeded by the present Patriarch H.B. Maximos V, a man of broad outlook, whose sharp intellect is combined with great energy and strength of mind. Although to a lesser extent in the West, the dignity of the office of the Patriarch is always considered of the highest prestige everywhere in the East. The Pope himself is, however, the "Patriarch of the West". Of this there remains little evidence, such as the inscription "Patriarchium" in the marble of the Palace of Lateran, the Seat of the Bishop of Rome, indicating that this Seat, with its designation "Basilica patriarcalis", was always attributed to the Roman Basilicas of St. Peter's of St. John's of the Lateran, of St. Paul's outside the walls and St. Salary Major. In almost all of the predominantly Islamic countries, or, more precisely, those which were previously part of the Ottoman Empire and still earlier part of the Roman Empire of the East --- Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and Egypt(1) --- the Patriarch is recognized as the supreme civil and legal authority of the ecclesiastical community. In other words, the Statute accepted by the Ottoman rulers recognizing the Patriarch as the head of the "Nation of Catholic Pilgrims" (Roum K창tholik milleti) remains in force. Without going into matters lying beyond the scope of this brief historical outline, the Patriarchate may be said to be an "international juridical entity". From the standpoint of internal ecclesiastical law, the Patriarch enjoys a broad canonical independence within the limits imposed by the relationship with the Holy See of Rome. It is interesting to note that in religious ceremonies in Byzantine rites (2) the Patriarch is referred to as "Patriarch of the cities of Antioch, Alexandria and Jerusalem, of Cilicia, Syria, Iberia, Arabia Mesopotamia, Pentapolis, Ethiopia, of all of Egypt and the entire East, Father of Fathers, Pastor of Pastors, Bishop of Bishops, the Thirteenth of the Holy Apostles". Patriarchal authority was discussed during the second Vatican Council, and steps were taken to settle the matter with the decree "Orientalium Ecclesiarum", that is to say, the question of the Catholic Church of the East. This Church is so little known to the people of the West today that many think that all the Eastern peoples are Moslems. The truth is that in this land, whence came the "good tidings" to us, there are many Christian Catholics, whose faith is extremely fervent despite the comparative poverty in which they live. The following quotation of Canon 9 of "Orientalium Ecclesiarum" is an indication of how the second Vatican Council considered it necessary to stress the

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extremely important role the Patriarchs have played in the Catholic Church and will continue to do so on an increasing scale in future. "By virtue of a most ancient tradition of the Church, a special honor is due to the Patriarchs of the Churches of the East who, as Fathers and leaders, preside over their respective Patriarchates". "This Holy Council thereby decrees the restoration of their rights and privileges, in conformity with the ancient traditions of each Church and the resolutions of the Ecumenical Councils. "These rights and privileges are those which were in effect during the period of unity between the East and the West, although they may require some modification in order to meet present day requirements" . (1 Turkey is an exception because of the well known anti-religious restrictions imposed by President Kemal Ataturk as a result of "laicization" of the Republic of Turkey. (2) Side by side with the term "Melchites", "Byzantine" was and is still used to designate the Christian communities of the East who have rejected heresy and hold the true faith. Members of the Greek-Catholic Church are also called a uniates. The Patriarchs of Melkite Catholic Churches A list of twenty Melkite Catholic Patriarchs since 1724: 1724-1759 Cyrille Vl Tanas 1759-1760 AthanaseIV Jawhar 1760-1761 Maximos II Hakim 1761-1788 Théodose V Dahan 1788-1794 Athanase IV Jawhar (2e fois) 1794-1796 Cyrille Vll Siage 1796-1812 Agapios II Matar 1812-1812 Ignace IV Sarrouf 1813-1813 Athanase V Matar 1813-1815 Macaire IV Tawil 1816-1833 Ignace V Cattan 1833-1855 Maximos lIl Mazloum 1856-1864 Clément Bahous 1864-1897 Grégoire II Youssef-Sayour 1898-1902 Pierre IV Géraigiry 1902-1916 Cyrille Vl l l Geha 1919-1925 Dimitrios I Cadi 1925-1947 Cyrille IX Moghabghab 1947-1967 Maximos IV Saïgh 1967-____ Maximos V Hakim SOURCE: http://www.opuslibani.org.lb/egliseeng/003/histoire.html

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Gregory III Laham Patriarch of Antioch Gregory III Patriarch of Antioch

Church See Enthroned

Melkite Greek Catholic Church Antioch November 29, 2000

Ended Predecessor

Maximos V Hakim

Successor

Incumbent

Birth name

Lutfy Laham

Born Residence

1933 Darayya, Syria Syria and Lebanon

Gregory III (Laham) (Arabic,‫()غري غوري وس ال ثال ث ل حام‬b.1933), Patriarch of the Church of Antioch, is the spiritual leader of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church. He was elected patriarch on November 29, 2000, succeeding Maximos V Hakim, who resigned at age 92 due to failing health, dying seven months later. He took the name Gregory after the 262

Patriarch Gregory II Youssef, the last member of his order to be elected patriarch (18641897). Life Early years and education Patriarch Gregory was born Lutfy Laham in Darayya, Syria in 1933. He entered the Seminary of the Holy Savior of the Basilian Salvatorian Fathers in the Shoof, Lebanon in 1944. He took his simple religious vows in the Basilian Salvatorian Order in 1949 and his solemn religious vows in 1954. He received his religious and philosophical education at the Holy Savior Seminary, Joun, Lebanon. He continued his theological studies in Rome where he was ordained priest in 1959 in the Church of the Abbey of Grottaferrata in Italy. [edit] Priesthood

Gregory III in Rome during Pentecost Divine Liturgy, may, 11th 2008. Behind him, Bishop John Adel Elya, eparch emeritus of Newton, USA The future patriarch received a doctoral degree in Oriental Theology from the Pontifical Oriental Institute in Rome following his ordination . He then served as superior of the Holy Savior Major Seminary from 1961-64. In 1962 he founded the magazine AlWahdah - Unity in Faith, the first ecumenical magazine to be published in the Arabic language. He also founded several orphanages and trade schools in Lebanon. He was appointed Administrator of the Patriarchal Vicariate of Jerusalem in 1974, in the wake of the Israeli arrest of the Patriarchal Vicar of Jerusalem, Archbishop Hilarion Capucci of Aleppin Salvatorians. He founded the Student Fund in Jerusalem to help

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needy students and in 1978 the Family Assistance Fund to help needy families in the troubled areas of his Diocese. In 1967 he founded at the Patriarchate the Oriental Library to promulgate the knowledge of Eastern traditions. He initiated many social projects such as repairing churches, opening clinics and building popular housing, including a guest house for pilgrims at the Patriarchal Center in Jerusalem. Following an old tradition of the more than 900-years old Order of Knighthood, founded in Jerusalem to take care of lepers in the Hospital of St. Lazarus, he is the Spiritual Protector of the international ecumenical Military and Hospitaller Order of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem as were his predecessors Maximos IV and Maximos V. Episcopate In 1981, he was ordained Archbishop by Patriarch Maximos V Hakim and continued his work as Patriarchal Vicar of Jerusalem as successor to Archbishop Hilarion Cappucci. Appointed by Patriarch Maximos V as president of the Patriarchal Liturgical Commission, he edited the Anthologion, the prayer book or breviary of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and The Book of the Liturgies, an updated compendium of the Divine Liturgy. As secretary of the Ecumenical Commission of the Melkite Patriarchate, he led the dialogue between the Melkite Greek Catholic and the Greek (Antiochian) Orthodox Churches. Books Patriarch Gregory III is author of several books, including:     

Introduction to the Liturgical Services and their symbols in the Eastern Church The Voice of the Shepherd - Eastern Liturgical Spirituality Life of Archbishop Germanos Adam Translations of History of the Melkite Church (English and German) The Melkite Greek Catholic Church at the Second Vatican Council

SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_III_Laham

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Melkite Greek Catholic Church

The coat of arms of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church The Melkite Greek Catholic Church (Arabic: ‫كنيسة الروم الكاثوليك‬, Kanīsät ar-Rūm alKāṯūlīk) is an Eastern Rite sui juris particular Church of the Catholic Church in communion with the Pope. The church's origins lie in the Near East, but, today, Melkite Catholics are spread throughout the world. At present there is a worldwide membership of approximately 1.3 million.[1][2] The Melkite Church has a high degree of ethnic homogeneity but its patriarch, its episcopate, its clergy and many of its faithful, are Arabic, French and English speaking.[3] The church, which split from the Antiochian Orthodox Church in 1724, observes a Byzantine liturgical tradition.

Meaning of church name Melkite comes from the Syriac word malko for "imperial", which was originally a pejorative term for Middle-Eastern Christians who accepted the authority of the Council of Chalcedon (451) and the Byzantine Emperor.[4] It was given to them by antiChalcedonians (the Oriental Orthodox).[5] This term is now not generally used to refer to other Chalcedonian Christian groups (see Melkite for the history of this term) The Greek element signifies the Byzantine Rite heritage of the church: its liturgy is little different in structure from that of the Eastern Orthodox Church.[6] The term Catholic signifies the church's acknowledgment of the authority of the Pope. However, the word can also imply participation in the world-wide church (see Catholic). According to some theologians, the Melkite Church of Antioch is the "oldest continuous Christian community in the world".[7] In Arabic, the official language of the church [8], is called ar-Rūm al-Kathūlīk (Arabic: ‫)الروم الكثوليك‬, which literally means Greek Catholic.

History The origins of the Melkite Catholic Church go back to the establishment of Christianity in the Near East.[9] As Christianity began to spread, the disciples preached the Gospel

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throughout the region and were for the first time called â&#x20AC;&#x2022;Christiansâ&#x20AC;&#x2013; in the city of Antioch (Acts 11:26), the historical See of the Melkite Catholic Patriarchate.[10] By the second century, Chrisitianity was widespread in Antioch and throughout Syria. Growth of the church did not stop during periods of persecution, and by the end of the fourth century Christianity became the official state religion. The Melkite Greek Catholic Church traces its origins to the Christian communities of the Levant and Egypt. The church's leadership was vested in the three Apostolic Patriarchates of the ancient patriarchates: Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. The church's history and relation to other churches may be summarised in four defining moments.

Fallout from the Fourth Ecumenical Council The first defining moment was the socio-political fallout in the wake of the Fourth Ecumenical Council, the Council of Chalcedon, which took place in AD 451. Fifthcentury Middle-Eastern Christian society became sharply divided between those who did and those who did not accept the outcome of the council. Those who accepted the decrees of the council, the Chalcedonians, were mainly Greek-speaking city-dwellers, and were called Melkites (imperials) by the anti-Chalcedonians.[11] These latter were predominantly Syriac-Arabic or Coptic-speaking provincials.

Fusion with Arabic language and culture The second defining event is more of a period of change than a sudden movement. The Battle of Yarmuk (636) took the Melkite homeland out of Byzantine control and placed it in the hands of the Muslim Arabs.[12] Whereas the Greek language and culture remained important, especially for the Melkites of Jerusalem, Melkite tradition became fused with the Arabic language and culture. Indeed there was Arabic Christian poetry before the arrival of Islam, but this enracination into the Arabic culture led to a degree of distancing between the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the Melkite patriarchs and their people. Despite the Arab conquest, the Melkites continued to exercise an important role in the Universal Church. The Melkites played a leading role in condemning the iconoclast controversy when it re-appeared in the early 9th century, and were among the first of the Eastern churches to respond to the introduction of the filioque clause in the West.[13]

Union with See of Rome The third defining moment were the Councils of Reunion in which the Orthodox hierarchs accepted union with the See of Rome after a long period of schism. In 1054, Patriarch Michael Kerularios and Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida had excommunicated each other, thus formalizing a schism which had been developing for many years. The Melkite Patriarch Peter III of Antioch rejected the quarrel of the Latin Cardinal and the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1965, Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I "consigned these excommunications to oblivion."

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However the Crusaders introduced Latin prelates into the apostolic sees of the East, and the Fourth Crusade saw the sack of the great city of Constantinople and its domination by the "Crusaders" for fifty-seven years. These developments brought the East-West quarrel home to everyone but there was no declaration of schism. Since there had never been any formal division from East-West Schism these 'converts' of the Latin missionaries simply became a pro-Western, pro-Catholic party within Eastern Orthodoxy. Throughout the 17th century Jesuits, Capuchins and Carmelites established missions with the consent of the local Orthodox bishops in the Ottoman Empire. The Dominicans had been in Iraq since the 1300s. At the Second Council of Lyons (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Emperor accepted union with the West hoping for aid to save Constantinople from Islam. Neither of these unions lasted, though the last two emperors of Constantinople were professing Catholics; nor was any significant aid forthcoming from the warring kingdoms of a soon to be torn-apart Europe. From 1342, Roman Catholic friars opened missions in the Middle East, particularly in Damascus and their teaching had important influence over the Melkite clergy and people. Yet, in the Melkite tradition it was the Jesuits, founded only in 1534, who were really decisive in the formation of the Catholic party in the Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch. The Jesuits were not friars but something like the highly educated priests of the Patriarchal Chancery, which made them more acceptable.

Election of Cyril VI The fourth defining moment was the election of Cyril VI, in 1724, by the Melkite bishops of Syria as the new Patriarch of Antioch. As Cyril was considered to be pro-Western by the Patriarch of Constantinople, Jeremias III feared that his authority would be compromised. Therefore, Jeremias declared Cyril's election to be invalid, excommunicated him, and appointed Sylvester of Antioch, a Greek monk to the patriarchal See of Antioch.[14] Sylvester exacerbated divisions with his heavy-handed rule of the church as many Melkites acknowledged Cyril's claim to the patriarchal throne. It was obvious to all that Cyril had been legitimately elected and consecrated, and that Jeremias had attempted to remove him only to bolter his own authority over the Antiochian Patriarchate. (This Greek domination over the Byzantine Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch lasted until 1899.) Jeremias and Sylvester began a five year campaign of persecution against Cyril and the Melkite faithful who supported him, enforced by Ottomon Turkish troops. Five years after the election of Cyril Tanas, in 1729, Pope Benedict XIII recognized Cyril as the legitimate Patriarch of Antioch and welcomed him and his followers into full communion with the Roman Catholic Church.[15] From this time onwards, the Melkite Greek-Catholic Church has existed separately from and in parallel to the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch in the Middle East; the latter is not referred to as Melkite.

267

The Melkite Greek Catholic Church has played an important role in the leadership of Arabic Christianity. It has always been led by Arabic-speaking Christians, whereas its Orthodox counterpart had Greek patriarchs until 1899. Indeed, at the very beginning of her separate existence, around 1725, one of her most illustrious lay leaders, the savant and theologian, Abdallah Zakher of Aleppo (1684–1748) set up the first printing press in the Middle East. In 1835, Maximos III Mazloum, Melkite Greek Catholic Patriarch of Antioch, was recognized by the Ottoman Empire as the leader of a millet, a distinctive religious community within the Empire. Pope Gregory XVI gave Maximos III Mazloum the triple-patriarchate of Antioch, Alexandria and Jerusalem, a title that is still held by the leader of the Melkite Church. In 1847, Pope Pius IX (1846–1878), reinstituted the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem in the person of the young, 34 year old, zealous Giuseppe Valerga (1813-1847-1872), whom the indigenous hierarchs nicknamed "The Butcher" because of his fierce opposition to the native churches of the Holy Land. When he arrived in Jerusalem in 1847, there were 4,200 Latin Catholics and when he died in 1872, the number had doubled. Historians theorize[citation needed] that Valerga's attempts to advocate the proselytisation of local churches was a response to the domination of the Patriarchate by the Greek Hellene Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre. Others believe that Valerga was appointed to address the threat of Protestantism posed by the Lutheran-Anglican Bishop of Jerusalem which also posed a problem for the Anglican John Henry Newman. Tensions between the Latin and Melkite Catholic Churches continued into the 19th century. Patriarch Gregory II Yusuf (1864–1897) was an opponent of papal infallibility at the First Vatican Council. Yusuf believed that the proclamation of papal infallibility would place great strain on relations between the Melkites and other Eastern Christian Churches.[16] He also spoke forcefully for preserving the autonomous status of the Eastern Catholic Churches and maintaining patriarchal rights; this earned him the displeasure of Pius IX.[17] The successor of Pius IX was Pope Leo XIII and in 1894 he issued the encyclical Orientalium Dignitas, reaffirming patriarchal rights and prohibiting the latinisation of the Eastern Catholic Churches,[18] reassuring Gregory and leading to his ultimate agreement with papal infallibility.

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The Church in modern times

Gregory III Laham, current patriarch

Battles over Latin and Melkite traditions in the Church Patriarch Maximos IV Sayegh took part in the Second Vatican Council where he championed the Eastern tradition of Christianity, and won a great deal of respect from Eastern Orthodox observers at the council as well as the approbation of the Patriarch of Constantinople, Athenagoras I. Following the Second Vatican Council the Melkites moved to restoring traditional worship. This involved both the restoration of Melkite practices such as administering the Eucharist to infants following post-baptismal chrismation as well as removal of Latinrite elements such as communion rails and confessionals. In the pre-conciliar days, the leaders of this trend were members of "The Cairo Circle", a group of young priests centered around the Patriarchal College in Cairo. This group included Fathers George Selim Hakim, Joseph Tawil, Elias Zoghby and former Jesuit Oreste Kerame; they later became bishops and participated in the Second Vatican Council, and saw their efforts vindicated. These reforms led to protests by some Melkite churches that the de-latinisation had gone too far. During the Patriarchate of Maximos IV (Sayegh), some Melkites in the United States objected to the use of the vernacular in the celebration of the Divine Liturgy, a movement that was spearheaded by the future archbishop of Nazareth, Father Joseph Raya of Birmingham, Alabama. The issue garnered national news coverage after Bishop Fulton Sheen celebrated a Pontifical Divine Liturgy in English at the Melkite National convention in Birmingham in 1958, parts of which were televised on the national news. In 1960, the issue was resolved by Pope John XXIII at the request of Patriarch Maximos IV in favour of the use of vernacular languages in the celebration of the Divine Liturgy. Pope John also consecrated a Melkite priest, Father Gabriel Acacius Coussa, as a

269

bishop, using the Byzantine Rite and the papal tiara as a crown. Bishop Coussa was almost immediately elevated to the cardinalate, but died two years later. His cause for canonization was introduced by his religious order, the Basilians of Aleppo. Further protests against the de-latinisation of the church occurred during the patriarchate of Maximos V Hakim (1967â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2000) when some church officials who supported Latin traditions protested against allowing the ordination of married men as priests.

Attempts to unite the Melkite diaspora Due to heavy emigration from the Middle East, which began with the Damascus massacres of 1860, in which most of the Christian communities were attacked, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church today is found throughout the world and no longer made up exclusively of faithful of Middle Eastern origin. This development is called "The Diaspora". The Patriarchate of Maximos V saw many advances in the worldwide presence of the Melkite Church, called "the Diaspora":[19] Eparchies (the Eastern equivalent of a diocese) were established in the United States, Canada, Brazil, Australia, Argentina and Mexico in response to the continued emptying of the Middle East of her native Christian peoples. Some historians state[citation needed] that after the revolution in Egypt in 1952, many Melkites left the Middle East due to the renewed Islamic, nativist and socialist policies of the Nasser regime. In 1950, the richest Melkite community in the world was in Egypt, in 1945 the most populous single diocese was Akko, Haifa, Nazareth and all Galilee; by 1955 that was no longer the case due to Israeli anti-Arab measures, equally targeting Christian Arabs as well as Muslim. In 1967, a native Egyptian of Syrian-Aleppin descent, George Selim Hakim, was elected the successor of Maximos IV, and took the name Maximos V. He was to reign until he retired at the age of 92 in the Jubilee Year of 2000. He reposed on the feast of Saints Peter and Paul, June 29, 2001.

Nobel Peace Prize nominations Two successors of Patriarch Maximus V in the See of Akko, Haifa, Nazareth and all Galilee have been nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize: the second archbishop, Joseph Raya (1968â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1974) and the fifth and present incumbent, Archbishop Elias Michael Chaccour, who is the first Palestinian to hold the See and is also the founder of the Mar Elias Educational Institutions in Ibillin, Galilee. He was ordained to the episcopacy in his own church in Ibillin and enthroned in the cathedral of Haifa in 2006.

Church traditions The Melkite Catholic Church is in full communion with the Holy See but fully follows the traditions and customs of Byzantine Christianity.[20] The traditional language of worship

270

is Arabic and Greek, but today, services are held in a variety of languages depending on the country where the Church is located.

Modern church dioceses The current Melkite Greek Catholic Patriarch of Antioch and All the East, and Alexandria and Jerusalem is Gregory III Laham. The patriarchate is based in the Syrian capital Damascus. In the Middle East, the church has dioceses in:  

 



Egypt and Sudan o Patriarchal see of Alexandria, looked after by a protosyncellus. Israel o Patriarchal see of Jerusalem (a patriarchal vicariate). o Archeparchy of St. John of Acre, Haifa, Nazareth and all Galilee Jordan o Archeparchy of Petra, Philadelphia (Amman) and all Transjordan Lebanon o Archeparchy of Baalbek o Archeparchy of Baniyas and Marjeyoun o Archeparchy of Beirut and Byblos o Archeparchy of Saida and Deir el-Kamar o Archeparchy of Tripoli o Archeparchy of Tyre o Archeparchy of Zahleh, Furzol and all the Bekaa Syria o Patriarchal See of Antioch, now seated in Damascus. o Archeparchy of Aleppo o Archeparchy of Bosra and Hauran o Archeparchy of Homs, Hama and Yebroud o Archeparchy of Lattakiyeh and the Valley of the Christians

Throughout the rest of the world, the church has dioceses in:   

  

Argentina o Apostolic Exarchate of Argentina Australia and New Zealand o Eparchy of St. Michael's of Sydney Brazil o Melkite Greek Catholic Eparchy of Nossa Senhora do Paraíso em São Paulo (seatd ub São Paulo. Canada o Eparchy of Saint-Sauveur de Montréal. Mexico o Eparchy of Nuestra Señora del Paraíso en México. United States of America o Melkite Greek Catholic Eparchy of Newton

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

Venezuela o Apostolic Exarchate of Venezuela, Caracas.

References      



Descy, Serge (1993). The Melkite Church. Boston: Sophia Press. Dick, Iganatios (2004). Melkites: Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholics of the Patriarchates of Antioch, Alexandria and Jerusalem. Boston: Sophia Press. Faulk, Edward (2007). 101 Questions and Answers on Eastern Catholic Churches. New York: Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4441-9. Parry, Ken; David Melling (editors) (1999). The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity. Malden, MA.: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23203-6. Raya, Joseph (1992). Byzantine Church and Culture. Allentown, NJ: Allelulia Press. ISBN 0-911726-54-3. Roccasalvo, Joan L. (1992). The Eastern Catholic Churches: An Introduction To Their Worship and Spirituality. Collegeville, MN.: The Liturgical Press. 0-81462047-7. Tawil, Joseph (2001). The Patriarchate of Antioch Throughout History: An Introduction. Boston: Sophia Press.

Notes 1. ^ Faulk (2007), pp. 9-10 2. ^ CNEWA website, retrieved November 2007. Information sourced from Annunario Pontificio 2007 edition 3. ^ PATRIARCHATE - Church History 4. ^ Dick (2004), p. 9 5. ^ Dick (2004), p. 9 6. ^ Faulk (2007), p. 5 7. ^ Melkite Greek Catholic Church Information Center Unofficial History of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church / Grec Melkite Catholique 8. ^ [1] 9. ^ Tawil (2001), pp. 1-3 10. ^ Dick (2004), pp. 13-15 11. ^ Tawil (2001), p. 21 12. ^ Dick (2004), p. 21 13. ^ Dick (2004, p. 21 14. ^ Parry, (1999), p. 312 15. ^ "Melchites". Catholic Encyclopedia. (1913). New York: Robert Appleton Company. 16. ^ Dick (2004), p. 64 17. ^ Dick (2004), p. 64 18. ^ Dick (2004), p. 64 19. ^ The History of the Melkite Byzantine Church 20. ^ Faulk ((2007), pp. 5-7

SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melkite_Greek_Catholic_Church

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Chapter Eleven: The Syriac Catholic Heritage

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The Syrian Catholic Church

The faithful attend Mass at Virgin Mary Church in Zeydal, Syria. (photo: Armineh Johannes) During the Crusades there were many examples of warm relations between Catholic and Syrian Orthodox bishops. Some Syrian bishops seemed favorable to union with Rome, but no concrete results were achieved. There was also a decree of union between Syrian Orthodox and the Catholic Church at the Council of Florence (Multa et Admirabilia of November 30, 1444), but this also came to nothing. Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries began to work among the Syrian Orthodox faithful at Aleppo in 1626. So many Syrians were received into communion with Rome that in 1662, when the Patriarchate had fallen vacant, the Catholic party was able to elect one of its own, Andrew Akhidjan, as Patriarch. This provoked a split in the community, and after Akhidjanâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s death in 1677 two opposed patriarchs were elected, an uncle and nephew, representing the two parties. But when the Catholic Patriarch died in 1702, this brief line of Syrian Catholic Patriarchs died out with him. The Ottoman government supported the Oriental Orthodox against the Catholics, and throughout the 18th century the Catholic Syrians underwent much suffering and persecution. There were long periods when no Syrian Catholic bishops were functioning, and the community was forced underground. In 1782 the Syrian Orthodox Holy Synod elected Metropolitan Michael Jarweh of Aleppo as Patriarch. Shortly after he was enthroned, he declared himself Catholic, took refuge in Lebanon and built the still-extant monastery of Our Lady at Sharfeh. After Jarweh there has been an unbroken succession of Syrian Catholic Patriarchs.

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The faithful gather in Mar Mousa Monastery in Nebek, Syria. (photo: Armineh Johannes) In 1829 the Turkish government granted legal recognition to the Syrian Catholic Church, and the residence of the Patriarch was established at Aleppo in 1831. Catholic missionary activity resumed. Because the Christian community at Aleppo had been severely persecuted, the Patriarchate was moved to Mardin (now in southern Turkey) in 1850. Steady Syrian Catholic expansion at the expense of the Syrian Orthodox was ended by the persecutions and massacres that took place during World War I. In the early 1920s the Patriarchal residence was moved to Beirut, to which many Syrian Catholics had fled. The Syrian Catholic Patriarch always takes the name Ignatius in addition to another name. Although Syrian Catholic priests were bound to celibacy at the Synod of Sharfeh in 1888, there are now a number of married priests. A patriarchal seminary and printing house are located at Sharfeh Monastery in Lebanon. The largest concentrations of Syrian Catholics are found in Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq. The common language is Arabic, although Syriac is still spoken in a few villages in eastern Syria and northern Iraq. A community of nuns, known as the Ephremite Sisters or Daughters of the Mother of Mercy, was founded by the Syrian Catholic Patriarch in 1901. The community was dispersed during World War I, and reestablished in 1958. In 2003 the order had 11 sisters in Lebanon and six in Syria, along with ten novices. Since 1970 it has directed St. Josephâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s Orphanage in Batha, Lebanon, which over the years has given shelter to some 900 girls. A diocese for Syrian Catholics in the United States and Canada, Our Lady of Deliverance of Newark, was founded in 1995. The first bishop is Joseph Younan (502 Palisade Avenue, Union City, New Jersey 07087). The diocese includes five parishes 275

and four missions in the United States, and two parishes and one mission in Canada. In Australia contact Msgr. Michael Berbari, 60 Kingsland Road, Beralla 2141. In a letter to him dated January 25, 2008, Pope Benedict XVI accepted the resignation of Syrian Patriarch Ignatius Peter VIII, who had been in office since 2001. The Pope acknowledged that the Patriarch had resigned because of his â&#x20AC;&#x2022;concern for the spiritual progress of the faithful and for harmony among bishops.â&#x20AC;&#x2013; The Pope entrusted the leadership of the Syrian Catholic Church to a committee composed of three bishops pending the election of a new Patriarch. Location: Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, diaspora Head: (Vacant) Title: Patriarch of Antioch of the Syrians Residence: Beirut, Lebanon Membership: 132,000 SOURCE: http://www.cnewa.org/ecc-bodypg-us.aspx?eccpageID=65

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Syrian Catholic Church of Antioch The Syrian Church of Antioch was born soon after the Council of Chalcedon (451). The Church kept its liturgy in Syrian language, while the parallel Church of Greek expression accepted the Byzantine liturgy. The Bishop James Baradeo (VI century) consecrated various bishops and priests, giving the Church a chance to propagate in the Middle East. The Syrian Catholic Church of Antioch was born in 1782 when Michael Jarweh, archbishop of Aleppo - who had become a Catholic in 1774 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; was elected Patriarch, and confirmed with this title by the Pope. This caused a rift within the Church and the creation of a parallel hierarchy. Today the Syrian Catholic Patriarchate is present in Lebanon, Turkey and Jerusalem with three Exarchates (vicariates). There are about 200.000 faithful. The Syrian Catholic and Orthodox Churches are working together and accept cooperation in pastoral work. Three sacraments (Baptism, Eucharist and Anointing of the sick) can be celebrated by clergy of both Churches and are recognized. The Exarchate of Jerusalem was erected in 1890. There are two parishes, one in Jerusalem and one in Bethlehem. There is also a parish in Amman. SOURCE: http://www.catcc.net/en/siro-cattolica/syrian-catholic-church-of-antioch.html

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History of the Syriac Catholic Church "at a glance" Antioch: The Syriac Catholic Church belongs to the See of Antioch (which prior to his departure to Rome, Saint Peter established) and extends it roots back to the primitive Christianity in the Orient. And in the Acts of the Apostles we are told that it is in Antioch where the followers of Jesus for the first time were called "Christians" (Acts 11:26). History: In the time of the first Ecumenical Councils, the Patriarch of Antioch held the ecclesiastical authority over the Diocese of the Orient, which was to be extended from the Mediterranean Sean to the Persian Gulf. Its scholarly mission in both languages: the Greek and Syriac was to provide the world and the Universal Church with eminent saints, scholars, hermits and pastors. Among these great people are Saint Ephrem (373), Doctor of the Church, Saint Jacob of Sarug (521) Dionysius Bar Salibi (1171) and Gregorius X Bar Hebraeus (1286). In modern history the distinguished leaders of the Syriac Catholic Church have been among others: Patriarch Ignatius Michael Djarweh, Archbishop Clemens Daoud, Patriarch Ephrem Rahmani, Vicomte de Tarrazi, Monsignor Ishac Armaleh, PatriarchCardinal Gabriel Tappouni and Chorbishop Gabriel Khoury-Sarkis. The present Syriac Catholic Patriarch of Antioch is Mar Ignatius Antoun II Hayek who was elected Patriarch in 1968 and resides in Beirut-Lebanon. He presides upon the Patriarchal Eparchy of Beirut and leads spiritually the Syriac Catholic Community that also includes two Archdioceses in Iraq, four in Syria, one in Egypt and Sudan, one Patriarchal Vicariat in both the Holy Land and Turkey and the newly erected Diocese of Our Lady of Deliverance in the United States and Canada. Liturgy: The Syriac Rite is rooted in the old tradition of both churches of Jerusalem and Antioch and has ties with the ancient Jewish Berakah and is usually called the Western Syriac Rite. The main Syriac Liturgy is called the "Anaphora of Saint James" (brother of the Lord). The People: Throughout history the Syriac people have been known as the "Arameans" who were from the Biblical countries of Aram near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and were the first disciples of our Lord Jesus Christ. Language: Their ancient Semitic language is known as Aramaic (or "Syriac" after the time of Christ since the majority of people who spoke this language belonged to the province of "Syria"). It is the same language that was spoken by Jesus, Mary and the Apostles and is still the language used during the liturgy. Many of the ancient hymns of the Church are still maintained in this native tongue although several have been translated into Arabic, English, French and other languages to benefit the faithful. Rome: The Syriac Catholic Church was formally and officially united with Rome in 1781

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North America: Our Lady of Deliverance Syriac Catholic Diocese in the United States and Canada is comprised of nine parishes; seven in the United States and 2 in Canada. SOURCE: http://syriac-catholic.org/ata1.htm

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The Syriac Catholic Church For much of church history, especially during the time of the Crusades, Catholic and Syriac Orthodox bishops enjoyed warm relations. In 1444, the Council of Florence even issued a special degree of unity between Catholics and Syriac Orthodox. In the early 17th century, Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries began working in Syriac Orthodox communities. Their activities inspired many Orthodox faithful to seek full communion with Rome, which in turn, prompted a Catholic-Orthodox split among Syriac Christians. In 1782, the Syriac Orthodox Holy Synod elected Metropolitan Michael Jarweh of Aleppo as patriarch. Shortly after he took office, he declared himself Catholic and fled to Lebanon where he built Our Lady of Sharfeh monastery. From Jarweh onward, an unbroken succession of Syriac Catholic patriarchs has headed the emergent Syriac Catholic Church. Since the 1920‘s, the patriarch of Syriac Catholic Church resides in Beirut. Location: Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, diaspora Head: (Vacant) Title: Patriarch of Antioch of the Syrians Residence: Beirut, Lebanon Membership: 132,000 To read more: R. Roberson: The Syrian Catholic Church Church in North America Eparchy: Our Lady of Deliverance Syriac Catholic Diocese for United States and Canada Bishop: Most Reverend Joseph Younan 502 Palisade Avenue Union City, NJ 07087-5213 Phone: (201) 583-1067 Parishes in Canada: Eglise Saint Ephrem L‘Assomption 3000 Edouard Monpetit Laval, QC H7T 2T5 Phone: (450) 682-7546 Mission Notre Dame de L‘Assomption 1625 MontÃ©e Massom

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Laval, QC H7E 2P2 Phone: (450) 661-9990 Saint Joseph Church 999 Lakeshore Road East Mississauga, ON L5E 1E5 Phone: (905) 278-0511

Last Modified: 6 June 2008 SOURCE: http://www.cnewacanada.ca/generalpg-verca.aspx?pageid=388

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The Syriac Catholic Church or Syrian Catholic Church is a Christian church in the Levant having practices and rites in common with the Syriac Orthodox Church. They are one of the Eastern Catholic Churches following the Antiochene rite, the Syriac tradition of Antioch, along with the Maronites and Syro-Malankara Christians. This is distinct from the Greek Byzantine rite of Antioch of the Melkites, both Orthodox and Catholic. These Syriac Catholics number about the same as the Syriac Orthodoxfrom whom they originated; their head, the Syriac Catholic Patriarch of Antioch, lives in Beirut. They have a separate church organization from the Melkites, Maronites, and Chaldeans, which are other communities of the Levant in communion with Rome. The Patriarch of Antioch of this church has the title of Patriarch of Antioch and all the East of the Syrians and resides in Beirut, Lebanon. 1. History The Syriac Catholic Church belongs to the See of Antioch (which prior to his departure to Rome, Saint Peter established) and extends it roots back to the primitive Christianity in the Orient. And in the Acts of the Apostles we are told that it is in Antioch where the followers of Jesus for the first time were called "Christians" (Acts 11:26). In the time of the first Ecumenical Councils, the Patriarch of Antioch held the ecclesiastical authority over the Diocese of the Orient, which was to be extended from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Its scholarly mission in both languages: the Greek and Syriac was to provide the world and the Universal Church with eminent saints, scholars, hermits and pastors. Among these great people are Saint Ephrem (373), Doctor of the Church, Saint Jacob of Sarug (521) Dionysius Bar Salibi (1171) and Gregorius X Bar Hebraeus (1286). In modern history the leaders of the Syriac Catholic Church have been among others: Patriarch Ignatius Michael Djarweh, Archbishop Clemens Daoud, Patriarch Ephrem Rahmani, Vicomte de Tarrazi, Monsignor Ishac Armaleh, Ignatius Gabriel I Tappouni and Chorbishop Gabriel Khoury-Sarkis. The present Syriac Catholic Patriarch of Antioch is Mar Ignatius Peter VIII since February 2001 and resides in Beirut, Lebanon. With this title he presides upon the Patriarchal Eparchy of Beirut and leads spiritually all the Syriac Catholic Community around the world. The emeritus patriarch, Ignace Cardinal Daoud, was as the prefect for the Congregation for Eastern Churches until June 2007. The patriarch Mar Ignatius Anthony II Hayek who was elected patriarch in 1968 took his reverence few years ago, and lives always in Lebanon.

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The community includes two archdioceses in Iraq, four in Syria, one in Egypt and Sudan, a Patriarchal Vicariate in the Holy Land, a Patriarchal Vicariate in Turkey and our Diocese of Our Lady of Deliverance in the United States and Canada. The Syriac Rite is rooted in the old tradition of both the churches of Jerusalem and Antioch and has ties with the ancient Jewish Berakah and is usually called the Western Syriac Rite. The main Syriac Liturgy is called the "Anaphora of Saint James" (brother of the Lord). Their ancient Semitic language is known as Aramaic (or "Syriac" after the time of Christ since the majority of people who spoke this language belonged to the province of "Syria"). It is the same language that was spoken by Jesus, Mary and the Apostles and is still the language used during the liturgy. Many of the ancient hymns of the Church are still maintained in this native tongue although several have been translated into Arabic, English, French and other languages to benefit the faithful. Syriac is still spoken in some few communities in eastern Syria and northern Iraq, but for most, Arabic is the vernacular language. The Syriac Catholic Church was formally and officially united with Rome in 1781. Our Lady of Deliverance Syriac Catholic Diocese in the United States and Canada is has nine parishes; seven in the United States and 2 in Canada. 2. The formation of the Church During the Crusades there were many examples of warm relations between Catholic and Syriac ("Syrian") Orthodox bishops. Some of these bishops seemed favorable to union with Rome, but no concrete results were achieved. There was also a decree of union between the Syriac Orthodox and Rome at the Council of Florence November 30, 1444 but the effects of this decree were rapidly annulled by opponents of the union among the Syriac hierarchy. Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries began to work among the Syriac Orthodox faithful at Aleppo in 1626. So many of them were received into communion with Rome that in 1662, when the Patriarchate had fallen vacant, the Catholic party was able to elect one of its own, Andrew Akhidjan, as Patriarch of the Syriac Church. This provoked a split in the community, and after Akhidjanâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s death in 1677 two opposed patriarchs were elected, one being an uncle and the other being his nephew (from the same family), representing the two parties (one pro-Catholic, the other anti-Catholic). But when the Catholic Patriarch died in 1702, this very brief line of Catholic Patriarchs upon the Syriac Church's See of Antioch died out with him. The Ottoman government supported the Syriac Orthodox's agitation against the Syriac Catholics, and throughout the 18th century the Syriac Catholics underwent suffering and

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much persecution. There were long periods when no Syriac Catholic bishops were functioning, and the community was forced to go entirely underground. In 1782 the Syriac Orthodox Holy Synod elected Metropolitan Michael Jarweh of Aleppo as Patriarch. Shortly after he was enthroned, he declared himself Catholic and in unity with the Pope of Rome, after this declaration he took refuge in Lebanon and built the still-extant monastery of Our Lady at Sharfeh. After Jarweh there has been an unbroken succession of Syriac Catholic Patriarchs. In 1829 the Turkish government granted legal recognition to the Syriac Catholic Church, and the residence of the Patriarch was established at Aleppo in 1831. Catholic missionary activity resumed. Because the Christian community at Aleppo had been severely persecuted, the Patriarchate was moved to Mardin (now in southeast Turkey) in 1850. The steady Syriac Catholic expansion at the expense of the Syriac Orthodox was ended by the persecutions and massacres that took place during World War I (Assyrian genocide). More than half of the 75,000 Syriac Catholics were massacred by Turkish nationalists (especially so-called Young Turks). In the early 1920s the Catholic Patriarchal residence was therefore moved to Beirut, to which many Syriac Catholics had fled from Turkish and intra-Syria terror. The Syriac Catholic Patriarch always takes the name "Ignatius" in addition to another name. Although Syriac Catholic priests were bound to celibacy by the Syriac Catholic local Synod of Sharfeh in 1888, there are now a number of married priests. A patriarchal seminary and printing house are located at Sharfeh Monastery in Lebanon. 3. Organization Middle-East            

Patriarchal Archeparchy of Beirut Metropolitan of Damascus Metropolitan of Homs Archeparchy of Aleppo Archeparchy of Hassaké and Nisibi Archeparchy of Baghdad and Kuwait Archeparchy of Mosul Eparchy of Cairo Patriarchal Exarchate of Bassorah and Kuwait Patriarchal Exarchate of Jerusalem and the Holy Land Patriarchal Exarchate of Turkey Patriarchal Territory of Sudan

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Rest of the World       

Eparchy of Our Lady of Deliverance of Newark (United States and Canada) Apostolic Exarchate of Venezuela Patriarchal Vicariate of Brazil Patriarchal Vicariate of Australia and New Zealand Patriarchal Vicariate of Sweden Patriarchal Vicariate of France Patriarchal Procurate vis-a-vis the Holy See in Rome

www.wapedia.mobi/en/Syrian_Catholic_Church

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Chapter Twelve: The Syriac Orthodox Heritage

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History of the Syriac Orthodox Church The Syriac Orthodox Church is one of the most ancient Christian Churches tracing its roots to the Church of Antioch. The disciples were first called Christians in Antioch (Acts of the Apostles 11:26). Apostle Peter is believed to have established a church in Antioch in AD 37, the remnants of which are still in Antakya (the modern name of Antioch), Turkey. After the martyrdom of Apostle Peter, he was succeeded by St. Euodius and St. Ignatius Noorono as shepherds of the flock in Antioch and in the writings of St. Ignatius we find the evolution of the ecclesiastical order of bishopsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;ordained successors of the Apostles in whom continued the spiritual authorities vested by our Lord in the Apostles. The bishophric of Antioch was recognized in the ecumenical Synod of Nicea (AD 325) as one of the Patriarchates of Christendom (along with that of Alexandria and Rome). It produced a line of succession beginning with Apostle Peter which continues to this day in the Syriac Orthodox Church. Antioch was at the time of Christ the capital of the Roman province of Syria and an important center of commerce. As a city imbued in the hellenistic culture, Greek was the common language. But the majority of the people in the region, especially outside the cities spoke Syriac, the Edessene dialect of Aramaic, the language spoken by our Lord. The disciples Addai, Mari, Aggai and Apostle Thomas, are believed to have spread the Gospel in the regions north east of Antioch, of Edessa (Urhoy) and Nisibis and further to upper northern Mesopotamian plains between Rivers Tigris and Euphrates. The Syriac Doctrine of Addai recounts how Christ send Addai, one of the Seventy Disciples, to King Abgar of Edessa. It is believed that Apostle Thomas went further east arriving in what is today India in AD 52. Many important and influential centers of Syriac speaking Christians emerged in the cities such as Edessa (Urhoy), Adiabene (Hadyab), and Nisibis (Nsibin). While Antioch was the seat of the bishophric, Edessa is often considered the cradle of Syriac Christianity. The Church of Antioch played a significant role in the early history of Christianity. It played a prominent role in the first three Synods held at Nicea (325) , Constantinople (381), and Ephesus (431), shaping the formulation and early interpretation of Christian doctrines. In AD 451, the Council of Chalcedon and its Christological position resulted in a schism that divided the faithful under the Apostolic See of Antioch into twoâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;one today known as the `idto suryoyto treeysath shubho (Syrian or Syriac Orthodox Church) and the other the Eastern Orthodox (or Rum Orthodox) Church of Antioch. The latter had the support of the Byzantinian Emperor Justinian who convened the Council of Chalcedon. The years that followed resulted in a struggle over the Apostolic See, with bishops of both persuasions assuming the position of Patriarch of Antioch. In

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518, Patriarch St. Severus was exiled from Antioch. The seat of the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch moved to different monasteries including Qartmin, Qenneshrin (Chalkis, near Aleppo), Malatya, and Amid (Diyarbakir), and finally settled in 1293 in Dayro d-Mor Hananyo (also known as Kurkmo Dayro in Syriac and Deir Zafaran in Arabic) in Mardin. It remained at this monastery until 1933 when the political circumstances forced its migration to Homs, Syria, and later to Damascus in 1959. Another center of the Syriac Orthodox emerged in former Persian territory, that of the so-called Easterners (Syr. Madnehoyo). The Syriac Orthodox community there was partly a result of the Persian abduction of the Syrian population during the wars with Byzantium and forced settlement on Persian territory and partly of Christians in Persia who reacted against political imposition of the doctrines of the Church of the East. In the period of the Sassanids, the Easterners for practical reasons, established an ecclesiastical organization of their own, recognizing the metropolitan of Tagrit on the River Tigris as their head in 629. Later in the eleventh century, the title came to be known as the Maphryono (literally "one who bears fruit" or "consecrator"). He was elected by the eastern bishops, just as the Patriarch was elected by those of the west, but was ordained by the Patriarch. Later, this office gained such importance that Maphryonos ordained the Patriarchs, but at the same time, the Maphryonos ceased to be elected and from 793 (with the Maphryono Sarbelios) they were nominated by the Patriarchs. Among the Maphryonos, was the illustrious author Mor Gregorius Bar `Ebroyo (1226-186). Dayro d-Mor Mattay in Mosul served as the seat of the Maphryono in many periods of history. Later, the Maphryono took residence at the Patriarchate in Mardin. The last of the Maphryonos passed away in 1848 and the position became defunct. The history of the Syriac Orthodox Church is characterized by adversity. Byzantinian oppression in the sixth and seventh centuries was followed by the atrocities of the Crusaders in the 11th and 12th centuries, then decimation at the hands of the Mongolians lead by Tamerlane (1336-1405) in about 1400, and severe restrictions under the Ottoman Sultanate. The growth of nationalism in the waning years of the Ottoman Sultanate lead to the massacre of about 25,000 in what is today South East Turkey in 1895-96. An even greater calamity occurred in 1915, etched in the memory of the Syriac Orthodox community as the Sayfo (Year of the Sword), wiping out 90314 people (including 154 priests) in 13350 families in 346 villages representing about a third of the Syriac Orthodox population in the area (according to the records compiled by Patriarch Aphrem I). Further misery came with the Kurdish rebellion in 1925-26, when the Kurds used the monasteries of Mor Malke and Dayro da-Slibo and the churches in Basibrin and near Hbob as bases. The immense suffering and destruction from 1895 onwards resulted in the alteration of the demographics of the community and mass emigration to other areas in the Middle East, notably Syria, to the North and South Americas, to different parts of Europe, and to Australia.

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Amidst all the adversity, the Church produced several illustrious saints whose lives and works had such immense influence not only on the Syriac tradition but much of Christendom. The rich liturgical heritage of the Syriac Orthodox Church is but one of their legacies. Scholars of the Church such as Mor Ya`qub of Edessa, George, the Bishop of the Arabians, and Moses Bar Kepha played an important role in transmitting Greek knowledge to the Arab world. Numerous Syriac Orthodox authors have also recorded historiographical accounts. Among them are such works as the Ecclesiastical History of John of Ephesus, the Chronicle of Jacob of Edessa, the Chronicle of Zuqnin (erroneously attributed to Patriarch Dionysius of Tel-Mahre), the Chronicle of Patriarch Mikhayel Rabo, the Chronography and Ecclesiastical History of Maphryono Gregorius Bar `Ebroyo. Many of the historical accounts recorded in English have been written by authors affiliated with the Catholic Church and Church of England. While many of these works provide a great deal of information accessible to the English readers, denominational bias is evident in these works.

Following are links to recent historical accounts in English authored by Syriac Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch. The Syrian Orthodox Church at a Glance by Patriarch H.H. Ignatius Zakka I The Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch by Patriarch Ignatius Ya`qub III (External Link) References: Brock, Sebastian and David G.K. Taylor (ed.s), The Hidden Pearl: The Syrian Orthodox Church and Its Aramaic Heritage. (Rome: Trans World Film Italia, 2001). Patriarch Ignatius Aphram I Barsoum, The History of Syriac Literature and Sciences. tr. Matti Mousa. (Pueblo, CO: Passeggiata Press, 2000). Mor Clemis E. Kaplan, The Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch: A Brief Introduction. (Unpublished manuscript, 1996). Witowski, Witold, The Syriac Chronicle of Pseudo-Dionysius of Tel-Mahre. (Uppsala: Studia Semitica Upsaliensia, 1987). SOURCE: http://sor.cua.edu/History/index.html

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Archdiocese - Metropolitan Mor Cyril Aphrem Karim Born in Kamishly, Syria on May 3, 1965, the youngest son of Mr. and Mrs. Issa Karim, His Eminence Metropolitan Mor Cyril Aphrem Karim lost his father at an early age and was raised with the rest of his family by his late and loving mother Khanema. He entered St. Ephrem‘s Theological Seminary in Atchaneh, Lebanon in 1977, following his primary schooling in Kamishly. Upon completion of his seminary studies in 1982, His Eminence served the Syrian Orthodox Archdiocese of Aleppo, Syria for the next two years. From 1984 to 1988, Archbishop Cyril pursued higher studies at the Coptic Theological Seminary in Cairo, Egypt, receiving a bachelor of divinity degree upon graduation. In 1985, Metropolitan Karim made his religious profession as a monk of the Church and was ordained to the diaconate in Egypt. Later the same year, he was elevated to the sacred priesthood in Kamishly. From 1988 to 1989, Mor Cyril served as both the secretary of His Holiness Moran Mor Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, Syrian Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch and all the East, and as a teacher at St. Ephrem‘s Theological Seminary in Damascus, Syria. In 1989, His Eminence entered St. Patrick‘s College in Maynooth, Ireland from where he was to receive a licentiate of sacred theology degree in 1991 and his doctor of divinity degree in 1994, following the defense of his doctoral thesis on the symbolism of the Cross in early Syriac Christianity. On Sunday, January 28, 1996, His Eminence was consecrated as Metropolitan and Patriarchal Vicar of the Archdiocese of the Syrian Orthodox Church for the Eastern United States by His Holiness Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I at St. Mary‘s Syrian Orthodox Church in Kamishly. Archbishop Karim arrived in the United States on March 2, 1996, and was officially installed as Archbishop and Patriarchal Vicar of the Archdiocese for the Eastern United States at St. Mark‘s Syrian Orthodox Cathedral in Teaneck, New Jersey on March 3, 1996. On December 8, 1996, His Eminence presided over the consecration of the new Archdiocesan Cathedral in Teaneck. In addition to his many other talents, Archbishop Mor Cyril Aphrem Karim is fluent in both Classical and Vernacular Syriac (Turoyo) as well as Arabic, English and French. During his years as hierarch of the Archdiocese of the Syrian Orthodox Church for the Eastern United States, His Eminence Mor Cyril Aphrem Karim has overseen the establishment of several new parishes including the Mother of God of the Zunoro Church (Jacksonville, Florida), St. Jacob of Urhoy Church (Orlando, Florida), St.

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Stephen Church (Miami, Florida), St. John Church (Atlanta, Georgia), St. Helen Church (Indianapolis, Indiana), St. Barsawmo Church (Mahwah, New Jersey), St. John Bar Aphtonia Church (Cranbury, New Jersey), St. George Church (Brooklyn, New York) and St. James of Nusibin Church (Corpus Christi, Texas). Archbishop Cyril has also provided for weekly services to be conducted at St. Aphraim Church of the Washington, DC area which recently acquired its own church building . Throughout the years, His Eminence has visited on a regular basis all the parishes of the Archdiocese, working closely with the parish boards and clergy to see that the spiritual needs of the local faithful are met. Thanks to his fatherly efforts and tireless leadership, the Archdiocese now numbers twenty parishes. In addition, soon after his arrival, His Eminence formed a new Archdiocesan Advisory Council to assist with the administration of the Archdiocese and its various programs. Mor Cyril has had a special concern for the youth of the Archdiocese. During his first year as archbishop he established the Syrian Orthodox Archdiocesan Youth Organization (SOAYO) which coordinates the ministry of youth organizations of all parishes of the Archdiocese. His commitment to young people was immediately evident when early on he held a number of youth gatherings and conferences. At these sessions, His Eminence shared the Church‘s concern for her young members and fielded many questions related to the faith and matters of specific concern to youth. His Eminence has done much to encourage the youth of the Archdiocese to work together as one family for the growth and advancement of the Holy Church. In this regard, Archbishop Mor Cyril was especially instrumental in the establishment of an Archdiocesan scholarship program to benefit young students. He has likewise helped to organize annual youth retreats throughout the Archdiocese for both younger and older youth. He also was responsible for the creation of a special monthly youth Liturgy to bring together the young people of the various parishes in the New York-New Jersey area and to allow them to more fully participate in the Eucharistic celebration. His Eminence called for the establishment of the Archdiocesan Choral Society. Comprised of musically gifted children from different parishes of the Archdiocese, the group has put on several concerts and performances and has produced two recordings, one of Christmas hymns in the Syriac tradition and the second of the Holy Thursday service. The Syrian Orthodox Scouts of America program has also been very dear to His Eminence‘s heart and he has often been with the scouts for their various activities. In addition to youth, His Eminence has also showed a great concern for the adults and the elderly members of the community. Under his guidance and leadership, a program of premarital counseling has been created in the parishes of the Archdiocese to help young couples prepare for Christian married life. This now includes an opportunity for groups of young couples to meet with His Eminence and local clergy to discuss matters of common concern to help assure lasting and successful marriages. His Eminence has also realized the importance to respect and honor the elderly. In this regard, he has established an annual Liturgy that brings together elderly members of local parishes to share in the celebration of the Lord‘s Supper and to spend a special time of recognition and appreciation together.

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In the field of education, Archbishop Cyril blessed and encouraged the establishment of the Archdiocesan Sunday School Committee, a body composed of Archdiocesan Sunday school principals and teachers who have been working together with His Eminence and local clergy in the creation of a unified Sunday school program for the Archdiocese. As a result of the Committee‘s outstanding efforts, a series of unified lesson plans and materials have been prepared that have proven invaluable in helping to introduce Sunday school students to the faith and traditions of the Holy Church. Moreover, His Eminence has been responsible for the publication of a series of excellent articles related to the Church under the title of Essays on Syriac Theology and Spirituality. This series has included English translations of various articles written by His Holiness Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas as well as articles contributed by local clergy. His Eminence has also approved the publication of several new liturgical books to help the people follow and more actively participate in the Holy Liturgy. Moreover, in 2002, Archbishop Cyril issued an edition of the Church‘s evening and morning prayers for the use and convenience of the faithful. The following year, in 2003, Mor Cyril likewise published the Book of the Order for the Burial of the Clergy, the last of the series of liturgical texts produced under the editorship of the late Mor Athanasius Yeshue Samuel of blessed memory. The volume was published as a special memorial to the remembrance of the late beloved Archbishop. In addition, Mor Cyril has seen to the reprint of such works as the Shorter Catechism of the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch (1999) by the late Patriarch Ignatius Ephrem I Barsoum and the Book of Scripture Readings for Sundays and Feasts Days (2000) originally published by the late Metropolitan Mor Philoxenus Yuhanon Dolabani of Mardin. Especially noteworthy has been His Eminence‘s encouragement of the American Foundation for Syriac Studies that has published several issues of a quarterly entitled Syriac Studies and has helped to cosponsor a series of public lectures by outstanding scholars on Syriac culture, history, literature and theology. A scholar himself who has authored Symbols of the Cross in the Writings of the Early Syriac Fathers, published by Gorgias Press in 2004, His Eminence clearly realizes the need for families to better understand and appreciate the richness of their Syriac spirituality and culture. Over the past decade, Archbishop Cyril has also distinguished himself as an ecumenist very much concerned about Christian unity. He has served on both the Executive and Central Committees of the World Council of Churches, attending the 1991 Canberra, Australia WCC General Assembly, the 1998 WCC General Assembly in Harare, Zimbabwe and the 2006 Assembly in Porto Alegre, Brazil as a member of the Syrian Orthodox delegation. Moreover, he has been an active member of the Executive and Governing Boards of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA and serves as a Vice-Chairman of the Standing Conference of the Oriental Orthodox Churches in America. In recent years, His Eminence has been instrumental in the establishment of a new and promising ecumenical body, Christian Churches Together in the USA, of which the Syrian Orthodox Church is a founding member. In all his ecumenical activities, Archbishop Cyril has most capably represented the Holy Church and has won the admiration and respect of his colleagues and confreres.

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Among the many accomplishments of His Eminence over recent years perhaps none is greater than the Archdiocesan purchase of a large piece of property in Wantage, New Jersey to serve as the site of a monastic foundation and center to meet the various needs of the Church both now and into the future. It is hoped that this center will especially help with the education of the Churchâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s youth and as a center of study and spiritual growth for all Archdiocesan faithful. This center, officially to be known as Beth Antioch, will hopefully become a reality in the near future and will help to preserve the faith and spiritual heritage of the Syrian Orthodox Church for years to come. *This biography was written by Very Rev. Fr. John Peter Meno. SOURCE: http://www.syrianorthodoxchurch.org/aphrem.html

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The Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch Bab Touma, P.O. Box 22260 Damascus, Syria

The Patriarchate in Damascus Source: The Hidden Pearl The spiritual care of the Church of Antioch was vested in the Bishop of Antioch from the earliest years of Christianity. The first among the Bishops of Antioch was St. Peter who is believed to have established a church at Antioch in AD 37. Given the antiquity of the bishopric of Antioch and the importance of the Church in the city of Antioch which was a commercially significant city in the eastern parts of the Roman Empire, the Synod of Nicaea (AD 325) recognized the bishopric as a Patriarchate along with the bishoprics of Rome, Alexandria, and Jerusalem, bestowing authority for the Church in Antioch and All of the East on the Patriarch. (The Synod of Constantinople in AD 381 recognized the See of Constantinople also as a Patriarchate). Even though the Synod of Nicaea was convened by the Roman Emperor Constantine, the authority of the ecumenical synod was also accepted by the Church in the Persian Empire which was politically isolated from the Churches in the Roman Empire. Until AD 498, this Church accepted the spiritual authority of the Patriarch of Antioch. The Christological controversies that followed the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451resulted in a long struggle for the Patriarchate between those who

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accepted and those who rejected the Council. In AD 518, Patriarch Mor Severius was exiled from the city of Antioch and took refuge in Alexandria. On account of many historical upheavals and consequent hardships which the church had to undergo, the Patriarchate was transferred to different monasteries in Mesopotamia for centuries. In the 13th century it was transferred in the Monastery of Mor Hananyo (Deir al-Za`faran), near Mardin, Turkey, where it remained until 1933. Due to adverse political situation, it was transferred to Homs, Syria and in 1959 was transferred again to Damascus, Syria. The Patriarchate office is situated in Bab Touma, in the city of Damascus, capital of Syria. The Patriarch resides at the Mor Ephrem monastery in Ma`arat Sayyidnaya, near Damascus. Since September 14, 1980, His Holiness Moran Mor Ignatios Zakka I Iwas reigns as the Patriarch of Antioch and the Supreme Head of the Syriac Orthodox Church. SOURCE: http://sor.cua.edu/Patriarchate/index.html

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HH Patriarch Mor Ignatios Zakka I Iwas Patriarch of Antioch and All the East Supreme Head of the Universal Syriac Orthodox Church

Source: Calendar published by Simhasana Church, Kunnamkulam HH Mor Ignatios Zakka I Iwas was born in 1932 in Mosul, Iraq. He completed his high school education at St. Thomas Syrian Orthodox School and entered the Mor Aphrem theological school at Mosul in 1946 where he completed his education in 1954. He was ordained priest and became a monk in 1947. Later he completed a Masters degree in English at City University of New York and a Master's degree in Pastoral Theology at General Theological Seminary, New York. He was ordained Metropolitan Mor Severius Zakka by Patriarch Yacqub III in 1963. In 1964, Mor Severious discovered the remains of St. Thomas in the sanctuary wall of the church at Mosul. In 1969, Mor Severious became the Metropolitan of Baghdad, where he also served as the Head of Syriac Studies and a member of the educational academy. Mor Severius also served as a member of the World Council of Churches. On September 14, 1980, Mor Severius was consecrated the Patriarch of Antioch by name Ignatius Zakka I, in a rite officiated by Catholicos of the East, Mor Baselius Paulos II along with the archbishops of the Holy Synod.

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Consecration of Mor Severus Zakka as bishop (1963) Source: Supplement published by Malayala Manorama on Sep 22, 2004 on the occasion of the third apostolic visit to Malankara Address: Syrian Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch Bab Touma, P.O. Box 22260 Damascus, Syria Source: Souvenir of St. George's Church, Karingachira, 1980 SOURCE: http://sor.cua.edu/Personage/PZakka1/

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The Syriac Orthodox Church World Wide List

Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East

Middle East Iraq: Archdiocese of Baghdad, Basra and Environs. Archdiocese of Mor Matta Archdiocese of Mosul, Kirkuk and Environs. Jerusalem & Jordan: Patriarchal Vicariate of Jerusalem and Jordan Lebanon: Archdiocese of Beirut and Zahle Archdiocese of Mount Lebanon Benevolent Institution in Atchaneh Syria: Patriarchal Vicariate of Damascus Archdiocese of Aleppo Archdiocese of Jazirah and Euphrates Archdiocese of Homs and Hama Turkey: Patriarchal Vicariate of Istanbul Archdiocese of Turabdin Diyarbakir Mardin Elazig

Asia India: ?

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Australia & New Zealand Australia: Patriarchal Vicariate of Australia and New Zealand New Zealand: Patriarchal Vicariate of Australia and New Zealand

Europe Austria: Archdiocese of Middle Europe and Benelux Belgium: Archdiocese of Middle Europe and Benelux France: Archdiocese of Middle Europe and Benelux Germany: Archdiocese of Middle Europe and Benelux Sweden: Patriarchal Vicariate of Sweden Archdiocese of Sweden and Scandinavia Switzerland: Archdiocese of Middle Europe and Benelux United Kingdom: Patriarchal Parish Church of the United Kingdom

North America Canada: Patriarchal Vicariate of Canada U.S.A.: Patriarchal Vicariate of Eastern U.S.A. Patriarchal Vicariate of Western U.S.A. Archdiocese of Malankara

South America 299

Argentina: Patriarchal Vicariate of Argentina Brazil: ? SOURCE: http://www.syrianorthodoxchurch.net/Location/Global/SOC-index-Globalen.htm

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Chapter Thirteen: Prominent Church Leadership

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Cardinal Ghattas

Name: H.E. Stephanos II Card. GHATTAS Position: Patriarch Emeritus of Alexandria of the Copts Age: 88 (Born Friday, January 16, 1920) From: Egypt Cardinal since: Wednesday, February 21, 2001 Title: Cardinal Bishop of

Patriarch StĂŠphanos II Ghattas was born in Cheick Zein-el-Dine (Egypt) on 16 January 1920. He joined the Congregation of the Mission in Paris in 1944 and was ordained on 25 March 1944 in Rome. He worked in the missions in Lebanon and Egypt for 15 years. He was appointed bishop of Luqsor of the Copts on 8 May 1967 and consecrated as bishop on 9 June 1967 in Alexandria by Cardinal StĂŠphanos I Sidarouus, patriarch of Alexandria of the Copts. He was elected patriarch himself on 8 June 1986. Pope John Paul granted him the "ecclesiastica communio"on 23 June 1986.

SOURCE: http://catholic-pages.com/hierarchy/cardinals_bio.asp?ref=200

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Cardinal Daoud Name: H.E. Ignace Moussa I Card. DAOUD Position: Prefect Emeritus of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches Age: 77 (Born Thursday, September 18, 1930) From: Syria Cardinal since: Wednesday, February 21, 2001 Title: Cardinal Bishop of

Cardinal Ignace Moussa I Daoud, Patriarch emeritus of Antioch for Syrians, Prefect of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches and Grand Chancellor of the Pontifical Oriental Institute was born on 18 September 1930 in Meskaneh, Syria. He was ordained on 17 October 1954 and holds a licentiate in canon law from the Pontifical Lateran University, Rome. On 2 July 1977 he was elected by the Syrian Patriarchal Synod as Bishop of Cairo, Egypt, and ordained on 18 September. He was a member of the Commission for the Revision of the Eastern Code of Canon Law and chaired the commission that translated the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches into Arabic. On 1 July 1994 he was promoted to Archbishop of Homs for Syrians, Syria. On 13 October 1998 he was elected Patriarch of Antioch for Syrians and enthroned on 25 October. On 20 October 1998 he obtained the ecclesiastical communion. On 25 November 2000 he was appointed Prefect of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches. Patriarch emeritus of Antioch for Syrians, resigned 8 January 2001. Created and proclaimed Cardinal by John Paul II in the consistory of 21 February 2001. Curial membership: ÂťDoctrine of the Faith, Causes of Saints (congregation)

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ÂťChristian Unity, Legislative Texts (council) ÂťSpecial Council for Lebanon of the General Secretariat of the Synod of Bishops SOURCE: http://catholic-pages.com/hierarchy/cardinals_bio.asp?ref=201

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Cardinal Delly

Name: H.E. Emmanuel III Card. DELLY Position: Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans Age: 80 (Born Thursday, October 06, 1927) From: Iraq Cardinal since: Saturday, November 24, 2007 Title: Cardinal Bishop of

Born on 6 October 1927. He speaks Arabic, French, Italian, Latin, English and Aramaic. He was ordained on 21 December 1952. He was elected Auxiliary Bishop of Babylon of the Chaldeans on 7 December 1962 and consecrated on 19 April 1963 in Baghdad by Paul II Cheikho, Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans. The Synod of Bishops of the Chaldean Church elected him Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans on 3 December 2003. Pope Benedict XVI appointed him to the College of Cardinals on 24 November 2007. SOURCE: http://catholic-pages.com/hierarchy/cardinals_bio.asp?ref=275

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Cardinal Zubeir Wako

Name: H.E. Gabriel Card. ZUBEIR WAKO Position: Archbishop of Khartoum Age: 67 (Born Thursday, February 27, 1941) From: Sudan Cardinal since: Tuesday, October 21, 2003 Title: Cardinal Priest of St. Anthanasius in Via Tiburtina

Cardinal Gabriel Zubeir Wako, Archbishop of Khartoum (Sudan), was born on 27 February 1941 in Mboro, Sudan. He was ordained a priest on 21 July 1963 and holds a licentiate in theology with a specialization in pastoral theology. He began his priestly ministry as an assistant parish priest and as inspector for Christian Religious Education in the schools of the Gogrial District. He later served as rector of St Anthonyâ&#x20AC;&#x;s Minor Seminary, Bussere, and was procurator for the Vicariate of Wau, where he also served as vicar delegate. He also held the post of provincial commissioner of the Boy Scouts and Girl Guides. On 12 December 1974, he was appointed as Bishop of Wau and was ordained on 6 April 1975. On 30 October 1979 he was appointed as Coadjutor Bishop of Khartoum. Cardinal Zubeir Wako has been Archbishop of Khartoum since 1981 and President of the Sudan Catholic Bishopsâ&#x20AC;&#x; Conference since 1992

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Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem The Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem is the title given to the Latin Rite Roman Catholic Archbishop of Jerusalem. The Archdiocese of Jerusalem has jurisdiction for all Latin Rite Catholics in Israel and Palestine. In addition, the Eastern Catholic Churches of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church and Maronite Catholic Church have established dioceses for their faithful in the territories. The Patriarchate of Jerusalem is currently the only Eastern patriarchal title to be assigned to a Latin Rite bishop. The Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem does not head a sui iuris particular church but is rather a bishop whose see has as a permanent privilege the honorific title of patriarch, similar to the Patriarchs of Venice, Lisbon, and the East Indies. Crusader patriarchate In 1099 Jerusalem was captured by Crusaders, inaugurating the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which endured almost 200 years. A Latin hierarchy was established in the Kingdom under a Latin Patriarch, up until that time all Christians in the Holy Land were under the care of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem. When the last vestiges of the Kingdom were conquered by the Mamluks in 1291, the Latin hierarchy was effectively eliminated in the Levant. However, the Church continued to appoint titular Patriarchs of Jerusalem, who were based at the Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura in Rome after 1374. During the existence of the Latin Kingdom, the Latin Patriarchate was divided into four archdioceses -their heads bearing the titles of Archbishop of Tyre, Archbishop of Caesarea, Archbishop of Nazareth, and Archbishop of Petra - and a number of suffragan dioceses. The Latin Patriarch controlled the Latin quarter of the city of Jerusalem (the Holy Sepulchre and the immediate surroundings), and had as his direct suffragans the bishops of Lydda-Ramla, Bethlehem, Hebron, and Gaza, and the abbots of the Temple, Mount Sion, and the Mount of Olives. Modern patriarchate The title Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem was restored as a residential office in 1847 for Bishop Joseph Valerga. The Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem is now the diocesan bishop of Latin Catholics in the Holy Land, including Jordan and Cyprus. The current Patriarch is His Beatitude Fouad Twal from Jordan. The Basilica of the Holy Sepulcher serves as the cathedral of the patriarchate. The residence of the Patriarch is in the Old City of Jerusalem, while the seminary, which is responsible for the liturgical education, was moved to Beit Jala, a town 10 km south of Jerusalem, in 1936.

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List of Latin Patriarchs of Jerusalem            

Arnulf of Chocques (1099) Dagobert of Pisa (1099-1102) Ehremar (1102) Dagobert of Pisa (restored) (1102-1107) Ghibbelin of Arles (1107-1112) Arnulf of Chocques (restored) (1112-1118) Garmond of Picquigny (1119-1128) Stephen (1128-1130) William I of Malines (1130-1145) Fulk of Angoulême (1146-1157) Amalric of Nesle (1157-1180) Heraclius (1180-1191)

Jerusalem lost in 1187; seat of the Patriarch moved to Acre vacant (1191-1194) Aimaro Monaco dei Corbizzi (1194-1202) Soffredo Errico Gaetani (1202-1204) Albert Avogadro (1204-1214) Raoul of Merencourt (1214-1225) Gerald of Lausanne (1225-1238) o vacant (1238-1240); Jacques de Vitry appointed but never served Robert of Nantes (1240-1254) Jacques Pantaléon (1255-1261), future Pope Urban IV of Rome William II of Agen (1261-1270) Thomas Agni of Cosenza (1271-1277) John of Versailles (1278-1279) Elijah (1279-1287) Nicholas of Hanapes (1288-1294) o

           

Acre lost in 1291; moved to Cyprus then Rome after 1374; only honorary patriarchs until 1847.   

unknown Antony Bek (1306-1311), also Prince-Bishop of Durham in England from 1284 to 1310 unknown

The Franciscan Custos of the Holy Lands (The Grand Masters of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre) held the title from 1342 to 1830 under the Papal bull Gratiam agimus by Pope Clement VI (unless someone was specifically appointed in the honorary office).  

Peter Paludanus (1329-1342) Elie de Nabinal (1342-1348)

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                 

Philippe de Cabassole (died 1372) Philippe d'Alençon (died 1397) Bertrande de Chanac (?-1401?) o unknown Rodrigo de Carvajal (1523-1539) o unknown Gian Antonio Facchinetti de Nuce (1572-1585), future Pope Innocent IX of Rome Scipione Gonzaga (1585?-?) Francesco Cennini de' Salamandri (1618-1645) o vacant or unknown Camillo Massimo (1653-1677) Bandino Panciatici (1689-1698?) Francesco Martelli (1698-1717?) o unknown Vincent Louis Gotti (1728-1729) Pompeo Aldrovandi (1729-1734) Thomas Cervini (1734-1751) Thomas de Moncada (1751-1762) Georgius Maria Lascaris (1762-1795) o vacant (1795-1800) Michele Cardinal di Pietro (1800-1821) Francesco Maria Fenzi (1816-1829) Augustus Foscolo (1830-1847), later Latin Patriarch of Alexandria, 1847-1860

Restoration of resident Latin patriarchs of Jerusalem with jurisdiction in 1847.  

Joseph Valerga (1847-1872) Vincent Braco (1872-1889)

Latin patriarchate hierarchy re-established in 1889.       

Luigi Piavi (1889-1905) o vacant (1905-1907) Filippo Camassei (1907-1919) Luigi Balassina (1920-1947) o vacant (1947-1949) Alberto Gori (1949-1970) Giacomo Giuseppi Beltritti (1970-1987) Michel Sabbah (1987-2008) Fouad Twal (2008)-(Present)

SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Patriarch_of_Jerusalem

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Latin Patriarch, His Beatitude Fouad Twal Fouad Twal (Arabic: nrob) (‫ف ؤاد طوال‬October 23, 1940 at Madaba) is a Roman Catholic archbishop. Since June 2008 he has served as the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem. He was ordained to the priesthood on June 29, 1966. After his ordination he was the vicar of Ramallah. In 1972 he entered the Pontifical Lateran University where he studied for a doctrate in canon law. He was awarded his doctorate in 1975. He was appointed the prelate of the territorial prelature of Tunis by Pope John Paul II on May 30, 1992. He was concrecrated to the episcopate on July 22 later that year. In 1995, the territorial prelature was elevated to become the Diocese of Tunis, and Twal was made an archbishop ad personam. In 2005, Pope Benedict XVI named him the coadjutor archbishop of Jerusalem. He succeeded Michel Sabbah as the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem in 2008. Receiving the Pallium His Beatitude Fouad Twal received his pallium at the hands of His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI at a mass in the Basilica of Saint Peter, Vatican City State, 29 June 2008 at around 12.05pm local (Palestinian) time. His Beatitude on the situation of Palestine and its people On the situation of Palestine and its people he has recently said: "We receive a lot of help and we are grateful but at the same time we say we need more. What we need is peace. We don‘t only to be a begging Church, we don‘t want to be beggars with a licence. I don‘t like this. We need a political horizon, it‘s time to put an end to the Wall, the Checkpoints, it‘s time for a Palestinian State, it‘s time for an end to our problems with visa‘s.,‖

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fouad_Twal

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Cardinal Sfeir Name: H.E. Nasrallah Pierre Card. SFEIR Position: Patriarch of Antioch for Maronites Age: 88 (Born Saturday, May 15, 1920) From: Lebanon Cardinal since: Monday, February 28, 1994 Title: Cardinal Bishop of

Cardinal Sfeir was born on May 15, 1920, in Reyfoun, in the eparchy of Sarba of the Maronites. He was ordained on May 7, 1950, and soon began what would become his life project â&#x20AC;&#x201D; promoting dialogue in Lebanon's multi-religious society. In 1977 he was chosen representative of the Assembly of the Patriarchs and the Catholic Bishops for Caritas-Lebanon, and in 1980, Spiritual Counsellor of the Order of Malta. Named Patriarch of Antioch of the Maronites on April 19, 1986, he also assumed the role of President of the Assembly of the Patriarchs and Bishops in Lebanon. His peace-making role in one of the most conflict-ridden areas of the world made him a very significant figure for the Church. Sfeir also had the difficult task of safeguarding the spiritual and cultural traditions of the Middle East's largest Maronite community. He was elevated to the College of Cardinals by John Paul II during the Consistory of November 26, 1994.

SOURCE: http://catholic-pages.com/hierarchy/cardinals_bio.asp?ref=199

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Rev. Dr. Fahed Abu-Akel Rev. Dr. Fahed Abu-Akel is on the Mission Staff at First Presbyterian Church of Atlanta and has been Executive Director and Founder of the Atlanta Ministry with International Students, Inc. (AMIS, Inc.) (www.amis-inc.org), since 1978. AMIS, Inc. is a Ministry of Friendship and Hospitality with the 5,500 International students & Scholars from more than 140 countries studying in the 20 Metro Atlanta Colleges & Universities. On June 15, 2002 Dr. AbuAkel was elected General Moderator of the Presbyterian Church (USA) (www.pcusa.org), the nations largest Presbyterian body. Dr. Abu-Akel, a Native of Kuffer Yassif, Galilee, Israel and son of Palestinian Christian Arab parents is greatly involved in the community. He is Chair of both the Peacemaking Committee of the Greater Atlanta Presbytery and International Understanding Kiwanis Georgia District. He is currently President of Friends of the Union of the Palestinian Medical Relief Committees in the U.S.A. and Canada (UPMRC) and Board Member of The Interfaith Coalition of Metro Atlanta. He is also director of the Christmas International house program, which provides holiday homes for international students in 32 cities. Dr. Abu-Akel has served as past president, of Northside Kiwanis Clubs of Atlanta, past board member of The Christian Council of Metro Atlanta and past member of The Interfaith Advisory Task Force for the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, GA. In Dr. Abu-Akel‘s 24 years as an ordained minister of the Presbyterian Church he has been granted many honors and awards. He is a recipient of the Kiwanis Leadership Award, The Interfaith Leadership Award and The Arab American Community of Georgia Award. In 1998 he was presented with the Greater Atlanta Presbytery Peace Making Award. Dr. Abu-Akel holds a bachelor‘s of arts degree from Southeast College in Lakeland, FL, a master‘s of divinity from Columbia Theological Seminary in Atlanta, GA and a doctor of ministry from McCormick Theological Seminary in Chicago, IL. SOURCE: http://dlaa.org/modules.php?op=modload&name=PNM_Content&file=index&sw=pg&eid =50

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Chapter Fourteen: Prominent Middle East Christian Organizations

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The Holy Land Christian Ecumenical Foundation HCEF's Mission HCEF is committed to maintain the presence and growth of the Arab Christians in the Holy Land, and to develop bonds of solidarity between them and the Christians in the world. HCEF is committed to its mission by witnessing the teaching of our Savior Jesus Christ:   



Educate people around the world about the presence of the Arab Christians in the Holy Land, and to remind them of their moral obligation to the Mother Church. Build community between Christians throughout the world and Arab Christians through pilgrimages, publications, and communications. Develop a bond of solidarity through church-to-church, family-to-family, and person-to-person partnership programs in order to bring Christians together in community for future cooperation. Promote Peace and Justice in the Holy Land by removing the causes of the human suffering and to replace despair with hope, fear with security, and humiliation with human dignity. Select and oversee specific projects designed to provide better living conditions for the Arab Christians in the Holy Land. Project areas will focus on creating employment, advancing education, building and rehabilitating houses, and developing the growth of children of the Holy Land.

Organizational History The Holy Land Christian Ecumenical Foundation (HCEF) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization founded by an ecumenical group of American Christians to preserve the Christian presence in the Holy Land. It began as collaboration between Mr. Rateb Y. Rabie, a Palestinian American Christian, and Father Emil Salayta, a Jordanian priest serving in Palestine. They believed that if American Christians were told of the desperate situation of the Christians in the Holy Land, American Christians would reach out to help. They were right. Very quickly, highly respected individuals expressed an interest in serving on the Board of Directors and/or Advisory Board for HCEF. Father Emil also organized a Holy Land Coordinating Committee to set up and supervise HCEF's local projects. The two boards and the Holy Land Coordinating Committee are comprised of known, respected and active Holy Land community members (both lay and clergy) from the three Christian traditions -- Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant. HCEF serves all of the Christian denominations within the Diocese of Jerusalem in Palestine, Jordan, and Israel. Soon after HCEF was formed, it became apparent that the foundation would need local representatives in American cities where the foundation's work was taking root. As a result, the Holy Land Christian Support Network (HCSN) was formed. SOURCE: http://www.hcef.org/index.cfm/ID/22.cfm

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Ecumenical Liberation Theology Center, Jerusalem Sabeel Purpose Statement Sabeel is an ecumenical grassroots liberation theology movement among Palestinian Christians. Inspired by the life and teaching of Jesus Christ, this liberation theology seeks to deepen the faith of Palestinian Christians, to promote unity among them toward social action. Sabeel strives to develop a spirituality based on love, justice, peace, nonviolence, liberation and reconciliation for the different national and faith communities. The word "Sabeel" is Arabic for ‗the way‗ and also a ‗channel‗ or ‗spring‗ of life-giving water. Sabeel also works to promote a more accurate international awareness regarding the identity, presence and witness of Palestinian Christians as well as their contemporary concerns. It encourages individuals and groups from around the world to work for a just, comprehensive and enduring peace informed by truth and empowered by prayer and action. Palestinian Liberation Theology Palestinian Liberation Theology is an ecumenical grassroots movement, rooted in Christian Biblical interpretation and nourished by the hopes, dreams and struggles of the Palestinian people. Originating in the land where Christ lived, this theology seeks to provide a holistic vision of God‗s redeeming activity in the midst of the current reality. In a situation where justice has been long neglected, Palestinian Liberation Theology opens new horizons of understanding for the pursuit of a just peace and for the reconciliation proclaimed in the Gospel of Jesus Christ. By learning from Jesus - his life under occupation and his response to injustice - this theology hopes to connect the true meaning of Christian faith with the daily lives of all those who suffer under occupation, violence, discrimination, and human rights violations. Additionally, this blossoming theological effort promotes a more accurate international awareness of the current political situation and encourages Christians from around the world to work for justice and to stand in solidarity with the Palestinian people. History of Sabeel In 1989 an ad hoc committee was formed to implement, on a practical level, a Palestinian Liberation Theology. On a pastoral level, some of the Palestinian clergy were listening to the cries of the people at the grassroots. They felt the need to respond not only to their physical sufferings, but also to the way these sufferings were being aggravated by the religious argument in the political conflict. People where asking "Where is God in all of this oppression and injustice?" We needed to work out a Palestinian theology of liberation as a pastoral response to such questions. Many of the Palestinian Christians also wanted to abandon the Bible, particularly the Old Testament, which was being used to justify their suffering. As Christians, however, the Bible is essential to our faith, so it was necessary to find in the Bible the God of justice, the God who is concerned with the oppressed.

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The Rev. Dr. Naim Ateek convened a committee of ten clergy and lay people to explore ways in which this theology could be developed and shared with fellow Palestinian Christians. They decided to host an international conference that would put Palestinian Liberation Theology in the context of other Liberation Theologies from around the world. Several local workshops were held to formulate ideas and prepare people for full participation in the conference. In March 1990 the conference took place at the Tantur Ecumenical Institute. Local and international theologians developed the themes of the conference: Palestinian Reality; Palestinian Christian Identity; Power, Justice, and the Bible; Women, Faith, and the Intifada; and International Responses to the Quest for Palestinian Theology. The proceedings were published in a book entitled Faith and the Intifada (Orbis Books 1992), edited by Palestinian Liberation Theologian Naim Stifan Ateek, Jewish American Theologian Marc Ellis and American Theologian Rosemary Radford Ruether. The conference led to the founding of Sabeel as a liberation theology movement. The Sabeel Center is located in Jerusalem, serving Bethlehem, Ramallah and the surrounding areas, with a branch office in Nazareth to serve the Galilee. In recent years, International Friends of Sabeel chapters have been founded in Australia, Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, and the United States. International Friends of Sabeel Chapters provide support for Sabeelâ&#x20AC;&#x2014;s work in advocacy, education, and nonviolent resistance to the Israeli occupation. Vision Sabeel affirms its commitment to make the gospel relevant ecumenically and spiritually in the lives of the local indigenous Church. Our faith teaches that following in the footsteps of Christ means standing for the oppressed, working for justice, and seeking peace-building opportunities, and it challenges us to empower local Christians. Since a strong civil society and a healthy community are the best supports for a vulnerable population, Sabeel strives to empower the Palestinian community as a whole and to develop the internal strengths needed for participation in building a better world for all Only by working for a just and durable peace can we provide a sense of security and create ample opportunities for growth and prosperity in an atmosphere void of violence and strife. Although remaining political and organizational obstacles hinder the full implementation of programs, Sabeel continues to develop creative means to surmount these challenges. We seek both to be a refuge for dialogue and to pursue ways of finding answers to ongoing theological questions about the sanctity of life, justice, and peace. SOURCE: http://www.sabeel.org/etemplate.php?id=2

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BRIDGING: COMMUNITIES, HERITAGE &HUMANITY Vision: To bring together the diverse and unique Middle East Christians communities in the United States of America in the fields of Heritage, Government, Education, Commerce, Culture, Medical and Humanity. Advance civic and public affairs and protect civil liberties. Mission Statement:

The American Middle East Christians Congress (AMECC) is a non-profit Michigan based American community organization. Michigan is home to the largest concentration of the Middle Eastern communities in the world living outside of the Middle East and is home to well over five hundred thousand Middle Eastern Christians locally. There are over six million Middle East Christians across the United States including Arabs, Armenians, Assyrians, Chaldeans, Coptic, Marionettes, Syriacs and others. The Middle East Christian communities are spread across the Arabian Peninsula, Asia Minor, Northern Africa and across the Globe. 

Community Organization: AMECC is a congress of unity, between the various Middle Eastern Christian Communities and organizations, that shares the same vision and mission under one umbrella.

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Nationally: Establish a dialogue with other Middle Eastern and NON-Middle Eastern Christian Communities.

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Internationally: Support and strengthen the relationship between the American Middle East Christian communities and the Christian communities in the Middle East and abroad.

AMECC Committees are Government, Civic and Public Affairs, Medical and Humanitarian, Heritage, Education, Cultural, Commerce and Public Relations. AMECC will coordinate and affiliate with other American-based organizations to achieve its goals.

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Chapter Fifteen: The Church and Islam

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The Church and Islam. "La Civiltà Cattolica" Breaks the Ceasefire Through the prestigious magazine, the Vatican denounces with unusual harshness the oppression of Christians in Muslim countries. A testimony from Egypt by Sandro Magister

"La Civiltà Cattolica," edited by a group of Jesuits in Rome, is a very special magazine. Every one of its articles is reviewed by the Vatican secretary of state before publication. So the magazine reflects his thought faithfully. In its October 18 edition, "La Civiltà Cattolica" published a strikingly severe article on the condition of Christians in Muslim countries. The central thesis of the article is that "in all of its history, Islam has shown a warlike and conquering face"; that "for almost a thousand years, Europe lived under its constant threat"; and that what remains of the Christian population in Islamic countries is still subjected to "perpetual discrimination," with episodes of bloody persecution. What follows is an ample extract from the article printed in "La Civiltà Cattolica" no. 3680, October 18, 2003, and used here with the kind permission of the magazine:

Christians in Islamic Countries by Giuseppe De Rosa S.I.

How do Christians in Muslim-majority countries live? [...] We must first highlight a seemingly rather curious fact: in all the countries of North Africa (Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco), before the Muslim invasion and despite incursions by vandals, there were blossoming Christian communities that contributed to the universal Church great 319

personalities, such as Tertullian; Saint Ciprian, bishop of Carthage, martyred in 258; Saint Augustine, bishop of Hippo; and Saint Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspe. But after the Arab conquest, Christianity was absorbed by Islam to such an extent that today it has a significant presence only in Egypt, with the Coptic Orthodox and other tiny Christian minorities, which make up 7-10 percent of the Egyptian population. The same can be said of the Middle East (Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Mesopotamia), in which there were flourishing Christian areas prior to the Islamic invasion, and where today there are only small Christian communities, with the exception of Lebanon, where Christians make up a significant part of the population. As for present-day Turkey, this was in the first Christian centuries the land in which Christianity bore its best fruits in the areas of liturgy, theology, and monastic life. The invasion of the Seljuk Turks and the conquest of Constantinople by Mehmet II (1453) lead to the founding of the Ottoman empire and to the near destruction of Christianity in the Anatolian peninsula. Thus today in Turkey Christians number approximately 100,000, among whom are a small number of Orthodox, who live around Phanar, the see of the ecumenical patriarchate of Constantinople, who has the primacy of honor in the Orthodox world and who holds communion with eight patriarchs and many autocephalous Churches in both East and West, with approximately 180 million faithful. In conclusion, we may state in historical terms that in all the places where Islam imposed itself by military force, which has few historical parallels for its rapidity and breadth, Christianity, which had been extraordinarily vigorous and rooted for centuries, practically disappeared or was reduced to tiny islands in an endless Islamic sea. It is not easy to explain how that could have happened. [...] In reality, the reduction of Christianity to a small minority was not due to violent religious persecution, but to the conditions in which Christians were forced to live in the organization of the Islamic state. [...] THE WARRIOR FACE OF ISLAM: "JIHAD" According to Islamic law, the world is divided into three parts: dar al-harb (the house of war), dar al-islam (the house of Islam), and dar al-Â´ahd (the house of accord); that is, the countries with which a treaty was stipulated. [...] As for the countries belonging to the "house of war," Islamic canon law recognizes no relations with them other than "holy war" (jihad), which signifies an "effort" in the way of Allah and has two meanings, both of which are equally essential and must not be dissociated, as if one could exist without the other. In its primary meaning, jihad indicates the "effort" that the Muslim must undertake to be faithful to the precepts of the Koran and so improve his "submission" (islam) to Allah; in the second, it indicates the "effort" that the Muslim must undertake to "fight in the way of Allah," which means fighting against the infidels and spreading Islam throughout the world. Jihad is a precept of the highest importance, so much so that it is sometimes counted among the

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fundamental precepts of Islam, as its sixth "pillar." Obedience to the precept of the "holy war" explains why the history of Islam is one of unending warfare for the conquest of infidel lands. [...] In particular, all of Islamic history is dominated by the idea of the conquest of the Christian lands of Western Europe and of the Eastern Roman Empire, whose capital was Constantinople. Thus, through many centuries, Islam and Christianity faced each other in terrible battles, which led on one side to the conquest of Constantinople (1453), Bulgaria, and Greece, and on the other, to the defeat of the Ottoman empire in the naval battle of Lepanto (1571). But the conquering spirit of Islam did not die after Lepanto. The Islamic advance into Europe was definitively halted only in 1683, when Vienna was liberated from the Ottoman siege by the Christian armies under the command of John III Sobieski, the king of Poland. [...] In reality, for almost a thousand years Europe was under constant threat from Islam, which twice put its survival in serious danger. Thus, in all of its history, Islam has shown a warlike face and a conquering spirit for the glory of Allah. [...] against the "idolaters" who must be given a choice: convert to Islam, or be killed. [...] As for the "people of the Book" (Christians, Jews, and "Sabeans"), Muslims must "fight them until their members pay tribute, one by one, humiliated" (Koran, Sura 9:29). [...] THE REGIME OF THE "DHIMMA" According to Muslim law, Christians, Jews, and the followers of other religions assimilated to Christianity and Judaism (the "Sabeans") who live in a Muslim state belong to an inferior social order, in spite of their eventually belonging to the same race, language, and descent. Islamic law does not recognize the concepts of nation and citizenship, but only the umma, the one Islamic community, for which reason a Muslim, as he is part of the umma, may live in any Islamic country as he would in his homeland: he is subject to the same laws, finds the same customs, and enjoys the same consideration. But those belonging to the "people of the Book" are subject to the dhimma, which is a kind of bilateral treaty consisting in the fact that the Islamic state authorizes the "people of the Book" to inhabit its lands, tolerates its religion, and guarantees the "protection" of its persons and goods and its defense from external enemies. Thus the "people of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitab) becomes the "protected people" (Ahl al-dhimma). In exchange for this "protection," the "people of the Book" must pay a tax (jizya) to the Islamic state, which is imposed only upon able-bodied free men, excluding women, children, and the old and infirm, and pay a tribute, called the haram, on the lands in its possession. As for the freedom of worship, the dhimmi are prohibited only from external manifestations of worship, such as the ringing of bells, processions with the cross, solemn funerals, and the public sale of religious objects or other articles prohibited for Muslims. A Muslim man who marries a Christian or a Jew must leave her free to

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practice her religion and also to consume the foods permitted by her religion, even if they are forbidden for Muslims, such as pork or wine. The dhimmi may maintain or repair the churches or synagogues they already have, but, unless there is a treaty permitting them to own land, they may not build new places of worship, because to do this they would need to occupy Muslim land, which can never be ceded to anyone, having become, through Muslim conquest, land "sacred" to Allah. In Sura 9:29 the Koran affirms that the "people of the Book," apart from being constrained to pay the two taxes mentioned above, must be placed under certain restrictions, such as dressing in a special way and not being allowed to bear arms or ride on horseback. Furthermore, the dhimmi may not serve in the army, be functionaries of the state, be witnesses in trials between Muslims, take the daughters of Muslims as their wives, be the guardians of underage Muslims, or keep Muslim slaves. They may not inherit from Muslims, nor Muslims from them, but legacies are permitted. The release of the dhimma came about above all through conversion of the "people of the Book" to islam; but Muslims, especially in the early centuries, did not look favorably upon such conversions, because they represented a grave loss to the treasury, which flourished in direct proportion to the number of the dhimmi, who paid both the personal tax and the land tax. The dissolution of dhimma status could also take place through failure to observe the "treaty"; that is, if the dhimmi took up arms against Muslims, refused to remain subject or to pay tribute, abducted a Muslim woman, blasphemed or offended the prophet Mohammed and the Islamic religion, or if they drew a Muslim away from Islam, converting him to their own religion. According to the gravity of each case, the penalty could be the confiscation of goods, reduction to slavery, or death unless the person who had committed the crimes converted to Islam. In that case, all penalties were waived. CONSEQUENCE: THE EROSION OF CHRISTIANITY It is evident that the condition of the dhimmi, prolonged through centuries, has led slowly but inexorably to the near extinction of Christianity in Muslim lands: the condition of civil inferiority, which prevented Christians from attaining public offices, and the condition of religious inferiority, which closed them in an asphyxiated religious life and practice with no possibility of development, put the Christians to the necessity of emigrating, or, more frequently, to the temptation of converting to Islam. There was also the fact that a Christian could not marry a Muslim woman without converting to Islam, in part because her children had to be educated in that faith. Furthermore, a Christian who became Muslim could divorce very easily, whereas Christianity prohibited divorce. And apart from all this, the Christians in Muslim territories were seriously divided among themselves - and frequently even enemies - because they belonged to Churches that were different by confession (Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian Churches) and by rite (Syro-oriental, Antiochian, Maronite, Coptic-Alexandrian, Armenian, Byzantine). Thus mutual assistance was almost impossible. The regime of the dhimma lasted for over a millennium, even if not always and

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everywhere in the harsh form called "the conditions of Úmar," according to which Christians not only did not have the right to construct new churches and restore existing ones, even if they fell into ruins (and, if they had the permission to construct through the good will of the Muslim governor, the churches could not be of large dimensions: the building must be more modest than all the religious buildings around it); but the largest and most beautiful churches had to be transformed into mosques. That transformation made it impossible for the church-mosques ever to be restored to the Christian community, because a place that has become a mosque cannot be put to another use. The consequence of the dhimma regime was the "erosion" of the Christian communities and the conversion of many Christians to Islam for economic, social, and political motives: to find a better job, enjoy a better social status, participate in administrative, political, and military life, and in order not to live in a condition of perpetual discrimination. In recent centuries, the dhimma system has undergone some modifications, in part because the ideas of citizenship and the equality of all citizens before the state have gained a foothold even in Muslim countries. Nevertheless, in practice, the traditional conception is still present. [...] The Christian, whether he wish it or not, is brought back in spite of himself to the concept of the dhimmi, even if the term no longer appears in the present-day laws of a good number of Muslim-majority countries. To understand the present condition of these Christians, we must refer back to the history of the 19th and 20th centuries. In the Ottoman empire of the 19th century, where the millet system was in force, the tanzimat, "regulations" of a liberal character, were introduced. [...] From the second half of the 19th century to the end of the first World War, there was a "Reawakening" (Nahda) movement in the Arab world, under Western influence, in the fields of literature, language, and thought. Many intellectuals were conquered by liberal ideas. On another front, the Christians created strong ties with the Western powers - France and Great Britain in particular - which, after the dissolution of the Ottoman empire, obtained the protectorate of the countries that had belonged to the empire. This permitted the Christians both greater civil and religious liberty and cultural advancement. Moreover, during the first half of the 20th century various political parties of nationalist and socialist, and thus secularist, tendencies were born, such as the Ba´th, the Socialist Party of the Arab Renewal, founded at the end of the 1930´s in Damascus by Syrian professor Michel Áflaz, a Greek Orthodox. In 1953 this party was united with the Syrian Popular Party, founded in 1932 by Antun Saáda, a Greek Orthodox from Lebanon. In brief, political regimes inspired by the liberal and secular principles of Western Europe rose up in various Islamic countries. THE BIRTH OF RADICAL ISLAM These events provoked a harsh reaction in the Islamic world, due to fears that the secularist ideas and "corrupt" customs of the Western world, identified with Christianity,

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would endanger the purity of Islam and constitute a deadly threat to its very existence. This reaction was fed by strong resentment against the Western powers, which had dared to impose their political rule upon Islam, "the greatest nation ever raised up by Allah among men" (Koran, s. 3:110), and against their customs "despised" by the "nation (umma) that urges to goodness, promotes justice, and restrains iniquity" (ibid, s. 3:104). Thus was born "radical Islam," which set itself up as the interpreter of the frustrations of the Muslim masses. Hasan al Banna, Sayyd Qutb, Abd al-Qadir Úda in Egypt with the Muslim Brotherhood; Abu l-A´li al-Mawdudi in Pakistan, and the Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran are its most significant witnesses, and their followers have spread from Dakar to Kuala Lumpur. [...] THE PRESENT CONDITION OF CHRISTIANS IN THE MUSLIM WORLD Radical Islam, which proposes that shariá law be instituted in every Islamic state, is gaining ground in many Muslim countries, in which groups of Christians are also present. It is evident that the institution of shariá would render the lives of Christians rather difficult, and their very existence would be constantly in danger. This is the cause of the mass emigration of Christians from Islamic countries to Western countries: Europe, the United States, Canada, and Australia. [...] The estimated number of Arab Christians who have emigrated from Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Israel in the last decade hovers around three million, which is from 26.5 to 34.1 percent of the estimated number of Christians currently living in the Middle East. Furthermore, we must not underestimate grave recent actions against Christians in some Muslim-majority countries. In Algeria, the bishop of Orano, P. Claverie (1996), seven Trappist monks from Tibehirini (1999), four White Fathers (1994), and six sisters from various religious congregations have been brutally killed by Islamic fundamentalists, although the murders were condemned by numerous Muslim authorities. In Pakistan, which numbers 3,800,000 Christians among a population of 156,000,000 (96 percent Muslim), on October 28, 2001, some Muslims entered the Church of St. Dominic in Bahawalpur and gunned down 18 Christians. On May 6, 1998, Catholic bishop John Joseph killed himself for protesting against the blasphemy law, which punishes with death anyone who offends Mohammed, even only "by speaking words, or by actions and through allusions, directly or indirectly." For example, by saying that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, one offends Mohammed, who affirmed that Jesus is not the Son of God, but his "servant." With this kind of law, Christians are in constant danger of death. In Nigeria - where 13 states have introduced shariá as state law - several thousand Christians have been the victims of incidents. Serious incidents are taking place in the south of the Philippines and in Indonesia, which, with its 212 million inhabitants, is the most populous Muslim country in the world, to the harm of the Christians of Java, East Timor, and the Moluccas. But the most tragic situation - and, unfortunately, forgotten by the Western world! - is that of Sudan, where the North is Arab and Muslim, and the

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South black and Christian, and in part, animist. Since the time of president G.M. Nimeiry, there has been a state of civil war between the North, which has proclaimed shariÂ´a and intends to impose it with fierce violence on the rest of the country, and the South, which aims to preserve and defend its Christian identity. The North makes use of all of its military power - financed by oil exports to the West - to destroy Christian villages; prevent the arrival of humanitarian aid; kill the cattle, which are the means of sustenance for many South Sudanese; and carry out raids, for Christian girls in particular, who are brought to the North, raped, and sold as slaves or concubines to rich, older Sudanese men. According to the 2001 report of Amnesty International, "at the end of 2000, the civil war, which started again in 1983, had cost the lives of almost two million persons and had caused the forced evacuation of 4,500,000 more. Tens of thousands of persons have been compelled by terror to leave their homes in the upper Nile region, which is rich in oil, after aerial bombardments, mass executions, and torture." We must, finally, recall a fact that is often forgotten because Saudi Arabia is the largest provider of oil to the Western world, and the latter therefore has an interest in not disturbing relations with that country. In reality, in Saudi Arabia, where wahhabism is in force, not only is it impossible to build a church or even a tiny place of worship, but any act of Christian worship or any sign of Christian faith is severely prohibited with the harshest penalties. Thus about a million Christians working in Saudi Arabia are deprived by violence of any Christian practice or sign. They may participate in mass or in other Christian practices - and even then with the serious danger of losing their jobs - only on the property of the foreign oil companies. And yet, Saudi Arabia spends billions of petrodollars, not for the benefit of its poor citizens or of poor Muslims in other Muslim countries, but to construct mosques and madrasas in Europe and to finance the imams of the mosques in all the Western countries. We recall that the Roman mosque of Monte Antenne, constructed on land donated by the Italian government, was principally financed by Saudi Arabia and was built to be the largest mosque in Europe, in the very heart of Christianity.

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Muslim-Christian Forum The Vatican, November 4-6, 2008 In Our Opinion Ramsay F. Dass, MD President, American Middle East Christians Congress For the first time, a unique Catholic-Muslim forum was held at The Vatican from November 4-6, 2008. This forum was established by the Pontifical Council for InterReligious Dialogue and by Muslim representatives in the wake of the open letter on October 13, 2007 to His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI and to the other heads of churches and ecclesial communities by 138 Muslim leaders. The theme of the forum was ―Love of God, Love of Neighbor.‖ This meeting was held to discuss issues of commonality and diversity of the two religions. Twenty-five members of each side met behind closed doors to come up with a joint declaration and to develop an environment for a better understanding between the members of the two major religions. On the third day, there was a final public session in the main lecture hall of the famous Gregorian University in Rome, where a fifteen-point declaration was read, omitting any reference to many important and controversial problems of apostasy and religious conversion in the Middle East and the plight of the Middle East Christians in general and the Iraqi Christians in particular. At this session, Dr. Ramsay F. Dass, President of the American Middle East Christians Congress, in response to the comments of the Muslim delegation leadership, commented on the plight of the Iraqi Christians, their persecution, forced conversion, destruction of their churches, killing of their religious leaders, and forced emigration. These comments were confirmed by Archbishop Louis Sako, head of the Chaldean Catholic community in Kirkuk, Iraq and representative of the Chaldean community to the forum. This was the first time that such an issue was brought into the open at the forum. This comment sparked the interest of the international, national, religious, and local media, such as British Broadcasting Channel (BBC), National Public Radio (NPR), and others. Dr. Dass even challenged the Muslim delegation to visit the Middle East for a fact-finding mission to see for themselves the plight of the indigenous Middle East Christians in general and other indigenous religious minorities who have been subjected to similar acts as the Iraqi Christians. A concerted effort, the majority of the Arab and Muslim countries‘ leadership, including King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia, other Muslim heads of state, and Muslim organizations over the world and especially in the western world, have been converging on such meetings. Such meetings took place in Madrid, Spain, the United Nations, and other places, especially in the aftermath of the September 11th events, in order to project Islam and Muslims in a favorable image. The fact is that the western world Muslim emigree population enjoys a full spectrum of freedom of worship, equal civic and political rights, and privileges more than many of their Muslim fellows enjoy in the Arab and Muslim world.

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This is in contrast to the non-Muslim indigenous minorities and ethnics in many Arab world and Muslim countries, where such privileges that the Muslim emigree communities in the West enjoy. These minorities are subjected to degradation, loss of human rights, restrictive freedom of religion, and other acts that are contrary to the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights that the Arab and Muslim countries have signed. Our observation was that the Arab and Muslim countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; governments, communities, and their organizations in the West are in unionism in their acts with a definitive agenda, vision and mission to enter into as many dialogues, forums, and international meetings with the western world leadership that is secular (except the Vatican), and that the western countries are poorly prepared to attend such meetings or synchronized and mostly by apologetic leadership, ignoring the reality and the plight of the Christians in the West and the Muslim/Arab world. There are well-founded Middle East Christian organizations in the West, with over six million Middle East Christians just in the United States, many millions in the West, and millions of others in the Arab and Muslim world. Such a powerful number must come together to parallel the Arab and Muslim countries and their surrogate organizations and project the plights, aspirations, and richness of their religion and culture at such meetings, or such meetings will be one-sided in dimension.

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Reaching across the religious divide By David Willey BBC Rome correspondent

For two days this week, 50 leading Catholic and Muslim scholars from Europe, the Middle East and America sat behind closed doors in an anonymouslooking Vaticanowned building in the street leading up to St Peter's Basilica, mulling over what divides and what unites their two faiths. Together, Muslim and Christian believers account for almost half the world's population. The members of the new Catholic-Muslim Forum - 25 from each side - were attempting to establish a new dialogue after the disastrous fall-out from a speech by Pope Benedict in Germany two years ago, which was interpreted in many parts of the Islamic world as equating Islam with violence. Some 138 Muslim leaders from around the world later wrote a letter to the Pope suggesting a new attempt to find common ground between the two religions. This week's carefully-prepared forum hosted by the Vatican was the result of that initiative. On the third and last day of their discussions, the participants all trooped off to attend a private papal audience in the Renaissance splendour of a Vatican audience hall where Pope Benedict told them they must overcome past prejudices, and correct the often distorted images they have of each other. The Pope did not mention his Regensburg speech.

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But a professor of Islamic studies at George Washington University in Washington, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, from Iran, reminded him that throughout history "various political forces" - both Christian and Muslim - had carried out violence. Christians in Iraq Later in the day, the scholars and clerics assembled for a final public session in the main lecture hall of the Gregorian University in Rome. This is the Jesuit-run centre of Catholic learning where a good proportion of the world's most influential Catholic bishops have studied or lectured at one time or another in their lives. They issued a 15-point declaration full of fine words about loving God and one's neighbour, but omitting any reference to the thorny problems of apostasy and religious conversion in the Middle East. However, these are real issues for some of the delegates. Taking part in the discussions was Archbishop Louis Sako, head of the beleaguered Catholic minority in Kirkuk, northern Iraq, where Islamic militants have kidnapped and killed Christians or forced them to convert to Islam. Many Iraqi Christians have chosen to flee abroad rather than convert. "There is a difference between freedom of religion and freedom of conscience," the archbishop told me. "In our context, freedom of religion means you can go to church and pray. But nothing else. You cannot change your religion when you are not convinced. Freedom of conscience is something else. You are responsible. In Islam there is no change of religion. They don't allow it. It is something bad. "The Muslim scholars here have shown us their solidarity. We don't know why Christians are being attacked in Iraq. Every time I leave my country I don't know whether I shall be allowed back." Dr Ingrid Mattson from Canada, president of the Islamic Society of North America, who also took part in the Vatican forum, explained that Christian minorities have existed in Muslim societies for centuries. "If you look in Iraq at the mass migrations of Sunni and Shia, there is no middle class left. Unfortunately some people are trying to exploit religious hatred."

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'Desire to understand' Dr Ramsay Dass, an Iraqi medical doctor who now lives and works in Detroit and is president of the Middle East Christians Congress in the USA, sat among the few members of the public admitted to the final session of the forum. He claims to represent an organisation of some six million Christians of all denominations now living in America who are refugees from Muslim countries. "Christians are being persecuted for only one reason in the Middle East because they are Christians. They have no civil liberties, they are treated as second class citizens," he told me. "If Professor Nasr says this is not true I should like to invite him and take him around to see the true situation. I think this meeting has no teeth, it is full of spin," he added. The new Catholic-Muslim Forum agreed to meet again in two years' time in a Muslim country yet to be decided. I asked Cardinal Jean Louis Tauran, head of the Vatican's Council for interreligious dialogue, who chaired the discussions, what he thought had been accomplished in Rome this week. "We reached a good level of mutual understanding," he said. "When you see Muslims and Christians acting as brothers and sisters it's a powerful antidote to violence and war," he added. "What is new is the atmosphere, full of fraternity, humility and a desire to understand the other. We already have meetings with the Muslims of Egypt every two years. We believers know how to live diversity in unity. This is a talent that we can put at the disposal of society." Story from BBC NEWS: http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/europe/7715851.stm Published: 2008/11/07 14:20:11 GMT ÂŠ BBC MMVIII

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Christians in Egypt. The Humiliation Continues An interview with Youssef Sidhom, director of "Watani" CAIRO - Youssef Sidhom is the director of the weekly "Watani" ("My Homeland"). Founded in 1958 by his father, Antoun Sidhom, it has always published news and commentary on the Church and Christianity, themes completely overlooked by all the other Egyptian newspapers. Many believe it to be a newspaper of the Coptic Orthodox Church, but that´s not true. It is independent, and has no particular relationship with that Church, nor does it receive financial support from it. [...] What are the main problems of the Christians in Egypt? "The most striking problem is the extreme difficulty in receiving permission to build a church. Current legislation offers all of the incentives for the construction of mosques, but it poses almost insurmountable obstacles to the construction of churches. In 1934, the undersecretary for the minister of the interior, Muhammad al-´Azabi, made ten conditions for giving permission for the construction of a church, and those conditions are still valid. Let´s cite a few of them: a church must not be built on farm land; it must not be close to a mosque or monument; if it is to be constructed in a zone in which Muslims also live, one must first obtain their permission; there must be a sufficient number of Christians in the area; there must not be other churches nearby; police permission must be obtained if there are bridges or canals of the Nile near or if there is a railroad; the signature of the president of the republic must be obtained. All these conditions cause insurmountable difficulties. In fact, more than ten years can go by while waiting for police permission, and in the meantime mosques are hurriedly erected in the vicinity of the area where the church was meant to be, and the project stumbles against another prohibition. Moreover, it is not specified how many Christians there must be for them to have the right to a church. If, for example, there are 1,500, the government can say that that´s not a sufficient number, when a hundred would be enough to fill one of our churches." But hasn´t President Mubarak facilitated the granting of these permissions by delegating the matter to the provincial prefects? "Yes, he allowed the permits to be given by the provincial prefects, and a year later he ruled that they can also be given by the territory´s local authority. But this delegated authority only regards the permits to repair and restructure the churches. The permission to construct a new church is still the sole prerogative of the president of the republic. [...] This discrimination in the matter of the construction of churches leads Christians to the bitter conviction that the state considers them second-class citizens. For the state, a Christian is a kafir, an infidel, he doesn´t know the true religion or have the true faith, so it´s not worth it to listen to him. In Egypt we live with humiliating discrimination on religious grounds." [...] Does the discrimination regard only the construction of churches, or other aspects of social life for Christians in Egypt as well?

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"It regards our entire life. ThereÂ´s discrimination in state offices. According to the constitution, the president must be a Muslim. The Islamic religion is the foundation of Egyptian legislation. Today, no Christian can be prime minister, even though there have been Christian prime ministers in the past. Of the thirty-two ministers, only two are Christians: the finance minister and the minister of the environment. No city or village mayor can be a Christian. The high posts in the military, the police, and the presidential guard are filled only with Muslims. There are hundreds of persons in the diplomatic corps, but only two or three Christians. No Christian can attain high office in the tribunals. According to the law, two witnesses are necessary to justify a sentence, but if one of them is Christian, the judge may refuse his testimony because it comes from an infidel. The rectors of the universities must be Muslim. [...] In any office, the career of a Muslim who has just arrived will advance beyond that of a Christian who has been in his post for years. In the 2000 elections, the al-Watani party, which dominates politics in the country, listed only three Christians among 888 candidates. A Christian may not teach Arabic, because this material is linked to the teaching of the Islamic religion. Discrimination is at work even on our identity card, where the religion of oneÂ´s father is shown." And in case of divorce? "The law provides that the children should remain with their mother. But if the father wants to divorce because he has become a Muslim, which happens frequently, the judge rules that the children should remain on the side that has the true faith, meaning the father. So children born to Christians grow up in a completely Muslim family." "Is changing religions permitted?" "Anyone who becomes Muslim is welcomed with big parties. They change his identity card very quickly; he is helped in his job, with his house, etc. But if a Muslim wants to become Christian, they not only seek to dissuade him by any means, but his very life is in danger. I believe that every day there are Egyptians who change religions, but itÂ´s impossible to know how many. Al-Ahzar would willingly publish the statistics, which would be a sign of victory and glory, but the Church could never make a choice like this, because it would bring about many tragedies. In any case, there is a ruling by the tribunal that establishes that if an Egyptian is born non-Muslim, becomes Muslim, and then wants to return to his original faith, he may do it. But a Muslim by birth may never change religions, on pain of exclusion from his inheritance and from the society to which he belongs - with danger to his own safety." (Interview by Camillo Ballin and Francesco Strazzari)

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For your comments and suggestions regarding the contents of this book, please write to Ramsay F. Dass, MD President, American Middle East Christians Congress 24600 Coolidge Highway Oak Park, MI 48237 E-Mail: Rfdass@aol.com

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