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There are many ways to express a consequence in either the same sentence as its cause or a new one

THE NEED TO GIVE CAUSES WITH CONSEQUENCES

In one sense, all events and states are consequences, since they all have a cause. This post is about highlighting their consequential nature. Doing so usually involves mentioning the cause as well, rather as giving a reason requires mention of what it explains (see 306. Ways of Giving a Reason).

Consequences are, in fact, one of numerous meanings that require mention of “partner” information. Others, besides reasons, include examples (partners of a general class name), similarities (with a similar item), exceptions (with a general rule), and repetition in different words (with the original wording).

As with these other meanings, the partner information can be given in the same sentence or a separate one. These two possibilities assist great variety in the expression of consequences, but also lead to some common grammar problems.

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SEPARATE-SENTENCE CONSEQUENCES

When a cause and its consequence are in different sentences, the cause one is normally first. One way of showing the link between the two is by placing the word consequence or equivalent in the first, thereby explicitly indicating the role of the second (see 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically), e.g.:

(a) The popularity of sugar has a visible consequence. More people are overweight.

Other nouns like consequence (for) include a bearing (on), an effect (on), an impact (on), an influence (on), repercussions (for) and implications (for). The partner preposition enables the consequence sufferer to be named in the first sentence; care is needed in choosing between for and on (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1, #c).

The other main type of new-sentence consequence-naming needs no consequence wording, being instead recognisable just from saying something that can only be interpreted as a consequence, like this:

(b) Most of South America was colonised by Spain. It now speaks Spanish. 

An absence of special language showing sentence links like this is common in English (see 18. Relations between Sentences). However, like most links, consequences can also be indicated more explicitly with special language in the second sentence, especially a “logical connector” (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors).

Common consequence connectors are consequently, in consequence, as a consequence, as a result, in turn, therefore, hence, for this reason, that is why and thus. For some differences between them, see 20. Problem Connectors‘. For illustrations of typical usage, see 167. Ways of Arguing 1,  210. Process Descriptions and 282. Features of History Writing, #6.

Also notable are in conclusion with consequences of extensive preceding analysis (see 186. Language in Oral Presentations); no wonder with visible or previously-mentioned consequences (see 207. Exotic Grammar Structures 4, #5); and at that with consequential human behaviours (see 234. Adjective & Pronoun Uses of “that”).

Other types of consequence indicator usable in the second sentence include adjectives like resultant and nouns like consequence (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors). However, conjunctions are excluded, as they require a cause and consequence to occupy a single sentence.

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SAME-SENTENCE CONSEQUENCES (CONJUNCTIONS)

Conjunctions are the most obvious means of naming a consequence alongside its cause in one sentence. One important group is so, so that and so…that:

(b) The immigrants worked hard so (they) became rich.

(c) The immigrants worked hard so that they became rich.

(d) The immigrants worked so hard that they became rich.

I would suggest that so alone, as in (b), can introduce only logically expected consequences – a possibility but not a necessity with the other two. The same difference seems to exist between the connectors therefore and as a result (see 20. Problem Connectors, #4) and between the causal conjunctions since and because (see 61. “Since” versus “Because”).

Conjunction alternatives to so alone include with the result that, and, and so (more in speech than writing), plus various emphatic combinations of and + connector (and therefore, and hence, and thus, and consequently: see 125. Stress and Emphasis, #4).

So directly before that, as in (c), becomes such if it means “of such a kind” or “in such a way” (see 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions, #1). This substitution would be possible, for example, if worked hard in (c) was replaced by organised their work.

It is important to appreciate the difference between the consequence use of so that, as illustrated in (c), and the purpose use (see 60. Purpose Sentences with “For”). Compare (c) with the following purpose sentence:

(e) The immigrants worked hard so that they might become rich. 

Here, the verb after so that is might become, not became. It indicates that the immigrants wanted to become rich without saying whether they succeeded. The same meaning is possible with would or could (though could can also express consequential capability: see 288. Grammatical Subtleties, #4), and also with may, can or will when the main verb tense is present. Purpose-showing so that can start a sentence as well as occupy the middle.

In sentence (d), so has an adverb (hard) between itself and that. This makes so an adverb of degree (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much), leaving the role of conjunction just to that. As such, so means the same as very, the word that is often preferred when that is absent. So meaning “very” is possible with adjectives as well as adverbs (…was so easy that…).

Adjectives after so in sentences like (d) can be given a partner noun – provided so is changed to such (such hard work that.. ). Such can even precede a lone noun (such work that…).

Sentences like (d) can be reordered in various ways. The consequence may come first without that (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1). So/Such can be the first word (with altered following wording: see 64. Double Conjunctions). The so/such part can be replaced by a noun + relative clause (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses, #5).

Other conjunctions that can show a consequence mean “because”:

(f) Because the immigrants worked hard, they became rich.

For more on because, see 61. “Since” versus “Because”. There is also a use of just because to deny an expected consequence (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #2). Even if can be a causal conjunction, suggesting a less definitely-occurring cause (see 118. Problems with Conditional “if”). The start of the sentence seems the best position for a causal conjunction in a consequence-giving sentence.

The work of causal conjunctions can also be done with prepositions (see 72. Causal Prepositions).

Choosing a causal conjunction or preposition perhaps ensures that the sentence is about only the consequence, rather than about both the cause and the consequence. For example, the reader of (f) will be assumed to know already that the immigrants worked hard, but not that they consequently became rich. 

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SAME-SENTENCE CONSEQUENCES (OTHER POSSIBILITIES)

Conjunctions are grammatical expressions that are often paraphrasable in a non-grammatical way (see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #7). With consequences, one common alternative is cause verbs:

(g) Hard work CAUSED the immigrants to become rich.

Here, caused requires the consequence (underlined) to follow it as its object. Similar verbs include ALLOW, ASSIST, BE A CAUSE OF, BRING ABOUT, COMPEL, CONTRIBUTE TO, ENABLE, ENCOURAGE, ENSURE, ENTAIL, FACILITATE, FORCE, HAVE, HELP, IMPEL, INDUCE, LEAD, LEAD TO, LET, MAKE, MAKE … POSSIBLE, MEAN, PERMIT, PROMPT, RESULT IN, SPARK, STIMULATE and TRIGGER. Note also BE THAT… (after a consequence of… – see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”, #3).

Some other verbs need a consequence before them (as subject), e.g. BE A CONSEQUENCE (or RESULT) OF, FLOW FROM, REQUIRE and RESULT FROM. The passive form of many verbs above also gives this meaning.

Consequence verbs vary greatly in their grammatical usage. Apart from HAVE, LET and MAKE, those with a following consequence allow it to be expressed with just an “action” noun (sometimes linked to a preposition phrase, e.g. …enrichment of the immigrants: see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns, #1). After SPARK and TRIGGER such nouns are practically the norm (see 273. Verb-Object Collocations, #16).

Many verbs alternatively allow a following noun + to verb (infinitive) – like to become in (g). This is possible with ALLOW, ASSIST, CAUSE, COMPEL, ENABLE, ENCOURAGE, FORCE, HELP, IMPEL, INDUCE, LEAD, LEAVE (= allow by not stopping), PERMIT, PROMPT and STIMULATE. An infinitive alone after these verbs is usually incorrect (see 65. Verbs that Mean “Must” or “Can”, #1).

After the object of HAVE, LET and MAKE, infinitives have no to (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #2), while BE/BECOME after MAKE must also disappear (see 141. Ways of Using MAKE).

BE A CAUSE OF, LEAD TO, RESULT IN, BRING ABOUT and CONTRIBUTE TO are “prepositional” verbs. They thus allow a following noun or -ing verb or both. Having both is sometimes compulsory, e.g. …the immigrants becoming rich. Following nouns used alone are often of the action kind.

Also possible with -ing, with or without an object noun in between, are ENTAIL, FACILITATE, MAKE…POSSIBLE and MEAN. The object may be replaced by a possessive noun, e.g. …facilitates the immigrants’ becoming rich (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”). ENTAIL and MEAN additionally allow a following that statement. After ENSURE, a that statement is the only alternative to a lone noun (see 296. Tricky Word Contrasts 12, #1).

The second main way to combine a consequence with its cause in the same sentence is by means of an –ing verb near the end:

(h) The immigrants worked hard, thus becoming rich.

Thus before the -ing verb is common but not compulsory. Synonyms are possible too, particularly hence and consequently, but these are rarer in Standard English than in some other varieties. For more on this use, see 101. Add-On Participles.

Thirdly, a consequence can be expressed in the same sentence as its cause with a to verb (infinitive). Often this is after enough or too:

(i) The immigrants worked hard enough to become rich.

For more about enough, see 189. Expressing Sufficiency. Too, of course, introduces negative consequences: too hard would say the immigrants did not become rich! 

Consequence infinitives without too or enough are possible only in special circumstances (see 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2, #5).

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PRACTICE EXERCISE (CONSEQUENCES)

To assist understanding and memorization of points above, try to find one suitable word for each blank space below (answers follow).

1. Some food bacteria produce poisonous substances ………. the result that the food becomes dangerous. 

2. Studying grammar does not always ………. to successful language use. 

3. Drug addicts often run out of money ………. consequently they tend to engage in crime. 

4. Adding salt to water lowers its freezing point, ………. making it suitable for controlling winter ice. 

5. People need to know what is in their food.  ………. food-labelling is commonplace in supermarkets today. 

6. Excessive alcohol consumption can result ………. the liver ………. damaged. 

7. Smoking is so ………. to give up ………. increasing its cost has little effect. 

8. The earth’s atmosphere is gradually warming up ………. extreme weather is occurring more frequently.

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Answers: 1 = with;   2 = lead or contribute;   3 = and;   4 = thus;   5 = Consequently or Hence or Thus or Therefore or As a result;   6 = in + being;   7 = difficult or hard + that;   8 = so or so that or and.